Bengal
Map of the Bengal region: West Bengal, Tripura and Bangladesh
Largest Cities[1]	Kolkata (Calcutta) 23°20′N 88°13′E / 23.34°N 88.22°E / 23.34; 88.22 (Kolkata) Dhaka 23°25′N 90°13′E / 23.42°N 90.22°E / 23.42; 90.22 (Dhaka)
Main language	Bengali (Bangla)
Area	232,752 km²
Population (2001)	245,598,679[2][3]
Density	951.3/km²[2][3]
Infant mortality rate	55.91 per 1000 live births[4][5]
Websites	bangladesh.gov.bd and wbgov.com

Bengal (Bengali: বাংলা  Bangla (help·info), Bengali: বঙ্গ Bôngo, Bengali: বঙ্গদেশ Bôngodesh, or Bengali: বাংলাদেশ Bangladesh) is a historical and geographical region in the northeast region of the Indian Subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal. Today, it is mainly divided between the sovereign land of People's Republic of Bangladesh (previously East Bengal / East Pakistan) and the Indian state of West Bengal, although some regions of the previous kingdoms of Bengal (during local monarchical regimes and British rule) are now part of the neighboring Indian states of Bihar, Jharkhand, Assam, Tripura and Orissa. The majority of Bengal is inhabited by Bengali people (বাঙালি Bangali) who speak the Bengali language (বাংলা Bangla).

The region of Bengal is one of the most densely populated regions on earth, with a population density exceeding 900/km². Most of the Bengal region lies in the low-lying Ganges–Brahmaputra River Delta or Ganges Delta, the world's largest delta. In the southern part of the delta lies the Sundarbans—the world's largest mangrove forest and home of the Bengal tiger. Though the population of the region is mostly rural and agrarian, two megacities, Kolkata (previously Calcutta) and Dhaka (previously Dacca), are located in Bengal. The Bengal region is renowned for its rich literary and cultural heritage as well as its immense contribution to the socio-cultural uplift of Indian society in the form of the Bengal Renaissance, and revolutionary activities during the Indian independence movement.

Etymology[link]

The exact origin of the word Bangla or Bengal is unknown, though it is believed to be derived from the Dravidian-speaking tribe Bang that settled in the area around the year 1000 BC.^[6]

Vanga was a known to be a kingdom during the times of Mahabharata.

Other accounts speculate that the name is derived from Banga (বঙ্গ bôngo), which came from the Austric word "Bonga" meaning the Sun-god. The word Banga and other words speculated to refer to Bengal (such as Anga) can be found in ancient Indian texts including the Vedas, Jaina texts, the Mahabharata and Puranas. The earliest reference to "Bangala" (বঙ্গাল bôngal) has been traced in the Nesari plates (805 AD) of Rashtrakuta Govinda III which speak of Dharmapala as the king of Vangala.^[7]

Some accounts claim that the word may derive from bhang, a preparation of cannabis which is used in some religious ceremonies in Bengal.^[8][9] Dravidians migrated to Bengal from the south, while Tibeto-Burman peoples migrated from the Himalayas,^[10] followed by the Indo-Aryans from north-western India. The modern Bengali people are a blend of these people. Smaller numbers of Pathans, Persians, Arabs and Turks also migrated to the region in the late Middle Ages while spreading Islam.

History[link]

Remnants of Copper Age settlements in the Bengal region date back 4,300 years.^[11][12] After the arrival of Indo-Aryans, the kingdoms of Anga, Vanga and Magadha were formed by the 10th century BC, located in the Bihar and Bengal regions. Magadha was one of the four main kingdoms of India at the time of Buddha and consisted of several Janapadas.^[10] One of the earliest foreign references to Bengal is the mention of a land named Gangaridai by the Greeks around 100 BC, located in an area in Bengal.^[13] From the 3rd to the 6th centuries AD, the kingdom of Magadha served as the seat of the Gupta Empire.

The first recorded independent king of Bengal was Shashanka, reigning around early 7th century.^[14] After a period of anarchy, the native Buddhist Pala Empire ruled the region for four hundred years, and expanded across much of the Indian subcontinent into Afghanistan during the reigns of Dharmapala and Devapala. The Pala dynasty was followed by the reign of the Hindu Saiva Sena dynasty. Islam made its first appearance in Bengal during the 12th century when Sufi missionaries arrived. Later, occasional Muslim raiders reinforced the process of conversion by building mosques, madrassas and Sufi Khanqah. Beginning in 1202 a military commander from the Delhi Sultanate, Bakhtiar Khilji, overran Bihar and Bengal as far east as Rangpur, Bogra and the Brahmaputra River. Although he failed to bring Bengal under his control, the expedition managed to defeat Lakshman Sen and his two sons moved to a place then called Vikramapur (present-day Munshiganj District), where their diminished dominion lasted until the late 13th century.

During the 14th century, the former kingdom became known as the Sultanate of Bengal, ruled intermittently with the Sultanate of Delhi as well as powerful Hindu states and land-lords-Baro-Bhuyans. The Hindu Deva Kingdom ruled over eastern Bengal after the collapse Sena Empire. The Sultanate of Bengal was interrupted by an uprising by the Hindus under Raja Ganesha. The Ganesha dynasty began in 1414, but his successors converted to Islam. Bengal came once more under the control of Delhi as the Mughals conquered it in 1576. There were several independent Hindu states established in Bengal during the Mughal period like those of Maharaja Pratap Aditya of Jessore and Raja Sitaram Ray of Burdwan. These kingdoms contributed a lot to the economic and cultural landscape of Bengal. Extensive land reclamations in forested and marshy areas were carried out and trade as well as commerce were highly encouraged. These kingdoms also helped introduce new music, painting, dancing and sculpture into Bengali art-forms as well as many temples were constructed during this period. Militarily, they served as bulwarks against Portuguese and Burmese attacks. Koch Bihar Kingdom in the northern Bengal, flourished during the period of 16th and the 17th centuries as well as weathered the Mughals and survived till the advent of the British.

In 1534, the ethnic Afghan Pashtun Sher Shah Suri, or Farid Khan — a man of incredible military and political skill — succeeded in defeating the superior forces of the Mughals under Humayun at Chausa (1539) and Kannauj (1540). Sher Shah fought back and captured both Delhi and Agra and established a kingdom stretching far into Punjab. Sher Shah's administrative skill showed in his public works, including the Grand Trunk Road connecting Sonargaon in Bengal with Peshawar in the Hindu Kush. Sher Shah's rule ended with his death in 1545, although even in those five years his reign would have a powerful influence on Indian society, politics, and economics.

Shah Suri's successors lacked his administrative skill, and quarreled over the domains of his empire. Humayun, who then ruled a rump Mughal state, saw an opportunity and in 1554 seized Lahore and Delhi. When Humayun died in Jan.1556, Hemu, also called Hem Chandra Vikramaditya, the then Hindu Prime Minister-cum- Chief of Army, of the Sur dynasty had already won Bengal in the battle at Chapperghatta, killing Muhammad Shah the then ruler of Bengal. This was Hemu's 20th continuous win in North India. Knowing of Humanyun's death, Hemu rushed to Delhi to win Agra and later on Delhi and established 'Hindu Raj' in North India on 6th Oct. 1556, after 300 years of Muslim rule, leaving Bengal to his Governor Shahbaz Khan. Akbar, the greatest of the Mughal emperors, who defeated the Karani rulers of Bengal in 1576. Bengal became a Mughal subah and ruled through subahdars (governors). Akbar exercised progressive rule and oversaw a period of prosperity (through trade and development) in Bengal and northern India.

Bengal's trade and wealth impressed the Mughals that they called the region the "Paradise of the Nations". Administration by governors appointed by the court of the Mughal Empire court (1575–1717) gave way to four decades of semi-independence under the Nawabs of Murshidabad, who respected the nominal sovereignty of the Mughals in Delhi. The Nawabs granted permission to the French East India Company to establish a trading post at Chandernagore in 1673, and the British East India Company at Calcutta in 1690. The most notable among them is Murshid Quli Khan, who was succeeded by Alivardi Khan. Around the early 1700s, the Maratha Empire led expeditions in Bengal. The leader of the expedition was Maratha Maharaja Raghuji of Nagpur. Raghoji was able to annex Orissa and parts of Bengal permanently as he successfully exploited the chaotic conditions prevailing in the region after the death of their Governor Murshid Quli Khan in 1727.^[15] The expeditions resulted in Bengal becoming a tributary region of the Marathas for a period of time.

Portuguese traders arrived late in the fifteenth century, once Vasco da Gama reached India by sea in 1498. European influence grew until the British East India Company gained taxation rights in Bengal subah, or province, following the Battle of Plassey in 1757, when Siraj ud-Daulah, the last independent Nawab, was defeated by the British.^[16] The Bengal Presidency was established by 1766, eventually including all British territories north of the Central Provinces (now Madhya Pradesh), from the mouths of the Ganges and the Brahmaputra to the Himalayas and the Punjab. The Bengal famine of 1770 claimed millions of lives.^[17] Calcutta was named the capital of British India in 1772. The Bengal Renaissance and Brahmo Samaj socio-cultural reform movements had great impact on the cultural and economic life of Bengal. The failed Indian rebellion of 1857 started near Calcutta and resulted in transfer of authority to the British Crown, administered by the Viceroy of India.^[18] Between 1905 and 1911, an abortive attempt was made to divide the province of Bengal into two zones.^[19] As a direct consequence of this failed attempt to partition Bengal, the British moved the capital of British India from Calcutta to Delhi.

Bengal has played a major role in the Indian independence movement, in which revolutionary groups were dominant. Armed attempts to overthrow the British Raj reached a climax when Subhash Chandra Bose led the Indian National Army against the British. Bengal was also central in the rising political awareness of the Muslim population—the Muslim League was established in Dhaka in 1906. In spite of a last-ditch effort to form a United Bengal,^[20] when India gained independence in 1947, Bengal was partitioned along religious lines.^[21] The western part went to India (and was named West Bengal) while the eastern part joined Pakistan as a province called East Bengal (later renamed East Pakistan, giving rise to Bangladesh in 1971). The circumstances of partition were bloody, with widespread religious riots in Bengal.^[21][22]

Post-1947 history[link]

The post-partition political history of East and West Bengal diverged for the most part. Starting from the Bengali Language Movement of 1952,^[23] political dissent against West Pakistani domination grew steadily. Awami League, led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, emerged as the political voice of the Bengali-speaking population of East Pakistan by 1960s.^[24] In 1971, the crisis deepened when Rahman was arrested and a sustained military assault was launched on East Pakistan.^[25] Most of the Awami League leaders fled and set up a government-in-exile in West Bengal. The guerrilla Mukti Bahini and Bengali regulars eventually received support from the Indian Armed Forces in December 1971, resulting in a decisive victory over Pakistan on 16 December in the Bangladesh Liberation War or Indo-Pakistani War of 1971.^[26] The post independence history of Bangladesh was strife with conflict, with a long history of political assassinations and coups before parliamentary democracy was established in 1991. Since then, the political environment has been relatively stable.

West Bengal, the western part of Bengal, became a state in India. In the 1960s and 1970s, severe power shortages, strikes and a violent Marxist-Naxalite movement damaged much of the state's infrastructure, leading to a period of economic stagnation. The Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971 resulted in the influx of millions of refugees to West Bengal, causing significant strains on its infrastructure.^[27] West Bengal politics underwent a major change when the Left Front won the 1977 assembly election, defeating the incumbent Indian National Congress. The Left Front, led by Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI(M)) has governed for the last three decades. The state's economic recovery gathered momentum after economic reforms in India were introduced in the mid-1990s by the central government, aided by election of a new reformist Chief Minister Buddhadeb Bhattacharya in 2000. In the West Bengal state assembly election, 2011,in West Bengal, CPI(M) alliance with 62 seats suffered a setback after 34 years of continuous rule, losing to Trinamool Congress led alliance's 226 seats. Its Chief Minister candidate who was also an incumbent Chief Minister, Buddhadeb Bhattacharjee also lost from his Jadavpur assembly constituency.^[28]

Geography[link]

Most of the Bengal region is in the low-lying Ganges–Brahmaputra River Delta or Ganges Delta. The Ganges Delta arises from the confluence of the rivers Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna rivers and their respective tributaries. The total area of Bengal is 232752  km²—West Bengal is 88,752 km² (34,267 sq mi) and Bangladesh 147,570 km² (56,977 sq mi).

Most parts of Bangladesh are within 10 meters (33 ft) above the sea level, and it is believed that about 10% of the land would be flooded if the sea level were to rise by 1 metre (3 ft).^[29] Because of this low elevation, much of this region is exceptionally vulnerable to seasonal flooding due to monsoons. The highest point in Bangladesh is in Mowdok range at 1,052 metres (3,451 ft) in the Chittagong Hill Tracts to the southeast of the country.^[30] A major part of the coastline comprises a marshy jungle, the Sundarbans, the largest mangrove forest in the world and home to diverse flora and fauna, including the Royal Bengal Tiger. In 1997, this region was declared endangered.^[31]

West Bengal is on the eastern bottleneck of India, stretching from the Himalayas in the north to the Bay of Bengal in the south. The state has a total area of 88,752 km² (34,267 sq mi).^[32] The Darjeeling Himalayan hill region in the northern extreme of the state belongs to the eastern Himalaya. This region contains Sandakfu (3,636 m (11,929 ft))—the highest peak of the state.^[33] The narrow Terai region separates this region from the plains, which in turn transitions into the Ganges delta towards the south. The Rarh region intervenes between the Ganges delta in the east and the western plateau and high lands. A small coastal region is on the extreme south, while the Sundarbans mangrove forests form a remarkable geographical landmark at the Ganges delta.

At least nine districts in West Bengal and 42 districts in Bangladesh have arsenic levels in groundwater above the World Health Organization maximum permissible limit of 50 µg/L (micro gram per litre) or 50 parts per billion and the untreated water is unfit for human consumption.^[34] The water causes arsenicosis, cancer of skin and various other complications in the body. Arsenic is four times as poisonous as mercury.

Major cities[link]

The following are the largest cities in Bengal (in terms of population):

Demographics[link]

Main articles: Demographics of Bangladesh and Demographics of West Bengal

About 250 million people live in Bengal, around 68% of them in Bangladesh and the remainder in West Bengal.^[2][35] The population density in the area is more than 900/km²; making it among the most densely populated areas in the world.^[2][3]

Bengali is the main language spoken in Bengal. English is often used for official work. There are small minorities who speak Hindi, Urdu, Chakma. There are several tribal languages including Santhali.

50% of the total Bengali population is Muslim, and 48% is Hindu.^{[citation needed]} Life expectancy is around 63 years, and are almost same for the men and women.^[36][37] In terms of literacy, West Bengal leads with 69.22% literacy rate,^[2] in Bangladesh the rate is approximately 53.5%.^[38] The level of poverty is high, the proportion of people living below the poverty line is more than 30%.^[39][40]

About 20,000 people live on chars. Chars are temporary islands formed by the deposition of sediments eroded off the banks of the Ganges in West Bengal which often disappear in the monsoon season. They are made of very fertile soil. The inhabitants of chars are not recognised by the Government of West Bengal on the grounds that it is not known whether they are Bengalis or Bangladeshi refugees. Consequently, no identification documents are issued to char-dwellers who cannot benefit from health care, barely survive due to very poor sanitation and are prevented from emigrating to the mainland to find jobs when they have turned 14. On a particular char it was reported that 13% of women died at childbirth.^[41]

Economy[link]

Agriculture is the leading occupation in the region. Rice is the staple food crop. Other food crops are pulses, potato, maize, and oil seeds. Jute is the principal cash crop. Tea is also produced commercially; the region is well known for Darjeeling and other high-quality teas.

Historically, Europe once regarded Bengal as "the richest country to trade with".^[42]

West Bengal[link]

The service sector is the largest contributor to the gross domestic product of West Bengal, contributing 51% of the state domestic product compared to 27% from agriculture and 22% from industry.^[43] State industries are localized in the Kolkata region and the mineral-rich western highlands. Durgapur–Asansol colliery belt is home to a number of major steel plants.^[44] As of 2003–2004^[update] West Bengal had the third-largest economy in India, with a net state domestic product of US$ 21.5 billion.^[43] During 2001–2002, the state's average SDP was more than 7.8%—outperforming the National GDP Growth.^[45] The state has promoted foreign direct investment, which has mostly occurred in the software and electronics fields;^[46] Kolkata is becoming a major hub for the information technology (IT) industry. Owing to the boom in Kolkata's and the overall state's economy, West Bengal as of 2005^[update] had the third-fastest-growing economy in India.^[47]

Bangladesh[link]

Since 1990, Bangladesh has achieved an average annual growth rate of 5% according to the World Bank, despite the hurdles. The middle class and the consumer industry have seen some growth. Bangladesh has seen a sharp increase in foreign direct investment. A number of multinational corporations, including Unocal Corporation and Tata, have made major investments, the natural gas sector being a priority. In December 2005, the Central Bank of Bangladesh projected GDP growth around 6.5%.^[48] Although two-thirds of Bangladeshis are farmers, more than three quarters of Bangladesh’s export earnings come from the garment industry,^[49] which began attracting foreign investors in the 1980s due to cheap labour and low conversion cost. In 2002, the industry exported US$5 billion worth of products.^[50] The industry now employs more than 3 million workers, 90% of whom are women.^[51] A large part of foreign currency earnings also comes from the remittances sent by expatriates living in other countries.

The provision of microcredit by Grameen Bank (founded by Muhammad Yunus) and by other similar organizations has contributed to the development of the economy of Bangladesh. Together, such organizations had about 5 million members by late 1990s.^[52][53]

Culture[link]

The common Bengali language and culture anchors the shared tradition of two parts of politically divided Bengal. Bengal has a long tradition in folk literature, evidenced by the Charyapada, Mangalkavya, Shreekrishna Kirtana, Maimansingha Gitika or Thakurmar Jhuli. Bengali literature in the medieval age was often either religious (e.g. Chandidas), or adaptations from other languages (e.g. Alaol). During the Bengal Renaissance of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Bengali literature was modernized through the works of authors such as Michael Madhusudan Dutta, Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, Rabindranath Tagore, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar and Kazi Nazrul Islam.

The Baul tradition is a unique heritage of Bangla folk music.^[54] The scholar saint Sri Anirvan loved Baul music, and in fact described himself as a simple Baul.^[55] Other folk music forms include Gombhira, Bhatiali and Bhawaiya. Folk music in Bengal is often accompanied by the ektara, a one-stringed instrument. Other instruments include the dotara, dhol, flute, and tabla. The region also has an active heritage in North Indian classical music.

Bengal had also been the harbinger of modernism in Indian arts. Abanindranath Tagore, one of the important 18th century artist from Bengal is often referred to as the father of Indian modern art. He had established the first non-British art academy in India known as the Kalabhavan within the premises of Santiniketan. Santiniketan in course of time had produced many important Indian artists like Gaganendranath Tagore, Nandalal Bose, Jamini Roy, Benode Bihari Mukherjee and Ramkinkar Baij. In the post-independence era, Bengal had produced important artists like Somenath Hore, Meera Mukherjee and Ganesh Pyne.

Rice and fish are traditional favorite foods, leading to a saying that in Bengali, mach ar bhaath bangali baanaay, that translates as "fish and rice make a Bengali".^[56] Bengal's vast repertoire of fish-based dishes includes Hilsa preparations, a favorite among Bengalis. Bengalis make distinctive sweetmeats from milk products, including Rôshogolla, Chômchôm, and several kinds of Pithe.

Bengali women commonly wear the shaŗi and the salwar kameez, often distinctly designed according to local cultural customs. In urban areas, many women and men wear Western-style attire. Among men, European dressing has greater acceptance. Men also wear traditional costumes such as the panjabi with dhuti or pyjama, often on religious occasions. The lungi, a kind of long skirt, is widely worn by Bangladeshi men.

The greatest religious festivals are the two Eids (Eid ul-Fitr and Eid ul-Adha) for the Muslims, and the autumnal Durga Puja for Hindus.^[57] Christmas (called Bôŗodin (Great day) in Bangla), Buddha Purnima are other major religious festivals. Other festivities include Pohela Baishakh (the Bengali New Year), Basanta-Utsab, Nobanno, and Poush parbon (festival of Poush).

Bengali cinema are made both in Kolkata and Dhaka. The Kolkata film industry is older and particularly well known for its art films. Its long tradition of film making has produced world famous directors like Satyajit Ray, while contemporary directors include Buddhadev Dasgupta and Aparna Sen. Dhaka also has a vibrant commercial industry and more recently has been home to critically acclaimed directors like Tareque Masud. Mainstream Hindi films of Bollywood are also quite popular in both West Bengal and Bangladesh. Around 200 dailies are published in Bangladesh, along with more than 1800 periodicals. West Bengal had 559 published newspapers in 2005,^[58] of which 430 were in Bangla.^[58] Cricket and football are popular sports in the Bengal region. Local games include sports such as Kho Kho and Kabaddi, the later being the national sport of Bangladesh. An Indo-Bangladesh Bangla Games has been organized among the athletes of the Bengali speaking areas of the two countries.^[59]

Intra-Bengal relations today[link]

Geographic, cultural, historic, and commercial ties are growing, and both countries recognize the importance of good relations. During and immediately after Bangladesh's struggle for independence from Pakistan in 1971, India assisted refugees from East Pakistan, and intervened militarily to help bring about the independence of Bangladesh. The Indo-Bangladesh border length of 4,095 km (2,545 mi), West Bengal has a border length of 2,216 km (1,377 mi).^[60] Despite overlapping historic, geographic and cultural ties, the relation between West Bengal and Bangladesh is still well below the potential.^[61] The pan-Bengali sentiment among the people of the two parts of Bengal was at its height during the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War.^[62] While the government radio and national press in India might have backed the struggle out of strategic considerations, the Bengali broadcast and print media went out of its way to lend overwhelming support.^[62]

Frequent air services link Kolkata with Dhaka and Chittagong. A bus service between Kolkata and Dhaka is operational. The primary road link is the Jessore Road which crosses the border at Petrapole-Benapole about 175 km (109 mi) north-west of Kolkata. The Train service between Kolkata and Dhaka, which was stopped after the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, was resumed in 2008.^[63]

Visa services are provided by Bangladesh's consulate at Kolkata's Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Road and India's high commissions in Dhaka, Chittagong and Rajshahi. India has a liberal visa policy and nearly 500,000 visas^[61] are issued every year to Bangladeshi students, tourists, health-tourists and others who visit West Bengal and often transit to other parts of India. People of West Bengal visit Bangladesh for limited numbers of tourism, pilgrimage, trade, expatriate assignments; there is significant potential for growth as Bangladesh's stability, economy, moderation in religion and tourist infrastructure improves. In addition West Bengal hosts the celebrated and controversial Bangladeshi author Taslima Nasreen.

Undocumented immigration of Bangladeshi workers is a controversial issue^[61] championed by right-wing nationalist parties in India but finds little sympathy in West Bengal. India has fenced the border to control this flow but immigration is still continuing.^[64] A rallying cry for the right-wing Hindu parties in India is that the demographics changed such as in West Bengal's border district of Malda from Hindu-majority to Muslim-majority.

The official land border crossing at Petrapole-Benapole is the primary conduit for the over $1 billion trade between the two halves of Bengal. The volume of unofficial exports to Bangladesh from India is reportedly in the range of $350–500 million each year.^[65] Bangladesh argues that India needs to open up its border more to Bangladeshi exports. Other landports between the two Bengals are Changrabandha-Burimari and Balurghat-Hili.

Cultural exchanges between the two parts of Bengal have been somewhat (but not fully) impacted by ups and downs in India-Bangladesh relations and in the influence of extremist Islamist groups in Bangladesh. West Bengal singers and actors complained about being rejected visas in previous years. West Bengal television channels are widely watched in Banglades, while no Bangladeshi channels are absent in West Bengal due to import policies. In foreign countries such as the U.S., Canada, Britain, and UAE, it is common for Bengalis from both sides to form joint cultural associations and friendships, although inter-marriage is not significant, especially across religious barriers.

Gallery[link]

The Royal Bengal Tiger   Worker in a paddy, a common scene all over Bengal   Shaheed Minar, or the Martyr's monument, in Dhaka, commemorates the struggle for the Bengali language.   Bhasha Smritistambha, or the Language Memorial, in Kolkata, commemorates thousand years of Bengali language and literature.   Baitul Mukarram in Dhaka is the National Mosque of Bangladesh.   Dakshineswar Kali Temple in Kolkata, West Bengal.   Bengal United Service Club.

See also[link]

Bengal portal

Notes[link]

References[link]

• Baxter, C (1997). Bangladesh, From a Nation to a State. Westview Press. pp. 0813336325. ISBN 1-85984-121-X 
• Bennett, A; Hindle, J (1996). London Review of Books: An Anthology. Verso. pp. 63–70. ISBN 1-85984-121-X 

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Bengal

Geo Links for Bengal

• Banglapedia-specialised site
• www.hostkingdom.net- List of rulers of Bengal
• WorldStatesmen- here India
• Information portal of West Bengal

Maps

Perry-Castañeda Library Map Collection at University of Texas at Austin Libraries

• India from The Historical Atlas by William R. Shepherd, 1923
• India 1760 from The Public Schools Historical Atlas edited by C. Colbeck. Longmans, Green, and Co. 1905
• India 1882 from A Dictionary Practical, Theoretical, and Historical of Commerce and Commercial Navigation by J.R. M'Culloch. Longmans, Green and Co. London, 1882

• Art and artists of Bengal

v t e Countries and territories of South Asia Countries Bangladesh · Bhutan · India · Maldives · Nepal · Pakistan · Sri Lanka Sometimes included Afghanistan · Burma · British Indian Ocean Territory · Iran · Tibet

• 24°00′N 88°00′E / 24°N 88°E / 24; 88Coordinates: 24°00′N 88°00′E / 24°N 88°E / 24; 88

Shahrukh Khan
Shahrukh Khan at TAG Heuer Press Conference.
Born	(1965-11-02) 2 November 1965 (age 46) New Delhi, India
Residence	Mumbai, Maharashtra, India[1]
Other names	King Khan, SRK, King of Bollywood, The Baadshah of Bollywood[2]
Occupation	Actor, producer, television presenter
Years active	1988—present
Spouse	Gauri Khan (1991—present)
Children	2

Shahrukh Khan (pronounced [‘ʃaːɦrəx ˈxaːn]; born 2 November 1965), often credited as Shah Rukh Khan and informally referred to as SRK, is an Indian film actor. Known as "The King of Bollywood", Khan has acted in over 70 Hindi films.^[3][4][5] He has won fourteen Filmfare Awards from thirty nominations for his work in Indian films and shares the record for the highest number of Best Actor awards with Dilip Kumar, eight wins. In 2005, the Government of India honoured him with the Padma Shri for his contributions towards Indian cinema.

After graduating with a Bachelor's degree in economics, he started his career appearing in theatre and several television serials in the late 1980s and later made his Hindi film debut in 1992 with Deewana. Early in his career he was recognised for his unconventional choice of negative roles in films such as Darr (1993), Baazigar (1993) and Anjaam (1994). Since then he has played leading roles in a wide variety of film genres, including romantic films, comedies, thrillers, action films, sport films, and historical dramas among others.

Eleven of the films he has acted in have accumulated gross earnings of over 1 billion (US$19.95 million).^[6] Khan's films such as Dilwale Dulhaniya Le Jayenge (1995), Kuch Kuch Hota Hai (1998), Devdas (2002), Chak De! India (2007), Om Shanti Om (2007), Rab Ne Bana Di Jodi (2008), and Ra.One (2011) remain some of Bollywood's biggest hits, while films like Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham... (2001), Kal Ho Naa Ho (2003), Veer-Zaara (2004), Kabhi Alvida Naa Kehna (2006), My Name Is Khan (2010), and Don 2 (2011) have been top-grossing Indian productions in the overseas markets thus making him one of the most successful leading actors of Hindi cinema.^[7]

In addition to movie acting, Khan is a television presenter, a regular stage performer, and a social activist. He is the founder/owner of two production companies: Dreamz Unlimited and Red Chillies Entertainment and, along with actress Juhi Chawla and her husband Jay Mehta, the owner of the Indian Premier League cricket team Kolkata Knight Riders. Khan is considered to be one of the biggest movie stars in history, with a fan following claimed to number in the billions.^[3][8] He has an estimated net worth of over 25 billion (US$540 million).^[9][10] In 2008, Newsweek named Khan one of the 50 most powerful people in the world.^[3]

Early life and background[link]

Khan was born on 2 November 1965 to Muslim parents of Pathan descent in New Delhi, India.^[11][12] His father, Taj Mohammed Khan, was an Indian independence activist from Peshawar, British India. According to Khan, his paternal grandfather was originally from Afghanistan.^[13] His mother, Lateef Fatima, was the adopted daughter of Major General Shah Nawaz Khan of the Janjua Rajput clan, who served in the Indian National Army.^[14] Khan's father came to New Delhi from Qissa Khawani Bazaar in Peshawar before the partition of India,^[15] Ethnically, he describes himself as being half-Pathan through his father and half-Hyderabadi through his mother, with his paternal grandmother being Kashmiri.^[16] His father died from cancer when Khan was 15 years old, and his mother died in 1990 after prolonged illness.^[17][18] Khan was very attached to his parents as a child and describes their early deaths as a turning point in his life and as his biggest motivation for hard work. Khan explained his ideology in life was "... to make movies so damn bloody big...that my parents somewhere sit down on a star and from there also can look at their son and say 'I can see his movies from here better than I can see the Wall of China or anything. We see his movies covering the face of this earth'."^[19] Khan has an elder sister named Shehnaz.^[20]

Growing up in Rajendra Nagar neighbourhood of Delhi,^[21] Khan attended St. Columba's School where he was accomplished in sports, drama, and academics. He won the Sword of Honour, an annual award given to the student who best represents the spirit of the school. Khan later attended the Hansraj College (1985–1988) and earned his Bachelors degree in Economics. When Hansraj College celebrated its 50th anniversary, it gave away 17 shields to its alumni who had excelled in their lives and professions. Khan was one of them. Though he pursued a Masters Degree in Mass Communications at Jamia Millia Islamia, he later opted out to pursue a career in Bollywood.^[22] He also attended the National School of Drama in Delhi.^[23]

After the death of his mother, Khan moved to Mumbai in 1991.^[24] He married Gauri Chibber, a Hindu, in a traditional Hindu wedding ceremony on 25 October 1991.^[17] They have two children, son Aryan (b. 1997) and daughter Suhana (b. 2000). According to Khan, while he strongly believes in Allah, he also values his wife's religion. At home, his children follow both religions, with the Qur'an being situated next to the Hindu deities.^[25]

Khan studied acting under celebrated theatre director Barry John at Delhi's "Theatre Action Group" (TAG). In 2007, John commented on his former pupil, "The credit for the phenomenally successful development and management of Shahrukh's career goes to the superstar himself."^[26] Khan started shooting for Lekh Tandon's television series Dil Dariya, but its delay meant that he made his acting debut with the 1988 television series, Fauji, playing the leading role of Commando Abhimanyu Rai.^[24][27] He went on to appear in other television serials, such as Aziz Mirza's Circus in 1989, which depicted the life of circus performers.^[28] The same year, Khan also had a minor role in the made-for-television English-language film, In Which Annie Gives it Those Ones, which was based on life at Delhi University, written by Arundhati Roy. When he appeared in those teleserials, people found in him some resemblance with actor Dilip Kumar and also compared his acting style with the latter's.^[29]

Acting career[link]

1990s[link]

Khan received his first break upon moving from New Delhi to Mumbai when Hema Malini offered him a role in her directorial debut Dil Aashna Hai.^[24] However, the delay in the release of the film meant that his first release was Deewana opposite Rishi Kapoor and Divya Bharti.^[23][30] The movie became a box office hit, and launched his career in Bollywood.^[31] His performance won him a Filmfare Best Male Debut Award. In a 2001 interview with Rediff, Khan recalled: "Actually, June 26 marks exactly 11 years since I faced the cameras for my first shot for Dil Aashna Hai, in 1990. I knew it would be a tough field, a very demanding profession."^[23] He went on to star in Maya Memsaab, which generated some controversy because of his appearance in an "explicit" sex scene in the movie.^[32]

In 1993, Khan won acclaim for his performances in villainous roles as an obsessive lover and a murderer, respectively, in the box office hits, Darr and Baazigar.^[33] In Khan's entry in Encyclopædia Britannica's "Encyclopedia of Hindi Cinema" it was stated that "he defied the image of the conventional hero in both these films and created his own version of the revisionist hero."^[34] Darr marked his first collaboration with renowned film-maker Yash Chopra and his banner Yash Raj Films, the largest production company in Bollywood. Khan's scene in the film, in which he makes obsessive phone calls to Chawla's character stammering "i love you, kkkiran," attained great popularity.^[35] Baazigar, which saw Khan portraying an ambiguous avenger who murders his girlfriend, shocked its Indian audience with an unexpected violation of the standard Bollywood formula.^[36] His performance won him his first Filmfare Best Actor Award. In that same year, Khan played the role of a young musician in Kundan Shah's Kabhi Haan Kabhi Naa, a performance that earned him a Filmfare Critics Award for Best Performance. In a 2004 retrospective review by Rediff, Sukanya Verma called it Khan's best performance and added:"He was spontaneous, vulnerable, boyish, mischievous and acting straight from the heart."^[37] Khan maintains that this is his all-time favourite among the movies he has acted in.^[38] In 1994, Khan once again played an obsessive lover/psycho's role in Anjaam, co-starring alongside Madhuri Dixit. Though the movie was not a box office success, Khan's performance earned him the Filmfare Best Villain Award.^[39]

In 1995, Khan starred in the two biggest hits of the year in India. His first release was Rakesh Roshan's Karan Arjun, Khan was part of an ensemble cast including Salman Khan, Kajol, Mamta Kulkarni, Raakhee and Amrish Puri. The film, which dealt with reincarnation, became the second-highest grossing film of the year in India.^[40] He followed it with Aditya Chopra's directorial debut, the romance Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge. A major critical and commercial success, the movie became the year's top-grossing production in India and abroad.^[41] The film was declared an all time blockbuster and it remains the longest-running film in the history of Indian cinema. Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge grossed over 1.2 billion. The film won ten Filmfare Awards, and Khan's performance as a young NRI who falls for Kajol's character while on a college vacation won him much critical acclaim and his second Best Actor Award. In 2005, Indiatimes Movies ranked the movie amongst the 25 Must See Bollywood Films, citing it as a "trendsetter of sorts".^[42] In that same year's retrospective review by Rediff, Raja Sen stated, "Khan gives a fabulous performance, redefining the Lover for the 1990s with great panache. He's cool and flippant, but sincere enough to appeal to the junta. The performance itself is, like the best in the business, played well enough to come across as effortless, as non-acting."^[43]

1996 proved a disappointing year for Khan, he appeared in two films—English Babu Desi Mem and Mahesh Bhatt' Chaahat both of which proved critically and commercially unsuccessful in India.^[44] This was, however, followed by a comeback in 1997. He saw success with Subhash Ghai's social drama Pardes opposite newcomer Mahima Chaudhry. The film brought to light the culture shock and difficulties that may be involved in the cases of young Indian women immigrating to foreign countries after their marriage to Non Resident Indian men. It was one of the biggest hits of the year and earned him a nomination for the Best Actor Award at the Filmfare ceremony. He then appeared in Aziz Mirza's comedy Yes Boss which paired him with Juhi Chawla for the fourth time. The film was a moderately successful feature.^[45] His second project with Yash Chopra as a director, Dil to Pagal Hai became that year's second highest-grossing movie, and he won his third Filmfare Best Actor Award for his role as a stage director who falls in love with one of his new actresses.^[45]

In 1998, Khan starred in Karan Johar's directorial debut, Kuch Kuch Hota Hai, which paired him with Kajol and Rani Mukerji. The movie was declared an all time blockbuster, with a worldwide gross of over 1.03 billion.^[46] Khan played the role of Rahul Khanna, a young college student who falls in love with his best friend after the death of his wife, years after breaking contact with her. His performance won him the Best Actor award at the Filmfare Awards for the second consecutive year. He won critical praise for his performance in Mani Ratnam's critically acclaimed Dil Se.., in which he played the part of Amar Varma, an All India Radio correspondent who falls deeply in love with a mysterious woman terrorist, played by Manisha Koirala.^[47] Rediff wrote: "Khan delivers a compelling performance. He plays the part with taut restraint, and expresses exasperation superbly."^[48] The movie failed financially in India, however, it was a commercial success overseas.^[49] becoming the first Indian film to enter the top 10 in the United Kingdom box office charts.^[50][51] Khan's only release in 1999, Baadshah opposite Twinkle Khanna, was an average grosser, for which he earned a Filmfare Award nomination for Best Performance in a Comic Role.^[52]

2000s[link]

Khan's success continued with Aditya Chopra's 2000 film, Mohabbatein, co-starring Amitabh Bachchan. The film was a major financial success, and Khan's performance as a college teacher was acclaimed by critics; Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama wrote that he "is outstanding as Raj Aryan." He was awarded his second Filmfare Critics Award for Best Actor for the role. He also starred in Mansoor Khan's action film Josh. The film starred Khan as the tough leader of a Christian gang in Goa and Aishwarya Rai as his twin sister, and was also a box office success.^[53] In a positive review, Vinayak Chakravorty of Hindustan Times wrote that Khan "basks in his tailormade role, donning with panache the garb of a streetsmart tough."^[54] He further played the role of an archaeologist Muslim beaten to death by Hindu fanatics during the unrest following the partition of India in Hey Ram. Directed by and co-starring Kamal Hassan, the film was critically acclaimed and was selected as India's entry for Best Foreign Language Film at the Oscars that year.^[55] Khan also dubbed his own voice in Tamil for the film.^[56] In that same year, Khan set up his own production house, Dreamz Unlimited with Juhi Chawla and director Aziz Mirza (see below). The three collaborated on the first film of their production house, Phir Bhi Dil Hai Hindustani.^[53]

In 2001, His collaboration with Karan Johar continued with the family drama Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham in which he featured as part of an ensemble cast that included Amitabh Bachchan, Jaya Bachchan, Kareena Kapoor, Kajol and Hrithik Roshan. the movie was a major financial success and became India's second highest-grossing film of the year and one of the biggest Bollywood success of all time in the overseas market, earning over 1,000 million (US$19.95 million) worldwide.^[57] Khan's portrayal of Rahul Raichand, an adopted young man who's disowned by his rich and powerful father, played by Bachchan, for marrying a middle-class girl Anjali, played by Kajol was well received by critics. Taran Adarsh commented, "Khan sparkles yet again", noting that he performed the part "with amazing poise, class, honesty and maturity".^[58] It garnered him a nomination for the Filmfare Best Actor Award. This was his last collaboration with Kajol until they would be cast again by Johar as a lead pair in early 2010.

The same year, Khan essayed the role of Emperor Asoka in Santosh Sivan's historical epic, Asoka, a partly fictionalised account of the life of Ashoka the Great.^[59] It was widely screened across the United Kingdom and North America, and was also selected for screening at the Venice Film Festival and the 2001 Toronto International Film Festival, where it got positive response.^[60] While promoting the film in New York City, Khan along with the film director, Sivan were stuck in the city due to the 11 September terrorist attack on the World Trade Center.^[60] The film received generally positive reviews and Khan received favourable reactions for his performance, Rediff concluded that "He puts in a strong performance, in this well defined role."^[61]

Khan during the filming of Swades (2004), his performance in the film is considered one of his best to date and earned him another Filmfare Best Actor Award.

In 2002, Khan played the title role in Sanjay Leela Bhansali's award-winning period romance, Devdas which was the most expensive Bollywood film ever made at the time.^[62] This was the third Hindi movie adaptation of Sharat Chandra Chattopadhyay's well-known novel of the same name. Featured opposite Aishwarya Rai and Madhuri Dixit, Khan's performance as a rebellious alcoholic is often considered one of his best performances, and won him a Filmfare Best Actor Award. The film surfaced as the highest-grossing film of the year in India and overseas, earning a revenue of 39 million (US$778,050) domestically.^[63][64] Devdas won numerous awards, including 10 Filmfare Awards and received a special screening at the 2002 Cannes Film Festival.^[65][66] It received a BAFTA nomination for Best Foreign Language Film as well and was India's entry for Best Foreign Language Film at the Oscars. After the release of the film, Khan took a six months break from acting, he explained that during that period he "Just enjoyed the feeling of being sad". In an interview with Rediff, Khan commented: "For an entire year, that is what I did. I was sad. " and added, "We stars live in this bubble where everyone is smiling at you, where everyone loves you. Somehow, you lose touch with real, deep down sadness. Working on this film put us in touch with that emotion."^[23] Khan also starred opposite Madhuri Dixit and Salman Khan in the family-drama Hum Tumhare Hain Sanam. The film took six years to make, with huge sabbaticals in between shoots due to unending production problems,^[67] and was an average grosser at the box office.^[63]

In 2003, Khan starred in Aziz Mirza's romantic drama, Chalte Chalte opposite Rani Mukerji. The film was moderately successful in India but fared much better in the overseas.^[68][69] Khan played the role of Raj Mathur, a middle class man who falls in love and marries Priya Chopra, a successful fashion designer whose family is quite wealthy. But after the marriage, differences arise between the couple, leading to an irreversible separation. Manish Gajjar of BBC mentioned that he is "a sheer natural which explains why he is a great asset to Bollywood." Several critics were not as positive, including Vivek Fernandes from Rediff, who noted: "Shah Rukh hams and haws his way through the film – biting his lip, crinkling his eyebrows – it is oh-so-familiar. He is over the top, especially as the inebriated Raj who confronts the estranged wife."^[70]

That same year, he starred in Kal Ho Naa Ho a drama set in New York City, written by Karan Johar and directed by Nikhil Advani co-starring Jaya Bachchan, Preity Zinta and Saif Ali Khan. Khan's performance as a man with a fatal heart disease was met with positive response from critics. The Hindu noted, "His enthusiasm unbounded, his energy unbridled, Shah Rukh is in form here. And as a guy with a few days to live and a life to spend in a moment, he looks for your sympathy. He reduces many to tears. And with each tear he rises a rank higher in the echelons of actors".^[71] while rediff concluded, "Shah Rukh excels as the supercool Aman (...) He steals the show with a designer-made role."^[72] The film was a critical and commercial success, becoming the second top-grossing movie domestically and the top-grossing Bollywood film in the overseas market that year.^[68] When adjusted for inflation its total gross worldwide is 1.3 billion.^[73] The film earned him another Filmfare Best Actor Award nomination.

2004 was a particularly good year for Khan, both commercially and critically. He produced and starred in Farah Khan's directorial debut, the action comedy Main Hoon Na. The movie did well at the box office. He then played the role of an Indian officer, Veer Pratap Singh in Yash Chopra's love saga Veer-Zaara, which was the biggest hit of 2004 in both India and overseas, with a worldwide gross of over 960 million.^[57][74] It was also screened at the Berlin Film Festival.^[75] The film relates the love story of Veer and a Pakistani woman Zaara Haayat Khan, played by Preity Zinta. Khan's performance in the film was praised by critics and won him awards at several award ceremonies. Rama Sharma from The Tribune wrote:"Shah Rukh Khan here scales the heights of sensitivity, rising above the mundane. His expressions are mature and reach out to touch the heart of the common man. As a prisoner lodged in a Pakistani jail, he breathes life into the story. His trauma becomes a saga and speaks about the untold sufferings of innocent prisoners."^[76]

In that same year, he received critical acclaim for his performance in Ashutosh Gowariker's drama Swades which most of the critics deemed as one of his best performance till date.^[77] Jitesh Pillai said of his role, "Ultimately your heart leaps out to the magical Shah Rukh Khan, who unarguably gives his career's finest performance. Shorn of any artifice or nervous energy, his anguish is tangible. He inhabits Mohan Bharghava with consummate ease, you can feel the earnestness of his intentions, the wetness of his tears".^[78] His performance was later included in the 2010 issue of the "Top 80 Iconic Performances" by Filmfare.^[79] He was nominated for the Filmfare Best Actor Award for all three of his releases in 2004, winning it for Swades.^[74] The film itself was featured on Rediff's list of the 10 Best Bollywood Movies of the Decade.^[80]

His only release in 2005, Paheli opposite Rani Mukerji, was screened at the Sundance Film Festival and was chosen as India’s official entry to the Oscars for the 79th Academy Awards.^[81] The film was critically acclaimed, as was Khan's performance, which Raja Sen called " A top-notch performance, [That] justifies his supremacy in the film world".^[82] In 2006, Khan collaborated with Karan Johar for the third time with the melodrama Kabhi Alvida Na Kehna, with an ensemble cast including Amitabh Bachchan, Preity Zinta, Abhishek Bachchan, Rani Mukerji and Kirron Kher. The film told the story of two unhappily married couples in New York, which later results in an extramarital affair. Khan played the role of Dev Saran, a bitter and cynical former football player who is jealous of his wife Rhea's successful career as a fashion magazine editor, played by Zinta. The film opened to mixed reviews but emerged as a major commercial success; becoming the biggest Bollywood hit in the overseas market of all-time. It grossed over 1.13 billion worldwide^[57][83]

His second release that year saw him playing the title role in the action film Don, a remake of the 1978 hit film of the same name. He played the character of Don, a role which was played by Amitabh Bachchan in the original movie. While the film was generally well received, Khan's performance received mixed critical reactions. His performance was extensively compared to that of Bachchan. Taran Adarsh noted that Khan "carries a massive responsibility on his shoulders since direct comparisons with Bachchan are foreseeable" adding that "He does very well as Don. He enacts the evil character with flourish. But he fails to carry off the other role [Vijay] with conviction. It looks made up, it doesn't come natural to him at all."^[84] While Derek Elley of Variety argued that "it's hard to accept him (Khan) as the title character" and that "Khan is far more convincing as Vijay, playing up to his rom-com fanbase with plenty of boyish humor."^[85] The film became the fifth-highest grossing film of the year in India.^[83] and the highest grossing film of the year in the overseas market. It grossed a total of 1.04 billion worldwide.^[57] Both the films earned him Filmfare Best Actor Award nominations while his role as Don earned him a nomination for the Asian Film Awards.

Khan's success continued with a few more highly popular films. One of his most successful works was the multiple award-winning 2007 film, Chak De! India, about the Indian women's national hockey team. The film was a major critical and commercial success in India and abroad.^[86] Earning over 1.03 billion worldwide.^[57] Chak De! India became the third-highest grossing movie of 2007 in India and won yet another Filmfare Award for Best Actor for Khan. Rajeev Masand from CNN-IBN wrote about his performance, "For the first time since Swades, Shah Rukh plays a role without any of his typical trappings, without any of his trademark quirks. He sinks his teeth into the part of the determined coach and comes up with such a terrific performance. He's hopeful at times and despondent at others, he's humorous at times, and stern at others. He plays Kabir Khan like a real flesh-and-blood human being."^[87] Filmfare also included his performance in the 2010 issue of the "Top 80 Iconic Performances" and commented:

In the same year Khan also starred in Farah Khan's 2007 film, Om Shanti Om. A re-incarnation melodrama. Khan essayed the role of Om Prakash Makhija, a junior artiste from the 70s who is reborn thirty years later as a superstar named Om Kapoor, he then attempts to discover the mystery of his demise and avenge the death of his lost love. His performance was generally well received by critics; Khalid Mohammed from Hindustan Times wrote, "Above all the enterprise belongs to Shah Rukh Khan, who tackles comedy, high drama and action with his signature style – spontaneous and intuitively intelligent."^[89] The film emerged as the year's highest grossing film in India and the overseas market, and became India's highest grossing production ever up to that point with a worldwide gross of over 1.48 billion.^[90] It earned him another nomination for Best Actor at the Filmfare ceremony.

In 2008, Khan collaborated with Aditya Chopra for the third time with the romantic drama Rab Ne Bana Di Jodi opposite newcomer Anushka Sharma where he played a double role, one of Surinder Sahni, a shy self-described geek who works for Punjab Power in Amritsar whose love for beautiful, vivacious Taani, played by Sharma, causes him to transform himself into the loud and fun-loving Raj to win her love. The film received positive reviews and was declared a blockbuster, and had been concluded as the second-highest grossing film of all-time to that point by the end of the year.^[91] His performance was appreciated by critics. Rachel Saltz of New York Times stated: "The Surinder/Raj dual role seems tailor-made (probably was) for Mr. Khan, who gets to show off his twin talents: he suffers nobly and entertains with panache."^[92] It earned him yet again another nomination for Best Actor at the Filmfare ceremony.

In December of the same year, Khan suffered a serious shoulder injury while filming a special appearance in Mudassar Aziz's Dulha Mil Gaya. He went through extensive physiotherapy sessions while shooting for My Name Is Khan at the time, but due to immense pain that left him almost immobile, he had to undergo an arthroscopic surgery in February 2009 after the shooting schedule for the film in the United States was over.^[93][94]

2010s[link]