published: 25 Mar 2009
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Aghireşu
http://wn.com/Aghireşu -
Aiton, Cluj
Aiton (, ) is a commune in Cluj County, Romania.
http://wn.com/Aiton_Cluj -
Alba Iulia
http://wn.com/Alba_Iulia -
Albania
Albania ( , , Gheg Albanian: Shqipnia/Shqypnia), officially known as the Republic of Albania (, pronounced ), is a country in South Eastern Europe. It is bordered by Montenegro to the northwest, Kosovo to the northeast, the Republic of Macedonia to the east and Greece to the south and southeast. It has a coast on the Adriatic Sea to the west, and on the Ionian Sea to the southwest. It is less than from Italy, across the Strait of Otranto which links the Adriatic Sea to the Ionian Sea.
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Alexandria, Romania
Alexandria is the capital city of the Teleorman County, Romania. It is located south-west of Bucharest, towards the Bulgarian border. The city is situated on the Vedea River. The city has 58,651 inhabitants.
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Aluniş, Cluj
http://wn.com/Aluniş_Cluj -
Apahida
Apahida (, , ) is a commune in Cluj County, Romania. In 1889 and 1968 two rich archaeological treasures were discovered here.
http://wn.com/Apahida -
Arad, Romania
http://wn.com/Arad_Romania -
Aşchileu
http://wn.com/Aşchileu -
Baciu
http://wn.com/Baciu -
Bacău
http://wn.com/Bacău -
Baia Mare
http://wn.com/Baia_Mare -
Battle of Mohács
http://wn.com/Battle_of_Mohács -
Beersheba
Beersheba (, ''Be'er Sheva; ; ; , ''; ) is the largest city in the Negev desert of southern Israel. Often referred to as the "Capital of the Negev", it is the seventh-largest city in Israel with a population of 187,200.
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Belgrade
http://wn.com/Belgrade -
Beliş
http://wn.com/Beliş -
Bessarabia
:For other uses, see Bessarabia (disambiguation).
http://wn.com/Bessarabia -
Bistriţa
http://wn.com/Bistriţa -
Bob Church, Cluj
The Bob church (Romanian: Biserica Bob din Cluj, ) is the first Greek-Catholic church that was built in the city of Cluj, Transylvania, at that time part of the Austrian Empire. The name of the church comes from the Romanian noble Ioan Bob, later bishop of the Romanian Greek-Catholic church, who paid for the construction of the church.
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Bobâlna
http://wn.com/Bobâlna -
Bonţida
http://wn.com/Bonţida -
Borşa, Cluj
http://wn.com/Borşa_Cluj -
Botoşani
http://wn.com/Botoşani -
Brazil
Brazil (; , ), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (, ), is the largest country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country, both by geographical area and by population. It is the only Portuguese-speaking country in the Americas and the largest lusophone country in the world.
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Braşov
http://wn.com/Braşov -
Brașov
http://wn.com/Brașov -
Brăila
http://wn.com/Brăila -
Bucharest
http://wn.com/Bucharest -
Budapest
http://wn.com/Budapest -
Buza, Cluj
Buza (, , ) is a commune in Cluj County, Romania.
http://wn.com/Buza_Cluj -
Buzău
http://wn.com/Buzău -
Bánffy Palace
http://wn.com/Bánffy_Palace -
Băişoara
http://wn.com/Băişoara -
Cannes Film Festival
http://wn.com/Cannes_Film_Festival -
Ceanu Mare
Ceanu Mare () is a commune in the north-west of Romania, in the county of Cluj in Transylvania.
http://wn.com/Ceanu_Mare -
China
China is seen variously as an ancient civilization extending over a large area in East Asia, a nation and/or a multinational entity.
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Chinteni
Chinteni (, ) is a commune in Cluj County, Romania.
http://wn.com/Chinteni -
Chiuieşti
http://wn.com/Chiuieşti -
Ciucea
http://wn.com/Ciucea -
Ciurila
Ciurila () is a commune in Cluj County, Romania.
http://wn.com/Ciurila -
Cluj County
http://wn.com/Cluj_County -
Cluj-Napoca
http://wn.com/Cluj-Napoca -
Cojocna
Cojocna ( ) is a commune in Cluj County, Romania.
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Constanţa
http://wn.com/Constanţa -
Constanța
http://wn.com/Constanța -
Corneşti, Cluj
http://wn.com/Corneşti_Cluj -
Craiova
Craiova (), Romania's 6th largest city and capital of Dolj County, is situated near the east bank of the river Jiu in central Oltenia. It is a longstanding political center, and is located at approximately equal distances from the Southern Carpathians (north) and the River Danube (south). Craiova is the chief commercial city west of Bucharest and the most important city of Oltenia. The city prospered as a regional trading centre despite an earthquake in 1790, a plague in 1795, and a Turkish assault in 1802 during which it was burned.
http://wn.com/Craiova -
Croatia
Croatia (, ; ), officially the Republic of Croatia (Croatian: Republika Hrvatska ), is a country in Central Europe and Southeastern Europe at the crossroads of the Pannonian Plain, the Balkans, and the Adriatic Sea. Its capital and largest city is Zagreb. Croatia borders Slovenia to the north, Hungary to the northeast, Bosnia and Herzegovina to the southeast, Serbia to the east, and Montenegro to the southeast.
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Cuzdrioara
Cuzdrioara () is a commune in Cluj County, Romania.
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Câmpia Turzii
http://wn.com/Câmpia_Turzii -
Câţcău
http://wn.com/Câţcău -
Căianu
http://wn.com/Căianu -
Călăraşi
http://wn.com/Călăraşi -
Călăraşi, Cluj
http://wn.com/Călăraşi_Cluj -
Călăţele
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Cămăraşu
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Căpuşu Mare
http://wn.com/Căpuşu_Mare -
Cătina, Cluj
http://wn.com/Cătina_Cluj -
Căşeiu
http://wn.com/Căşeiu -
Dej
http://wn.com/Dej -
Deva, Romania
http://wn.com/Deva_Romania -
Dăbâca
http://wn.com/Dăbâca -
Feleacu
Feleacu (, ) is a commune in Cluj County, Romania.
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Fizeşu Gherlii
http://wn.com/Fizeşu_Gherlii -
Floreşti, Cluj
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Focşani
http://wn.com/Focşani -
France
{{Infobox Country
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Frata
Frata () is a commune in Cluj County, Romania.
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Galaţi
http://wn.com/Galaţi -
Galați
http://wn.com/Galați -
Geaca
Geaca () is a commune in Cluj County, Romania.
http://wn.com/Geaca -
Germany
Germany (), officially the Federal Republic of Germany (, ), is a country in Western Europe. It is bordered to the north by the North Sea, Denmark, and the Baltic Sea; to the east by Poland and the Czech Republic; to the south by Austria and Switzerland; and to the west by France, Luxembourg, Belgium, and the Netherlands. The territory of Germany covers 357.021 km2 and is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. With 81.8 million inhabitants, it is the most populous member state of the European Union, and home to the third-largest number of international migrants worldwide.
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Gestapo
The Gestapo (; abbreviation of Geheime Staatspolizei, Secret State Police) was the official secret police of Nazi Germany. Beginning in April 1934, it was under the administration of the SS leader Heinrich Himmler in his position as Chief of German Police (Chef der Deutschen Polizei). From September 1939 forward it was administered by the Reichssicherheitshauptamt (RSHA) ("Reich Main Security Office") and was considered a sister organization of the Sicherheitsdienst (SD) ("Security Service") and also a suboffice of the Sicherheitspolizei (SiPo) ("security police").
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Gherla
http://wn.com/Gherla -
Gilău, Cluj
http://wn.com/Gilău_Cluj -
Giurgiu
Giurgiu is the capital city of Giurgiu County, Romania, in the Greater Wallachia. It is situated amid mud-flats and marshes on the left bank of the Danube facing the Bulgarian city of Rousse on the opposite bank. Three small islands face the city, and a larger one shelters its port, Smarda. The rich grain-growing land to the north is traversed by a railway to Bucharest, the first line opened in Romania, which was built in 1869 and afterwards extended to Smarda. Giurgiu exports timber, grain, salt and petroleum, and imports coal, iron, and textiles.
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Gruia, Cluj-Napoca
http://wn.com/Gruia_Cluj-Napoca -
Gârbău, Cluj
http://wn.com/Gârbău_Cluj -
Huedin
Huedin (, ) is a town in Cluj County, Romania.
http://wn.com/Huedin -
Hungary
http://wn.com/Hungary -
Iara, Cluj
Iara () is a commune in Cluj County, Romania.
http://wn.com/Iara_Cluj -
Iaşi
http://wn.com/Iaşi -
Iași
http://wn.com/Iași -
Iclod
http://wn.com/Iclod -
Israel
http://wn.com/Israel -
Italy
http://wn.com/Italy -
Izvoru Crişului
http://wn.com/Izvoru_Crişului -
Jichişu de Jos
http://wn.com/Jichişu_de_Jos -
Jucu
Jucu () is a commune in Cluj County, Romania.
http://wn.com/Jucu -
Kingdom of Hungary
http://wn.com/Kingdom_of_Hungary -
Korçë
http://wn.com/Korçë -
Kraków
http://wn.com/Kraków -
Luna, Cluj
Luna, (, ) is a commune in Cluj County, Romania.
http://wn.com/Luna_Cluj -
Makati
http://wn.com/Makati -
Mica, Cluj
Mica () is a commune in Cluj County, Romania.
http://wn.com/Mica_Cluj -
Miercurea Ciuc
http://wn.com/Miercurea_Ciuc -
Mihai Viteazu, Cluj
http://wn.com/Mihai_Viteazu_Cluj -
Mintiu Gherlii
Mintiu Gherlii () is a commune in Cluj County, Romania.
http://wn.com/Mintiu_Gherlii -
Mociu
Mociu () is a commune in Cluj County, Romania.
http://wn.com/Mociu -
Moldoveneşti
http://wn.com/Moldoveneşti -
Măguri-Răcătău
http://wn.com/Măguri-Răcătău -
Mănăstireni
http://wn.com/Mănăstireni -
Mănăştur
http://wn.com/Mănăştur -
Mărgău
http://wn.com/Mărgău -
Mărişel
http://wn.com/Mărişel -
Nazi Germany
http://wn.com/Nazi_Germany -
Negreni, Cluj
Negreni (; ) is a commune in Cluj County, Romania.
http://wn.com/Negreni_Cluj -
Nicula
http://wn.com/Nicula -
Oktoberfest
Oktoberfest is a 16-18 day festival held each year in Munich, Bavaria, Germany, running from late September to the first weekend in October. It is one of the most famous events in Germany and the world's largest fair, with more than 5 million people attending every year. The Oktoberfest is an important part of Bavarian culture. Other cities across the world also hold Oktoberfest celebrations, modelled after the Munich event.
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Oradea
http://wn.com/Oradea -
Palace of Versailles
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Panticeu
http://wn.com/Panticeu -
Petreştii de Jos
http://wn.com/Petreştii_de_Jos -
Philippines
The Philippines ( ), officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (), is a country in Southeast Asia in the western Pacific Ocean. To its north across the Luzon Strait lies Taiwan. West across the South China Sea sits Vietnam. The Sulu Sea to the southwest lies between the country and the island of Borneo, and to the south the Celebes Sea separates it from other islands of Indonesia. It is bounded on the east by the Philippine Sea. Its location on the Pacific Ring of Fire and its tropical climate make the Philippines prone to earthquakes and typhoons but have also endowed the country with natural resources and made it one of the richest areas of biodiversity in the world. An archipelago comprising 7,107 islands, the Philippines is categorized broadly into three main geographical divisions: Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. Its capital city is Manila.
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Piatra Neamţ
http://wn.com/Piatra_Neamţ -
Piteşti
http://wn.com/Piteşti -
Pitești
http://wn.com/Pitești -
Ploieşti
http://wn.com/Ploieşti -
Ploiești
http://wn.com/Ploiești -
Ploscoş
http://wn.com/Ploscoş -
Poieni, Cluj
Poieni () is a commune in Cluj County, Romania.
http://wn.com/Poieni_Cluj -
Pécs
http://wn.com/Pécs -
Pălatca
http://wn.com/Pălatca -
Radio Cluj
Radio Cluj is a Romanian public radio station from Cluj-Napoca, broadcasting throughout Transylvania. It features Romanian and Hungarian language programmes.
http://wn.com/Radio_Cluj -
Recea-Cristur
Recea-Cristur () is a commune in Cluj County, Romania. In Romanian, "recea" refers to a cold place.
http://wn.com/Recea-Cristur -
Reşiţa
http://wn.com/Reşiţa -
Romania
Romania ( ; dated: Rumania; ) is a country located at the crossroads of Central and Southeastern Europe, north of the Balkan Peninsula, on the Lower Danube, within and outside the Carpathian arch, bordering on the Black Sea. Romania shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova to the northeast, and Bulgaria to the south.
http://wn.com/Romania -
Rotherham
Rotherham () is a town in South Yorkshire, England. It lies on the River Don, at its confluence with the River Rother, between Sheffield and Doncaster. Rotherham, at from Sheffield City Centre, is surrounded by several smaller settlements, which together form the wider Metropolitan Borough of Rotherham. According to the 2001 Census the population of Rotherham is 117,262.
http://wn.com/Rotherham -
Râmnicu Vâlcea
http://wn.com/Râmnicu_Vâlcea -
Râşca, Cluj
http://wn.com/Râşca_Cluj -
Satu Mare
Satu Mare (; ; ; ) is a city with a population of 113,688 and the capital of Satu Mare County, Romania.
http://wn.com/Satu_Mare -
Sfântu Gheorghe
http://wn.com/Sfântu_Gheorghe -
Sibiu
Sibiu (; ; ) is an important city in Transylvania, Romania with a population of 154,548. It straddles the Cibin River, a tributary of the river Olt. It is the capital of Sibiu County and is located some 282 km north-west of Bucharest. Between 1692 and 1791 it was the capital of the Principality of Transylvania.
http://wn.com/Sibiu -
Sic, Cluj
Sic (, ) is a commune in Cluj County, Romania.
http://wn.com/Sic_Cluj -
Slatina, Romania
Slatina is the capital city of Olt county, Romania, on the river Olt.
http://wn.com/Slatina_Romania -
Slobozia
http://wn.com/Slobozia -
Someşeni
http://wn.com/Someşeni -
South Korea
South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea (ROK, , ) and sometimes referred to simply as Korea, is a state in East Asia, located on the southern portion of the Korean Peninsula. It is neighbored by the People's Republic of China to the west, Japan to the east, and North Korea to the north. Its capital is Seoul. South Korea lies in a temperate climate region with a predominantly mountainous terrain. Its territory covers a total area of 99,392 square kilometers and has a population of .
http://wn.com/South_Korea -
Suatu
Suatu is a commune in Cluj County, Romania.
http://wn.com/Suatu -
Suceava
Suceava (; , , , ) is the Suceava County seat in Bukovina, Moldavia region, in north-eastern Romania. The city was the capital of the Principality of Moldavia from 1388 to 1565.
http://wn.com/Suceava -
Suwon
Suwon (Suwon-si; ) is the provincial capital of Gyeonggi-do, South Korea. A major city of over a million inhabitants, Suwon lies approximately 30 kilometres (20 miles) south of Seoul. It is traditionally known as "The City of Filial Piety".
http://wn.com/Suwon -
Szeged
http://wn.com/Szeged -
Sâncraiu
http://wn.com/Sâncraiu -
Sânmartin, Cluj
http://wn.com/Sânmartin_Cluj -
Sânpaul, Cluj
http://wn.com/Sânpaul_Cluj -
São Paulo
http://wn.com/São_Paulo -
Săcuieu
http://wn.com/Săcuieu -
Sănduleşti
http://wn.com/Sănduleşti -
Săvădisla
http://wn.com/Săvădisla -
Timișoara
http://wn.com/Timișoara -
Tritenii de Jos
Tritenii de Jos is a commune in Cluj County, Romania.
http://wn.com/Tritenii_de_Jos -
Tulcea
http://wn.com/Tulcea -
Turda
http://wn.com/Turda -
Turda Gorges
http://wn.com/Turda_Gorges -
Tureni
Tureni is a commune in Cluj County, Romania.
http://wn.com/Tureni -
Târgovişte
http://wn.com/Târgovişte -
Târgu Jiu
http://wn.com/Târgu_Jiu -
Târgu Mureş
http://wn.com/Târgu_Mureş -
Târgu Mureș
http://wn.com/Târgu_Mureș -
Unguraş
http://wn.com/Unguraş -
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK, or Britain) is a country and sovereign state located off the northwestern coast of continental Europe. It is an island nation, spanning an archipelago including Great Britain, the northeastern part of the island of Ireland, and many smaller islands. Northern Ireland is the only part of the UK with a land border with another sovereign state, sharing it with the Republic of Ireland. Apart from this land border, the UK is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea, the English Channel and the Irish Sea. Great Britain is linked to continental Europe by the Channel Tunnel.
http://wn.com/United_Kingdom -
United States
The United States of America (also referred to as the United States, the U.S., the USA, or America) is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district. The country is situated mostly in central North America, where its forty-eight contiguous states and Washington, D.C., the capital district, lie between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, bordered by Canada to the north and Mexico to the south. The state of Alaska is in the northwest of the continent, with Canada to the east and Russia to the west across the Bering Strait. The state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific. The country also possesses several territories in the Caribbean and Pacific.
http://wn.com/United_States -
Vad, Cluj
Vad is a commune in Cluj County, Romania.
http://wn.com/Vad_Cluj -
Valea Ierii
Valea Ierii is a commune in Cluj County, Romania.
http://wn.com/Valea_Ierii -
Vaslui
Vaslui is a municipality and the capital city of Vaslui County, in the historical region of Moldavia, eastern Romania.
http://wn.com/Vaslui -
Venezuela
http://wn.com/Venezuela -
Vienna
Vienna (; ; ) is the capital of the Republic of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austria's primary city, with a population of about 1.7 million (2.3 million within the metropolitan area, more than 25% of Austria's population), and is by far the largest city in Austria, as well as its cultural, economic, and political centre. It is the 10th largest city by population in the European Union. Vienna is host to many major international organizations such as the United Nations and OPEC.
http://wn.com/Vienna -
Viişoara, Cluj
http://wn.com/Viişoara_Cluj -
Vultureni, Cluj
http://wn.com/Vultureni_Cluj -
Zagreb
Zagreb () is the capital and the largest city of the Republic of Croatia. It is situated in the northwest of the country, along the Sava river, at the southern slopes of the Medvednica mountain. Zagreb lies at an elevation of approximately above sea level. In 2008, Zagreb's population was 804,200.
http://wn.com/Zagreb -
Zalău
http://wn.com/Zalău -
Zhengzhou
Zhengzhou (; ; Postal map spelling: Chengchow), formerly called Zheng County (), is a prefecture-level city, and the capital of Henan province, People's Republic of China. It also serves as the political, economic, technological, and educational centre of the province, as well as being a major transportation hub for Central China. It lies on the southern plain of the Yellow River.
http://wn.com/Zhengzhou -
Ţaga
http://wn.com/Ţaga
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Antal Kagerbauer
http://wn.com/Antal_Kagerbauer -
ATB
http://wn.com/ATB -
Baron Haussmann
http://wn.com/Baron_Haussmann -
Beyoncé Knowles
http://wn.com/Beyoncé_Knowles -
Charles I of Hungary
http://wn.com/Charles_I_of_Hungary -
China
China is seen variously as an ancient civilization extending over a large area in East Asia, a nation and/or a multinational entity.
http://wn.com/China -
Claude Michel
http://wn.com/Claude_Michel -
Dezső Bánffy
http://wn.com/Dezső_Bánffy -
Dimitrie Paciurea
http://wn.com/Dimitrie_Paciurea -
Döme Sztójay
http://wn.com/Döme_Sztójay -
Emil Boc
http://wn.com/Emil_Boc -
Emil Haţieganu
http://wn.com/Emil_Haţieganu -
Ferdinand Fellner
Ferdinand Fellner (April 19, 1847 - March 22, 1916) was an Austria architect. Along with Hermann Helmer, he designed several theaters and palaces across Europe in the late 19th century and early 20th century.
http://wn.com/Ferdinand_Fellner -
Gheorghe Funar
http://wn.com/Gheorghe_Funar -
Gáspár Heltai
http://wn.com/Gáspár_Heltai -
Hadrian
http://wn.com/Hadrian -
Herri met de Bles
http://wn.com/Herri_met_de_Bles -
Hungarian people
Ethnic group
http://wn.com/Hungarian_people -
Hungarians
http://wn.com/Hungarians -
Irshad Ashraf
Irshad Ashraf is a British documentary film maker with a reputation for making stylish, visually innovative documentary films about history, art and politics.
http://wn.com/Irshad_Ashraf -
Japanese people
The are an ethnic group originating in the Japanese archipelago and are the predominant ethnic group of Japan. Worldwide, approximately 130 million people are of Japanese descent; of these, approximately 127 million are residents of Japan. People of Japanese ancestry who live in other countries are referred to as . The term "Japanese people" may also be used in some contexts to refer to a locus of ethnic groups including the Yamato people, Ainu people, and Ryukyuans.
http://wn.com/Japanese_people -
Jenő Janovics
http://wn.com/Jenő_Janovics -
Jews
:For the Jewish way of life, including religion, law, culture, and philosophy, see Judaism. "Jew" redirects here; for other uses, see Jew (disambiguation).
http://wn.com/Jews -
János Bolyai
http://wn.com/János_Bolyai -
Józef Bem
http://wn.com/Józef_Bem -
József Katona
http://wn.com/József_Katona -
Károly Lotz
http://wn.com/Károly_Lotz -
Liviu Ciulei
Liviu Ciulei (born July 7, 1923) is a Romanian theater and film director, as well as film writer, actor, architect, educator, costume and set designer. During a career spanning over 50 years, he has had a seminal influence on Romanian cinema and theater. Known for his daring theatrical interpretations, he has distinctively marked the area of performing arts inside his country and abroad. He has been described by Newsweek as "one of the boldest and most challenging figures on the international scene".
http://wn.com/Liviu_Ciulei -
Luca Giordano
Luca Giordano (18 October 1634 – 3 January 1705) was an Italian late Baroque painter and printmaker in etching.
http://wn.com/Luca_Giordano -
Lăutari
http://wn.com/Lăutari -
Matthias Corvinus
http://wn.com/Matthias_Corvinus -
Michael (archangel)
http://wn.com/Michael_(archangel) -
Michael the Brave
http://wn.com/Michael_the_Brave -
Mihai Eminescu
http://wn.com/Mihai_Eminescu -
Miklós Horthy
http://wn.com/Miklós_Horthy -
Nicolae Grigorescu
Nicolae Grigorescu (May 15, 1838—July 21, 1907) was one of the founders of modern Romanian painting.
http://wn.com/Nicolae_Grigorescu -
Nicolae Iorga
http://wn.com/Nicolae_Iorga -
Octavian Goga
http://wn.com/Octavian_Goga -
Ottoman Empire
http://wn.com/Ottoman_Empire -
Poles
The Polish people, or Poles ( , singular Polak) are the inhabitants of Poland and Polish emigrants irrespective of their ancestry. Their religion is predominantly Roman Catholic. As a nation, they are bounded by the Polish language, which belongs to the Lechitic subgroup of west slavic languages of Central Europe. A wide-ranging Polish diaspora exists throughout Western and Eastern Europe, the Americas and Australia. Polish citizens live predominantly in Poland.
http://wn.com/Poles -
Raoul Şorban
http://wn.com/Raoul_Şorban -
Richard Linklater
Richard Stuart Linklater (born July 30, 1960) is an American film director and screenwriter.
http://wn.com/Richard_Linklater -
Romanians
http://wn.com/Romanians -
Romulus Vereş
http://wn.com/Romulus_Vereş -
Satoshi Tomiie
Satoshi Tomiie is a Japanese house-music producer and DJ. He has written music for numerous soundtracks, including for the Animatrix soundtrack and remixed many artists including the Future Sound of London.
http://wn.com/Satoshi_Tomiie -
Stephane K
http://wn.com/Stephane_K -
Stephen I of Hungary
http://wn.com/Stephen_I_of_Hungary -
Tatar
http://wn.com/Tatar -
The Cheeky Girls
The Cheeky Girls are a pop music duo consisting of twin sisters Gabriela and Monica Irimia, from Cluj-Napoca in Transylvania, Romania, but based in Britain. After appearing as auditionees in , they achieved success in the charts with four top ten hits between 2002 and 2004. They are best known for their debut single, "The Cheeky Song (Touch My Bum)", which has sold over 1.2 million copies worldwide.
http://wn.com/The_Cheeky_Girls -
Trajan
http://wn.com/Trajan -
Victor Babeş
http://wn.com/Victor_Babeş -
Yves Larock
http://wn.com/Yves_Larock -
Ştefan Luchian
http://wn.com/Ştefan_Luchian
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Cluj Napoca in 10 minutes
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:24
- Updated: 28 Oct 2012
AndemMotionFilms proudly presents to you Cluj-Napoca in 10 minutes, the video presentation of one of the most remarkable Romanian cities. Starting from 53 seconds of history and a short cultural presentation, the film Cluj-Napoca in 10 minutes is an argument for the economic growth of the city. One of the most dynamic economies from Romania meets important cultural and educational centers. The film presents the growing work force and proves the increasing interest of the foreign investors for the new opportunities discovered here. Cluj-Napoca in 10 minutes is an exclusivist tool for future investors in the area. The acquisition is a comparative and competitive advantage on the real-estate market and investments. Cluj-Napoca in 10 minutes is the only video presentation of actual economic situation in the north-west region of Romania. Cluj-Napoca waits for you. Even if you are just a tourist who wishes to visit the most dynamic city from Romania or a business man looking for a new opportunity, the city that celebrates life, gives hope to good ideas and harmoniously combines the old with the new, is calling you!
http://wn.com/Cluj_Napoca_in_10_minutes
Cluj Napoca - Heart of Transylvania
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:49
- Updated: 05 Nov 2012
Creat de: Laviniu Lazar Cu sprijinul: Deloitte, Ernst & Young, KPMG, PricewaterhouseCoopers
http://wn.com/Cluj_Napoca_Heart_of_Transylvania
Romania Cluj-Napoca de odinioara
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:36
- Updated: 05 Nov 2012
Cluj-Napoca
http://wn.com/Romania_Cluj-Napoca_de_odinioara
CLUJ-NAPOCA, ROMANIA, TRANSILVANIA
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:37
- Updated: 24 Oct 2012
History of Cluj-Napoca The Roman Empire conquered Dacia in AD 101 and 106, during the rule of Trajan, and the Roman settlement Napoca, established thereafter, is first recorded on a milestone discovered in 1758 in the vicinity of the city.Trajan's successor Hadrian granted Napoca the status of municipium as municipium Aelium Hadrianum Napocenses. Later, in the 2nd century AD, the city gained the status of a colonia as Colonia Aurelia Napoca. Napoca became a provincial capital of Dacia Porolissensis and thus the seat of a procurator.
http://wn.com/CLUJ-NAPOCA,_ROMANIA,_TRANSILVANIA
CLUJ NAPOCA TRAMS ROMANIA 1996
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:46
- Updated: 13 Sep 2012
BUY DVD NOW www.pmpfilms.com PMP FILMS www.pmpfilms.com the world's largest range of transport hobby films, see website for shop, list,links and blog etc
http://wn.com/CLUJ_NAPOCA_TRAMS_ROMANIA_1996
Landing Cluj Napoca LRCL Wizz Air A320
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:54
- Updated: 04 Jun 2012
Windy landing at Cluj-Napoca Airport LRCL, from Budapest Ferihegy LHBP, Airline: Wizz Air, Aircraft: Airbus A320-232, registration: HA-LPO, date:2009.05.14.
http://wn.com/Landing_Cluj_Napoca_LRCL_Wizz_Air_A320
Cluj-Napoca 2010 HD
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:29
- Updated: 28 Oct 2012
http://wn.com/Cluj-Napoca_2010_HD
Cluj - Napoca
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:14
- Updated: 27 Oct 2012
Cluj-Napoca Cluj Clus / Klus Kolozsvár Klausenburg Napoca
http://wn.com/Cluj_Napoca
Street view from Cluj-Napoca 3
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:16
- Updated: 03 Nov 2012
Traffic 2 - Friday morning 30.03.2012 - light rain in my hometown
http://wn.com/Street_view_from_Cluj-Napoca_3
Michael Jackson tribute / flashmob @ Cluj Napoca
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:31
- Updated: 01 Apr 2012
clujlife.com Michael Jackson tribute / flashmob @ Cluj Napoca - 12.10.2009
http://wn.com/Michael_Jackson_tribute_flashmob_@_Cluj_Napoca
Descopera Cluj-Napoca #1
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:37
- Updated: 01 Nov 2012
Cluj Napoca & Turda
http://wn.com/Descopera_Cluj-Napoca_1
CLUJ-NAPOCA Romania
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:38
- Updated: 28 Jul 2012
Pictures taken by me in July 2011 in Cluj-Napoca,ROMANIA Music was changed,sorry!
http://wn.com/CLUJ-NAPOCA_Romania
Clujul Are Farmec (Cluj Napoca-Romania)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:31
- Updated: 23 Sep 2012
A video in honour of the fair transylvanian city of Cluj-Napoca. The pictures mostly cover the historical centre. The song is "Bittersweet Symphony" by The Verve. (I do not own any copyrights to this song whatsoever.) The photos, except for a couple of them, were all taken by me.
http://wn.com/Clujul_Are_Farmec_Cluj_Napoca-Romania
Cluj-Napoca - The Heart of Transilvania
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:14
- Updated: 31 Oct 2012
The capital of Transilvania a romanian region - the city where history was written by romanian people against barbars (huns, hungarians, gotics, and others)
http://wn.com/Cluj-Napoca_The_Heart_of_Transilvania
Amazing Cluj-Napoca lights in the night - January 03,2010
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:46
- Updated: 24 Oct 2012
Amazing Christmas lights in Cluj-Napoca
http://wn.com/Amazing_Cluj-Napoca_lights_in_the_night_January_03,2010
CLUJ-NAPOCA! (Transilvania, Romania).
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:34
- Updated: 11 Sep 2012
Superb!!
http://wn.com/CLUJ-NAPOCA!_Transilvania,_Romania
Anti ACTA Protest in Cluj-Napoca, Romania 11.02.2012 - THIS REVOLUTION WILL NOT BE TELEVISED
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:37
- Updated: 26 Sep 2012
Peste 2000 de oameni au protestat in centrul Clujului impotriva ACTA. Anonymous - Operation ANTI-ACTA Against New World Order Slavery www.new-world-order-plan.org Semneaza petitia online www.avaaz.org STOP ACTA facebook - www.facebook.com Proteste in tara: Bucuresti: www.facebook.com Cluj-Napoca: www.facebook.com Timisoara: www.facebook.com Galati: www.facebook.com Targu-Jiu: www.facebook.com Anonymous pe Twitter: twitter.com twitter.com twitter.com twitter.com Acest mesaj este pentru tine, utilizator al internetului, un semnal de alarmă pe care noi, comunitatea online din România il tragem. Pe 26 Ianuarie, La Tokio a fost semnat in secret de catre Romania si alte 21 de state europene, Tratatului Comercial pentru combaterea Contrafacerilor sau ACTA. Documentul urmand să ajungă în luna mai în Parlamentul European unde va fi supus votului. Acest proiect de lege ambiguu, care la prima vedere vine in apărarea marcilor înregistrate, de fapt incalca grav drepturile noastre ca utilizatori ai internetului, si nu numai. ACTA va da dreptul marilor corporaţii sa oprească fabricarea unor medicamente sau chiar sa interzica folosirea anumitor seminţe care ar putea hrăni milioane de oameni. provider-ii de internet vor trebui sa-si monorizeze clientii si sa ii raporteze daca acestia copiaza ceva de pe net, in aeroporturi iti vor putea fi confiscate sau distruse gadget-urile daca se gaseste chiar si o melodie copiata de pe net si vei risca pana la 5 ani de inchisoare daca nu respecti ...
http://wn.com/Anti_ACTA_Protest_in_Cluj-Napoca,_Romania_11022012_THIS_REVOLUTION_WILL_NOT_BE_TELEVISED
MEGASTAR funny - selectii Cluj-Napoca
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:27
- Updated: 12 Sep 2012
selectii Cluj
http://wn.com/MEGASTAR_funny_selectii_Cluj-Napoca
Flash mob "Notes & Ties" - Cluj-Napoca, 2012
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:09
- Updated: 04 Nov 2012
Flashmob "Notes and Ties" Orchestra Cluj Napoca, May 2012 Conductor: Vlad Agachi For more information:cosmin.chindris[at]notesandties.ro www.notesandties.ro www.facebook.com ---------------------------------------------- Flashmob realised for the promotion campaign of the movie "Of Snails and Men", directed by Tudor Giurgiu More info: www.facebook.com www.despreoamenisimelci.ro librafilm.net
http://wn.com/Flash_mob_Notes_Ties_Cluj-Napoca,_2012
Departure from Cluj, Romania (CLJ) On Board a TAROM A318-100
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:26
- Updated: 02 Aug 2011
http://wn.com/Departure_from_Cluj,_Romania_CLJ_On_Board_a_TAROM_A318-100
Bamboo, Cluj-Napoca
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:13
- Updated: 27 Aug 2010
Dancers @ Bamboo, Cluj-Napoca
http://wn.com/Bamboo,_Cluj-Napoca
Furtuna Cluj Napoca 20-07-2011
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:52
- Updated: 12 Aug 2011
Strada Cuza Voda
http://wn.com/Furtuna_Cluj_Napoca_20-07-2011
MEGASTAR funny - selectii Cluj-Napoca
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:12
- Updated: 02 Nov 2012
selectii Cluj Napoca
http://wn.com/MEGASTAR_funny_selectii_Cluj-Napoca
Photo: US Navy / MCS2 Terah L. Mollise
05 Nov 2012
Article by WN.com Correspondent Dallas Darling "Of the best rulers, the people do not know they exist." -Lao Tzu Unlike pseudo messianic governments and their virtual political pretenders, super...
Photo: WN / Ahmed Deeb
05 Nov 2012
RAMALLAH, West Bank - A Western diplomat says the exhumation of late Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat's remains will take place Nov. 26....
Photo: FEMA / Jocelyn Augustino
05 Nov 2012
Article by WN.com Correspondent Dallas Darling As Iran's Red Crescent Organization readied hundreds of aid workers to fly to New York City, even offering tons of foodstuffs and medical equipment and...
Photo: AP / Sergey Ponomarev
03 Nov 2012
Russia's prime minister has said that members of the Pussy Riot punk band serving two-year prison sentences should be set free. Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev said Friday that he detested the Pussy...
Photo: AP / Hatem Moussa
05 Nov 2012
JERUSALEM -- The question seemed simple enough: Would President Mahmoud Abbas of the Palestinian Authority like to go to Safed, the city in northern Israel where he was born in 1935? But there are no...
Knockout stage beckons for United and Barca
06 Nov 2012
Gulf News
Paris: Manchester United can avenge the embarrassment of last year’s Champions League group stage exit with a victory in Braga on Wednesday, while Barcelona can also secure their passage to the knockout stage by beating Celtic. The fourth round of matches holds great significance for several...(size: 24.4Kb)
No more Mr Nice Guy November 6, 2012
06 Nov 2012
ESPN
Even before a Wednesday date with Manchester United, Braga had no intention of taking it easy at the weekend. After Hugo Viana sealed their win over Gil Vicente on Saturday with a rare header late in the match, he immediately knew whom he wished to share the moment with. The midfielder turned to...(size: 6.2Kb)
Champions League: Group-by-group permutations
05 Nov 2012
BBC News
After three rounds of matches, 136 goals, 1,263 fouls and six red cards, the group stage of this season's Champions League has reached its halfway point. Manchester United are sitting pretty at the top of their group, but rivals Manchester City are in danger of an early exit for the second...(size: 6.8Kb)
Champions knock-out places to be earned
05 Nov 2012
Canberra Times
DPA Former winners Barcelona, Manchester United and Borussia Dortmund are among seven teams that can book a place in the knock-out stage of the Champions League on Tuesday and Wednesday. The three are joined by Porto, newcomers Malaga, Shakhtar Donetsk and Schalke. United, Barca, Porto and Malaga...(size: 4.2Kb)
DIARY - Turkey - to Jan 23
05 Nov 2012
MSNBC
(All times are provisional and in GMT. For local time, add two hours. This diary is updated every day, and new listings or amendments are marked "*".) KEY INDICATORS DATE GMT/LOCAL INDICATOR PERIOD PRIOR 5/11 0800/1000 CPI m/m Oct 1.03% 5/11 0800/1000 CPI y/y Oct 9.19% 5/11 0800/1000 PPI m/m Oct...(size: 18.9Kb)
Irish Times
The Dutchman���s former manager at Arsenal admits the club���s knowledge of their old striker is no guarantee of keeping him quiet, writes RICHARD WILLIAMS�� ARSENE WENGER makes no pretence about it: the knowledge gained from eight years of working with Robin van Persie will be of only limited use...(size: 7.4Kb)
Brazzers hack
02 Nov 2012
IMC
Submitted by handrigeviku1983 on Fri, 2012-11-02 18:41 http://g20u.one.pl/Rxni.html Pero cojiendose auna mujer http://bfan.one.pl/Moba.html Mexican mafia cuts off headexican mafia cuts http://p0m.one.pl/Dkcb.html Amg blackberry-real madrid http://to0a.one.pl/Nyhl.html The worlds hardest game 2...(size: 256.0Kb)
The Guardian
Close acquaintance offers little protection against Manchester United striker whose speed of thought is 'exceptional' Arsène Wenger said defenders will always struggle to match the reactions of Manchester United's Robin van Persie. Photograph: John Sibley/Action Images...(size: 9.5Kb)
The Independent
A dozen matches: two clean sheets. It is not the way to win a Champions League. As England's quartet prepare for their fourth round of group games this week their managers will be wondering why their defences have suddenly become so porous. In the last round the goals of Arsenal, Chelsea, Manchester...(size: 5.9Kb)
IMC
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"Cluj" redirects here. For other uses, see Cluj (disambiguation).
Coordinates: 46°46′N 23°35′E / 46.767°N 23.583°E / 46.767; 23.583
| Cluj-Napoca | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| — City — | |||
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| Nickname(s): Treasure City (Romanian: oraşul comoară);[1] (Hungarian: kincses város)[2] |
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| Coordinates: 46°46′N 23°35′E / 46.767°N 23.583°E / 46.767; 23.583 | |||
| Country |  Romania |
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| County |  Cluj |
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| Metropolitan area | Cluj-Napoca metropolitan area | ||
| Status | County capital | ||
| Founded | 1213 (first official record as Clus) | ||
| Government | |||
| • Mayor | Radu Moisin (interim) (PD-L) | ||
| • Deputy Mayor | László Attila (UDMR) | ||
| Area | |||
| • City | 179.5 km2 (69.3 sq mi) | ||
| • Metro | 1,537.5 km2 (593.6 sq mi) | ||
| Population (2011 census[3]) | |||
| • City | 309,136 | ||
| • Density | 1,722/km2 (4,460/sq mi) | ||
| • Metro | 392,562 | ||
| Time zone | EET (UTC+2) | ||
| • Summer (DST) | EEST (UTC+3) | ||
| Postal Code | 400xyz1 | ||
| Area code(s) | +40 x642 | ||
| Car Plates | CJ-N3 | ||
| Website | http://www.primariaclujnapoca.ro | ||
| 1x, y, and z are digits that indicate the street, part of the street, or even the building of the address 2x is a digit indicating the operator: 2 for the former national operator, Romtelecom, and 3 for the other ground telephone networks 3used just on the plates of vehicles that operate only within the city limits (such as trolley buses, trams, utility vehicles, ATVs, etc.) |
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Cluj-Napoca (Romanian pronunciation: [ˈkluʒ naˈpoka] (
listen); German: Klausenburg; Hungarian: Kolozsvár, Hungarian pronunciation: [ˈkoloʒvaːr]; Medieval Latin: Castrum Clus, Claudiopolis; Yiddish: קלויזנבורג, Kloiznburg), commonly known as Cluj, is the second most populous city in Romania[4] and the seat of Cluj County in the northwestern part of the country. Geographically, it is roughly equidistant from Bucharest (324 km / 201 mi), Budapest (351 km / 218 mi) and Belgrade (322 km / 200 mi). Located in the Someşul Mic River valley, the city is considered the unofficial capital to the historical province of Transylvania. In 1790–1848 and 1861–1867, it was the official capital of the Grand Principality of Transylvania.
As of 2011, 309,136 inhabitants live within the city limits, marking a decrease from the figure recorded at the 2002 census.[3][5] The Cluj-Napoca metropolitan area has a population of 392,562 people,[3][6] while the population of the peri-urban area (Romanian: zona periurbană) exceeds 400,000 residents.[3][7] The new metropolitan government of Cluj-Napoca became operational in December 2008.[8] Lastly, according to the 2007 data provided by the County Population Register Service, the total population of the city is as high as 392,276 people.[9] However, this number does not include the floating population of students and other non-residents—an average of over 20,000 people each year during 2004–2007, according to the same source.[9]
The city spreads out from St. Michael's Church in Unirii Square, built in the 14th century and named after the Archangel Michael, the patron saint of Cluj-Napoca.[10] The boundaries of the municipality contain an area of 179.52 square kilometres (69.31 sq mi). An analysis undertaken by the real estate agency Profesional Casa indicates that, because of infrastructure development, communes such as Feleacu, Vâlcele, Mărtineşti, Jucu and Baciu will eventually become neighbourhoods of the city, thereby enlarging its area.[11]
Cluj-Napoca experienced a decade of decline during the 1990s, its international reputation suffering from the policies of its mayor of the time, Gheorghe Funar.[12] Today, the city is one of the most important academic, cultural, industrial and business centres in Romania. Among other institutions, it hosts the country's largest university, Babeş-Bolyai University, with its famous botanical garden; nationally renowned cultural institutions; as well as the largest Romanian-owned commercial bank.[13][14] According to the American magazine InformationWeek, Cluj-Napoca is quickly becoming Romania's technopolis.[15]
Contents |
Etymology[link]
Cluj[link]
The first written mention of its name – as a Royal Borough – was in 1213 under the Latin name Castrum Clus.[16] Despite the fact that Clus as a county name was recorded in the 1173 document Thomas comes Clusiensis,[17] it is believed that the county's designation derives from the name of the castrum, which might have existed prior to its first mention in 1213, and not vice versa.[17] With respect to the name of this camp, it is widely accepted as a derivation from the Latin term clausa – clusa, meaning "closed place", "strait", "ravine".[17] Similar senses are attributed to the Slavic term kluč[17] and the German Klause – Kluse (meaning mountain pass or weir).[18] An alternative hypothesis relates the name of the city to its first magistrate, Miklus – Miklós / Kolos.[18]
The Hungarian form, first recorded in 1246 as Kulusuar, underwent various phonetic changes over the years (uar/vár means "castle" in Hungarian); the variant Koloswar first appears in a document from 1332.[19] Its Saxon name Clusenburg/Clusenbvrg appeared in 1348, but from 1408 the form Clausenburg was used.[19] The Romanian name of the city used to be spelled alternately as Cluj or Cluş,[20] the latter being the case in Mihai Eminescu's Poesis. However, the city's name was finally changed to Cluj-Napoca[21] in 1974 by the Romanian Communist authorities.[22]
In Yiddish it is known as קלאזין (Klazin) or קלויזענבורג (Kloyznburg).[20]
Napoca[link]
Possible etymologies for Napoca or Napuca include the names of some Dacian tribes such as the Naparis or Napaei, the Greek term napos (νάπος), meaning "timbered valley" or the Indo-European root *snā-p- (Pokorny 971-2), "to flow, to swim, damp".[23] Independent of these hypotheses, scholars agree that the name of the settlement predates the Roman conquest (AD 106).[23]
History[link]
Main article: History of Cluj-Napoca
The Roman Empire conquered Dacia in AD 101 and 106, during the rule of Trajan, and the Roman settlement Napoca, established thereafter, is first recorded on a milestone discovered in 1758 in the vicinity of the city.[25] Trajan's successor Hadrian granted Napoca the status of municipium as municipium Aelium Hadrianum Napocenses. Later, in the 2nd century AD,[26] the city gained the status of a colonia as Colonia Aurelia Napoca. Napoca became a provincial capital of Dacia Porolissensis and thus the seat of a procurator. The colonia was evacuated in 274 by the Romans.[25] There are no references to urban settlement on the site for the better part of a millennium thereafter.[27]
At the beginning of the Middle Ages, two groups of buildings existed on the current site of the city: the wooden fortress at Cluj-Mănăştur (Kolozsmonostor) and the civilian settlement developed around the current Piaţa Muzeului (Museum Place) in the city centre.[17][28] Although the precise date of the conquest of Transylvania by the Hungarians is not known, the earliest Hungarian artifacts found in the region are dated to the first half of the 10th century.[29] In any case, after that time, the city became part of the Kingdom of Hungary. King Stephen I made the city the seat of the castle county of Kolozs, and King Saint Ladislaus I of Hungary founded the abbey of Cluj-Mănăştur (Kolozsmonostor), destroyed during the Tatar invasions in 1241 and 1285.[17] As for the civilian colony, a castle and a village were built to the northwest of the ancient Napoca no later than the late 12th century.[17] This new village was settled by large groups of Transylvanian Saxons, encouraged during the reign of Crown Prince Stephen, Duke of Transylvania.[16] The first reliable mention of the settlement dates from 1275, in a document of King Ladislaus IV of Hungary, when the village (Villa Kulusvar) was granted to the Bishop of Transylvania.[30] On August 19, 1316, during the rule of the new king, Charles I of Hungary, Cluj was granted the status of a city (Latin: civitas), as a reward for the Saxons' contribution to the defeat of the rebellious Transylvanian voivode, Ladislaus Kán.[30]
Many craft guilds were established in the second half of the 13th century, and a patrician stratum based in commerce and craft production displaced the older landed elite in the town's leadership.[31] Through the privilege granted by Sigismund of Luxembourg in 1405, the city opted out from the jurisdiction of voivodes, vice-voivodes and royal judges, and obtained the right to elect a twelve-member jury every year.[32] In 1488, King Matthias Corvinus (born in Klausenburg in 1440) ordered that the centumvirate—the city council, consisting of one hundred men—be half composed from the homines bone conditiones (the wealthy people), with craftsmen supplying the other half; together they would elect the chief judge and the jury.[32] Meanwhile, an agreement was reached providing that half of the representatives on this city council were to be drawn from the Hungarian, half from the Saxon population, and that judicial offices were to be held on a rotating basis.[33] In 1541, Klausenburg became part of the independent Principality of Transylvania after the Ottoman Turks occupied the central part of the Kingdom of Hungary; a period of economic and cultural prosperity followed.[33] Although Alba Iulia (Gyulafehérvár) served as a political capital for the princes of Transylvania, Klausenburg enjoyed the support of the princes to a greater extent, thus establishing connections with the most important centres of Eastern Europe at that time, along with Košice (Kassa), Kraków, Prague and Vienna.[32]
In terms of religion, Protestant ideas first appeared in the middle of the 16th century. During Gáspár Heltai's service as preacher, Lutheranism grew in importance, as did the Swiss doctrine of Calvinism.[34] By 1571, the Turda (Torda) Diet had adopted a more radical religion, Ferenc Dávid's Unitarianism, characterised by the free interpretation of the Bible and denial of the dogma of the Trinity.[34] Stephen Báthory founded a Catholic Jesuit academy in Klausenburg in order to promote an anti-Reform movement; however, it did not have much success.[34] For a year, in 1600–1601, Cluj became part of the personal union of Michael the Brave.[35][36] Under the Treaty of Carlowitz in 1699, Klausenburg became part of the Habsburg Monarchy.[37]
In the 17th century, Cluj suffered from great calamities, suffering from epidemics of the plague and devastating fires.[34] The end of this century brought the end of Turkish sovereignty, but found the city bereft of much of its wealth, municipal freedom, cultural centrality, political significance and even population.[38] It gradually regained its important position within Transylvania as the headquarters of the Gubernium and the Diets between 1719 and 1732, and again from 1790 until the revolution of 1848, when the Gubernium moved to Hermannstadt (now Sibiu).[39] In 1791, a group of Romanian intellectuals drew up a petition, known as Supplex Libellus Valachorum, which was sent to the Emperor in Vienna. The petition demanded the equality of the Romanian nation in Transylvania in respect to the other nations (Saxon and Hungarian) governed by the Unio Trium Nationum, but it was rejected by the Cluj Diet.[34]
Beginning in 1830, the city became the centre of the Hungarian national movement within the principality.[40] This erupted with the Hungarian Revolution of 1848. At one point, the Austrians were gaining control of Transylvania, trapping the Hungarians between two flanks. But, the Hungarian army, headed by the Polish general Józef Bem, launched an offensive in Transylvania, recapturing Klausenburg by Christmas 1848.[41] After the 1848 revolution, an absolutist regime was established, followed by a liberal regime that came to power in 1860. In this latter period, the government granted equal rights to the ethnic Romanians, but only briefly. In 1865, the Diet in Cluj abolished the laws voted in Sibiu, and proclaimed the 1848 Law concerning the Union of Transylvania with Hungary.[40] Before 1918, the city's only Romanian-language schools were two church-run elementary schools, and the first printed Romanian periodical did not appear until 1903.[38]
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After the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, Klausenburg and all of Transylvania were again integrated into the Kingdom of Hungary. During this time, Kolozsvár was among the largest and most important cities of the kingdom and was the seat of Kolozs County. Ethnic Romanians in Transylvania suffered oppression and persecution.[42] Their grievances found expression in the Transylvanian Memorandum, a petition sent in 1892 by the political leaders of Transylvania's Romanians to the Austro-Hungarian Emperor-King Franz Joseph. It asked for equal rights with the Hungarians and demanded an end to persecutions and attempts at Magyarisation.[42] The Emperor forwarded the memorandum to Budapest—the Hungarian capital. The authors, among them Ioan Raţiu and Iuliu Coroianu, were arrested, tried and sentenced to prison for "high treason" in Kolozsvár/Cluj in May 1894.[43] During the trial, approximately 20,000 people who had come to Cluj demonstrated on the streets of the city in support of the defendants.[43] A year later, the King gave them pardon upon the advice of his Hungarian prime minister, Dezső Bánffy.[44] In 1897, the Hungarian government decided that only Hungarian place names should be used and prohibited the use of the German or Romanian versions of the city's name on official government documents.[45]
In the autumn of 1918, as World War I drew to a close, Cluj became a centre of revolutionary activity, headed by Amos Frâncu. On October 28, 1918, he made an appeal for the organisation of the "union of all Romanians".[46] Thirty-nine delegates were elected from Cluj to attend the proclamation of the union of Transylvania with the Kingdom of Romania in Alba-Iulia on December 1, 1918,[46] later acknowledged internationally by the Treaty of Trianon.[47] The interwar years saw the new authorities embark on a "Romanianisation" campaign: a Capitoline Wolf statue donated by Rome was set up in 1921; in 1932 a plaque written by historian Nicolae Iorga was placed on Matthias Corvinus' statue, emphasising his Romanian (paternal) ancestry; and construction of an imposing Orthodox cathedral began in a city where only about a tenth of inhabitants belonged to the Orthodox state church.[48] This endeavour had only mixed results: by 1939, Hungarians still dominated local economic (and to a certain extent) cultural life: for instance, Cluj had five Hungarian daily newspapers and just one in Romanian.[48] In 1940, Cluj, along with the rest of Northern Transylvania, was granted Miklós Horthy's Hungary through the Second Vienna Award imposed by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy.[49][50] After the Germans occupied Hungary in March 1944 and installed a puppet government under Döme Sztójay,[51][52] they forced large-scale antisemitic measures in the city. The headquarters of the local Gestapo were located in the New York Hotel. That May, the authorities began the relocation of the Jews to the Iris ghetto.[49] Liquidation of the 16,148 captured Jews occurred through six deportations to Auschwitz in May–June 1944.[49] Despite facing severe sanctions from the Hungarian administration, some Jews escaped across the border to Romania with the assistance of intellectuals such as Emil Haţieganu, Raoul Şorban, Aurel Socol and Miskolczy Dezső, and various peasants from Mănăştur.[49] On October 11, 1944 the city of Cluj was captured by Romanian and Soviet troops.[49][53] It was formally restored to the Kingdom of Romania by the Treaty of Paris in 1947. On January 24, March 6 and May 10, 1946, the Romanian students who had come back to Cluj after the restoration of northern Transylvania rose against the claims of autonomy made by nostalgic Hungarians and the new way of life imposed by the Soviets, resulting in clashes and street fights.[54]
The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 produced a powerful echo within the city; there was a real possibility that demonstrations by students sympathizing with their peers across the border could escalate into an uprising.[55][56] The protests provided the Romanian authorities with a pretext to speed up the process of "unification" of the local Babeş (Romanian) and Bolyai (Hungarian) universities,[57] allegedly contemplated before the 1956 events.[58][59] Hungarians remained the majority of the city's population until the 1960s. Then Romanians began to outnumber Hungarians,[60] due to the population increase as a result of the government's forced industrialisation of the city and new jobs.[61] During the Communist period, the city recorded a high industrial development, as well as enforced construction expansion.[61] On October 16, 1974, when the city celebrated 1850 years since its first mention as Napoca, the Communist government changed the name of the city by adding "Napoca" to it.[22]
During the Romanian Revolution of 1989, Cluj-Napoca was one of the scenes of the rebellion: 26 were killed and approximately 170 injured.[62] After the end of totalitarian rule, the nationalist politician Gheorghe Funar became mayor and governed for the next 12 years. His tenure was marked by strong Romanian nationalism and acts of ethnic provocation against the Hungarian-speaking minority. This deterred foreign investment;[12] however, in June 2004, Gheorghe Funar was voted out of office, and the city entered a period of rapid economic growth.[12] From 2004 to 2009, the mayor was Emil Boc, the president of the Democratic Liberal Party. He went on to be elected as prime minister.[63]
Geography[link]
Cluj-Napoca, located in the central part of Transylvania, has a surface area of 179.5 square kilometres (69.3 sq mi). The city lies at the confluence of the Apuseni Mountains, the Someş plateau and the Transylvanian plain.[64] It sprawls over the valleys of Someşul Mic and Nadăş, and, to some extent over the secondary valleys of the Popeşti, Chintău, Borhanci and Popii rivers.[65][66] The southern part of the city occupies the upper terrace of the northern slope of Feleac Hill, and is surrounded on three sides by hills or mountains with heights between 500 metres (1,600 ft) and 700 metres (2,300 ft).[66] The Someş plateau is situated to the east, while the northern part of town includes Dealurile Clujului ("the Hills of Cluj"), with the peaks, Lombului (684 m), Dealul Melcului (617 m), Techintău (633 m), Hoia (506 m) and Gârbău (570 m).[65] Other hills are located in the western districts, and the hills of Calvaria and Cetăţuia (Belvedere) are located near the centre of city.
Built on the banks of Someşul Mic River, the city is also crossed over by brooks or streams such as Pârâul Ţiganilor, Pârâul Popeşti, Pârâul Nădăşel, Pârâul Chintenilor, Pârâul Becaş, Pârâul Murătorii; Canalul Morilor runs through the centre of town.[65]
A wide variety of flora grow in the Cluj-Napoca Botanical Garden; some animals have also found refuge there. The city has a number of other parks, of which the largest is the Central Park. This park was founded during the 19th century and includes an artificial lake with an island, as well as the largest casino in the city, Chios. Other notable parks in the city are the Iuliu Haţieganu Park of the Babeş-Bolyai University, which features some sport facilities, the Haşdeu Park, within the eponymous student housing district, the high-elevation Cetăţuia, and the Opera Park, behind the building of the Romanian Opera.
Surroundings[link]
.jpg)
The city is surrounded by forests and grasslands. Rare species of plants, such as Venus's slipper and iris, are found in the two botanical reservations of Cluj-Napoca, Fânaţele Clujului and Rezervaţia Valea Morii ("Mill Valley Reservation").[67] Animals such as boars, badgers, foxes, rabbits and squirrels live in nearby forest areas such as Făget and Hoia. The latter forest hosts the Romulus Vuia ethnographical park, with exhibits dating back to 1678.[68] Various people report alien encounters in the Hoia-Baciu forest, large networks of catacombs that connect the old churches of the city, or the presence of a monster in the nearby lake of Tarniţa.[69][70]
A modern, 750-metre (820 yd)-long ski resort is sits on Feleac Hill, with an altitude difference of 98 metres (107 yd) between its highest and lowest points. This ski resort offers outdoor lighting, artificial snow and a ski tow.[71] Băişoara winter resort is located approximately 50 kilometres (31 mi) from the city of Cluj-Napoca, and includes two ski trails, for beginner and advanced skiers, respectively: Zidul Mic and Zidul Mare.[72] Two other summer resorts/spas are included in the metropolitan area, namely Cojocna and Someşeni Baths.[73]
There are a large number of castles in the countryside surroundings, constructed by wealthy medieval families living in the city. The most notable of them is the Bonţida Bánffy Castle—once known as "the Versailles of Transylvania"[74]—in the nearby village of Bonţida, 32 kilometres (20 mi) from the city centre. In 1963, the castle was used as a set for Liviu Ciulei's film Forest of the Hanged, which won an award at Cannes.[75] There are other castles located in the vicinity of the city; indeed, the castle at Bonţida is not even the only one constructed by the Bánffy family. The commune of Gilău features the Wass-Bánffy Castle,[76] while another Bánffy Castle is located in the Răscruci area.[77] In addition, Nicula Monastery, erected during the 18th century, is an important pilgrimage site in northern Transylvania. This monastery houses the renowned wonder-working Madonna of Nicula.[78][79] The icon is said to have wept between February 15 and March 12, 1669.[80] During this time, nobles, officers, laity and clergy came to see it. At first they were sceptical, looking at it on both sides, but then humbly crossed themselves and returned home petrified by the wonder they had seen.[80] During the feast of the Dormition of the Theotokos (commemorating the death of the Virgin Mary) on August 15, more than 150,000 people from all over the country come to visit the monastery.[78]
Climate[link]
Cluj-Napoca has a continental climate, characterised by warm dry summers and cold winters. The climate is influenced by the city's proximity to the Apuseni Mountains, as well as by urbanisation. Some West-Atlantic influences are present during winter and autumn. Winter temperatures are often below 0 °C (32 °F), even though they rarely drop below −10 °C (14 °F). On average, snow covers the ground for 65 days each winter.[81] In summer, the average temperature is approximately 18 °C (64 °F) (the average for July and August), despite the fact that temperatures sometimes reach 35 °C (95 °F) to 40 °C (104 °F) in mid-summer in the city centre. Although average precipitation and humidity during summer is low, there are infrequent yet heavy and often violent storms. During spring and autumn, temperatures vary between 13 °C (55 °F) to 18 °C (64 °F), and precipitation during this time tends to be higher than in summer, with more frequent yet milder periods of rain.
| Climate data for Cluj-Napoca | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °C (°F) | 11 (52) |
16 (61) |
26 (79) |
28 (82) |
31 (88) |
33 (91) |
37 (99) |
33 (91) |
31 (88) |
27 (81) |
19 (66) |
21 (70) |
37 (99) |
| Average high °C (°F) | −1 (30) |
1 (34) |
8 (46) |
13 (55) |
18 (64) |
21 (70) |
23 (73) |
23 (73) |
20 (68) |
13 (55) |
5 (41) |
1 (34) |
12 (54) |
| Average low °C (°F) | −6 (21) |
−5 (23) |
0 (32) |
4 (39) |
8 (46) |
11 (52) |
13 (55) |
12 (54) |
9 (48) |
4 (39) |
0 (32) |
−3 (27) |
4 (39) |
| Record low °C (°F) | −25 (−13) |
−21 (−6) |
−16 (3) |
−7 (19) |
−2 (28) |
2 (36) |
6 (43) |
5 (41) |
−2 (28) |
−7 (19) |
−17 (1) |
−18 (0) |
−25 (−13) |
| Precipitation mm (inches) | 20 (0.79) |
20 (0.79) |
20 (0.79) |
40 (1.57) |
70 (2.76) |
80 (3.15) |
80 (3.15) |
70 (2.76) |
40 (1.57) |
40 (1.57) |
30 (1.18) |
20 (0.79) |
590 (23.23) |
| Source: weatherbase.com[82] | |||||||||||||
Law and government[link]
Administration[link]
Main article: Politics of Cluj-Napoca
See also: Cluj-Napoca metropolitan area
The city government is headed by a mayor. From 2004, the office was held by Emil Boc,[83] who was re-elected in 2008 but resigned the following year to become prime minister. Decisions are approved and discussed by the local council (consiliu local) made up of 27 elected councillors.[83] The city is divided into 15 districts (cartiere) laid out radially, some of them with their own local administrative structure (town hall). City hall intends to develop local administrative structures for most of the districts.
Because of the last years' massive urban development, in 2005 some areas of Cluj were named as districts (Sopor, Borhanci, Becaş, Făget, Zorilor South), but most of them are still construction sites.[84] Beside these, there are some other building areas like Tineretului, Lombului or Oser, which are likely to become districts in the following years.[85]
Additionally, as Cluj-Napoca is the capital of Cluj County, the city hosts the palace of the prefecture, the headquarters of the county council (consiliu judeţean) and the prefect, who is appointed by Romania's central government.[83] The prefect is not allowed to be a member of a political party, and his role is to represent the national government at the local level, acting as a liaison and facilitating the implementation of National Development Plans and governing programmes at the local level.[83] Like all other local councils in Romania, the Cluj-Napoca local council, the county council and the city's mayor are elected every four years by the population.[83]
Cluj-Napoca is also the capital of the historical region of Transylvania, a status that resonates to this day. Currently, the city is the largest in the Nord-Vest development region, which is equivalent to NUTS-II regions in the European Union and is used by the European Union and the Romanian Government for statistical analysis and regional development. The Nord-Vest development region is not, however, an administrative entity.[83] The Cluj-Napoca metropolitan area became operational in December 2008,[8] and comprises a population of 392,562.[3][7] Besides Cluj-Napoca, it includes seventeen communes: Aiton, Apahida, Baciu, Bonţida, Borşa, Căianu, Chinteni, Ciurila, Cojocna, Feleacu, Floreşti, Gârbău, Gilău, Jucu, Petreştii de Jos, Tureni and Vultureni.
The executive presidium of the Democratic Union of Hungarians in Romania (UDMR) and all its departments are headquartered in Cluj,[86][87] as are local and regional organisations of most Romanian political parties. In order to counterbalance the political influence of Transylvania's Hungarian minority, nationalist Romanians in Transylvania founded the Party of Romanian National Unity (PUNR) at the beginnings of the 1990s; the party was present in the Romanian Parliament during the 1992–1996 legislature.[88] The party eventually moved its main offices to Bucharest and fell into decline as its leadership joined the ideologically-similar PRM.[88] In 2008, the Institute for Research on National Minorities, subordinated to the Romanian Government, opened its official headquarters in Cluj-Napoca.[89]
Eleven hospitals function in the city, nine of which are run by the county and two (for oncology and cardiology) by the health ministry. Additionally, there are well over a hundred private medical cabinets and dentists' offices each.[66]
Justice system[link]
Cluj-Napoca has a complex judicial organisation, as a consequence of its status of county capital. The Cluj-Napoca Court of Justice is the local judicial institution and is under the purview of the Cluj County Tribunal, which also exerts its jurisdiction over the courts of Dej, Gherla, Turda and Huedin.[90] Appeals from these tribunals' verdicts, and more serious cases, are directed to the Cluj Court of Appeals. The city also hosts the county's commercial and military tribunals.[90]
Cluj-Napoca has its own municipal police force, Poliţia Municipiului Cluj-Napoca, which is responsible for policing of crime within the whole city, and operates a number of special divisions. The Cluj-Napoca Police are headquartered on Decebal Street in the city centre (with a number of precincts throughout the city) and it is subordinated to the County's Police Inspectorate on Traian Street.[91] City Hall has its own community police force, Poliţia Primăriei, dealing with local community issues. Cluj-Napoca also houses the County's Gendarmerie Inspectorate.
Crime[link]
See also: Crime in Romania
Cluj-Napoca and the surrounding area (Cluj County) had a rate of 268 criminal convictions per 100,000 inhabitants during 2006, just above the national average.[92] After the revolution in 1989, the criminal conviction rate in the county entered a phase of sustained growth, reaching a historic high of 429 in 1998, when it began to fall.[92] Although the overall crime rate is reassuringly low, petty crime can be an irritant for foreigners, as in other large cities of Romania.[93] During the 1990s, two large financial institutions, Banca Dacia Felix and Caritas, went bankrupt due to large-scale fraud and embezzlement.[94][95]
Also notorious was the case of serial killer Romulus Vereş, "the man with the hammer"; during the 1970s, he was charged with five murders and several attempted murders, but never imprisoned on grounds of insanity: he suffered from schizophrenia, blaming the Devil for his actions. Instead, he was institutionalised in the Ştei psychiatric facility in 1976, following a three year long forensic investigation during which four thousand people were questioned. Urban myths brought the number of victims up to two hundred women, though the actual number was much smaller. This confusion is probably explained by the lack of attention this case received, despite its magnitude, in the Communist press of the time.[96]
A 2006 poll shows a high degree of satisfaction with the work of the local police department. More than half the people surveyed during a 2005–2006 poll declared themselves satisfied (62.3%) or very satisfied (3.3%) with the activity of the county police department.[97] The study found the highest satisfaction with car traffic supervision, the presence of officers in the street, and road education; on the negative side, corruption and public transport safety remain concerns.
Efforts made by local authorities in the Cluj-Napoca district at the end of the 1990s to reform the protection of children's rights and assistance for street children proved insufficient due to lack of funding, incoherent policies and the absence of any real collaboration between the actors involved (Child Rights Protection Directorate, Social Assistance Service within the District Directorate for Labour and Social Protection, Minors Receiving Centre, Guardian Authority within the City Hall, Police). There are numerous street children, whose poverty and lack of documented identity brings them into constant conflict with local law enforcement.[98]
Following cooperation between the local governmental council and the Prison Fellowship Romania Foundation, homeless people, street children and beggars are taken, identified and accommodated within the Christian Centers for Street Children and Homeless People, respectively, and the Ruhama centre.[99] The latter features a marshaling center for beggars and street children, as well as a flophouse.[100] As a consequence, the fluctuating movement of children, beggars and homeless people in and out of the centre has been considerably reduced, with most of the initial beneficiaries successfully integrated into the programme rather than returning to the streets.[98]
From 2000 onwards, Cluj-Napoca has seen an increase in illegal road races, which occur mainly at night on the city's outskirts or on industrial sites and occasionally produce victims. There have been attempts to organize legal races as a solution to this problem.[101]
Demographics[link]
| Historical population of Cluj-Napoca | |||||||||||||
| Year | Population | %± | Romanians | Hungarians | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1453 est. | 6,000[102] | — | n/a | n/a | |||||||||
| 1703 | 7,500[103] | 25% | n/a | n/a | |||||||||
| 1714 | 5,000[104] | −33.3% | n/a | n/a | |||||||||
| 1770 | 10,500[105] | 110% | n/a | n/a | |||||||||
| 1785 | 9,703[103][106] | −7.6% | n/a | n/a | |||||||||
| 1787 | 10,476[103][106] | 7.9% | n/a | n/a | |||||||||
| 1835 | 14,000[103][107] | 33.6% | n/a | n/a | |||||||||
| 1850 | 19,612 | 40% | 21.0% | 62.8% | |||||||||
| 1880 | 32,831 | 67.4% | 17.1% | 72.1% | |||||||||
| 1890 | 37,184 | 13.2% | 15.2% | 79.1% | |||||||||
| 1900 | 50,908 | 36.9% | 14.1% | 81.1% | |||||||||
| 1910 census[b] | 62,733 | 23.2% | 14.2% | 81.6% | |||||||||
| 1920 | 85,509 | 36.3% | 34.7% | 49.3% | |||||||||
| 1930 census | 100,844[108] | 17.9% | 34.6% | 47.3% | |||||||||
| 1941[c][d] | 114,984 | 14% | 9.8% | 85.7% | |||||||||
| 1948 census | 117,915 | 2.5% | 40% | 57% | |||||||||
| 1956 census[e] | 154,723 | 31.2% | 47.8% | 47.9% | |||||||||
| 1966 census | 185,663 | 20% | 56.5% | 41.4% | |||||||||
| 1977 census | 262,858 | 41.5% | 65.8% | 32.8% | |||||||||
| 1992 census | 328,602 | 25% | 76.6% | 22.7% | |||||||||
| 2002 census | 317,953[5] | −3.2% | 79.4% | 19.0% | |||||||||
| 2011 census | 309,136[3] | −2.8% | 80.1% | 16.0% | |||||||||
|
Source (if not otherwise specified): |
|||||||||||||
The city's population, at the 2011 census, was 309,136 inhabitants,[5] or 1.6% of the total population of Romania. The population of the Cluj-Napoca metropolitan area is estimated at 392,562.[3][6] Finally, the population of the peri-urban area numbers over 400,000 residents.[3][7] The new metropolitan government of Cluj-Napoca became operational in December 2008.[8] According to the 2007 data provided by the County Population Register Service, the total population of the city is as high as 392,276 people.[9] The variation between this number and the census data is partially explained by the real growth of the population residing in Cluj-Napoca, as well as by different counting methods: "In reality, more people live in Cluj than those who are officially registered", Traian Rotariu, director of the Center for Population Studies, told Foaia Transilvană.[9] Moreover, this number does not include the floating population—an average of over 20 thousand people each year during 2004–2007, according to the same source.[9]
In the modern era, Cluj's population experienced two phases of rapid growth, the first in the late 19th century, when the city grew in importance and size, and the second during the Communist period, when a massive urbanisation campaign was launched and many people migrated from rural areas and from beyond the Carpathians to the county's capital.[109] About two-thirds of the population growth during this era was based on net migration inflows; after 1966, the date of Ceauşescu's ban on abortion and contraception, natural increase was also significant, being responsible for the remaining third.[61]
From the Middle Ages onwards, the city of Cluj has been a multicultural city with a diverse cultural and religious life. According to the 2011 Romanian census, just over 80% of the population of the city are ethnic Romanians, with the second largest ethnic group being the Hungarians, who make up 16% of the population. The remainder is composed of Roma (1.1%), Germans (0.17%) and Jews (0.05%).[3] Today, the city receives a large influx of migrants: 25,000 people requested residence in the city during 2007.[110]
In terms of religion, 69.2% of the population are Romanian Orthodox and 12.2% are Reformed. The Roman Catholic and the Romanian Greek-Catholic communities claim 5.5% and 5.8% of the population respectively, while other religious groups like Unitarians (1%), Pentecostals (2.6%) or Baptists (1.2%) round out most of the rest.[5] By contrast, in 1930, the city was 26.7% Reformed, 22.6% Greek Catholic, 20.1% Roman Catholic, 13.4% Jewish, 11.8% Orthodox, 2.4% Lutheran and 2.1% Unitarian.[111] Contributing factors for these shifts were the extermination[112] and emigration[113] of the city's Jews, the outlawing of the Greek-Catholic Church (1948–89)[114] and the gradual decline in the Hungarian population.
On a more historical note, the Jewish community has figured centrally in the history of Transylvania, and in that of the wider region.[115] They were a substantial and increasingly vibrant presence in Cluj in the modern era, contributing significantly to the town's economic dynamism and cultural flourishing in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.[115] Although the community comprised a significant share of the town's population during the interwar era—between 13 and 15 percent[116]—this figure plummeted as a consequence of the Holocaust and emigration; by the 1990s only a few hundred Jews remained in Cluj-Napoca.[115]
In the 14th century, most of the town's inhabitants and the local elite were Saxons,[33] largely descended from settlers brought in by the Kings of Hungary in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries[117] to develop and defend the southern borders of the province.[117] By the middle of the next century roughly half the population had Hungarian names. In Transylvania as a whole, the Reformation sharpened ethnic divisions: Saxons became Lutheran while Hungarians either remained Catholic or became Calvinist or Unitarian. In Klausenburg, however, the religious lines were blurred. Isolated both geographically from the main areas of German settlement in southern Transylvania[115] and institutionally because of their distinctive religious trajectory, many Saxons eventually assimilated to the Hungarian majority over several generations. New settlers to the town largely spoke Hungarian, a language that many Saxons gradually adopted.[33] (In the seventeenth century, out of more than thirty royal free towns, only seven had a Hungarian majority, with Kolozsvár/Klausenburg being one of them;[118] the rest were largely German-dominated.[118]) In this manner Kolozsvár became largely Hungarian speaking and would remain so through the mid-20th century, though 4.8% of its residents identified as German as late as 1880.[119]
The Roma form a sizable minority in contemporary Romania, and a small but visible presence in Cluj-Napoca: self-identifying Roma in the city comprise only 1 percent of the population; yet they are a familiar presence in and around the central market, selling flowers, used clothes and tinware.[115] They are an important object of public discourse and media representation at the national level; however, Cluj-Napoca, with its small Roma population, has not been a major focus of Roma ethno-political activity.[115]
Hungarian community[link]
Approximately 50,000 Hungarians live in Cluj-Napoca. The city is home to the second-largest urban Hungarian community in Romania, after Târgu Mureş,[3][120] with an active cultural and academic life: the city features a Hungarian state theatre and opera, as well as Hungarian research institutions, like Erdélyi Múzeumi Egyesület (EME), Erdélyi Magyar Műszaki Tudományos Társaság and Bolyai Társaság.[121] With respect to religious affairs, the city houses central offices for the Reformed Diocese of Transylvania, the Unitarian Diocese and an Evangelical Lutheran Church Diocese (all of which train their clergy at the Protestant Theological Institute of Cluj). Several newspapers and magazines are published in the Hungarian language, yet the community also receives public and private television and radio broadcasts (see Media). As of 2007, 7,000 students attended courses in the 55 Hungarian-language specialisations at the Babeş-Bolyai University.[122] Gheorghe Funar, mayor of Cluj-Napoca from 1992 to 2004, was notorious for acts of ethnic provocation, bedecking the city's streets in the colours of the Romanian flag and arranging pickets outside the city's Hungarian consulate; however, tensions have cooled since.[12]
Economy[link]
Cluj-Napoca is an important economic centre in Romania. Famous local brands that have become well-known at a national, and to some extent even international level, include: Banca Transilvania,[123] Farmec,[124] Jolidon,[125] and Ursus breweries.[126]
The American online magazine InformationWeek reports that much of the software/IT activity in Romania is taking place in Cluj-Napoca, which is quickly becoming Romania's technopolis.[15] Nokia invested 200 million euros in a mobile telephone factory near Cluj-Napoca;[127] this began production in February 2008 and is due to close in December 2011. It also opened a research centre in the city[128] that was shut down in April 2011.[129] The city houses regional or national headquarters of MOL,[130] Aegon,[131] Perfetti Van Melle,[132] Bechtel,[133] FrieslandCampina,[134] Office Depot, Genpact[135] and New Yorker.[136]
British investment and financial services group Dawnay Day, owner of the Brașov-based commercial centre MacroMall, says it will invest 135 million euros in two real estate projects in Cluj-Napoca. The first project, Atrium, which has started construction on the site of the former Tricotaje Someşul plant located in Cluj-Napoca city centre, will cost 85 million euros.[137]
Cluj-Napoca is also an important regional commercial centre, with many street malls and hypermarkets. Eroilor Avenue and Napoca and Memorandumului streets are the most expensive venues, with a yearly rent price of 720 euro/m²,[138] but Regele Ferdinand and "21 Decembrie 1989" avenues also feature high rental costs. There are two large malls: Polus (including a Carrefour hypermarket) and Iulius Mall (including an Auchan hypermarket). Another two are under construction: Atrium and Akademia Center Cluj, an award-winning Nisco Invest retail project. Other large stores include branches of various international hypermarket chains, like Cora or Real.
Among the famous retailers found in the city centre are United Colors of Benetton, Guess, and Paco Rabanne, while shopping centers on the outskirts include stores like Mango and Zara. Hugo Boss,[139] JLo,[140] Pinko,[141] and Gianfranco Ferre[142] have all announced their intent to open stores in Cluj-Napoca by the end of 2008.
In 2008, the city's general budget amounted to 990 million lei,[143] the equivalent of over 266 million Euros (207 million pounds sterling). Over the previous year, the budget increased 19% in 2006, 56% in 2007 and 35% in 2008. In lei, the budgets for 2005, 2006, 2007 and 2008 are 396,303,743, 472,364,500[144] 739,214,224,[145] and 990,812,338 respectively.[146]
Tourism[link]
In 2007, the hotel industry in the county of Cluj offered total accommodations of 6,472 beds, of which 3,677 were in hotels, 1,294 in guesthouses and the rest in chalets, campgrounds, or hostels.[147] A total of 700,000 visitors, 140,000 of whom were foreigners, stayed overnight.[147] However, a considerable share of visits is made by those who visit Cluj-Napoca for a single day, and their exact number is not known. The largest numbers of foreign visitors come from Hungary, Italy, Germany, the United States, France, and Austria.[147] Moreover, the city's 140 or so travel agencies help organise domestic and foreign trips; car rentals are also available.[148]
Arts and culture[link]
Cluj-Napoca has a diverse and growing cultural scene, with cultural life exhibited in a number of fields, including the visual arts, performing arts and nightlife. The city's cultural scene spans its history, dating back to Roman times: the city started to be built in that period, which has left its mark on the urban layout (centered on today's Piaţa Muzeului) as well as surviving remnants. However, the medieval town saw a shift in its center towards new civil and religious structures, notably St. Michael's Church.[149] During the 16th century, the city became the chief cultural and religious center of Transylvania;[150] in the 1820s and the first half of the 1830s, Kolozsvár was the most important center for Hungarian theater and opera,[151] while at the beginning of the 20th century, still a Hungarian city, it became the chief alternative to Budapest's cinematography.[152] After its incorporation into the Kingdom of Romania at the end of World War I, the renamed Cluj saw a resurgence of its Romanian culture, most conspicuous in the completion of the monumental Orthodox cathedral in 1933 across from the (newly nationalised) Romanian National Theatre.[153] This marked an unambiguously "Romanian" centre, a few blocks to the east of the old Hungarian center;[153] however, the Romanianness of the town—like the Romanian hold on Transylvania—was by no means securely established even by the end of the interwar period.[153] The late 1960s brought a revival of nationalist discourse, concomitant with the urbanisation and industrialisation of the city that gradually advanced the Romanianisation of the city.[154] Nowadays, the city is home to people of different cultures, with corresponding cultural institutions such as the Hungarian State Theatre, the British Council, and various other centres for the promotion of foreign culture. These institutions hold eclectic manifestations in honour of their cultures, including Bessarabian,[155] Hungarian,[156] Tunisian,[157] and Japanese.[158] Nevertheless, contemporary cultural manifestations cross ethnic boundaries, being aimed at students, cinephiles, and arts and science lovers, among others.
Landmarks[link]
Cluj-Napoca has a number of landmark buildings and monuments. One of those is the Saint Michael's Church in Unirii Square, built at the end of 14th century in the Gothic style of that period. It was only in the 19th century that the neogothic tower of the church was erected; it remains the tallest church tower in Romania to this day.[159]
In front of the church is the equestrian statue of Matthias Corvinus, erected in honour of the locally-born king of Hungary. The Orthodox Church's equivalent to St. Michael's Church is the Orthodox Cathedral on Avram Iancu Square, built in the interwar era. The Romanian Greek-Catholic Church also has a cathedral in Cluj-Napoca, Transfiguration Cathedral.
Another landmark of Cluj-Napoca is the Palace of Justice, built between 1898 and 1902, and designed by architect Gyula Wagner in an eclectic style.[160] This building is part of an ensemble erected in Avram Iancu Square that also includes the National Theatre, the Palace of Căile Ferate Române, the Palace of the Prefecture, the Palace of Finance and the Palace of the Orthodox Metropolis. An important eclectic ensemble is Iuliu Maniu Street, featuring symmetrical buildings on either side, after the Haussmann urbanistic trend.[161] A highlight of the city is the botanical garden, situated in the vicinity of the centre. Beside this garden, Cluj-Napoca is also home to some large parks, the most notable being the Central Park with the Chios Casino and a large statuary ensemble. Many of the city's notable figures are buried in Hajongard Cemetery, which covers 14 hectares (35 acres).
As an important cultural centre, Cluj-Napoca has many theatres and museums. The latter include the National Museum of Transylvanian History, the Ethnographic Museum, the Cluj-Napoca Art Museum, the Pharmacy Museum, the Water Museum and the museums of Babeş-Bolyai University—the University Museum, the Museum of Mineralogy, the Museum of Paleontology and Stratigraphy, the Museum of Speleology, the Botanical Museum and the Zoological Museum.
Visual arts[link]
In terms of visual arts, the city contains a number of galleries featuring both classical and contemporary Romanian art, as well as selected international works.
The National Museum of Art is located in the former palace of the count György Bánffy, the most representative secular construction built in the Baroque style in Transylvania.[162][163][164] The museum features extensive collections of Romanian art, including works of artists like Nicolae Grigorescu, Ştefan Luchian and Dimitrie Paciurea, as well as some works of foreign artists like Károly Lotz, Luca Giordano, Jean-Hippolyte Flandrin, Herri met de Bles and Claude Michel,[165] and was nominated to be European Museum of the Year in 1996.[166]
The most notable of the city's other galleries is the Gallery of the Union of Plastic Artists. Situated in the city centre, this gallery presents collections drawn from the contemporary arts scene. The Gallery of Folk Art includes traditional Romanian interior decoration artworks.
Historically, the city was one of the most important cultural and artistic centres in 16th-century Transylvania. The Renaissance workshop, formed in 1530 and strongly supported by the Transylvanian princes, served local and wider requirements: from the middle of the century onwards, when the Ottomans had conquered central Hungary, it extended its activity throughout the new principality. Its style, the "Flower Renaissance", used a variety of plant ornament enriched with coats of arms, figures and inscriptions. It continued to be of great importance into the 18th century, and traces of it are still apparent in 20th-century vernacular art; Klausenburg was central to the long, anachronistic survival of the style, particularly among Hungarians.[167]
Performing arts[link]
The city has a number of renowned facilities and institutions involving performing arts. The most prominent is the neobaroque theatre at the Avram Iancu Square.[168] Built at the beginning of the 20th century by the Viennese company Helmer and Fellner, this structure is inscribed in UNESCO's list of specially protected monuments.[169] Since 1919, shortly after the union of Transylvania with Romania, the building has hosted the Lucian Blaga National Theatre and the Romanian National Opera. The Transylvania Philarmonic, founded in 1955, gives classical music concerts, and has since 1965 organised, the Toamna Muzicală Clujeană Festival.[170] The multiculturalism in the city is once again attested by the Hungarian Theatre and Opera, home for four professional groups of performers. There is also a number of smaller independent theatres, including the Puck Theatre, where puppet shows are performed.
Music and nightlife[link]
Cluj-Napoca is the residence of some well-known Romanian musicians. Examples of homegrown bands include the popular Romanian rock band Compact,[171] the modern pop band Sistem—which finished third in the Eurovision Song Contest 2005,[172] the rhythm and blues band Nightlosers,[173] the alternative band Luna Amară,[174] Grimus—the winners of the 2007 National Finals of Global Battle of the Bands,[175] as well as a large assortment of electronic music producers, notably Horace Dan D.[176] The Cheeky Girls also grew up in the city, where they studied at the High School of Choreography and Dramatic Art.[177] While many discos play commercial house music, the city has an increasing minimal techno scene, and, to an extent jazz/blues and heavy metal/punk. The city's nightlife, particularly its club scene, grew significantly in the 1990s, and continues to increase. Most entertainment venues are dispersed throughout the city centre, spreading from the oldest one of all, Diesel Club,[178] on Unrii Square. The list of large and fancy clubs continues with Obsession The Club and Midi, the latter being a venue for the new minimal techno music genre. These three clubs are classified as the top three clubs in the Transylvania-Banat region in a chart published by the national daily România Liberă.[178] The Unirii area also features the Fashion Bar, with an exclusive terrace sponsored by Fashion TV. Some other clubs in the centre are Aftereight, Avenue, Bamboo, Decadence, Kharma and Molotov Pub. Numerous restaurants, pizzerias and coffee shops provide regional as well as international cuisine; many of these offer cultural activities like music and fashion shows or art exhibitions.[148]
The city also includes Strada Piezişă (slanted street), a central nightlife strip located in the Haşdeu student area, where a large number of bars and terraces are situated. Cluj-Napoca is not limited to these international music genres, as there are also a number of discos where local "Lăutari" play manele, a Turkish-influenced type of music.
Traditional culture[link]
In spite of the influences of modern culture, traditional Romanian culture continues to influence various domains of art.
Cluj-Napoca hosts an ethnographic museum, the Ethnographic Museum of Transylvania, which features a large indoor collection of traditional cultural objects, as well as an open-air park, the oldest of this kind in Romania, dating back to 1929.[179][180]
The National Museum of Transylvanian History (Muzeul naţional de istorie a Transilvaniei) is another important museum in Cluj-Napoca, containing a collection of artefacts detailing Romanian history and culture from prehistoric times, the Dacian era, medieval times and the modern era.[181] Moreover, the city also preserves a Historic Collection of the Pharmacy, in the building of the its first pharmacy (16th century), the Hintz House.[181]
Cultural events and festivals[link]
Cluj-Napoca hosts a number of cultural festivals of various types. These occur throughout the year, though are more frequent in the summer months. "Sărbătoarea Muzicii" (Fête de la Musique) is a music festival taking place yearly on 21 June, organised under the aegis of the French Cultural Centre. In September, the Transilvania Philarmonic hosts the Toamna Muzicală Clujeană Classical Music Festival.[170] Additionally, Splaiul Independenţei, on the banks of Someşul Mic River, hosts a number of beer festivals throughout the summer, among them the "Septemberfest", modelled after the German Oktoberfest.[182]
The city has seen a number of important music events, including the MTV România Music Award ceremony which was held at the Sala Sporturilor Horia Demian in 2006 with the Sugababes, Pachanga and Uniting Nations as special international guests.[183] In 2007, Beyoncé Knowles also performed in Cluj-Napoca, at the Ion Moina Stadium. In 2010, Iron Maiden included the city in their Final Frontier World Tour. Moreover, the local clubs regularly organise events featuring international artists, usually foreign disc jockeys, like André Tanneberger, Tania Vulcano, Satoshi Tomiie, Yves Larock, Dave Seaman, Plump DJs, Stephane K or Andy Fletcher.
The Transilvania International Film Festival (TIFF), held in the city since 2001 and organised by the Association for the Promotion of the Romanian Film, is the first Romanian film festival for international features.[184] The festival jury awards the Transilvania Trophy for the best film in competition, as well as prizes for best director, best performance and best photography. With the support of Home Box Office, TIFF also organises a national script contest. The Gay Film Nights festival, showcasing LGBT culture and cinema, has also been organised annually since 2004 in Cluj-Napoca by Be An Angel, the city's largest LGBT rights organisation,[185] while Comedy Cluj, which debuted in 2009, is the newest annual film festival organised in Cluj-Napoca.[186]
Architecture[link]
Cluj-Napoca's salient architecture is primarily Renaissance, Baroque and Gothic. The modern era has also produced a remarkable set of buildings from the mid-century style. The mostly utilitarian Communist-era architecture is also present, although only to a certain extent, as Cluj-Napoca never faced a large systematisation programme. Of late, the city has seen significant growth in contemporary structures such as skyscrapers and office buildings, mainly constructed after 2000.[187]
Historical architecture[link]
The nucleus of the old city, an important cultural and commercial centre, used to be a military camp, attested in documents with the name "castrum Clus".
The oldest residence in Cluj-Napoca is the house of Matthias Corvinus, originally a Gothic structure that bears Transylvanian Renaissance characteristics due to a later renovation.[188] Such changes feature on other Hungarian townspeople's residences, built from the mid-15th century mostly of stone and wood with a cellar, ground floor and upper storey, in the Late Gothic and Renaissance styles; although the late medieval houses have often been considerably altered, the street façades of the old town are mostly preserved.[167] St. Michael's Church, the oldest and most representative Gothic-style building in the country, dates back to the 14th century. The oldest of its sections is the altar, dedicated in 1390, while the newest part is the clock tower, which was built in Gothic Revival style (1860).[159]
As Renaissance styles survived late in the city, the appearance of Baroque art was also delayed, but from the mid-18th century Klausenburg was once again at the centre of the development and spread of art in Transylvania, as it had been two centuries earlier. The first enthusiasts for Baroque were the Catholic Church and the landed aristocracy. Artists came initially from south Germany and Austria, but by the end of the century most of the work was by local craftsmen. The earliest signs of the new style appear in the furnishings of St. Michael's church: the altarpieces and pulpit, which date to the 1740s, are carved, painted and richly decorated with figures. An altarpiece depicting the Adoration of the Magi (1748–50) is the work of Franz Anton Maulbertsch. The earliest two-towered Baroque church was built by the Jesuits from 1718 to 1724 on the pattern of Košice and was later handed over to the Piarists. During the century more simply designed Baroque churches were built for the mendicant orders, Lutherans, Unitarians and the Orthodox Church. The noble families built houses and even palaces in the old town.[167] The Baroque Bánffy Palace (1774–1785), constructed around a rectangular yard, is the masterpiece of Eberhardt Blaumann. Its peculiarity lies in the appearance of the principal façade.[187]
Both Avram Iancu and Unrii Squares feature ensembles of eclectic and baroque–rococo architecture, including the Palace of Justice,[160] the Theatre,[168] the Iuliu Maniu symmetrical street,[161] and the New York Palace, among others.[189] In the 19th century many houses were built in the Neo-classical, Romantic and Eclectic styles. Also dating to that period are the two-towered Neo-classical Calvinist church (1829–50), its new college building of 1801, and the City Hall (1843–6) in the marketplace, by Antal Kagerbauer.[167]
The banks of the Someşul Mic also feature a wide variety of such old buildings. The end of the 19th century brought a building ensemble that fastens the corners of the oldest bridge over the river, at the north end of the Regele Ferdinand Avenue. The Berde, Babos, Elian, Urania, and Szeky palaces consist of a mixture of Baroque, Renaissance and Gothic styles, following the Art Nouveau/Secession and Revival specifics.[190]
In the 2000s, the old city centre underwent extensive restoration works, meant to convert much of it into a pedestrian area, including Bulevardul Eroilor, Unirii Square and other smaller streets.[191] In some residential areas of the city, particularly the high-income southern areas, like Andrei Mureşanu or Strada Republicii, there are many turn-of-the-century villas.
Modern and Communist architecture[link]
Part of Cluj-Napoca's architecture is made up of buildings constructed during the Communist era, when historical architecture was replaced with "more efficient" high-density apartment blocks. Nicolae Ceauşescu's project of systematisation did not really affect the heart of the city, instead reaching the marginal, shoddily built districts surrounding it.[187]
Still, the centre hosts some examples of modern architecture dating back to the Communist era. The Hungarian Theatre building was erected at the beginning of the 20th century, but underwent an avant-garde renovation in 1961, when it acquired a modernist style of architecture.[192] Another example of modernist architectural art is Palatul Telefoanelor, situated in the vicinity of Mihai Viteazul Square, an area that also features a complex of large apartment buildings.
Some outer districts, especially Mănăştur, and to a certain extent Gheorgheni and Grigorescu, consist mainly of such large apartment ensembles.[187] The city, however, does not face the zoning problems that arose in other Romanian locales because of the high-density constructions; roughly all other complexes in the city are built with some respect to the zoning laws in force today.[citation needed]
Contemporary architecture[link]
Main article: Contemporary architecture in Cluj-Napoca
Since 1989, modern skyscrapers and glass-fronted buildings have altered the skyline of Cluj-Napoca. Buildings from this time are mostly made out of glass and steel, and are usually high-rise. Examples include shopping malls (particularly the Iulius Mall), office buildings and bank headquarters. Of this last, regional headquarters of the Banca Română pentru Dezvoltare is the tallest office building in Cluj-Napoca, with 50 metres (160 ft).[193] Its twelve storeys were completed in 1997 after 4 years of work and house offices for the bank and for divisions of several other companies, including insurance and oil companies.
Another architecturally interesting building is the so-called "Clădirea biscuite" (the biscuit building). This building was supposed to house the local headquarters of the Banca Agricolă (Agricultural Bank), but entered in the custody of the city due to the failure of that bank in the 1990s and its subsequent purchase by the Raiffeisen Bank, to be eventually converted in an office building.[194]
The headquarters of Banca Transilvania, at the intersection of Regele Ferdinand Avenue and Bariţiu Street, is also a large contemporary building and was originally constructed to host the regional offices of Romtelecom, the public phone company, but was later sold to the bank.[195]
Cluj-Napoca is undergoing a period of architectural revitalisation that is set to bring the manner of expansion to the vertical. A financial centre, containing a tower of 15 storeys, is slated for completion in 2010 on Ploieşti Street.[196] Two 35-storey twin towers are projected to be constructed in the Sigma area in Zorilor,[197][198] while the Floreşti area will host a complex of three towers with 32 levels each.[199]
Transport[link]
Cluj-Napoca has a complex system of regional transportation, providing road, air and rail connections to major cities in Romania and Europe. It also features a public transportation system consisting of bus, trolleybus and tram lines.
Cluj-Napoca is an important node in the European road network, being on three different European routes (E60, E81 and E576). At a national level, Cluj-Napoca is located on three different main national roads: DN1, DN1C and DN1F. The Romanian Motorway A3, also known as Transylvania Motorway (Autostrada Transilvania), currently under construction, will link the city with Bucharest and Romania's western border.[200] The 2B section between Câmpia Turzii and Cluj Vest (Gilău) opened in late 2010.[201][202] The Cluj-Napoca Coach Station (Autogara) is used by several private transport companies to provide coach connections from Cluj-Napoca to a large number of locations from all over the country.
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The number of automobiles licensed in Cluj-Napoca is estimated at 175,000.[203] As of 2007, Cluj County ranks sixth nationwide according to the cars sold during that year, with 12,679 units, corresponding to a four percent share. One tenth of these cars were limousines or SUVs.[204] Some 3,300 taxis are also licensed to operate in Cluj-Napoca.[205]
RATUC, the local public transport company, runs an extensive 321 kilometres (199 mi) public transport network within the city using 3 tram lines, 6 trolleybus lines and 21 bus routes.[66] Transport in the Cluj-Napoca metropolitan area is also covered by a number of private bus companies, such as Fany and MV Trans 2007, providing connections to neighboring towns and villages.[206]
The Cluj-Napoca International Airport (CLJ), located 9 kilometres (5.6 mi) to the east of the city centre, is the fourth busiest airport in Romania, after the two Bucharest airports (OTP and BBU) and Timişoara airport.[207]
Situated on the European route E576 (Cluj-Napoca – Dej), the airport is connected to the city centre by the local public transport company, RATUC, bus number 8. The airport serves various direct international destinations across Europe.
Cluj-Napoca Rail Station, located about 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) north of the city centre, is situated on the CFR-Romanian Railways Main Line 300 (Bucharest – Oradea – Romanian Western Border) and on Line 401 (Cluj-Napoca – Dej). CFR provides direct rail connections to all the major Romanian cities and to Budapest. The rail station is very well connected to all parts of the city by the trams, trolleybuses and buses of the local public transport company, RATUC.
The city is also served by two other secondary rail stations, the Little Station (Gara Micǎ), which is technically part of and situated immediately near the main station, and Cluj-Napoca East (Est). There is also a cargo station, Halta "Clujana".
The local transportation company, RATUC, manages a tram line that runs through the city. Planned modernisation will involve the installation of new rail tracks and the separation of the tram route from road traffic. This will bring a number of advantages, including vibration and shock reduction, a substantial noise decrease, long use expectancy and higher transit speed – 60 kilometres per hour (37 mph)-80 kilometres per hour (50 mph).[208] The route will undergo major alteration on Horea Street, between the Chamber of Commerce and the central rail station, a rather problematic area. This dilemma should be solved either with the relocation of the track next to the sidewalk, or through the construction of a suspended tunnel.[209] Another area that will benefit from large-scale changes is "Splaiul Independenţei", where the tracks will be pulled back to the Central Park, so that the roadway can host two lanes. In the Mănăştur area, under the bridge, the tracks will be brought closer, while other major works will executed on the traffic circle on Primăverii Street. Given the development of the metropolitan area, further plans feature the creation of a light rail track between Gilău and Jucu that will use these modernised tracks in the city.[210]
Media and popular culture[link]
Cluj-Napoca is the most important centre for Transylvanian mass media, since it is the headquarters of all regional television networks, newspapers and radio stations. The largest daily newspapers published in Bucharest are usually reissued from Cluj-Napoca in a regional version, covering Transylvanian issues. Such newspapers include România Liberă, Gardianul,[211] Ziarul Financiar, ProSport and Gazeta Sporturilor. Ringier edited a regional version of Evenimentul Zilei in Cluj-Napoca until 2008, when it decided to close this enterprise.[212]
Apart from the regional editions, which are distributed throughout Transylvania, the national newspaper Ziua also runs a local franchise, Ziua de Cluj, that acts as a local daily, available only within city limits. Cluj-Napoca also boasts other newspapers of local interest, like Făclia and Monitorul de Cluj, as well as two free dailies, Informaţia Cluj and Cluj Expres. Clujeanul, the first of a series of local weeklies edited by the media trust CME, is one of the largest newspapers in Transylvania, with an audience of 53,000 readers per edition.[213] This weekly has a daily online version, entitled Clujeanul, ediţie online, updated on a real-time basis. Cluj-Napoca is also the centre of the Romanian Hungarian language press. The city hosts the editorial offices of the two largest newspapers of this kind, Krónika and Szabadság,[214] as well as those of the magazines Erdélyi Napló and Korunk. Săptămâna Clujeană is an economic weekly published in the city, that also issues two magazines on successful local people and companies (Oameni de Succes and Companii de Succes) every year, while Piaţa A-Z is a newspaper for announcements and advertisements distributed throughout Transylvania. Cluj had an active press in the interwar period as well: publications included the Zionist newspaper Új Kelet, the official party organs Keleti Újság (for the Magyar Party) and Patria (for the National Peasants' Party);[215] and the nationalist Conştiinţa Românească and Ţara Noastră, the latter a magazine directed by Octavian Goga.[216] Under Communism, publications included the socio-political and literary magazines Tribuna, Steaua, Utunk, Korunk, Napsugár and Előre as well as the regional Communist party daily organs Făclia and Igazság and the trilingual student magazine Echinox.[217][218]
Among the local television stations in the city, TVR Cluj (public) and One TV (private) broadcast regionally, while the others are restricted to the metropolitan area. Napoca Cable Network is available through cable, and broadcasts local content throughout the day. Other stations work as affiliates of national TV stations, only providing the audience with local reports in addition to the national programming. This situation is mirrored in the radio broadcasting companies: except for Radio Cluj, Radio Impuls and the Hungarian-language Paprika Rádió, all other stations are local affiliates of the national broadcasters. Casa Radio, situated on Donath Street, is one of the modern landmarks of the media and communications industry; it is, however, not the only one: Palatul Telefoanelor ("the telephone palace") is also a major modernist symbol of communications in the city centre.[citation needed]
Magazines published in Cluj-Napoca include HR Journal, a publication discussing human resources issues, J'Adore, a local shopping magazine that is also franchised in Bucharest, Maximum Rock Magazine, dealing with the rock music industry, RDV, a national hunting publication and Cluj-Napoca WWW, an English-language magazine designed for tourists. Cultural and social events as well as all other entertainment sources are the leading subjects of such magazines as Şapte Seri and CJ24FUN.
In the early 20th century, film production in Cluj-Napoca (in those times Kolozsvár), led by Jenő Janovics, was the chief alternative to Budapest.[152] The first film made in the city, in association with the Parisian producer Pathé, was Sárga csikó ("Yellow Foal", 1912), based on a popular "peasant drama". Yellow Foal became the first worldwide Hungarian success, distributed abroad under the title The Secret of the Blind Man: 137 prints were sold internationally and the movie was even screened in Japan.[152]
The first artistically prestigious film in the annals of Hungarian cinematography was also produced on this site, based on a national classic, Bánk bán (1914), a tragedy written by József Katona.[152]
Later, the city was the production site of the 1991 Romanian drama Undeva în Est ("Somewhere in the East"),[219] and the 1995 Hungarian language film A Részleg ("Outpost").[220] Moreover, the Romanian-language film Cartier ("Neighbourhood", 2001) and its sequel Înapoi în cartier ("Back to the Neighbourhood", 2006) both feature a story replete with violence and rude language, behind the blocks in the city's Mănăştur district.[221] This district is also mentioned in the lyrics to the song Înapoi în cartier by La Familia member Puya, featured on the soundtrack of the motion picture.
Documentary and mockumentary productions set in the city include Irshad Ashraf's St. Richard of Austin, a tribute to the American film director Richard Linklater,[222] and Cluj-Napocolonia, a mockumentary imagining a fabulous city of the future.[223]
Education[link]
Higher education has a long tradition in Cluj-Napoca. The Babeş-Bolyai University (UBB) is the largest in the country, with approximately 50,000 students[224] attending various specialisations in Romanian, Hungarian, German and English. Its name commemorates two important Transylvanian figures, the Romanian physician Victor Babeş and the Hungarian mathematician János Bolyai. The university claims roots as far back as 1581, when a Jesuit college opened in Cluj, but it was in 1872 that emperor Franz Joseph founded the University of Cluj, later renamed the Franz Joseph University (József Ferenc Tudományegyetem).[225] During 1919, immediately after the end of World War I, the university was moved to Budapest, where it stayed until 1921, after which it was moved to the Hungarian city of Szeged. Briefly, it returned to Cluj in the first half of the 1940s, when the city came back under Hungarian administration, but it was again relocated in Szeged, following the reincorporation of Cluj into Romanian territory. The Romanian branch acquired the name Babeş; a Hungarian university, Bolyai, was established in 1945, and the two were merged in 1959. The city also hosts nine other universities, among them the Technical University, the Iuliu Haţieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy, the USAMV, the University of Arts and Design, the Gheorghe Dima Music Academy and other private universities and educational institutes.
The first mention of public education provided in the city dates back to 1409, namely the caption "Caspar notarius et rector scholarum" ("Caspar secretary and director of schools").[226] Concomitantly, a Catholic school founded during the 14th century also functioned in the city.[226] Today close to 150 pre-university educational institutions operate in Cluj-Napoca, including 62 kindergartens, 30 primary schools and 45 high schools.[66] Their activity is supervised by the County Board for Education. Most schools are taught in Romanian; nonetheless, there are some Hungarian-language schools (Báthory István, Apáczai Csere János and Brassai Sámuel high schools), as well as mixed schools—e.g.George Coşbuc and Onisifor Ghibu high schools with Romanian/German classes and Romanian/Hungarian classes, respectively.[227] Statistics show that 18,208 students were enrolled in the city's secondary school system during the 1993-94 school year, while a further 7,660 attended one of the 18 professional schools.[228] In the same year, another 37,111 pupils and 9,711 children were registered for primary and pre-school, respectively.[228]
Sports[link]
Football (soccer) in the city features four clubs playing in the leagues organised by the Romanian Football Federation, including two teams participating in Liga 1—formerly Divizia A[229][230]—the top division in the Romanian football association. CFR 1907 Cluj-Napoca (founded in 1907) is the oldest established team in the Romanian Championship.[231] During the 2007–2008 season, it won the Romanian Championship[232][233] and the Romanian Cup[234] for the first time in its history. The 2009–2010 season was the second season in which CFR Cluj won both the Liga I and the Romanian Cup. The "U" Cluj football team—also playing in the Liga I—was founded in 1919, and its greatest success ever was the 1965 Romanian Cup.[235] The city is also represented in the third league, through CS Sănătatea Cluj-Napoca, founded in 1986. This team, which has the Victoria Someşeni Stadium as its home ground, reached the ⅛ finals of the Romanian Cup during the 2007–2008 season, its best performance.[236] Clujana Cluj-Napoca is the local women's soccer team, established in 2001 by Babeş-Bolyai University.
The new Cluj Arena Stadium, home ground for "U" Cluj, is the largest in Cluj-Napoca (capacity 30,201); and is ranked as an UEFA Elite stadium. The next largest stadium (23,500 seats) is the Dr. Constantin Rădulescu Stadium, home field of the CFR Cluj football team, located in Gruia. This stadium has undergone major refurbishment, featuring up-to-date lighting for night games and automated lawn irrigation, and is due to undergo still further modernisation with the construction of new seating.[237]
"Universitatea" club also incorporates teams in sports such as rugby union, basketball (with the successful men's basketball team, U Mobitelco), handball and volleyball. The city also features three water polo teams, as recognised by the Romanian Water Polo Federation: CSS Viitorul, CS Voinţa and Poli CSM.[238] Facilities for such sports are located in the vicinity of the stadium, including the Sala Sporturilor Horia Demian, a multi-functional hall designed for sports like handball, basketball or volleyball, the Politehnica Swimming Complex, which includes indoor and open-air swimming pools, as well as the Iuliu Haţieganu Park – with tennis and track facilities and a new swimming pool under construction. Cluj-Napoca regularly organises national championships in different sports because of this large concentration of facilities.
In the automotive field, Cluj-Napoca hosts two stages in the National Rally Championship. Raliul Clujului is held in June;[239] the Avram Iancu Rally, held in September, has been officially organised since 1975, though there were several years when it was not held.[240] The latter rally begins in Cipariu Square and runs across the surroundings of the city.[241]
Amateur athletes are also active in Cluj-Napoca, with swimming pools, miniature golf courses, tennis courts, paintball arenas and bikeways available,[242] as well as skiing, bobsledding, skating, caving, hiking, hunting, fishing and extreme sports in the vicinity.[243] April 2011 saw the first annual edition of the Cluj International Marathon, a competition that takes place in the city center's streets.[244]
International relations[link]
Twin towns — Sister cities[link]
Cluj-Napoca is twinned with:[245]
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Footnotes[link]
a.^ The engraving, dating back to 1617, was executed by Georg Houfnagel after the painting of Egidius van der Rye (the original was done in the workshop of Braun and Hagenberg).
b.^ After Transylvania united with Romania in 1918–1920, an exodus of Hungarian inhabitants occurred. Also, the city grew and many people moved in from the surrounding area and Cluj County as a whole, populated largely by Romanians.
c.^ In August 1940, as the second Vienna Award transferred the northern half of Transylvania to Hungary, an exile of Romanian inhabitants began.
d.^ The 1941 Hungarian census is considered unreliable by most historians. In 1941, Cluj had 16,763 Jews. They were forced into ghettos in 1944 by the Hungarian authorities and deported to Auschwitz in May–June 1944.
e.^ In the 1960s a determined policy of Industrialisation was initiated. Many people from the surrounding rural areas (largely Romanian) were moved into the city. As a consequence, for the first time in its long history, Cluj had a Romanian majority.
Notes[link]
- ^ "Portretul unui oraş" (in Romanian). Clujeanul. 2007-09-21. http://old.clujeanul.ro/cotidian/nocache/articol/Time_out/Portretul_unui_oras.html. Retrieved 2008-10-09.
- ^ "A kincses város" (in Hungarian). UFI. 2004-12. http://www.ufi.hu/index.php?site=cikkr&c0id=167. Retrieved 2008-10-09.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j "Comunicat de presă privind rezultatele provizorii ale Recensământului Populaţiei şi Locuinţelor – 2011". Cluj County Regional Statistics Directorate. 2012-02-02. http://www.cluj.insse.ro/cmscluj/files%5Cdeclaratii%5CComunicat%20CLUJ%20-%20DATE%20PROVIZORII%20RPL%202011.pdf. Retrieved 2012-02-14.
- ^ "Cum s-a schimbat ierarhia marilor oraşe din ţară. Au mai rămas doar două oraşe de provincie cu populaţia de peste 300.000 de locuitori" (in Romanian). Hotnews.ro. 2012-02-06. http://www.hotnews.ro/stiri-esential-11436960-harta-interactiva-cum-schimbat-ierarhia-marilor-orase-din-tara-mai-ramas-doar-doua-orase-provincie-populatia-peste-300-000-locuitori.htm. Retrieved 2012-02-14.
- ^ a b c d "Municipiul Cluj-Napoca (data based on the 2002 census)" (in Romanian). Fundaţia Jakabffy Elemér. http://recensamant.referinte.transindex.ro/?pg=3&id=819. Retrieved 2008-03-12.
- ^ a b "Zona Metropolitana Urbana" (in Romanian). CJ Cluj. http://www.cjcluj.ro/zona-metropolitana-urbana/. Retrieved May 25, 2009.
- ^ a b c "Zona Metropolitană Urbană şi Strategii de Dezvoltare a Zonei Metropolitane Cluj-Napoca" (in Romanian). Cluj County Council. http://www.cjcluj.ro/zona-metropolitana-urbana/. Retrieved 2008-03-12.
- ^ a b c "Asociaţia Metropolitană e "la cheie". Mai trebuie banii" (in Romanian). Ziua de Cluj. 2009-01-09. http://www.ziuadecj.ro/action/article?ID=20381. Retrieved 2009-02-11.
- ^ a b c d e "Wanted: clujeanul verde" (in Romanian). Foaia Transilvană. 2008-03-06. http://www.ftr.ro/wanted-clujeanul-verde-2898.php. Retrieved 2008-05-12.
- ^ "Catedrala "Sf. Mihail"" (in Romanian). Clujonline.com. http://www.clujonline.com/ro/catedrala_sf_mihail.htm. Retrieved 2008-03-12.
- ^ "Comunele din jurul Clujului se transformă în cartiere" (in Romanian). Ziua de Cluj. 2007-10-29. Archived from the original on March 21, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080321124000/http://www.ziuadecj.ro/action/article;jsessionid=F9FA41C0734C312C8327DDCC67723E9A?ID=4488. Retrieved 2008-03-12.
- ^ a b c d "Cluj: Buzz grips university town". Financial Times. 2008-03-06. http://www.ft.com/cms/s/97363fb4-ea07-11dc-b3c9-0000779fd2ac.html. Retrieved 2008-03-13.
- ^ "Five alive - New regions - Five territories to watch". Monocle. Issue 09, Volume 01, December 2007. http://www.monocle.com/sections/affairs/Magazine-Articles/Five-alive--New-regions/. Retrieved 2008-03-12.
- ^ Alexandra Groza (2008-01-08). "Presa britanică: "Clujul, campion mondial la dezvoltare"" (in Romanian). Clujeanul. http://www.clujeanul.ro/cluj/presa-britanica-clujul-campion-mondial-la-dezvoltare-2327155. Retrieved 2008-03-12.
- ^ a b "Romania Proving Popular As Software Outsourcing Destination". InformationWeek. 2008-02-04. http://www.informationweek.com/showArticle.jhtml;jsessionid=WRL0GCTCWCB2AQSNDLPCKHSCJUNN2JVN?articleID=206103523&queryText=cluj. Retrieved 2008-03-12.
- ^ a b "O istorie inedită a Clujului - Cetatea coloniştilor saşi" (in Romanian). ClujNet.com. Archived from the original on January 30, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080130171551/http://clujnet.com/romana/001_cluj_napoca/istorie/03-colonistii_sasi.htm. Retrieved 2008-03-16.
- ^ a b c d e f g Lazarovici et al. 1997, p.32 (3.1 De la Napoca romană la Clujul medieval)
- ^ a b Gaal, György (2000-07-19). "Kolozsvári kronológia - Kolozsvár kétezer esztendeje dátumokban" (in Hungarian). Szabadság. http://www.szabadsag.ro/archivum/2000/0sep-19.htm. Retrieved 2008-03-15. [dead link]
- ^ a b Asztalos, Lajos (2003-08-04). "Kolozsvár neve" (in Hungarian). Szabadság. http://www.szabadsag.ro/archivum/2003/08/3aug-04.htm. Retrieved 2008-03-15. [dead link]
- ^ a b Szabó, Attila m.. "Dicţionar de localităţi din Transilvania" (in Romanian). http://dictionar.referinte.transindex.ro/index.php3?action=betu&betu=k&kezd=60&co=nemet. Retrieved 2008-03-15. [dead link]
- ^ Herb, Guntram Henrik; David H. Kaplan (1999). "Transylvania:Hungarian, Romanian, or Neither?". Nested Identities: Nationalism, Territory, and Scale. George W. White. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 275. ISBN 0-8476-8467-9. http://books.google.com/?id=ikVCJQIJsNoC&pg=PA267&dq=John+Hunyadi+Transylvania. Retrieved 2008-05-26.
- ^ a b "Cluj-Napoca. Istoric" (in Romanian). Clujonline.com. http://www.clujonline.com/ro/istoric.htm. Retrieved 2008-03-14.
- ^ a b Lukács 2005, p.14
- ^ Bunbury 1879, p. 516.
- ^ a b Lazarovici et. al. 1997, pp. 202-3 (6.2 Cluj in the Old and Ancient Epochs)
- ^ Lazarovici et al. 1997, p. 17 (2.7 Napoca romană)
- ^ Brubaker et al. 2006, p.89
- ^ Alicu 2003, p.9
- ^ Madgearu, Alexandru (2001). Românii în opera Notarului Anonim. Cluj-Napoca: Centrul de Studii Transilvane, Fundația Culturală Română. ISBN 973-577-249-3.
- ^ a b Lazarovici et al. 1997, p. 204 (6.3 Medieval Cluj)
- ^ Brubaker et al. 2006, pp.89-90
- ^ a b c Lazarovici et al. 1997, p.38 (3.1 De la Napoca romană la Clujul medieval)
- ^ a b c d Brubaker et al. 2006, pp. 90-1
- ^ a b c d e Lazarovici et al. 1997, p. 205 (6.3 Medieval Cluj)
- ^ Martâniuc, Cristina. "Probleme actuale ale calităţii de subiect de drept internaţional public contemporan" (in Romanian) (PDF). CNAA (Republic of Moldova). Archived from the original on 2007-01-08. http://web.archive.org/web/20070108120718/http://www.cnaa.acad.md/files/theses/2007/5770/cristina_martiniuc_thesis.pdf. Retrieved 2008-03-17. "În istoria poporului român, o uniune personală a fost creată în anul 1600 prin unirea politică a celor trei ţări Româneşti – Transilvania, Moldova şi Ţara Românească – sub un singur domnitor: Mihai Vodă Viteazul (In the history of the Romanian people, a personal union was created in 1600 with the political union of the three Romanian countries - Transylvania, Moldova and Wallachia - under a single ruler: Michael the Brave)"
- ^ Ciorănescu, George (1976-09-01) (PDF). Michael the Brave - Evaluations and Revaluations of the Walachian Prince. Radio Free Europe Research: RAD Background Report/191. Archived from the original on April 8, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080408202135/http://www.osa.ceu.hu/files/holdings/300/8/3/pdf/52-4-102.pdf. Retrieved 2008-03-15.
- ^ "Treaty of Carlowitz". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9020364/Treaty-of-Carlowitz. Retrieved 2008-03-14.
- ^ a b Brubaker et al. 2006, p.91
- ^ Lazarovici et al. 1997, pp.42,44,68 (3.1 De la Napoca romană la Clujul medieval; 4.1 Centru al mişcării naţionale)
- ^ a b Lazarovici et al. 1997, p.206 (6.4 Cluj in Modern Times)
- ^ "Bem's Campaign in Transylvania; Revolutionary Consolidation and Its Contradictions". MEK (Hungarian Electronic Library). http://mek.oszk.hu/03400/03407/html/370.html. Retrieved 2008-03-14.
- ^ a b Lazarovici et al. 1997, pp.74-5 (6.4 Centru al mişcării naţionale)
- ^ a b "Relaţia dintre elite şi popor în perioada memorandistă" (in Romanian) (PDF). Cluj: Centrul de Resurse pentru Diversitate Etnoculturală. http://www.edrc.ro/docs/docs/transilvania/198-254.pdf. Retrieved 2008-03-15.
- ^ Ambrus Miskolczy (2001). "A modern román nemzet a "régi" Magyarországon" (in Hungarian). Rubicon. http://adatbank.transindex.ro/html/alcim_pdf2813.pdf. Retrieved 2010-07-29.
- ^ Georges Castellan (1989). A history of the Romanians. Boulder: East European Monographs. p. 148. ISBN 978-0-88033-154-8.
- ^ a b Lazarovici et. al. 1997, p. 207 (6.4 Cluj in Modern Times)
- ^ Ernest A. Rockwell: Trianon Politics, 1994–1995, thesis, Central Missouri State University, 1995
- ^ a b Brubaker et al. 2006, pp. 100-1
- ^ a b c d e Lazarovici et al. 1997, pp. 140-1 (5.2 Dictatul de la Viena - 30 august 1940)
- ^ Sulzberger, C.L. (1940-07-12). "Hungarians' Army Marches into Cluj; Receives a Frenzied Welcome From Magyars in Former Rumanian Territory But Atmosphere Is Tense Officers of Occupying Troops Charge That 12 Were Slain by Retreating Force". The New York Times. http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F30811FC3454107A93C0A81782D85F448485F9&scp=3&sq=cluj&st=p. Retrieved 2008-03-15.
- ^ Peter Kenez (May 2006). Hungary from the Nazis to the Soviets - the establishment of the Communist regime in Hungary, 1944–1948. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-85766-X. http://assets.cambridge.org/052185/766X/excerpt/052185766X_excerpt.htm. Retrieved 2008-03-22.
- ^ Evans, Richard J. (2001). Lying About Hitler: History, Holocaust, and the David Irving Trial. London: Basic Books. p. 95. ISBN 0-465-02153-0.
- ^ "Russians Smash on; Memel Reported Cut Off as New Drive Reaches German Frontier Szeged, Cluj Seized Soviet Tanks Cross Tisza, Menacing Budapest, Berlin Admits Russians Smash on Near East Prussia". The New York Times. 1944-10-12. http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F50910FF3555157B93C0A8178BD95F408485F9&scp=2&sq=cluj&st=p. Retrieved 2008-03-15.
- ^ Lazarovici et al. 1997, p. 213 (6.5 Cluj in Modern Times)
- ^ Lazarovici et al. 1997, p. 153 (5.3 Perioada totalitarismului)
- ^ Johanna Granville, "If Hope is Sin, Then We Are All Guilty: Romanian Students’ Reactions to the Hungarian Revolution and Soviet Intervention, 1956-1958", Carl Beck Paper, no. 1905 (April 2008): 1-78.
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- ^ Zaharia, Paul-Daniel (2008-05-07). "CFR Cluj crowned in Romania". UEFA.com. http://www.uefa.com/footballeurope/news/kind=2/newsid=692949.html. Retrieved 2008-05-08.
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References[link]
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For other people named Michael Jackson, see Michael Jackson (disambiguation).
| Michael Jackson | |
|---|---|
 Jackson at the White House in 1984 |
|
| Background information | |
| Birth name | Michael Joseph Jackson[1] |
| Also known as | King of Pop, MJ |
| Born | (1958-08-29)August 29, 1958 Gary, Indiana, U.S. |
| Died | June 25, 2009(2009-06-25) (aged 50) Los Angeles, California, U.S. |
| Genres | R&B, pop, rock, soul, dance, funk, disco, new jack swing |
| Occupations | Singer-songwriter, musician, composer, dancer, choreographer, record producer, actor, businessman, philanthropist |
| Instruments | Vocals |
| Years active | 1964–2009 |
| Labels | Motown, Epic, Legacy, MJJ Productions |
| Associated acts |
 Michael Jackson's Signature |
| Website | www.michaeljackson.com |
Michael Joseph Jackson[1] (August 29, 1958 – June 25, 2009) was an American recording artist, entertainer, and businessman. Often referred to as the King of Pop, or by his initials MJ,[2] Jackson is recognized as the most successful entertainer of all time by Guinness World Records. His contribution to music, dance, and fashion, along with a much-publicized personal life, made him a global figure in popular culture for over four decades. The seventh child of the Jackson family, he debuted on the professional music scene along with his brothers as a member of The Jackson 5 in 1964, and began his solo career in 1971.
In the early 1980s, Jackson became a dominant figure in popular music. The music videos for his songs, including those of "Beat It", "Billie Jean", and "Thriller", were credited with transforming the medium into an art form and a promotional tool, and the popularity of these videos helped to bring the relatively new television channel MTV to fame. Videos such as "Black or White" and "Scream" made him a staple on MTV in the 1990s. Through stage performances and music videos, Jackson popularized a number of complicated dance techniques, such as the robot and the moonwalk, to which he gave the name. His distinctive musical sound and vocal style influenced numerous hip hop, post-disco, contemporary R&B, pop and rock artists.
Jackson's 1982 album Thriller is the best-selling album of all time. His other records, including Off the Wall (1979), Bad (1987), Dangerous (1991), and HIStory (1995), also rank among the world's best-selling. Jackson is one of the few artists to have been inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame twice. He was also inducted into the Dance Hall of Fame as the first (and currently only) dancer from the world of pop and rock 'n' roll. Some of his other achievements include multiple Guinness World Records; 13 Grammy Awards (as well as the Grammy Legend Award and the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award); 26 American Music Awards (more than any other artist, including the "Artist of the Century"); 13 number-one singles in the United States in his solo career (more than any other male artist in the Hot 100 era); and the estimated sale of over 750 million records worldwide. Jackson won hundreds of awards, which made him the most-awarded recording artist in the history of popular music.[3] He was also one of the world's most prominent humanitarians and philanthropists; personally, and through his Heal the World Foundation, he donated more than $300 million in charity, and held the Guinness World Record for having supported the most charities out of any pop star.[4][5]
Aspects of Jackson's personal life, including his changing appearance, personal relationships, and behavior, generated controversy. In 1993, he was accused of child sexual abuse, but the case was settled out of court and no formal charges were brought. In 2005, he was tried and acquitted of further child sexual abuse allegations and several other charges after the jury found him not guilty on all counts. While preparing for his concert series titled This Is It, Jackson died of acute propofol and benzodiazepine intoxication on June 25, 2009, after suffering from cardiac arrest. The Los Angeles County Coroner ruled his death a homicide, and his personal physician was convicted of involuntary manslaughter. Jackson's death triggered a global outpouring of grief, and as many as one billion people around the world reportedly watched his public memorial service on live television. In March 2010, Sony Music Entertainment signed a $250 million deal with Jackson's estate to retain distribution rights to his recordings until 2017, and to release seven posthumous albums over the decade following his death.[6]
Contents
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Life and career[link]
Early life and The Jackson 5 (1958–1975)[link]
Michael Jackson was born on August 29, 1958, the eighth of ten children in an African American working-class family who lived in a small 3-room house in Gary, Indiana,[7] an industrial city near Chicago. His mother, Katherine Esther Scruse, was a devout Jehovah's Witness, and his father, Joseph Walter "Joe" Jackson, was a steel mill worker who performed with an R&B band called The Falcons. Jackson had three sisters: Rebbie, La Toya, and Janet, and five brothers: Jackie, Tito, Jermaine, Marlon, and Randy.[8] A sixth brother, Brandon, died shortly after birth.[9]
Jackson had a troubled relationship with his father, Joe.[10][11][12] Joseph acknowledged in 2003 that he regularly whipped Jackson as a boy.[12] Jackson stated that he was physically and emotionally abused during incessant rehearsals, though he also credited his father's strict discipline with playing a large role in his success.[10] Jackson first spoke openly about his childhood abuse in an interview with Oprah Winfrey, broadcast in February 1993. He admitted that he had often cried from loneliness and he would vomit on the sight of his father. Jackson's father was also said to have verbally abused Jackson, saying that he had a fat nose on numerous occasions.[13] In fact, Michael Jackson's deep dissatisfaction with his appearance, his nightmares and chronic sleep problems, his tendency to remain hyper-compliant especially with his father, and to remain child-like throughout his adult life are in many ways consistent with the effects of this chronic maltreatment he endured as a young child.[14]
In an interview with Martin Bashir, later included in the 2003 broadcast of Living with Michael Jackson, Jackson acknowledged that his father hurt him when he was a child, but was nonetheless a "genius", as he admitted his father's strict discipline played a huge role in his success. When Bashir dismissed the positive remark and continued asking about beatings, Jackson put his hand over his face and objected to the questions. He recalled that Joseph sat in a chair with a belt in his hand as he and his siblings rehearsed, and that "if you didn't do it the right way, he would tear you up, really get you".[15][16]
In 1964, Michael and Marlon joined the Jackson Brothers—a band formed by brothers Jackie, Tito, and Jermaine—as backup musicians playing congas and tambourine. Jackson later began performing backup vocals and dancing. When he was eight, Jackson began sharing the lead vocals with his older brother Jermaine, and the group's name was changed to The Jackson 5.[8] The band toured the Midwest extensively from 1966 to 1968, frequently performing at a string of black clubs known as the "chitlin' circuit", where they often opened stripteases and other adult acts. In 1966, they won a major local talent show with renditions of Motown hits and James Brown's "I Got You (I Feel Good)", led by Michael.[17]
The Jackson 5 recorded several songs, including "Big Boy", for the local record label Steeltown in 1967, before signing with Motown Records in 1968.[8] Rolling Stone magazine later described the young Michael as "a prodigy" with "overwhelming musical gifts," writing that he "quickly emerged as the main draw and lead singer."[18] The group set a chart record when its first four singles ("I Want You Back", "ABC", "The Love You Save", and "I'll Be There") peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot 100.[8] Between 1972 and 1975, Michael released four solo studio albums with Motown, among them Got to Be There and Ben, released as part of the Jackson 5 franchise, and producing successful singles such as "Got to Be There", "Ben", and a remake of Bobby Day's "Rockin' Robin".
The Jackson 5 "became a cutting-edge example of black crossover artists... five working-class black boys with afros and bell bottoms, and they really didn't have to trade any of that stuff in order to become mainstream stars."[19]
The group's sales began declining in 1973, and the band members chafed under Motown's strict refusal to allow them creative control or input. Although they scored several top 40 hits, including the top 5 disco single "Dancing Machine" and the top 20 hit "I Am Love", the Jackson 5 left Motown in 1975.[20]
[edit] Move to Epic and Off the Wall (1975–81)
In June 1975, the Jackson 5 signed with Epic Records, a subsidiary of CBS Records[20] and renamed themselves the Jacksons. Younger brother Randy formally joined the band around this time, while Jermaine left to pursue a solo career.[21] They continued to tour internationally, releasing six more albums between 1976 and 1984, during which Michael was the lead songwriter, writing hits such as "Shake Your Body (Down to the Ground)", "This Place Hotel", and "Can You Feel It".[17] In 1978, he starred as the scarecrow in the musical, The Wiz, a box-office disaster. It was here that he teamed up with Quincy Jones, who was arranging the film's musical score. Jones agreed to produce Jackson's next solo album, Off the Wall.[22] In 1979, Jackson broke his nose during a complex dance routine. His subsequent rhinoplasty was not a complete success; he complained of breathing difficulties that would affect his career. He was referred to Dr. Steven Hoefflin, who performed Jackson's second rhinoplasty and subsequent operations.[23]
Jones and Jackson produced the Off the Wall album together. Songwriters for the album included Jackson, Rod Temperton, Stevie Wonder, and Paul McCartney. Released in 1979, it was the first solo album to generate four U.S. top 10 hits, including the chart-topping singles "Don't Stop 'til You Get Enough" and "Rock with You".[24][25] It reached number three on the Billboard 200 and eventually sold over 20 million copies worldwide.[26] In 1980, Jackson won three awards at the American Music Awards for his solo efforts: Favorite Soul/R&B Album, Favorite Soul/R&B Male Artist, and Favorite Soul/R&B Single for "Don't Stop 'Til You Get Enough".[27][28] That year, he also won Billboard Year-End for Top Black Artist and Top Black Album and a Grammy Award for Best Male R&B Vocal Performance, also for "Don't Stop 'Til You Get Enough".[24] Jackson again won at the American Music Awards in 1981 for Favorite Soul/R&B Album and Favorite Soul/R&B Male Artist.[29] Despite its commercial success, Jackson felt Off the Wall should have made a much bigger impact, and was determined to exceed expectations with his next release.[30] In 1980, he secured the highest royalty rate in the music industry: 37 percent of wholesale album profit.[31]
[edit] Thriller and Motown 25: Yesterday, Today, Forever (1982–83)
In 1982, Jackson contributed the song "Someone In the Dark" to the storybook for the film E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial; the record won a Grammy for Best Recording for Children in 1984. In the same year he won another seven Grammys and eight American Music Awards (including the Award of Merit, the youngest artist to win it), making him the most awarded in one night for both award shows.[32][33] These awards were thanks to the Thriller album, released in late 1982, which was 1983's best-selling album worldwide[34][35] and became the best-selling album of all time in the United States,[36] as well as the best-selling album of all time worldwide, selling an estimated 110 million copies so far.[37] The album topped the Billboard 200 chart for 37 weeks and was in the top 10 of the 200 for 80 consecutive weeks. It was the first album to have seven Billboard Hot 100 top 10 singles, including "Billie Jean", "Beat It", and "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin'".[38] Thriller was certified for 29 million shipments by the RIAA, giving it Double Diamond status in the United States. The album won also another Grammy for Best Engineered Recording – Non Classical in 1984, awarding Bruce Swedien for his work.[39] Jackson's attorney John Branca noted that Jackson had the highest royalty rate in the music industry at that point: approximately $2 for every album sold. He was also making record-breaking profits from sales of his recordings. The videocassette of the documentary The Making of Michael Jackson's Thriller sold over 350,000 copies in a few months. The era saw the arrival of novelties like dolls modeled after Michael Jackson, which appeared in stores in May 1984 at a price of $12.[40] Biographer J. Randy Taraborrelli writes that, "Thriller stopped selling like a leisure item—like a magazine, a toy, tickets to a hit movie—and started selling like a household staple."[41] In 1985, The Making of Michael Jackson's Thriller won a Grammy for Best Music Video, Longform.[32] In December 2009, the music video for "Thriller" was selected for the National Film Registry by the Library of Congress, "Thriller" is the first music video ever to be inducted.[42][43][44]
Time described Jackson's influence at that point as "Star of records, radio, rock video. A one-man rescue team for the music business. A songwriter who sets the beat for a decade. A dancer with the fanciest feet on the street. A singer who cuts across all boundaries of taste and style and color too".[40] The New York Times wrote that, "in the world of pop music, there is Michael Jackson and there is everybody else".[45]
On March 25th 1983, Michael Jackson reunited with his brothers for a legendary live performance which was taped for a Motown 25: Yesterday, Today, Forever television special. The show aired on May 16, 1983, to an audience of 47 million viewers, and featured the Jacksons and a number of other Motown stars. It is best remembered for Jackson's solo performance of "Billie Jean". Wearing a distinctive black sequin jacket and golf glove decorated with rhinestones, he debuted his signature dance move, the moonwalk, which former Soul Train dancer and Shalamar member Jeffrey Daniel had taught him three years before. The Jacksons' performance drew comparisons to Elvis Presley's and The Beatles' appearances on The Ed Sullivan Show.[46] Anna Kisselgoff of The New York Times later wrote, "The moonwalk that he made famous is an apt metaphor for his dance style. How does he do it? As a technician, he is a great illusionist, a genuine mime. His ability to keep one leg straight as he glides while the other bends and seems to walk requires perfect timing."[47]
Pepsi, "We Are the World" and business career (1984–85)[link]
On January 27, 1984, Michael and other members of the Jacksons filmed a Pepsi Cola commercial, overseen by executive Phil Dusenberry,[48] from ad agency BBDO and Pepsi's Worldwide Creative Director, Alan Pottasch at the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles. In front of a full house of fans during a simulated concert, pyrotechnics accidentally set Jackson's hair on fire. He suffered second-degree burns to his scalp. Jackson underwent treatment to hide the scars on his scalp, and he also had his third rhinoplasty shortly thereafter.[23] Jackson never recovered from this injury. Pepsi settled out of court, and Jackson donated his $1.5 million settlement to the Brotman Medical Center in Culver City, California, which now has a "Michael Jackson Burn Center" in honor of his donation.[49] Dusenberry later recounted the episode in his memoir, Then We Set His Hair on Fire: Insights and Accidents from a Hall of Fame Career in Advertising.
On May 14, 1984, Jackson was invited to the White House to receive an award from President Ronald Reagan for his support of charities that helped people overcome alcohol and drug abuse.[50] Jackson won eight awards during the Grammys that year. Unlike later albums, Thriller did not have an official tour to promote it, but the 1984 Victory Tour, headlined by The Jacksons, showcased much of Jackson's new solo material to more than two million Americans. He donated all the funds (around $8 million) raised from the Victory Tour to charity.[51] He also co-wrote the charity single "We Are the World" in 1985 with Lionel Richie, which was released worldwide to aid the poor in the U.S. and Africa. It became one of the best-selling singles of all time, with nearly 30 million copies sold and millions of dollars donated to famine relief. In 1986, "We Are the World" won four Grammys (one for Jackson for Song of the Year). American Music Award directors removed the charity song from the competition because they felt it would be inappropriate, but recognized it with two special honors (one for the creation of the song and one for the USA for Africa idea). They are the only AMAs that Jackson won as non-solo artist.[52][53][54][55]
In 1984, ATV Music Publishing, which had the copyrights to nearly 4000 songs, including the Northern Songs catalog that contained the majority of the Lennon–McCartney compositions recorded by The Beatles, was put up for sale by Robert Holmes à Court.[56] Jackson had become interested in owning music catalogs after working with Paul McCartney in the early 1980s: Jackson had learned McCartney made approximately $40 million a year from other people's songs.[57] In 1981,[58] McCartney was offered the ATV music catalog for £20 million ($40 million).[57][59] According to McCartney, he contacted Yoko Ono about making a joint purchase by splitting the cost equally at £10 million each, but Ono thought they could buy it for £5 million each.[57][59] When they were unable to make the joint purchase, McCartney let the offer fall through, not wanting to be the sole owner of the Beatles' songs.[58][59]
According to a negotiator for Holmes à Court in the 1984 sale, "We had given Paul McCartney first right of refusal but Paul didn't want it at that time."[60] Also, an attorney for McCartney assured Jackson's attorney, John Branca, that McCartney was not interested in bidding: McCartney reportedly said "It's too pricey".[57][58] But there were several other companies and investors bidding. In September 1984, Jackson was first informed about the sale by Branca and sent a bid of $46 million on November 20, 1984.[56] Jackson's agents thought they had a deal several times, but encountered new bidders or new areas of debate.[56] In May 1985, Jackson's team walked away from talks after having spent over $1 million on four months of due diligence and on the negotiations.[56]
In June 1985, Jackson and Branca learned that Charles Koppelman's and Marty Bandier's The Entertainment Co. had made a tentative agreement with Holmes à Court to buy ATV Music for $50 million.[56] But in early August, Holmes à Court's team contacted Jackson and talks resumed. Jackson raised his bid to $47.5 million and it was accepted because he could close the deal more quickly, having already completed due diligence of ATV Music.[56] He also agreed to visit Holmes à Court in Australia, where he would appear on the Channel Seven Perth Telethon.[56][60] Jackson's purchase of ATV Music was finalized August 10, 1985.[56]
[edit] Appearance, tabloids, Bad, films, autobiography and Neverland (1986–90)
See also: Michael Jackson's health and appearance
File:Michael Jackson King of Pop 1988.jpg
Jackson two years after he was diagnosed with vitiligo, here in the early stages of the disease
Jackson's skin had been a medium-brown color for the entire duration of his youth, but starting in the mid 1980s, it gradually grew paler. The change gained widespread media coverage, including rumors that he might be bleaching his skin.[61] According to J. Randy Taraborrelli's biography, in 1986, Jackson was diagnosed with vitiligo and lupus; the vitiligo partially lightened his skin, and the lupus was in remission; both illnesses made him sensitive to sunlight. The treatments he used for his condition further lightened his skin tone, and, with the application of pancake makeup to even out blotches, he could appear very pale.[62] Jackson was also diagnosed with vitiligo in his autopsy.[63] By the mid 1990s several surgeons speculated that he had undergone various nasal surgeries, a forehead lift, thinned lips, and cheekbone surgery—although Jackson denied this and insisted that he only had surgery on his nose.[64] Jackson claimed that he had only two rhinoplasties and no other surgery on his face, although at one point he mentioned having a dimple created in his chin.[65] Jackson lost weight in the early 1980s because of a change in diet and a desire for "a dancer's body".[65] Witnesses reported that he was often dizzy and speculated that he was suffering from anorexia nervosa; periods of weight loss would become a recurring problem later in life.[66]
During the course of his treatment, Jackson made two close friends: his dermatologist, Dr. Arnold Klein, and Klein's nurse Debbie Rowe. Rowe eventually became Jackson's second wife and the mother of his two eldest children. Long before becoming romantically involved with her, Jackson relied heavily on Rowe for emotional support. He also relied heavily on Klein, for medical and business advice.[67]
Jackson became the subject of increasingly sensational reports. In 1986, the tabloids ran a story claiming that Jackson slept in a hyperbaric oxygen chamber to slow the aging process; he was pictured lying down in a glass box. Although the claim was untrue, according to tabloid reports that are widely cited, Jackson had disseminated the fabricated story himself.[68][69] When Jackson bought a chimpanzee called Bubbles from a laboratory, he was reported to be increasingly detached from reality.[70] It was reported that Jackson had offered to buy the bones of Joseph Merrick (the "elephant man") and although untrue, Jackson did not deny the story.[68][69] Although initially he saw these stories as opportunities for publicity, he stopped leaking untruths to the press as they became more sensational. Consequently the media began making up their own stories.[69][71][72] These reports became embedded in the public consciousness, inspiring the nickname "Wacko Jacko", which Jackson came to despise.[73] Responding to the gossip, Jackson remarked to Taraborrelli:
Why not just tell people I'm an alien from Mars? Tell them I eat live chickens and do a voodoo dance at midnight. They'll believe anything you say, because you're a reporter. But if I, Michael Jackson, were to say, "I'm an alien from Mars and I eat live chickens and do a voodoo dance at midnight," people would say, "Oh, man, that Michael Jackson is nuts. He's cracked up. You can't believe a single word that comes out of his mouth."[74]
Jackson collaborated with George Lucas and Francis Ford Coppola on the 17-minute 3-D film Captain EO, which debuted in September 1986 at both the original Disneyland and at EPCOT in Florida, and in March 1987 at Tokyo Disneyland. The $30 million movie was a popular attraction at all three parks. A Captain EO attraction was later featured at Euro Disneyland after that park opened in 1992. All four parks' Captain EO installations stayed open well into the 1990s: Paris' installation was the last one to close, in 1998.[75] The attraction would later return to Disneyland in 2010 after Jackson's death.[76]
In 1987, Jackson disassociated himself from the Jehovah's Witnesses, in response to their disapproval of the Thriller video.[77] With the industry expecting another major hit, Jackson's first album in five years, Bad (1987), was highly anticipated.[78] It did not top Thriller as a commercial or artistic triumph, but Bad was still a substantial success in its own right.
The Bad album spawned seven hit singles in the U.S., five of which ("I Just Can't Stop Loving You", "Bad", "The Way You Make Me Feel", "Man in the Mirror" and "Dirty Diana") reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100 charts. This was a record for most number one Hot 100 singles from any one album, including Thriller.[79] Although the title track's video was arguably derivative of the video for the earlier single "Beat It", the "Bad" video still proved to be one of Jackson's iconic moments. It was a gritty but colorful epic set against the backdrop of the New York City Subway system, with costuming and choreography inspired by West Side Story. As of 2012, the album sold between 30 and 45 million copies worldwide.[80][81][82][83][84][85][86] Thanks to the Bad album, Bruce Swedien and Humberto Gatica won one Grammy in 1988 for Best Engineered Recording – Non Classical and Michael Jackson won one Grammy for Best Music Video, Short Form for "Leave Me Alone" in 1989.[32][39] In the same year, Jackson won an Award of Achievement at the American Music Awards because Bad is the first album ever to generate five number one singles in the US, the first album to top in 25 countries and the best-selling album worldwide in 1987 and in 1988.[87][88][89][90] In 1988, "Bad" won an American Music Award for Favorite Soul/R&B Single.[91]
The Bad World Tour began on September 12 that year, finishing on January 14, 1989.[92] In Japan alone, the tour had 14 sellouts and drew 570,000 people, nearly tripling the previous record of 200,000 in a single tour.[93] Jackson broke a Guinness World Record when 504,000 people attended seven sold-out shows at Wembley Stadium. He performed a total of 123 concerts to an audience of 4.4 million people. The Bad Tour turned out to be the last of Jackson's concert tours to include shows in the continental United States, although later tours did make it to Hawaii.
In 1988, Jackson released his first and only autobiography, Moonwalk, which took four years to complete and sold 200,000 copies.[94] Jackson wrote about his childhood, The Jackson 5, and the abuse he had suffered.[95] He also wrote about his facial appearance, saying he had had two rhinoplastic surgeries and a dimple created in his chin.[65] He attributed much of the change in the structure of his face to puberty, weight loss, a strict vegetarian diet, a change in hair style, and stage lighting.[65] Moonwalk reached the top position on The New York Times best sellers' list.[96] The musician then released a film called Moonwalker, which featured live footage and short films that starred Jackson and Joe Pesci. The film was originally intended to be released to theaters but due to financial issues, the film was released direct-to-video. It saw a theatrical release in Germany, though. It debuted atop the Billboard Top Music Video Cassette chart, staying there for 22 weeks. It was eventually knocked off the top spot by Michael Jackson: The Legend Continues.[97]
In March 1988, Jackson purchased land near Santa Ynez, California, to build Neverland Ranch at a cost of $17 million. He installed Ferris wheels, a menagerie, and a movie theater on the 2,700-acre (11 km2) property. A security staff of 40 patrolled the grounds. In 2003, it was valued at approximately $100 million.[18][98] In 1989, his annual earnings from album sales, endorsements, and concerts was estimated at $125 million for that year alone.[99] Shortly afterwards, he became the first Westerner to appear in a television ad in the Soviet Union.[97]
His success resulted in his being dubbed the "King of Pop".[100][101][102][103] The nickname was popularized by Elizabeth Taylor when she presented him with the Soul Train Heritage Award in 1989, proclaiming him "the true king of pop, rock and soul."[104] President George H. W. Bush designated him the White House's "Artist of the Decade".[105] From 1985 to 1990, he donated $500,000 to the United Negro College Fund, and all of the profits from his single "Man in the Mirror" went to charity.[106][107] Jackson's live rendition of "You Were There" at Sammy Davis Jr.'s 60th birthday celebration received an Emmy nomination.[97]
[edit] Dangerous, Heal the World Foundation and Super Bowl XXVII (1991–93)
In March 1991, Jackson renewed his contract with Sony for $65 million, a record-breaking deal at the time,[108] displacing Neil Diamond's renewal contract with Columbia Records.[109] He released his eighth album Dangerous in 1991. As of 2008, Dangerous had shipped seven million copies in the U.S. and had sold 32 million copies worldwide. The Dangerous album was co-produced by Teddy Riley, one of the pioneers of "new jack swing" which convinced Michael to feature a rapper on his album for the first time, the act worked and it turned out to be the best-selling album associated with that movement.[110][111][112] In the United States, the album's first single "Black or White" was its biggest hit, reaching number one on the Billboard Hot 100 and remaining there for seven weeks, with similar chart performances worldwide.[113] The album's second single "Remember the Time" spent eight weeks in the top five in the United States, peaking at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart.[114] At the end of 1992, Dangerous was awarded 1992's best-selling album worldwide and "Black or White" was awarded 1992's best-selling single worldwide at the Billboard Music Awards. Additionally, he won an award as best-selling artist of the '80s.[115] In 1993, Jackson performed the song at the Soul Train Music Awards in a chair, saying he had suffered an injury in rehearsals.[116] In the UK and other parts of Europe, "Heal the World" was the biggest hit from the album; it sold 450,000 copies in the UK and spent five weeks at number two in 1992.[114]
Jackson founded the Heal the World Foundation in 1992. The charity organization brought underprivileged children to Jackson's ranch to enjoy theme park rides that Jackson had built on the property. The foundation also sent millions of dollars around the globe to help children threatened by war, poverty, and disease. In the same year Jackson published his second book, the bestselling collection of poetry, Dancing the Dream. While it was a commercial success and revealed a more intimate side to Jackson's nature, the collection was mostly critically unacclaimed at the time of release. In 2009, the book was republished by Doubleday and was more positively received by some critics in the wake of Jackson's untimely death. The Dangerous World Tour grossed $100 million. The tour began on June 27, 1992, and finished on November 11, 1993. Jackson performed to 3.5 million people in 67 concerts.[114][117] He sold the broadcast rights to his Dangerous world tour to HBO for $20 million, a record-breaking deal that still stands.[118]
Following the illness and death of Ryan White, Jackson helped draw public attention to HIV/AIDS, something that was still controversial at the time. He publicly pleaded with the Clinton Administration at Bill Clinton's Inaugural Gala to give more money to HIV/AIDS charities and research.[119][120] In a high-profile visit to Africa, Jackson visited several countries, among them Gabon and Egypt.[121] His first stop to Gabon was greeted with a sizable and enthusiastic reception of more than 100,000 people, some of them carrying signs that read, "Welcome Home Michael."[121] In his trip to Côte d'Ivoire, Jackson was crowned "King Sani" by a tribal chief.[121] He then thanked the dignitaries in French and English, signed official documents formalizing his kingship and sat on a golden throne while presiding over ceremonial dances.[121]
In January 1993, Jackson made a memorable appearance at the halftime show at Super Bowl XXVII. The performance began with Jackson catapulting onto the stage as fireworks went off behind him. As he landed on the canvas, he maintained a motionless "clenched fist, standing statue stance", dressed in a gold and black military outfit and sunglasses; he remained completely motionless for a minute and a half while the crowd cheered. He then slowly removed his sunglasses, threw them away and sang four songs: "Jam", "Billie Jean", "Black or White" and "Heal the World". It was the first Super Bowl where the audience figures increased during the half-time show, and was viewed by 135 million Americans alone; Jackson's Dangerous album rose 90 places up the album chart.[61] Jackson was given the "Living Legend Award" at the 35th Grammy Awards in Los Angeles. "Black or White" was Grammy-nominated for best vocal performance. "Jam" gained two nominations: Best R&B Vocal Performance and Best R&B Song.[114] The Dangerous album won a Grammy for Best Engineered – Non Classical, awarding the work of Bruce Swedien and Teddy Riley. In the same year, Michael Jackson won three American Music Awards for Favorite Pop/Rock Album (Dangerous), Favorite Soul/R&B Single ("Remember the Time") and was the first to win the International Artist Award, for his global performances and humanitarian concerns. This award will bear his name in the future.[32][39][122]
First child sexual abuse allegations and first marriage (1993–94)[link]
Jackson gave a 90-minute interview to Oprah Winfrey on February 10, 1993, his second television interview since 1979. He grimaced when speaking of his childhood abuse at the hands of his father; he believed he had missed out on much of his childhood years, admitting that he often cried from loneliness. He denied tabloid rumors that he had bought the bones of the Elephant Man, slept in a hyperbaric oxygen chamber, or bleached his skin, stating for the first time that he had vitiligo. The interview was watched by an American audience of 90 million. Dangerous re-entered the album chart in the top 10, more than a year after its original release.[16][61][114]
In the summer of 1993, Jackson was accused of child sexual abuse by a 13-year-old boy named Jordan Chandler and his father, Dr. Evan Chandler, a dentist.[123][124][125] The Chandler family demanded payment from Jackson, and the singer initially refused. Jordan Chandler eventually told the police that Jackson had sexually abused him.[126] Dr. Chandler was tape-recorded discussing his intention to pursue charges, saying, "If I go through with this, I win big-time. There's no way I lose. I will get everything I want and they will be destroyed forever ... Michael's career will be over". Jordan's mother was, however, adamant that there had been no wrongdoing on Jackson's part.[125] Jackson later used the recording to argue that he was the victim of a jealous father whose only goal was to extort money from the singer.[125]
Later that year, on December 20, Jackson's home was raided by the police, and Jackson submitted to a 25-minute strip search.[127] Jordan Chandler had reportedly given police a description of Jackson's intimate parts, notably claiming that his bleach-damaged penis was circumcised; the strip search revealed, to the contrary, that Jackson was actually uncircumcised,[128] a fact confirmed in his autopsy.[129] His friends said he never recovered from the humiliation of the strip search. The investigation was inconclusive and no charges were ever filed.[130][131] Jackson described the search in an emotional public statement, and proclaimed his innocence.[123][127][132] On January 1, 1994, Jackson's insurance carrier settled with the Chandlers out of court for $22 million. A Santa Barbara County grand jury and a Los Angeles County grand jury disbanded on May 2, 1994 without indicting Jackson.[133] After which time the Chandlers stopped co-operating with the criminal investigation around July 6, 1994.[134][135][136] The out-of-court settlement's documentation specifically stated Jackson admitted no wrongdoing and no liability; the Chandlers and their family lawyer Larry Feldman signed it without contest.[137] The Chandlers' lawyer Mr. Feldman also explicitly stated "nobody bought anybody's silence".[138] A decade after the fact, during the second round of child abuse allegations, Jackson's lawyers would file a memo stating that the 1994 settlement was done without his consent.[135]
In May 1994, Jackson married the daughter of Elvis Presley, Lisa Marie Presley. They had first met in 1975, when a seven-year-old Presley attended one of Jackson's family engagements at the MGM Grand Hotel and Casino, and were reconnected through a mutual friend.[139] According to a friend of Presley's, "their adult friendship began in November 1992 in L.A."[140] They stayed in contact every day over the telephone. As the child molestation accusations became public, Jackson became dependent on Presley for emotional support; she was concerned about his faltering health and addiction to drugs.[141] Presley explained, "I believed he didn't do anything wrong and that he was wrongly accused and yes I started falling for him. I wanted to save him. I felt that I could do it."[142] She eventually persuaded him to settle the allegations out of court and go into rehabilitation to recover.[141]
Jackson proposed to Presley over the telephone towards the fall of 1993, saying, "If I asked you to marry me, would you do it?"[141] They married in the Dominican Republic in secrecy, denying it for nearly two months afterwards.[143] The marriage was, in her words, "a married couple's life ... that was sexually active".[144] At the time, the tabloid media speculated that the wedding was a ploy to prop up Jackson's public image.[143] The marriage lasted less than two years and ended with an amicable divorce settlement.[145] In a 2010 interview with Oprah, Presley admitted that they spent four more years after the divorce "getting back together and breaking up", until she decided to stop.[146]
[edit] HIStory, second marriage and fatherhood (1995–99)
In 1995, Jackson merged his ATV Music catalog with Sony's music publishing division creating Sony/ATV Music Publishing. Jackson retained half-ownership of the company, earned $95 million upfront as well as the rights to even more songs.[147][148] He then released the double album HIStory: Past, Present and Future, Book I. The first disc, HIStory Begins, was a 15-track greatest hits album, and was later reissued as Greatest Hits: HIStory, Volume I in 2001, while the second disc, HIStory Continues, contained 15 new songs. The album debuted at number one on the charts and has been certified for seven million shipments in the US.[149] It is the best-selling multiple-disc album of all-time, with 20 million copies (40 million units) sold worldwide.[113][150] HIStory received a Grammy nomination for Album of the Year.[151]
The first single released from the album was the double A-side "Scream/Childhood". "Scream" was a duet, performed with Jackson's youngest sister Janet. The song fights against the media, mainly for what the media made him out to be during his 1993 child abuse allegations. The single had the highest debut on the Billboard Hot 100 at number five, and received a Grammy nomination for "Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals".[151] "You Are Not Alone" was the second single released from HIStory; it holds the Guinness World Record for the first song ever to debut at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 chart.[99] It was seen as a major artistic and commercial success, receiving a Grammy nomination for "Best Pop Vocal Performance".[151] In late 1995, Jackson was rushed to a hospital after collapsing during rehearsals for a televised performance; the incident was caused by a stress-related panic attack.[152] "Earth Song" was the third single released from HIStory, and topped the UK Singles Chart for six weeks over Christmas 1995; it sold a million copies, making it Jackson's most successful single in the UK.[151] The track "They Don't Care About Us" became controversial when the Anti-Defamation League and other groups criticized its allegedly antisemitic lyrics. Jackson quickly put out a revised version of the song without the offending lyrics.[153] In 1996, Jackson won a Grammy for Best Music Video, Short Form for "Scream" and an American Music Award for Favorite Pop/Rock Male Artist.[32][154]
The album was promoted with the successful HIStory World Tour. The tour began on September 7, 1996, and finished on October 15, 1997. Jackson performed 82 concerts in 58 cities to over 4.5 million fans, and grossed up a total of $165 million. The show, which visited five continents and 35 countries, became Jackson's most successful in terms of audience figures.[92] During the tour, Jackson married his longtime friend Deborah Jeanne Rowe, a dermatology nurse, in an impromptu ceremony in Sydney, Australia. Rowe was approximately six months pregnant with the couple's first child at the time. Originally, Rowe and Jackson had no plans to marry, but Jackson's mother Katherine persuaded them to do so.[155] Michael Joseph Jackson Jr (commonly known as Prince) was born on February 13, 1997; his sister Paris-Michael Katherine Jackson was born a year later on April 3, 1998.[145][156] The couple divorced in 1999, and Jackson got full custody of the children. The divorce was relatively amicable, but a subsequent custody suit was not settled until 2006.[157][158]
In 1997, Jackson released Blood on the Dance Floor: HIStory in the Mix, which contained remixes of hit singles from HIStory and five new songs. Worldwide sales stand at 6 million copies as of 2007, it is the best selling remix album ever released.[159] It reached number one in the UK, as did the title track.[159][160] In the US, the album was certified platinum, but only reached number 24.[110][151] Forbes placed his annual income at $35 million in 1996 and $20 million in 1997.[98] Throughout June 1999, Jackson was involved in a number of charitable events. He joined Luciano Pavarotti for a benefit concert in Modena, Italy. The show was in support of the nonprofit organization War Child, and raised a million dollars for the refugees of Kosovo, FR Yugoslavia, as well as additional funds for the children of Guatemala.[161] Later that month, Jackson organized a set of "Michael Jackson & Friends" benefit concerts in Germany and Korea. Other artists involved included Slash, The Scorpions, Boyz II Men, Luther Vandross, Mariah Carey, A. R. Rahman, Prabhu Deva Sundaram, Shobana, Andrea Bocelli and Luciano Pavarotti. The proceeds went to the Nelson Mandela Children's Fund, the Red Cross and UNESCO.[162]
[edit] Label dispute, Invincible and third child (2000–03)
At the turn of the century, the American Music Awards honored Jackson as Artist of the '80s.[163] Throughout 2000 and 2001, Jackson worked in the studio with Teddy Riley and Rodney Jerkins, as well as other collaborators. These sessions would result in the album Invincible, released in October 2001. Invincible was Jackson's first full-length album in six years, and it would be the last album of new material he released while still alive. The release of the album was preceded by a dispute between Jackson and his record label, Sony Music Entertainment. Jackson had expected the licenses to the masters of his albums to revert to him sometime in the early 2000s. Once he had the licenses, he would be able to promote the material however he pleased and he would also be able to keep all the profits. However, due to various clauses in the contract, the revert date turned out to be many years away. Jackson discovered that the attorney who represented him in the deal was also representing Sony.[160] Jackson was also concerned about the fact that for a number of years, Sony had been pressuring him to sell his share in their music catalog venture. Jackson feared that Sony might have a conflict of interest, since if Jackson's career failed he would have to sell his share of the catalog at a low price.[164] Jackson sought an early exit from his contract.[160] Just before the release of Invincible, Jackson informed the head of Sony Music Entertainment, Tommy Mottola, that he was leaving Sony.[160] As a result, all singles releases, video shootings and promotions concerning the Invincible album were suspended.
In September 2001, two 30th Anniversary concerts were held at Madison Square Garden to mark the singer's 30th year as a solo artist. Jackson appeared onstage alongside his brothers for the first time since 1984. The show also featured performances by Mýa, Usher, Whitney Houston, 'N Sync, Destiny's Child, Monica, Luther Vandross, and Slash, among other artists.[165] The second of the two shows took place the night before the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks.[166] After 9/11, Jackson helped organize the United We Stand: What More Can I Give benefit concert at RFK Stadium in Washington, D.C. The concert took place on October 21, 2001, and included performances from dozens of major artists, including Jackson, who performed his song "What More Can I Give" as the finale.[164] Jackson's solo performances were omitted from the televised version of the benefit concert, although he could still be seen singing background vocals. This omission happened because of contractual issues related to the earlier 30th Anniversary concerts: those concerts were boiled down into a two-hour TV special titled Michael Jackson: 30th Anniversary Celebration: The Solo Years which debuted in November 2001.
In spite of the events preceding its release, Invincible came out in October 2001 to much anticipation. Invincible proved to be a hit, debuting atop the charts in 13 countries and going on to sell approximately 13 million copies worldwide. It received double-platinum certification in the US.[110][113][167] However, the sales for Invincible were lower than those of his previous releases, due in part to a lack of promotion, no supporting world tour and the label dispute. The album also came out at a bad time for the music industry in general.[164] The album cost $30 million to record, not including promotional expenditures.[168] Invincible spawned three singles, "You Rock My World", "Cry" and "Butterflies", the latter without a music video. Jackson alleged in July 2002 that Mottola was a "devil" and a "racist" who did not support his African-American artists, using them merely for his own personal gain.[164] He charged that Mottola had called his colleague Irv Gotti a "fat nigger".[169] Sony refused to renew Jackson's contract, and claimed that a $25 million promotional campaign had failed because Jackson refused to tour in the United States.[168]
In 2002, Michael Jackson won his 22nd American Music Award for Artist of the Century.[170] In the same year, Jackson's third child, Prince Michael Jackson II (nicknamed "Blanket") was born.[171] The mother's identity is unknown, but Jackson has said the child was the result of artificial insemination from a surrogate mother and his own sperm.[157] On November 20 of that year, Jackson brought his newborn son onto the balcony of his room at the Hotel Adlon in Berlin, as fans stood below, holding him in his right arm, with a cloth loosely draped over the baby's face. The baby was briefly extended over a railing, four stories above ground level, causing widespread criticism in the media. Jackson later apologized for the incident, calling it "a terrible mistake".[172] Sony released Number Ones, a compilation of Jackson's hits on CD and DVD. In the US, the album was certified triple platinum by the RIAA; in the UK it was certified six times platinum for shipments of at least 1.2 million units.[110][173]
Second child sexual abuse allegations and acquittal (2003–05)[link]
Further information: Living with Michael Jackson and People v. Jackson
Beginning in May 2002, Jackson allowed a documentary film crew, led by British TV personality Martin Bashir, to follow him around just about everywhere he went. Bashir's film crew was with Jackson during the "baby-dangling incident" in Berlin. The program was broadcast in March 2003 as Living with Michael Jackson, and painted an extraordinarily unflattering portrait of the singer.
In a particularly controversial scene, Jackson was seen holding hands and discussing sleeping arrangements with a young boy.[174] As soon as the documentary aired, the Santa Barbara county attorney's office began a criminal investigation. Jackson was arrested in November 2003, and was charged with seven counts of child molestation and two counts of administering an intoxicating agent in relation to the 13 year old boy shown in the film.[174] Jackson denied the allegations, saying the sleepovers were not sexual in nature. The People v. Jackson trial began on January 31, 2005, in Santa Maria, California, and lasted five months, until the end of May. On June 13, 2005, Jackson was acquitted on all counts.[175][176][177] After the trial, in a highly publicized relocation he moved to the Persian Gulf island of Bahrain, as a guest of Sheikh Abdullah.[178] Bahrain was also where the family intended to send Jackson if he was convicted (though Jackson did not know about the plan), according to a statement by Jermaine Jackson printed in The Times of London in September 2011.[179]
[edit] Closure of Neverland, final years and This Is It (2006–09)
In March 2006, the main house at the Neverland Ranch was closed as a cost-cutting measure.[180] There were numerous reports around that time that Jackson was having financial problems. Jackson had been delinquent on his repayments of a $270 million loan secured against his music publishing holdings, even though those holdings were reportedly making him as much as $75 million a year.[181] Bank of America sold the debt to Fortress Investments. Sony reportedly proposed a restructuring deal which would give them a future option to buy half of Jackson's stake in their jointly owned publishing company (leaving Jackson with a 25% stake).[148] Jackson agreed to a Sony-backed refinancing deal in April 2006, although the exact details were not made public.[182] Jackson did not have a recording contract in place with Sony or any other major record label at the time.
In early 2006, there was an announcement that Jackson had signed a contract with a Bahrain-based startup called Two Seas Records. However, nothing ever came of that deal, and the CEO of Two Seas, Guy Holmes, later stated that the deal had never been finalized.[183][184] Throughout 2006, Sony repackaged 20 singles from the 1980s and 1990s as the Michael Jackson: Visionary series, which subsequently became a box set. Most of those singles returned to the charts as a result. In September 2006, Jackson and his ex-wife Debbie Rowe confirmed reports that they had settled their long-running child custody suit. The terms were never made public. Jackson continued to be the custodial parent of the couple's two children.[158] In October 2006, Fox News entertainment reporter Roger Friedman said that Jackson had been recording at a studio in rural Westmeath, Ireland. It was not known at the time what Jackson might be working on, or who might be paying for the sessions, since his publicist had recently issued a statement claiming that he had left Two Seas.[184][185]
In November 2006, Jackson invited an Access Hollywood camera crew into the studio in Westmeath, and MSNBC broke the story that he was working on a new album, produced by will.i.am of The Black Eyed Peas.[113] Jackson performed at the World Music Awards, in London on November 15, 2006, and accepted a Diamond Award for selling over 100 million records.[113][186] Jackson returned to the United States after Christmas 2006 to attend James Brown's funeral in Augusta, Georgia. He gave one of the eulogies, saying that "James Brown is my greatest inspiration."[187] In the spring of 2007, Jackson and Sony teamed up to buy yet another music publishing company: Famous Music LLC, formerly owned by Viacom. This deal gave him the rights to songs by Eminem, Shakira and Beck, among others.[188] Jackson recorded extensively during this period in New York with songwriter and producer will.i.am and also in Las Vegas with producers Akon and RedOne.[189][190] In March 2007, Jackson gave a brief interview to the Associated Press in Tokyo, where he said, "I've been in the entertainment industry since I was 6 years old, and as Charles Dickens would say, 'It's been the best of times, the worst of times.' But I would not change my career ... While some have made deliberate attempts to hurt me, I take it in stride because I have a loving family, a strong faith and wonderful friends and fans who have, and continue, to support me."[191]
In September 2007, Jackson was reportedly still working with will.i.am, but the album was apparently never completed.[192] However, in 2008, Jackson and Sony released Thriller 25 to mark the 25th anniversary of the original Thriller. This album featured the previously unreleased song "For All Time" (an outtake from the original sessions) as well as remixes, where Jackson collaborated with younger artists who had been inspired by his work.[193] Two of the remixes were released as singles with only modest success: "The Girl Is Mine 2008" (with will.i.am) and "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin' 2008" (with Akon). The first single was based on an early demo version, without Paul McCartney. The album itself was a hit, however.[193][194][195][196] In anticipation of Jackson's 50th birthday, Sony BMG released a series of greatest-hits albums called King of Pop. Slightly different versions were released in various countries, based on polls of local fans.[197] King of Pop reached the top 10 in most countries where it was issued, and also sold well as an import in other countries (such as the United States.)[198][199]
In the fall of 2008, Fortress Investments threatened to foreclose on Neverland Ranch, which Jackson used as collateral for loans running into many tens of millions of dollars. However, Fortress opted to sell Jackson's debts to Colony Capital LLC. In November, Jackson transferred Neverland Ranch's title to Sycamore Valley Ranch Company LLC, which was a joint venture between Jackson and Colony Capital LLC. This deal cleared Jackson's debt, and he reportedly even gained an extra $35 million from the venture. At the time of his death, Jackson still owned a stake in Neverland/Sycamore Valley, but it is unknown how large that stake was.[200][201][202] In September 2008, Jackson entered negotiations with Julien's Auction House to display and auction a large collection of memorabilia amounting to approximately 1,390 lots. The auction was scheduled to take place between April 22 and April 25.[203] An exhibition of the lots opened as scheduled on April 14, but the actual auction was eventually cancelled at Jackson's request.[204]
In March 2009, Jackson held a press conference at London's O2 Arena and announced a series of comeback concerts titled This Is It. The shows would be Jackson's first major series of concerts since the HIStory World Tour finished in 1997. Jackson suggested possible retirement after the shows; he said it would be his "final curtain call". The initial plan was for 10 concerts in London, followed by shows in Paris, New York City and Mumbai. Randy Phillips, president and chief executive of AEG Live, stated that the first 10 dates alone would earn the singer approximately £50 million.[205] The London residency was increased to 50 dates after record breaking ticket sales: over one million were sold in less than two hours.[206] Jackson rehearsed in Los Angeles in the weeks leading up to the tour under the direction of choreographer Kenny Ortega. Most of these rehearsals took place at the Staples Center, which was owned by AEG.[207] The concerts would have commenced on July 13, 2009, and finished on March 6, 2010. Less than three weeks before the first show was due to begin in London and with all concerts being sold out, Jackson died after suffering cardiac arrest.[208] Some time before his death, it was widely stated that he was starting a clothing line with Christian Audigier; due to his death, the current status of the label remains unknown.[209][210]
Jackson's first posthumous single was a song titled "This Is It" which Jackson cowrote in the 1980s with Paul Anka. It was not on the set lists for the concerts, and the recording was based on an old demo tape. The surviving brothers reunited in the studio for the first time since 1989 to record backing vocals. On October 28, 2009, a documentary film about the rehearsals titled Michael Jackson's This Is It was released.[211] Even though it ran for a limited two-week engagement, it became the highest grossing documentary or concert movie of all time, with earnings of more than $260 million worldwide.[212] Jackson's estate received 90% of the profits.[213] The film was accompanied by a compilation album of the same name. Two versions of the new song appear on the album, which also featured original masters of Jackson's hits in the order in which they appear in the movie, along with a bonus disc with previously unreleased versions of more Jackson hits as well as a spoken-word poem titled "Planet Earth".[214] At the 2009 American Music Awards Jackson won four posthumous awards, two for him and two for his album Number Ones, bringing his total American Music Awards to 26.[215][216]
Death and memorial[link]
Main articles: Death of Michael Jackson and Michael Jackson memorial service
File:MJ's tomb.jpg
Michael Jackson's Tomb in the Great Mausoleum at Forest Lawn Memorial Park, Glendale
On June 25, 2009, Jackson died while in his bed at his rented mansion at 100 North Carolwood Drive in the Holmby Hills district of Los Angeles. Attempts at resuscitating him by Conrad Murray, his personal physician, were unsuccessful.[217] Los Angeles Fire Department paramedics received a 911 call at 12:22 (PDT, 19:22 UTC), arriving three minutes later at Jackson's location.[218][219] He was reportedly not breathing and CPR was performed.[220] Resuscitation efforts continued en route to the Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center, and for more than an hour after arriving there at 1:13 (20:13 UTC). He was pronounced dead at 2:26 local time (21:26 UTC).[221][222] Jackson's death triggered a global outpouring of grief.[217]
The news spread quickly online, causing websites to slow down and crash from user overload. Both TMZ and the Los Angeles Times suffered outages.[223] Google initially believed that the input from millions of people searching for "Michael Jackson" meant that the search engine was under DDoS attack, and blocked searches related to Michael Jackson for 30 minutes. Twitter reported a crash, as did Wikipedia at 3:15 p.m. PDT (22:15 UTC).[224] The Wikimedia Foundation reported nearly a million visitors to Jackson's biography within one hour, probably the most visitors in a one-hour period to any article in Wikipedia's history.[225] AOL Instant Messenger collapsed for 40 minutes. AOL called it a "seminal moment in Internet history", adding, "We've never seen anything like it in terms of scope or depth."[226]
Around 15% of Twitter posts—or 5,000 tweets per minute—reportedly mentioned Jackson after the news broke,[227][228] compared to the 5% recalled as having mentioned the Iranian elections or the flu pandemic that had made headlines earlier in the year.[228] Overall, web traffic ranged from 11% to at least 20% higher than normal.[227][229] MTV and Black Entertainment Television (BET) aired marathons of Jackson's music videos.[230] Jackson specials aired on multiple television stations around the world. The British soap opera EastEnders added a last-minute scene, in which one character tells another about the news, to the June 26 episode.[231] Jackson was the topic of every front-page headline in the daily British tabloid The Sun for about two weeks following his death.[232] During the same period, the three major U.S. networks' evening newscasts—ABC World News, CBS Evening News, and NBC Nightly News—devoted 34% of their broadcast time to him.[233] Magazines including Time published commemorative editions.[234] A scene that had featured Jackson's sister La Toya was cut from the film Brüno out of respect toward Jackson's family.[235]
Jackson's memorial was held on July 7, 2009, at the Staples Center in Los Angeles, preceded by a private family service at Forest Lawn Memorial Park's Hall of Liberty. Jackson's casket was present during the memorial but no information was released about the final disposition of the body. While some unofficial reports claimed a worldwide audience as high as one billion people,[236][237] the U.S. audience was estimated by Nielsen to be 31.1 million, an amount comparable to the estimated 35.1 million that watched the 2004 burial of former president Ronald Reagan, and the estimated 33.1 million Americans who watched the 1997 funeral for Princess Diana.[238]
Mariah Carey, Stevie Wonder, Lionel Richie, John Mayer, Jennifer Hudson, Usher, Jermaine Jackson, and Shaheen Jafargholi performed at the event. Berry Gordy and Smokey Robinson gave eulogies, while Queen Latifah read "We had him", a poem written for the occasion by Maya Angelou.[239] The Reverend Al Sharpton received a standing ovation with cheers when he told Jackson's children, "Wasn't nothing strange about your daddy. It was strange what your daddy had to deal with. But he dealt with it anyway."[240] Jackson's 11-year-old daughter, Paris Katherine, cried as she told the crowd, "Ever since I was born, Daddy has been the best father you could ever imagine ... I just wanted to say I love him ... so much."[166] Reverend Lucious Smith provided a closing prayer.[241] On August 24, several news outlets quoted anonymous sources as stating that the Los Angeles coroner had decided to treat Jackson's death as a homicide; this was later confirmed by the coroner on August 28.[242][243] At the time of death, Jackson had been administered propofol, lorazepam and midazolam.[244] Law enforcement officials conducted a manslaughter investigation of his personal physician, Conrad Murray.[245] On February 8, 2010, Murray was charged with involuntary manslaughter by prosecutors in Los Angeles.[246] Jackson was entombed on September 3, 2009, at Forest Lawn Memorial Park in Glendale, California.[247]
On June 25, 2010, the first anniversary of Jackson's death, fans traveled to Los Angeles to pay their tribute to him. They visited Jackson’s star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame and his family’s home, as well as Forest Lawn Memorial Park. Many of the fans were carrying sunflowers and other tribute items to drop off at the sites. Members of the Jackson family and close friends arrived to pay their respects.[248][249] Katherine returned to Gary, Indiana to unveil a granite monument constructed in the front yard of the family home. The memorial continued with a candlelight vigil and a special performance of "We Are the World".[250][251] On June 26, there was a protest march in front of the Los Angeles Police Department's Robbery-Homicide Division at the old Parker Center building and a petition with thousands of signatures demanding justice was delivered.[252][253] The Jackson Family Foundation in conjunction with Voiceplate presented "Forever Michael", an event bringing together Jackson family members, celebrities, fans, supporters and the community to celebrate and honor his legacy. A portion of the proceeds were presented to some of Jackson's favorite charities. Katherine also introduced her new book "Never Can Say Goodbye".[254][255][256]
Death aftermath[link]
After his death, Jackson became the best-selling albums artist of 2009. In the United States selling over 8.2 million albums and a total of 35 million albums worldwide in the 12 months that followed his death.[257][258] Following this surge in sales, Sony announced that they had extended their relationship with his material. The distribution rights held by Sony Music were due to expire in 2015.[259] On March 16, 2010, Sony Music Entertainment, in a move spearheaded by its Columbia/Epic Label Group division, signed a new deal with the Jackson estate to extend their distribution rights to his back catalogue until at least 2017, as well as to obtain permission to release ten new albums with previously unreleased material and new collections of released work. On November 4, 2010 Sony announced the release of Michael, the first posthumous album set to be released on December 14, with the promotional single released to the radios on November 8, titled "Breaking News".[260] The deal was unprecedented in the music industry as it is the most expensive music contract pertaining to a single artist in history; it reportedly involved Sony Music paying $250 million for the deal, with the Jackson estate getting the full sum as well as its share of royalties for all works released.[259][261] Video game developer Ubisoft announced it would release a new dancing-and-singing game featuring Michael Jackson for the 2010 holiday season. The game titled Michael Jackson: The Experience will be among the first to use Kinect and PlayStation Move, the respective motion-detecting camera systems for Microsoft's Xbox 360 and Sony's PlayStation 3 due out later that year.[262]
On November 3, 2010, the theatrical performing company Cirque du Soleil announced that it would launch "Michael Jackson: The Immortal World Tour" in October 2011 in Montreal, while a permanent show will reside in Las Vegas.[263] The 90-minute US$57M production will combine Jackson's iconic musical oeuvre and choreography with the Cirque's signature artistry, dance and aerial displays involving 65 artists.[264] The tour was written and directed by Jamie King[265] and centers on Jackson's "inspirational Giving Tree – the wellspring of creativity where his love of music and dance, fairy tale and magic, and the fragile beauty of nature are unlocked."[266] On October 3, 2011, the accompanying compilation soundtrack album Immortal was announced to have over 40 Jackson’s original recordings re-produced by Kevin Antunes.[267]
In April 2011, Jackson's longtime friend and billionaire businessman Mohamed Al-Fayed, chairman of Fulham F.C., unveiled a statue of Jackson outside the club's stadium, Craven Cottage.[268] Fulham fans were however bemused by the statue and failed to understand the relevance of Jackson to the club.[269] Al Fayed however defended the statue and told the fans to 'go to hell' if they didn't appreciate the statue.[270]
Artistry[link]
Influences[link]
Jackson's music took root in R&B, pop and soul. He had been influenced by the work of contemporary musicians such as Little Richard, James Brown, Jackie Wilson, Diana Ross, David Ruffin, Gene Kelly, Fred Astaire, Sammy Davis, Jr., The Isley Brothers, the Bee Gees and the West Side Story dancers, to whom he made a tribute in "Beat It" and in the "Bad" video.[271] According to David Winters, who met and befriended Jackson while choreographing the 1971 Diana Ross TV Special "Diana!", (which was also Jackson's first solo debut outside of The Jackson 5), Jackson watched West Side Story almost every week and it was his favorite film.[272][273][274] While Little Richard had a substantial influence on Jackson,[275][276] James Brown was Jackson's greatest inspiration. In reference to Brown, Jackson declared: "Ever since I was a small child, no more than like six years old, my mother would wake me no matter what time it was, if I was sleeping, no matter what I was doing, to watch the television to see the master at work. And when I saw him move, I was mesmerized. I had never seen a performer perform like James Brown, and right then and there I knew that was exactly what I wanted to do for the rest of my life because of James Brown."[277]
The young Michael Jackson owed his vocal technique in large part to Diana Ross. Not only a mother figure to him, she was often observed in rehearsal as an accomplished performer. He later expressed: "I got to know her well. She taught me so much. I used to just sit in the corner and watch the way she moved. She was art in motion. I studied the way she moved, the way she sang – just the way she was." He told her: "I want to be just like you, Diana." She said: "You just be yourself."[278] But Jackson owed part of his enduring style—especially his use of the oooh interjection—to Ross. From a young age, Jackson often punctuated his verses with a sudden exclamation of oooh. Diana Ross had used this effect on many of the songs recorded with The Supremes.[279]
Musical themes and genres[link]
Unlike many artists, Jackson did not write his songs on paper. Instead he would dictate into a sound recorder, and when recording he would sing the lyrics from memory.[280] In most of his songs, such as "Billie Jean", "Who Is It", and "Tabloid Junkie", he would beatbox and imitate the instruments using his voice instead of playing the actual instruments, along with other sounds. Jackson noted that it is easier to sing a drum line, or sing a bass, instead of playing a drum line or a bass with an instrument. Several critics have said that Jackson's distinct voice was able to replace any instrument convincingly. Steve Huey of Allmusic said that, throughout his solo career, Jackson's versatility allowed him to experiment with various themes and genres.[281] As a musician, he ranged from Motown's dance fare and ballads to techno and house-edged new jack swing to work that incorporates both funk rhythms and hard rock guitar.[18][282][283]
According to Huey, Thriller refined the strengths of Off the Wall; the dance and rock tracks were more aggressive, while the pop tunes and ballads were softer and more soulful.[281] Notable tracks included the ballads "The Lady in My Life", "Human Nature" and "The Girl Is Mine"; the funk pieces "Billie Jean" and "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin'"; and the post-disco set "Baby Be Mine" and "P.Y.T. (Pretty Young Thing)".[281][282][283][284][285] With Thriller, Christopher Connelly of Rolling Stone commented that Jackson developed his long association with the subliminal theme of paranoia and darker imagery.[285] Allmusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine noted this is evident on the songs "Billie Jean" and "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin'".[283] In "Billie Jean", Jackson sings about an obsessive fan who alleges he has fathered a child of hers.[281] In "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin'" he argues against gossip and the media.[285] "Beat It" decried gang violence in an homage to West Side Story, and was Jackson's first successful rock cross-over piece, according to Huey.[18][281] He also observed that the title track "Thriller" began Jackson's interest with the theme of the supernatural, a topic he revisited in subsequent years.[281] In 1985, Jackson co-wrote the charity anthem "We Are the World"; humanitarian themes later became a recurring theme in his lyrics and public persona.[281]
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One of Jackson's signature pieces, "Thriller", released as a single in 1984, utilizes cinematic sound effects, horror film motifs and vocal trickery to convey a sense of danger.[22]
A single from the album Bad, released 1988, "Smooth Criminal" features digital drum sounds, keyboard-created bass lines and other percussion elements designed to give the impression of a pulsing heart.[286]
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In Bad, Jackson's concept of the predatory lover can be seen on the rock song "Dirty Diana".[290] The lead single "I Just Can't Stop Loving You" is a traditional love ballad, while "Man in the Mirror" is an anthemic ballad of confession and resolution.[78] "Smooth Criminal" was an evocation of bloody assault, rape and likely murder.[78] Allmusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine states that Dangerous presents Jackson as a very paradoxical individual.[291] He comments the album is more diverse than his previous Bad, as it appeals to an urban audience while also attracting the middle class with anthems like "Heal the World".[291] The first half of the record is dedicated to new jack swing, including songs like "Jam" and "Remember the Time".[292] The album is Jackson's first where social ills become a primary theme; "Why You Wanna Trip on Me", for example, protests against world hunger, AIDS, homelessness and drugs.[292] Dangerous contains sexually charged efforts such as the multifaceted love song, "In the Closet".[292] The title track continues the theme of the predatory lover and compulsive desire.[292] The second half includes introspective, pop-gospel anthems such as "Will You Be There", "Heal the World" and "Keep the Faith"; these songs show Jackson opening up about various personal struggles and worries.[292] In the ballad "Gone Too Soon", Jackson gives tribute to his friend Ryan White and the plight of those with AIDS.[293]
HIStory creates an atmosphere of paranoia.[294] Its content focuses on the hardships and public struggles Jackson went through just prior to its production. In the new jack swing-funk-rock efforts "Scream" and "Tabloid Junkie", along with the R&B ballad "You Are Not Alone", Jackson retaliates against the injustice and isolation he feels, and directs much of his anger at the media.[295] In the introspective ballad "Stranger in Moscow", Jackson laments over his "fall from grace", while songs like "Earth Song", "Childhood", "Little Susie" and "Smile" are all operatic pop pieces.[294][295] In the track "D.S.", Jackson launched a verbal attack against Tom Sneddon. He describes Sneddon as an antisocial, white supremacist who wanted to "get my ass, dead or alive". Of the song, Sneddon said, "I have not—shall we say—done him the honor of listening to it, but I've been told that it ends with the sound of a gunshot".[296] Invincible found Jackson working heavily with producer Rodney Jerkins.[281] It is a record made up of urban soul like "Cry" and "The Lost Children", ballads such as "Speechless", "Break of Dawn" and "Butterflies" and mixes hip-hop, pop and R&B in "2000 Watts", "Heartbreaker" and "Invincible".[297][298]
Vocal style[link]
Jackson sang from childhood, and over time his voice and vocal style changed noticeably. Between 1971 and 1975, Jackson's voice descended from boy soprano to high tenor.[299] His vocal range as an adult was F2-E♭6. Jackson first used a technique called the "vocal hiccup" in 1973, starting with the song "It's Too Late to Change the Time" from The Jackson 5's G.I.T.: Get It Together album.[300] Jackson did not use the hiccup technique— somewhat like a gulping for air or gasping— fully until the recording of Off the Wall: it can be seen in full force in the "Shake Your Body (Down to the Ground)" promotional video.[20] With the arrival of Off the Wall in the late 1970s, Jackson's abilities as a vocalist were well regarded. At the time, Rolling Stone compared his vocals to the "breathless, dreamy stutter" of Stevie Wonder. Their analysis was also that "Jackson's feathery-timbred tenor is extraordinarily beautiful. It slides smoothly into a startling falsetto that's used very daringly".[301][302] 1982 saw the release of Thriller, and Rolling Stone was of the opinion that Jackson was then singing in a "fully adult voice" that was "tinged by sadness".[285]
A distinctive deliberate mispronunciation of "come on", used frequently by Jackson, occasionally spelled "cha'mone" or "shamone", is also a staple in impressions and caricatures of him.[303] The turn of the 1990s saw the release of the introspective album Dangerous. The New York Times noted that on some tracks, "he gulps for breath, his voice quivers with anxiety or drops to a desperate whisper, hissing through clenched teeth" and he had a "wretched tone".[292] When singing of brotherhood or self-esteem the musician would return to "smooth" vocals.[292] When commenting on Invincible, Rolling Stone were of the opinion that—at the age of 43—Jackson still performed "exquisitely voiced rhythm tracks and vibrating vocal harmonies".[304] Nelson George summed up Jackson's vocals by stating "The grace, the aggression, the growling, the natural boyishness, the falsetto, the smoothness—that combination of elements mark him as a major vocalist".[286]
Music videos and choreography[link]
Jackson has also been referred to as the King of Music Videos,[305] Steve Huey of Allmusic observed how Jackson transformed the music video into an art form and a promotional tool through complex story lines, dance routines, special effects and famous cameo appearances; simultaneously breaking down racial barriers.[281] Before Thriller, Jackson struggled to receive coverage on MTV, allegedly because he was African American.[306] Pressure from CBS Records persuaded MTV to start showing "Billie Jean" and later "Beat It", leading to a lengthy partnership with Jackson, also helping other black music artists gain recognition.[307] MTV employees deny any racism in their coverage, or pressure to change their stance. MTV maintains that they played rock music, regardless of race.[308] The popularity of his videos on MTV helped to put the relatively young channel "on the map"; MTV's focus shifted in favor of pop and R&B.[309][307] His performance on Motown 25: Yesterday, Today, Forever changed the scope of live stage show; "That Jackson lip-synced 'Billie Jean' is, in itself, not extraordinary, but the fact that it did not change the impact of the performance is extraordinary; whether the performance was live or lip-synced made no difference to the audience" thus creating an era in which artists re-create the spectacle of music video imagery on stage.[310] Short films like Thriller largely remained unique to Jackson, while the group dance sequence in "Beat It" has frequently been imitated.[311] The choreography in Thriller has become a part of global pop culture, replicated everywhere from Indian films to prisons in the Philippines.[312] The Thriller short film marked an increase in scale for music videos, and has been named the most successful music video ever by the Guinness World Records.[99]
In the 19-minute music video for "Bad"—directed by Martin Scorsese—Jackson began using sexual imagery and choreography not previously seen in his work. He occasionally grabbed or touched his chest, torso and crotch. When asked by Oprah in the 1993 interview about why he grabbed his crotch, he replied, "I think it happens subliminally" and he described it as something that was not planned, but rather, as something that was compelled by the music. "Bad" garnered a mixed reception from both fans and critics; Time magazine described it as "infamous". The video also featured Wesley Snipes; in the future Jackson's videos would often feature famous cameo roles.[71][313] For "Smooth Criminal", Jackson experimented with an innovative "anti-gravity lean" in his performances. The maneuver required special shoes for which he was granted U.S. Patent No. 5,255,452.[314] Although the music video for "Leave Me Alone" was not officially released in the US, in 1989, it was nominated for three Billboard Music Video Awards;[315] the same year it won a Golden Lion Award for the quality of the special effects used in its production. In 1990, "Leave Me Alone" won a Grammy for Best Music Video, Short Form.[97]
He received the MTV Video Vanguard Award in 1988 and the MTV Video Vanguard Artist of the Decade Award in 1990 to celebrate his accomplishments in the art form in the 1980s; in 1991 the first award was renamed in his honor.[114] "Black or White" was accompanied by a controversial music video, which, on November 14, 1991, simultaneously premiered in 27 countries with an estimated audience of 500 million people, the largest viewing ever for a music video.[113] It featured scenes construed as having a sexual nature as well as depictions of violence. The offending scenes in the final half of the 14-minute version were edited out to prevent the video from being banned, and Jackson apologized.[316] Along with Jackson, it featured Macaulay Culkin, Peggy Lipton and George Wendt. It helped usher in morphing as an important technology in music videos.[317]
"Remember the Time" was an elaborate production, and became one of his longest videos at over nine minutes. Set in ancient Egypt, it featured groundbreaking visual effects and appearances by Eddie Murphy, Iman and Magic Johnson, along with a distinct complex dance routine.[318] The video for "In the Closet" was Jackson's most sexually provocative piece. It featured supermodel Naomi Campbell in a courtship dance with Jackson. The video was banned in South Africa because of its imagery.[114]
The music video for "Scream", directed by Mark Romanek and production designer Tom Foden, is one of Jackson's most critically acclaimed. In 1995, it gained 11 MTV Video Music Award Nominations—more than any other music video—and won "Best Dance Video", "Best Choreography", and "Best Art Direction".[319] The song and its accompanying video are a response to the backlash Jackson received from the media after being accused of child molestation in 1993.[320] A year later, it won a Grammy for Best Music Video, Short Form; shortly afterwards Guinness World Records listed it as the most expensive music video ever made at a cost of $7 million.[151][321]
"Earth Song" was accompanied by an expensive and well-received music video that gained a Grammy nomination for Best Music Video, Short Form in 1997. The video had an environmental theme, showing images of animal cruelty, deforestation, pollution and war. Using special effects, time is reversed so that life returns, wars end, and the forests re-grow.[151][322] Released in 1997 and premiering at the 1996 Cannes Film Festival, Michael Jackson's Ghosts was a short film written by Jackson and Stephen King and directed by Stan Winston. The video for Ghosts is over 38 minutes long and holds the Guinness World Record as the world's longest music video.[151][160][323][324]
Legacy and influence[link]
Jackson throughout his career transformed the art of the music video and paved the way for modern pop music. Daily Telegraph writer Tom Utley described Jackson in 2003 as "extremely important" and a "genius".[239] For much of his career, he had an "unparalleled" level of worldwide influence over the younger generation through his musical and humanitarian contributions.[153] Jackson's music and videos, such as Thriller, fostered racial diversity in MTV's roster, helped to put the relatively new channel into public awareness, and steered the channel's focus from rock to pop music and R&B, shaping the channel into a form that proved enduring. Jackson's work continues to influence numerous hip hop, rock, pop and R&B artists, including Patrick Stump,[325] Jennifer Lopez,[326] Beyoncé,[327] Mariah Carey,[328] Mýa,[329] Usher,[330] Adam Lambert,[331] Green Day,[332] Justin Timberlake,[333] Britney Spears,[334] Madonna,[335] Alien Ant Farm[164] and Ludacris, among others.[336]
Allmusic's Steve Huey describes Jackson as "an unstoppable juggernaut, possessed of all the skills to dominate the charts seemingly at will: an instantly identifiable voice, eye-popping dance moves, stunning musical versatility and loads of sheer star power".[281] In the mid-1980s, Time magazine's pop music critic, Jay Cocks, noted "Jackson is the biggest thing since The Beatles. He is the hottest single phenomenon since Elvis Presley. He just may be the most popular black singer ever".[40] In 1990, Vanity Fair cited Jackson as the most popular artist in the history of show business.[97] In 2007, Jackson said, "Music has been my outlet, my gift to all of the lovers in this world. Through it, my music, I know I will live forever."[337]
Shortly after Jackson's death, on June 25, 2009, MTV briefly returned to its original music video format to celebrate and pay tribute to his work.[338] The channel aired many hours of Jackson's music videos, accompanied by live news specials featuring reactions from MTV personalities and other celebrities. The temporary shift in MTV's programming culminated the following week in the channel's live coverage of Jackson's memorial service.[339] At the memorial service on July 7, 2009, founder of Motown Records Berry Gordy proclaimed Jackson as "the greatest entertainer that ever lived".[340][341][342]
In 2010, two university librarians found that Jackson's influence extended into academia, and was detectable in scholarly literature pertaining to a range of subject matter.[343][344] The two researchers combed through various scholars' writings, and compiled an annotated bibliography of those writings that appeared to meet at least one of several criteria. Among these criteria were appearance in a peer-reviewed journal, and the provision of insight into the nature of "popular icons including Jackson".[345] The bibliography located references to Jackson in research reports concerning music, popular culture, and an array of other topics. The bibliographers identified as their most peculiar finding an argument that certain aspects of chemistry can be effectively taught by altering and imitating elements of Jackson's singing.[346] One of the research librarians later reflected that "the fact that someone would take a Michael Jackson song and co-opt it as a means to convey chemistry concepts just shows the pervasiveness of Jackson's influence".[343]
Honors and awards[link]
Michael Jackson was inducted onto the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1980 as member of The Jacksons and in 1984 as solo artist. Throughout his career he received numerous honors and awards, including the World Music Awards' Best-Selling Pop Male Artist of the Millennium, the American Music Award's Artist of the Century Award and the Bambi Pop Artist of the Millennium Award.[165][347] He was a double-inductee of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, once as a member of The Jackson 5 in 1997 and later as a solo artist in 2001. Jackson was also inducted in several other hall of fames, including Vocal Group Hall of Fame (as The Jackson 5 member) in 1999, Songwriters Hall of Fame in 2002 and Hit Parade Hall of Fame (with his brothers) in 2009.[165][348] In 2010, Jackson was inducted into the Dance Hall of Fame as the first (and currently only) dancer from the world of pop and rock 'n' roll.[349] His awards include many Guinness World Records (eight in 2006 alone),[350] 13 Grammy Awards (as well as the Grammy Legend Award and the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award), 26 American Music Awards (24 only as a solo artist, including the "Artist of the Century", but not the poll of "Artist of the '80s")—more than any artist—, 13 number one singles in the US in his solo career—more than any other male artist in the Hot 100 era[351]—and estimated sales of up to 750 million records worldwide, making him the world's best selling male solo pop artist.[32][99][113][163][215][216][352][353][354][355][356] On December 29, 2009, the American Film Institute recognized Jackson's death as a "moment of significance" saying, "Michael Jackson's sudden death in June at age 50 was notable for the worldwide outpouring of grief and the unprecedented global eulogy of his posthumous concert rehearsal movie This Is It."[357] Michael Jackson also received a Doctor of Humane Letters Degree from the United Negro College Fund[358] and also an Honorary Doctorate of Humane Letters from Fisk University.[359]
Lifetime earnings[link]
His total lifetime earnings from royalties on his solo recordings and music videos, revenue from concerts and endorsements have been estimated at US$500 million; some analysts have speculated that his music catalog holdings could be worth billions of dollars.[98][360] This speculation however is contradicted by financial documents obtained by the Associated Press, which showed that as of March 31, 2007, Jackson's 50 percent stake in the Sony/ATV Music Publishing catalog (his most prized asset) was worth $390.6 million and Michael Jackson's net worth was $236 million.[361] Billboard has estimated that Jackson has generated at least $1 billion in revenue in the year following his death.[362]
Discography[link]
Main articles: Michael Jackson albums discography, Michael Jackson singles discography, and Michael Jackson videography
See also: Jackson 5 discography
- Got to Be There (1972)
- Ben (1972)
- Music & Me (1973)
- Forever, Michael (1975)
- Off the Wall (1979)
- Thriller (1982)
- Bad (1987)
- Dangerous (1991)
- HIStory: Past, Present and Future, Book I (1995)
- Invincible (2001)
Filmography[link]
Main article: Michael Jackson videography
| Year | Film | Role | Director |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1978 | The Wiz[363] | Scarecrow | Lumet, SidneySidney Lumet |
| 1986 | Captain EO[364] | Captain EO | Coppola, Francis FordFrancis Ford Coppola |
| 1988 | Moonwalker[365] | Himself | Kramer, JerryJerry Kramer |
| 1997 | Michael Jackson's Ghosts[366] | Maestro/Mayor/Ghoul/Skeleton | Winston, StanStan Winston |
| 2002 | Men in Black II[367] | Agent M (cameo) | Sonnenfeld, BarryBarry Sonnenfeld |
| 2004 | Miss Cast Away and the Island Girls[368] | Agent MJ (cameo) | Stoller, Bryan MichaelBryan Michael Stoller |
| 2009 | Michael Jackson's This Is It[369] | Himself | Ortega, KennyKenny Ortega |
Tours[link]
- Bad World Tour (1987–89)
- Dangerous World Tour (1992–93)
- HIStory World Tour (1996–97)
- This Is It (2009–10) (cancelled)
See also[link]
 |
Book: Michael Jackson |
| Wikipedia books are collections of articles that can be downloaded or ordered in print. | |
- Honorific nicknames in popular music
- Michael Jackson-related games
- List of awards received by Michael Jackson
- List of best-selling albums
- List of best-selling music artists
- List of best-selling music artists in the United States
- List of most expensive music videos
- List of unreleased Michael Jackson material
- List of cover versions of Michael Jackson songs
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- ^ a b Lewis, pp. 95–96
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- ^ Shanahan, Mark and Golstein, Meredith (June 27, 2009). "Remembering Michael". The Boston Globe. http://www.boston.com/ae/celebrity/articles/2009/06/27/writer_stephen_davis_remembers_michael_jackson. Retrieved March 14, 2010.
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- ^ Press references to Jackson as a music "king" appeared as early as 1984 after he swept the Grammy Awards, and "king of pop" appeared as early as 1987. MTV and Fox used the title in joint press releases and ads for the "Black or White" video at Jackson's request, but MTV denied a report that VJs were required to use it on-camera. Writers described the title as self-proclaimed from then on.
- ^ Arar, Yardena (February 29, 1984). "Michael Jackson coronated latest king of rock 'n' roll". Boca Raton News: p. 7A.
- ^ Staff writer (July 27, 1987). "Is the thrill gone for singer Michael Jackson?". Sacramento Bee: p. B3.
- ^ Browne, David (November 29, 1991). "Michael Jackson's Black or White Blues". Entertainment Weekly.
- ^ Campbell (1993) pp. 260–263
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- ^ a b c d e f g "The return of the King of Pop". MSNBC. (November 2, 2006). http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/15529981/. Retrieved June 8, 2008.
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- ^ Taraborrelli, p. 459
- ^ Harrington, Richard (February 5, 1992). "Jackson to Tour Overseas". The Washington Post.
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- ^ Smith, Patricia (January 20, 1992). "Facing the music and the masses at the presidential gala". The Boston Globe.
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- ^ Taraborrelli, pp. 485–486
- ^ a b c Taraborrelli, pp. 477–478
- ^ Taraborrelli, pp. 496–498
- ^ a b Taraborrelli, pp. 534–540
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- ^ "Photos May Contradict Michael's Accuser USA Today (pre-1997 Fulltext) – McLean, Va. Date: Jan 28, 1994" (PDF). http://site2.mjeol.com/pdf/important-article/photos-may-contradict-michael-s-accuser-1994.pdf. Retrieved June 25, 2010.
- ^ "Photos May Contradict Michael's Accuser USA Today (pre-1997 Fulltext) – McLean, Va. Date: Jan 28, 1994". Pqasb.pqarchiver.com. January 28, 1994. http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/USAToday/access/55226686.html?did=55226686&FMT=ABS&FMTS=FT&desc=Photos+may+contradict+Michael%27s+accuser1. Retrieved June 25, 2010.
- ^ Campbell (1995), pp. 47–50
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- ^ "Michael Jackson's Big Payoff. Agreed to pay $15 million to settle boy's 1993 sex abuse claim. The Smoking Gun, June 16". Thesmokinggun.com. http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/0616041jacko5.html. Retrieved June 25, 2010.
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- ^ Taraborrelli, pp. 500–507
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- ^ a b c Taraborrelli, pp. 518–520
- ^ Taraborrelli, p. 510
- ^ a b "She's Out Of His Life". CNN. (January 18, 1996). http://www.cnn.com/US/9601/jacko_presley/. Retrieved July 24, 2008.
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- ^ a b Taraborrelli, pp. 580–581
- ^ Lisa Marie Presley Opens Up About Michael Jackson. Oprah.com. October 21, 2010.
- ^ Michael Jackson sells Beatles songs to Sony, The New York Times, November 8, 1995.
- ^ a b Leeds, Jeff (April 13, 2006). "Michael Jackson Bailout Said to Be Close". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2006/04/13/business/media/13music.html?ex=1302580800&en=45bff2f7a4da68fe&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss. Retrieved July 23, 2008.
- ^ "Top 100 Albums (Page 2)". Recording Industry Association of America. http://www.riaa.com/goldandplatinumdata.php?resultpage=2&table=tblTop100&action=. Retrieved April 16, 2008.
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- ^ a b c d e f g h George, pp. 48–50
- ^ Taraborrelli, pp. 576–577
- ^ a b "ADL happy with Michael Jackson decision". Anti-Defamation League. (June 22, 1995). http://www.adl.org/PresRele/ASUS_12/2471_12.asp. Retrieved July 1, 2008.
- ^ "Brooks turns down award for favorite artist of the year". Rome News-Tribune. (January 30, 1996). http://news.google.co.uk/newspapers?id=LWUwAAAAIBAJ&sjid=YzMDAAAAIBAJ&pg=5552,8128572&dq=american+music+awards&hl=en. Retrieved June 16, 2010.
- ^ Taraborrelli, pp. 570–586
- ^ Taraborrelli, p. 597
- ^ a b Taraborrelli, pp. 599–600
- ^ a b "Jackson child custody battle ends". BBC News (BBC Online). September 30, 2006. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/5394792.stm. Retrieved April 25, 2010.
- ^ a b Rojek, Chris (2007). Cultural Studies. Polity. p. 74. ISBN 0-7456-3683-7.
- ^ a b c d e Taraborrelli, pp. 610–612
- ^ "Ricky Martin, Mariah Carey, Michael Jackson, Others To Join Pavarotti For Benefit". VH1. (May 5, 1999). http://www.vh1.com/news/articles/1426933/19990505/carey_mariah.jhtml. Retrieved May 30, 2008.
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- ^ a b "Lauryn Hill, Backstreet Boys, DMX Honored With American Music Awards". MTV. (January 18, 2000). http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1425174/20000118/backstreet_boys.jhtml. Retrieved June 16, 2010.
- ^ a b c d e Taraborrelli, pp. 614–617
- ^ a b c George, pp. 50–53
- ^ a b Liveblogging Michael Jackson's funeral and memorial service, The Guardian, July 7, 2009.
- ^ Conniff, Tamara (August 30, 2009). "We Killed Michael Jackson". Huffington Post. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/tamara-conniff/we-killed-michael-jackson_b_272174.html. Retrieved August 30, 2009.
- ^ a b Burkeman, Oliver (July 8, 2002). "Jacko gets tough: but is he a race crusader or just a falling star?". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2002/jul/08/oliverburkeman. Retrieved July 23, 2008.
- ^ Jackson, Jermaine ((December 31, 2002)). Interview with Connie Chung. "Interview with Jermaine Jackson". CNN. Connie Chung Tonight. http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0212/31/cct.00.html. Retrieved July 2, 2008.
- ^ "Keys, Destiny's Child, McGraw win at American Music Awards". Lodi-News Sentinel. (January 10, 2002). http://news.google.co.uk/newspapers?id=Oc40AAAAIBAJ&sjid=GyEGAAAAIBAJ&pg=5669,889435&dq=american+music+awards+michael+jackson&hl=en. Retrieved June 16, 2010.
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- ^ "BPI Searchable database—Gold and Platinum". British Phonographic Industry.
- ^ a b Taraborrelli, p. 640
- ^ Taraborrelli, p. 661
- ^ Davis, Matthew (June 6, 2005). "Michael Jackson health concerns". BBC. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/4612897.stm. Retrieved April 14, 2008.
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- ^ "Jermaine Jackson reveals escape plan for Michael". Associated Press. September 10, 2011. http://hosted2.ap.org/PAPRI/a6ce7ad62f4a4c5c8250b21416094092/Article_2011-09-10-EU-Britain-Michael-Jackson/id-e252a4862bc04271938b75a1ab78bac5. Retrieved September 24, 2011.
- ^ McNamara, Melissa (March 17, 2006). "Jackson Closes Neverland House". CBS News. http://www.showbuzz.cbsnews.com/stories/2006/03/17/people/main1414450.shtml. Retrieved April 25, 2010.
- ^ Ackman, Dan (June 14, 2005). "Really Odd Facts About Michael Jackson". Forbes. http://www.forbes.com/2005/06/14/jackson-celebrity-trial-cx_da_0614topnews.html. Retrieved October 7, 2009.
- ^ "Jackson strikes deal over loans". BBC News (BBC Online). April 14, 2006. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/4909412.stm. Retrieved April 25, 2010.
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- ^ a b "Jackson parts with Bahrain label". BBC News (BBC Online). September 26, 2006. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/5380654.stm. Retrieved April 25, 2010.
- ^ Friedman, Roger (October 21, 2006). "Who's Funding Jackson's Retreat to Irish Recording Studio?". FOX News. http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,222797,00.html. Retrieved September 2, 2009.
- ^ "2006 World Music Awards". Chiff. Archived from the original on February 4, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080204051554/http://www.chiff.com/pop-culture/world-music-awards.htm. Retrieved February 13, 2008.
- ^ Reid, Shaheem. James Brown Saluted By Michael Jackson at Public Funeral Service, MTV, December 30, 2006.
- ^ "Michael Jackson buys rights to Eminem tunes and more,". Rolling Stone (Wenner Media LLC). May 31, 2007.
- ^ Wardrop, Murray (June 27, 2009). "Michael Jackson: the unreleased album". The Daily Telegraph (London). http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/music/michael-jackson/5656918/Michael-Jackson-the-unreleased-album.html. Retrieved March 19, 2010.
- ^ "Interview With RedOne". HitQuarters. March 23, 2009. http://www.hitquarters.com/index.php3?page=intrview/opar/intrview_RedOne_Interview.html. Retrieved March 19, 2010.
- ^ Talmadge, Eric. Michael Jackson 'wouldn't change anything', Associated Press, 2007. Retrieved July 25, 2008.
- ^ "Will.i.am On Working With Michael Jackson". Rolling Stone (Wenner Media LLC). September 24, 2007.
- ^ a b "Zona Musical" (in Spanish). zm.nu. Archived from the original on March 29, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080329232427/http://zm.nu/detalle.php?base=zmnews&lay=cgi&form=detalle&tok4=notici&tok5=Noticias&id=17840. Retrieved April 5, 2008.
- ^ "Thriller the best selling album of all time". digitalproducer. (February 20, 2008). http://digitalproducer.digitalmedianet.com/articles/viewarticle.jsp?id=312105&afterinter=true. Retrieved April 6, 2008.
- ^ "Michael Jackson Thriller 25". ultratop.be. http://www.ultratop.be/nl/showitem.asp?interpret=Michael+Jackson&titel=Thriller+25&cat=a. Retrieved April 6, 2008.
- ^ Friedman, Roger (May 16, 2008). "Jacko: Neverland East in Upstate New York". Fox News Channel. http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,356282,00.html#3. Retrieved May 22, 2008.
- ^ "Choose The Tracks On Michael Jackson's 50th Birthday Album!". Sony BMG. (June 20, 2008). http://www.sonybmg.com.au/news/details.do;.tomcat2?newsId=20030829005656. Retrieved June 20, 2008.
- ^ "Michael Jackson—King of Pop". acharts.us. http://acharts.us/album/37399. Retrieved September 11, 2008.
- ^ "King of Pop". www.ultratop.be. http://www.ultratop.be/nl/search.asp?search=king+of+pop&cat=a. Retrieved September 5, 2008.
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- ^ "Jacko gives up Neverland ranch deed". Press Association. (November 16, 2008).
- ^ Adams, Susan (April 14, 2009). "Ten Most Expensive Michael Jackson Collectibles". Forbes. http://www.forbes.com/2009/04/14/michael-jackson-auction-lifestyle-collecting-michael-jackson.html. Retrieved April 14, 2009.
- ^ "Michael Jackson Exhibition – 2009". Juliensauctions.com. April 25, 2009. http://www.juliensauctions.com/auctions/2009/michael-jackson/index.html. Retrieved September 2, 2009.
- ^ "Michael Jackson: The fantastic possessions revealed – Americas, World". The Independent (London). June 26, 2009. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/michael-jackson-auction-cancelled-after-lawsuit-1668969.html. Retrieved September 2, 2009.
- ^ Foster, Patrick (March 6, 2009). "Michael Jackson grand finale curtain-raiser". The Times (London). http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article5854735.ece. Retrieved March 24, 2009.
- ^ Kreps, Daniel (March 12, 2009). "Michael Jackson's "This Is It!" Tour Balloons to 50-Show Run Stretching Into 2010". Rolling Stone (Jann Wenner LLC).
- ^ "Michael Jackson: The Last Rehearsal". Life. June 29, 2009. http://www.life.com/image/88744450/in-gallery/29532/michael-jackson-the-last-rehearsal. Retrieved August 28, 2009. [dead link]
- ^ "Michael Jackson dead at 50 after cardiac arrest". CNN. June 25, 2009. http://www.cnn.com/2009/SHOWBIZ/Music/06/25/michael.jackson/index.html. Retrieved August 31, 2009.
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- ^ Joyce Eng (August 10, 2009). "Judge Approves Michael Jackson Film". TV Guide. http://www.tvguide.com/News/Michael-Jackson-Film-1008827.aspx. Retrieved August 10, 2009.
- ^ "This is It (2009)". Box Office Mojo. http://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=michaeljacksonthisisit.htm. Retrieved January 16, 2010.
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- ^ Herrera, Monica (September 23, 2009). "New Michael Jackson Song, Album Due In October". Billboard.com. Nielsen Business Media, Inc. http://www.billboard.com/#/news/new-michael-jackson-song-album-due-in-october-1004015054.story. Retrieved March 3, 2010.
- ^ a b "Taylor Swift, Michael Jackson dominate American Music Awards nominations (Updated)". Los Angeles Times (Tribune Company). October 13, 2009. http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/music_blog/2009/10/taylor-swift-michael-jackson-dominate-american-music-awards-nominations.html. Retrieved October 14, 2009.
- ^ a b "2009 American Music Awards: Scorecard". Los Angeles Times (Tribune Company). November 22, 2009. http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/music_blog/2009/11/2009-american-music-awards-scorecard.html. Retrieved November 23, 2009.
- ^ a b Harvey, Michael (June 26, 2009). "Fans mourn artist for whom it didn't matter if you were black or white". The Times (London). http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/us_and_americas/article6580897.ece. Retrieved June 26, 2009.
- ^ "Los Angeles Fire Department recording of the emergency phone call made from Michael Jackson's home". BBC. June 26, 2009. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/8121884.stm. Retrieved June 27, 2009.
- ^ "Transcript of 911 call". Yahoo! News. June 26, 2009.
- ^ "Singer Michael Jackson dead at 50-Legendary pop star had been preparing for London comeback tour". MSNBC. June 25, 2009. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/31552029?gt1=43001. Retrieved June 25, 2009.
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- ^ Shiels, Maggie. Web slows after Jackson's death, BBC News, June 26, 2009.
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- ^ The Sun, July 8, 2009, pp. 10–11.
- ^ Jacko Telethon: Primetime Broadcast Network Coverage Devotes One Third of All News to Pop Star's Death, newsbusters.org, July 10, 2009.
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- ^ Video of Sharpton's eulogy, Macleans, July 7, 2009.
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- Bibliography
- Brackett, Nathan; Christian Hoard (2004). The Rolling Stone Album Guide. Fireside. ISBN 0-7432-0169-8.
- Campbell, Lisa (1993). Michael Jackson: The King of Pop. Branden. ISBN 0-8283-1957-X.
- Campbell, Lisa (1995). Michael Jackson: The King of Pop's Darkest Hour. Branden. ISBN 0-8283-2003-9. http://books.google.ca/books?id=BVC9zltjf-EC&lpg=PP1&dq=michael%20jackson&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true.
- George, Nelson (2004). Michael Jackson: The Ultimate Collection booklet. Sony BMG.
- Guinness World Records (2003). Guinness World Records 2004. Guinness. ISBN 1-892051-20-6.
- Guinness World Records (2005). Guinness World Records 2006. Guinness. ISBN 1-904994-02-4.
- Jackson, Michael (2009) [First published 1988]. Moonwalk. Random House. ISBN 978-0-307-71698-9. http://books.google.ca/books?id=E9sGl5P8vQMC&lpg=PP1&dq=Moonwalk&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true.
- Ramage, John D.; Bean, John C.; Johnson, June (2001). Writing arguments: a rhetoric with readings. Allyn and Bacon. ISBN 0-205-31745-6.
- Taraborrelli, J. Randy (2009). Michael Jackson: The Magic, The Madness, The Whole Story, 1958–2009. Terra Alta, WV: Grand Central Publishing, 2009. ISBN 0-446-56474-5, 9780446564748.
Further reading[link]
- Dineen, Catherine (1993). Michael Jackson: In His Own Words. Omnibus Press. ISBN 0-7119-3216-6. http://books.google.ca/books?id=DEspWj_IN_UC&lpg=PP1&dq=Michael%20Jackson%3A%20In%20His%20Own%20Words&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true.
- Grant, Adrian (1994, 1997, 2002 and 2005). Michael Jackson: The Visual Documentary. Omnibus Press. ISBN 1-84449-432-2.
- Jackson, Michael (2006). My World, The Official Photobook, Vol. 1. Triumph International. ISBN 0-9768891-1-0.
- Jones, Bob (2005). Michael Jackson: The Man Behind the Mask. Select Books Inc. ISBN 1-59079-072-3. http://books.google.ca/books?id=8j4ILUllObsC&lpg=PP1&dq=Michael%20Jackson%3A%20The%20Man%20Behind%20the%20Mask&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true.
- Jefferson, Margo; Brown (2007). On Michael Jackson. Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0-307-27765-7. http://books.google.com/?id=WJiPk-3oPGkC&lpg=PP1&dq=Michael%20Jackson&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true.
- Noonan, Damien (1994) (Audio book). Michael Jackson. Carlton Books. ISBN 1-85797-587-1.
External links[link]
| Find more about Michael Jackson on Wikipedia's sister projects: | |
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Jackson, Michael Joseph |
| Alternative names | Jackson, Michael Joe; Jackson, Michael J. |
| Short description | Singer |
| Date of birth | August 29, 1958 |
| Place of birth | Gary, Indiana, United States |
| Date of death | June 25, 2009 |
| Place of death | Los Angeles, California, United States |
http://wn.com/Michael_Jackson
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This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Jackson
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This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
