19th century limekilns at Froghall

A preserved lime kiln in Burgess Park, London

Old lime kiln, Boscastle, Cornwall

A lime kiln is used to produce quicklime through the calcination of limestone (calcium carbonate). The chemical equation for this reaction is

CaCO₃ + heat → CaO + CO₂

This reaction takes place at 900°C (at which temperature the partial pressure of CO₂ is 1 atmosphere), but a temperature around 1000°C (at which temperature the partial pressure of CO₂ is 3.8 atmospheres^[1]) is usually used to make the reaction proceed quickly.^[2] Excessive temperature is avoided because it produces unreactive, "dead-burned" lime.

Early lime use[link]

Because it is so readily made by heating limestone, lime must have been known from the earliest times, and all the early civilizations used it in building mortars and as a stabilizer in mud renders and floors.^[3] Knowledge of its value in agriculture is also ancient, but agricultural use only became widely possible when the use of coal made it cheap^[4] in the coalfields in the late 13th century, and an account of agricultural use was given in 1523.^[5] The earliest descriptions of limekilns differ little from those used for small-scale manufacture a century ago^{[citation needed]}. Because land transportation of minerals like limestone and coal was difficult in the pre-industrial era, they were distributed by sea, and lime was most often manufactured at small coastal ports^{[citation needed]}. Many preserved kilns are still to be seen on quaysides around the coasts of Britain.

Early kilns[link]

Cross section of typical early kiln

The common feature of early kilns was an egg-cup shaped burning chamber, with an air inlet at the base (the "eye"), constructed of brick. Limestone was crushed (often by hand) to fairly uniform 20-60 mm (1 to 2.5 inch) lumps - fine stone was rejected. Successive dome-shaped layers of coal and limestone were built up in the kiln on grate bars across the eye. When loading was complete, the kiln was kindled at the bottom, and the fire gradually spread upwards through the charge. When burnt through, the lime was cooled and raked out through the base. Fine coal ash dropped out and was rejected with the "riddlings".

Only lump stone could be used, because the charge needed to "breathe" during firing. This also limited the size of kilns and explains why kilns were all much the same size. Above a certain diameter, the half-burned charge would be likely to collapse under its own weight, extinguishing the fire. So kilns always made 25-30 tonnes of lime in a batch. Typically the kiln took a day to load, three days to fire, two days to cool and a day to unload, so a one-week turnaround was normal. The degree of burning was controlled by trial and error from batch to batch by varying the amount of fuel used. Because there were large temperature differences between the center of the charge and the material close to the wall, a mixture of under-burned (i.e. high loss on ignition), well-burned and dead-burned lime was normally produced. Typical fuel efficiency was low, with 0.5 tonnes or more of coal being used per tonne of finished lime (15 MJ/kg).

A large limekiln at Broadstone, Beith, Ayrshire.

The Annery kiln in Devon, England.

Large 19th century single limekiln at Crindledykes near Housesteads Northumbria

The lime production was sometimes at an industrial scale. One example at Annery in North Devon, near Torrington, was made up of three kilns grouped together in an 'L' shape and was situated beside the Torrington canal and the River Torridge to bring in the limestone and coal, and to transport away the calcined lime in the days before properly metalled roads existed.^[6]

Sets of seven kilns were common. A loading gang and an unloading gang would work the kilns in rotation through the week.

The large kiln at Crindledykes near Haydon Bridge, Northumbria, was one of more than 300 in the county. It was unique to the area in having four draw arches to a single pot. As production was cut back, the two side arches were blocked up, but were restored in 1989 by English Heritage.

The development of the national rail network increasingly made the local small-scale kilns unprofitable, and they gradually died out through the 19th century, replaced by larger industrial plants. At the same time, new uses for lime in the chemical, steel and sugar industries led to large-scale plants. These also saw the development of more efficient kilns.

A 'lazy kiln' was the name given to a lime kiln which only saw intermittent use.^[7]

Modern kilns[link]

This unreferenced section requires citations to ensure verifiability.

Cross section of simple shaft kiln

Shaft kilns[link]

The theoretical heat (the standard enthalpy) of reaction required to make high-calcium lime is around 3.15 MJ per kg of lime, so the batch kilns were only around 20% efficient. The key to development in efficiency was the invention of continuous kilns, avoiding the wasteful heat-up and cool-down cycles of the batch kilns. The first were simple shaft kilns, similar in construction to blast furnaces. These are counter-current shaft kilns. Modern variants include regenerative and annular kilns. Output is usually in the range 100-500 tonnes per day.

Counter-current shaft kilns[link]

The fuel is injected part-way up the shaft, producing maximum temperature at this point. The fresh feed fed in at the top is first dried then heated to 800°C, where de-carbonation begins, and proceeds progressively faster as the temperature rises. Below the burner, the hot lime transfers heat to, and is cooled by, the combustion air. A mechanical grate withdraws the lime at the bottom. A fan draws the gases through the kiln, and the level in the kiln is kept constant by adding feed through an airlock. As with batch kilns, only large, graded stone can be used, in order to ensure uniform gas-flows through the charge. The degree of burning can be adjusted by changing the rate of withdrawal of lime. Heat consumption as low as 4 MJ/kg is possible, but 4,5 to 5 MJ/kg is more typical. Due to temperature peak at the burners up to 1200c°in a shaft kiln conditions are ideal to produce medium and hard burned lime.

Gas flows in two cycles of operation of regenerative shaft kilns

Regenerative kilns[link]

These typically consist of a pair of shafts, operated alternately. Fitst, when shaft A is the "primary" and B the "secondary" shaft, the combustion air is added from the top of shaft A, while fuel somewhat below via burner lances. The flame is top-buttom. The hot gases pass downward, cross to shaft B via the so called "channel" and pass upward to exhaust of shaft B. At same time in both shafts cooling air is added from the buttom to cool the lime and to make exhaust of gases via the buttom of the kiln impossible via maintaining always a positive pressure. The combustion air and cooling air leave the kiln jointly via exhaust on top of shaft B, preheating the stone. The direction of flow is reversed periodically (typically 5-10 times per hour) shaft A and B changing the role of "primary" and "secondary" shaft. The kiln has three zones: preheating zone on the top, butning zone in the middle, and cooling zone close to the buttom. The cycling produces a long burning zone of constant, relatively low temperature (around 950°C) that is ideal for the production of high quality soft burned reactive lime. With exhaust gas temperatures as low as 120c° and lime temperature at kiln outlet in 80c° range the heat loss of the regenerative kiln is minimal, fuel consumption is as low as 3,6 MJ/kg. Due to these features the regenerative kilns are today mainstream technology under conditions of substantial fuel costs. Regenerative kilns are built with 150 to 800 t/day output, 300 to 450 being typical.

Gas flows in an annular shaft kiln

Annular kilns[link]

These contain a concentric internal cylinder. This gathers pre-heated air from the cooling zone, which is then used to pressurize the middle annular zone of the kiln. Air spreading outward from the pressurized zone causes counter-current flow upwards, and co-current flow downwards. This again produces a long, relatively cool calcining zone. Fuel consumption is in 4 to 4,5 MJ/t range and the lime is typically medium burned.

Rotary kiln with preheater: hot gas flows

Rotary kilns[link]

Rotary kilns started to be used for lime manufacture at the start of the 20th century and now account for a large proportion of new installations if energy costs are less important. The early use of simple rotary kilns had the advantages that a much wider range of limestone size could be used, from fines upwards, and undesirable elements such as sulfur can be removed. On the other hand, fuel consumption was relatively high because of poor heat exchange compared with shaft kilns, leading to excessive heat loss in exhaust gases. Old fashioned "long" rotary kilns operate at 7 to 10 MJ/t. Modern installations partially overcome this disadvantage by adding a preheater, which has the same good solids/gas contact as a shaft kiln, but fuel consumption is still somewhat higher, typically in range of 4,5 to 6 MJ/t. In the design shown, a circle of shafts (typically 8-15) is arranged around the kiln riser duct. Hot limestone is discharged from the shafts in sequence, by the action of a hydraulic "pusher plate". Kilns of 1000 tonnes per day output are typical. The rotary kiln is the most flexible of any lime kilns able to produce soft, medium, or hard burned as well as dead-burned lime or dolime.

Exhibits[link]

This section requires expansion.

A lime kiln erected at Dudley, West Midlands (formerly Worcestershire, England, in 1842 survives to this day as part of the Black Country Living Museum which opened in 1976, although the kilns were last used during the 1920s. It is now among the last still existing in a region which was dominated by coalmining and limestone mining for generations until the 1960s.[1]

Gas cleaning[link]

All the above kiln designs produce exhaust gas that carries an appreciable amount of dust. Lime dust is particularly corrosive. Equipment is installed to trap this dust, typically in the form of electrostatic precipitators or bag filters. The dust usually contains a high concentration of elements such as alkali metals, halogens and sulfur.

Carbon dioxide emissions[link]

Dumbarton castle in 1800 and functioning lime kiln with smoke in the foreground.^[8]

The lime industry is a significant carbon dioxide emitter. The manufacture of one tonne of calcium oxide involves decomposing calcium carbonate, with the formation of 785 kg of CO₂ in some applications, such as when used as mortar; this CO₂ is later re-adsorbed as the mortar goes off. Additionally, if the heat supplied to form the lime (3.75 MJ/kg in an efficient kiln) is obtained by burning fossil fuel it will release CO₂: in the case of coal fuel 295 kg/t; in the case of natural gas fuel 206 kg/t. The electric power consumption of an efficient plant is around 20 kWh per tonne of lime. This additional input is the equivalent of around 20 kg CO₂ per ton if the electricity is coal-generated. Thus, total emission may be around 1 tonne of CO₂ for every tonne of lime even in efficient industrial plants, but is typically 1.3 t/t [2]. However, if the source of heat energy used in its manufacture is a fully renewable source, such as solar, wind, hydro or even nuclear, and depending on the ultimate use of the lime there may be no net emission of CO₂.^{[citation needed]} Less energy is required in production per weight than portland cement, primarily because a lower temperature is required.

Old lime kilns, Antoing, Belgium

See also[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Lime kiln

• Buffalo Grove Lime Kiln
• Griggsville Landing Lime Kiln
• Annery kiln

References[link]

1. ^ CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 54th Ed, p F-76
2. ^ Parkes, G.D. and Mellor, J.W. (1939). Mellor's Modern Inorganic Chemistry London: Longmans, Green and Co.
3. ^ P. C. Hewlett (Ed), (1998). Lea's Chemistry of Cement and Concrete: 4th Ed, Arnold, ISBN 0-340-56589-6, Chapter 1
4. ^ Colin Platt, (1978). Medieval England, BCA, ISBN 0-7100-8815-9, pp 116-7
5. ^ Sir Anthony Fitzherbert, Boke of Husbandrye, 1523
6. ^ Griffith, R. S. Ll. (1971). Annery Kiln, Weare Gifford. Grenville College project. Supervisor Mr. B. D. Hughes.
7. ^ Hood, James (1928). Kilmarnock Water and Craufurdland Kilm Glenf Ramb Soc. Annals. 1919 - 1930. P. 126.
8. ^ Stoddart, John (1800), Remarks on Local Scenery and Manners in Scotland. Pub. Wiliam Miller, London. Facing P. 212.

External links[link]

• An authoritative discussion of lime and its uses (US context)
• Lime Kilns at Newport Pembrokeshire West Wales
• Muspratt's mid-19th century technical description of lime-burning and cement
• The Lime Physical-Chemical Process

Look up lime in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Lime may refer to:

Botany[link]

• Lime (fruit)
• Tilia, a genus of trees known in Britain as lime trees

Chemistry[link]

• Lime (material), a general term for inorganic materials containing calcium, usually calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide
  • Calcium oxide, aka burnt lime or quicklime
  • Calcium hydroxide, aka slaked lime, slack lime, pickling lime or hydrated lime
• Agricultural lime, a soil additive
• Hydraulic lime, used to make lime mortar
• Lime water, saturated calcium hydroxide solution
• Birdlime, a sticky substance spread on branches to catch small birds

Geography[link]

• Lime, Oregon
• Limé, a French commune in the Aisne departments
• Lime Township, Blue Earth County, Minnesota
• Lime Lake Township, Minnesota
• Lime Lake, a lake in Murray County, Minnesota

Media and entertainment[link]

• Lime (band)
• Lime (magazine), an Asian lifestyle magazine
• Lime (Arvingarna album)
• Lime Pictures, a TV production company
• Lime TV, a former television network
• LIME (Cable & Wireless), a Caribbean telecommunications company
• Lime, a Saber Marionette J character
• Limes (magazine), an Italian geopolitical magazine

Other uses[link]

• Lime (color), a color between yellow and green
• Limes, an ancient border defense system
• Orio al Serio Airport, ICAO code LIME

See also[link]

• Lyme (disambiguation)
• Liming (disambiguation)

This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the same title. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.

Charcoal kilns, California

Hops kiln

Catenary arch kiln under construction

A kiln is a thermally insulated chamber, or oven, in which a controlled temperature regime is produced. Uses include the hardening, burning or drying of materials. Kilns are also used for the firing of materials, such as clay and other raw materials, to form ceramics (including pottery, bricks etc.).^[1]

Specific other uses include:

• To dry green lumber so that the lumber can be used immediately
• Drying wood for use as firewood
• Heating wood to the point of pyrolysis to produce charcoal
• For annealing, fusing and deforming glass, or fusing metallic oxide paints to the surface of glass
• For cremation (at high temperature)
• Drying of tobacco leaves
• Drying malted barley for brewing and other fermentations
• Drying hops for brewing (known as a hop kiln or oast house)
• Smelting ore to extract metal
• Heating limestone with clay in the manufacture of Portland cement
• Heating limestone to make quicklime or calcium oxide

Ceramic kilns[link]

Kilns are an essential part of the manufacture of all ceramics, which, by definition, require heat treatment, often at high temperatures. During this process, chemical and physical reactions occur which cause the material to be permanently altered. In the case of pottery, clay materials are shaped, dried and then fired in a kiln. The final characteristics are determined by the composition and preparation of the clay body, by the temperature at which it is fired, and by the glazes that may be used. Although modern kilns often have sophisticated electrical systems to control the firing temperatures, pyrometric devices are also frequently used.

Clay consists of fine-grained particles, that are relatively weak and porous. Clay is combined with other minerals to create a workable clay body. Part of the firing process includes sintering. This process heats the clay until the particles partially melt and flow together, creating a strong, single mass, composed of a glassy phase interspersed with pores and crystalline material. Through firing, the pores are reduced in size, causing the material to shrink slightly. This crystalline material is a matrix of predominantly silicon and aluminium oxides, and is very hard and strong.

Types of kiln[link]

In the broadest terms, there are two types of kiln, both sharing the same basic characteristics of being an insulated box with controlled inner temperature and atmosphere.

In using an intermittent kiln, the ware to be fired is loaded into the kiln. The kiln is sealed, and the internal temperature increased according to a schedule. After the firing process is completed, both the kiln and the ware are cooled.

A continuous kiln, sometimes called a tunnel kiln, is a long structure in which only the central portion is directly heated. From the cool entrance, ware is slowly transported through the kiln, and its temperature is increased steadily as it approaches the central, hottest part of the kiln. From there, its transportation continues and the temperature is reduced until it exits the kiln at near room temperature. A continuous kiln is the most energy-efficient, because heat given off during cooling is recycled to pre-heat the incoming ware.

A special type of kiln, common in tableware and tile manufacture, is the roller-hearth kiln, in which ware placed on bats is carried through the kiln on rollers.

Kiln technology is very old. The development of the kiln from a simple earthen trench filled with pots and fuel, pit firing, to modern methods happened in stages. One improvement was to build a firing chamber around pots with baffles and a stoking hole, this allowed heat to be conserved and used more efficiently. The use of a chimney stack improves the air flow or draw of the kiln, thus burning the fuel more completely. Early examples of kilns found in Britain include those made for the making of roof-tiles during the Roman occupation. These kilns were built up the side of a slope, such that a fire could be lit at the bottom and the heat would rise up into the kiln.

With the advent of the industrial age, kilns were designed to utilize electricity and more refined fuels, including natural gas and propane. The majority of large, industrial pottery kilns now use natural gas, as it is generally clean, efficient and easy to control. Modern kilns can be fitted with computerized controls, allowing for refined adjustments during the firing cycle. A user may choose to control the rate of temperature climb or ramp, hold or soak the temperature at any given point, or control the rate of cooling. Both electric and gas kilns are common for smaller scale production in industry and craft, handmade and sculptural work.

• Anagama kiln - the Asian anagama kiln has been used since medieval times and is considered the oldest style of production kiln, brought to Japan from China via Korea in the 5th century. This kiln usually consists of one long firing chamber, pierced with smaller stacking ports on one side, with a firebox at one end and a flue at the other. Firing time can vary from one day to several weeks. Traditional anagama kilns are also built on a slope to allow for a better draft.

• Bottle kiln - a type of intermittent kiln, usually coal-fired, formerly used in the firing of pottery; such a kiln was surrounded by a tall brick hovel or cone, of typical bottle shape.

• Catenary arch kiln, typically used for the firing of pottery using salt, these by their form (a catenary arch) tend to retain their shape over repeated heating and cooling cycles, whereas other types require extensive metalwork supports.

• Electric kilns - kilns operated by electricity were developed in the 20th century, primarily for smaller scale use such as in schools, universities, and hobby centers. The atmosphere in most designs of electric kiln is rich in oxygen, as there is no open flame to consume oxygen molecules, however reducing conditions can be created with appropriate gas input.

• Feller kiln brought contemporary design to wood firing by re-using the unburnt gas from the chimney in order to heat the air up before entering the firebox. This leads to an even shorter firing cycle and less wood consumption. This design requires external ventilation to prevent the in-chimney radiator from melting, being typically in metal. The result is a very efficient wood kiln firing one cubic meter of ceramics with one cubic meter of wood.

• Microwave assisted firing - this technique combine microwave energy with more conventional energy sources such as radiant gas or electric heating in order to process ceramic materials to the required high temperatures. Microwave-assisted firing offers significant economic benefits.

• Noborigama kiln - the Noborigama is an evolution from Anagama design as a multi-chamber kiln, usually built on a slope, where wood is stacked from the front firebox at first, then only through the side-stoking holes with the benefit of having air heated up to 600 °C from the front firebox, enabling more efficient firings.

• Sèvres kiln was invented in Sèvres, France and enabled to reach efficiently high-temperature (1280 °C) in order to have fully water-proof ceramic bodies and easy to obtain glazes. It features a down-draft design that enabled to reach high temperature in shorter time, even with wood-firing.

• Top-hat kiln - an intermittent kiln of a type sometimes used in the firing of pottery. The ware is set on a refractory hearth, or plinth, over which a box-shaped cover is then lowered.

Wood-drying kiln[link]

A variety of wood drying kiln technologies exist today: conventional, dehumidification, solar, vacuum and radio frequency.

Conventional wood dry kilns (Rasmussen, 1988) are either package-type (sideloader) or track-type (tram) construction. Most hardwood lumber kilns are sideloader kilns in which fork trucks are used to load lumber packages into the kiln. Most softwood lumber kilns are track types in which lumber packages are loaded on kiln/track cars for loading the kiln.

Modern high-temperature, high-air-velocity conventional kilns can typically dry 1-inch-thick (25 mm) green lumber in 10 hours down to a moisture content of 18%. However, 1-inch-thick green Red Oak requires about 28 days to dry down to a moisture content of 8%.

Heat is typically introduced via steam running through fin/tube heat exchangers controlled by on/off pneumatic valves. Less common are proportional pneumatic valves or even various electrical actuators. Humidity is removed via a system of vents, the specific layout of which are usually particular to a given manufacturer. In general, cool dry air is introduced at one end of the kiln while warm moist air is expelled at the other. Hardwood conventional kilns also require the introduction of humidity via either steam spray or cold water misting systems to keep the relative humidity inside the kiln from dropping too low during the drying cycle. Fan directions are typically reversed periodically to ensure even drying of larger kiln charges.

Most softwood lumber kilns operate below 240 °F (116 °C) temperature. Hardwood lumber kiln drying schedules typically keep the dry bulb temperature below 180 °F (82 °C). Difficult-to-dry species might not exceed 140 degrees F.

Dehumidification kilns are very similar to conventional kilns in basic construction. Drying times are usually comparable. Heat is primarily supplied by an integral dehumidification unit which also serves to remove humidity. Auxiliary heat is often provided early in the schedule where the heat required may exceed the heat generated by the DH unit.

Solar kilns are conventional kilns, typically built by hobbyists to keep initial investment costs low. Heat is provided via solar radiation, while internal air circulation is typically passive.

Newer wood drying technologies have included the use of reduced atmospheric pressure to attempt to speed up the drying process. A variety of vacuum technologies exist, varying primarily in the method heat is introduced into the wood charge. Hot water platten vacuum kilns use aluminum heating plates with the water circulating within as the heat source, and typically operate at significantly reduced absolute pressure. Discontinuous and SSV (super-heated steam) use atmosphere to introduce heat into the kiln charge. Discontinuous technology allows the entire kiln charge to come up to full atmospheric pressure, the air in the chamber is then heated, and finally vacuum is pulled. SSV run at partial atmospheres (typically around 1/3 of full atmospheric pressure) in a hybrid of vacuum and conventional kiln technology (SSV kilns are significantly more popular in Europe where the locally harvested wood is easier to dry versus species found in North America). RF/V (radio frequency + vacuum) kilns use microwave radiation to heat the kiln charge, and typically have the highest operating cost due to the heat of vaporization being provided by electricity rather than local fossil fuel or waste wood sources.

Valid economic studies of different wood drying technologies are based on the total energy, capital, insurance/risk, environmental impacts, labor, maintenance, and product degrade costs for the task of removing water from the wood fiber. These costs (which can be a significant part of the entire plant costs)involve the differential impact of the presence of drying equipment in a specific plant. An example of this is that every piece of equipment (in a lumber manufacturing plant) from the green trimmer to the infeed system at the planer mill is the "drying system". Since thousands of different types of wood products manufacturing plants exist around the globe, and may be integrated (lumber, plywood, paper, etc.) or stand alone (lumber only), the true costs of the drying system can only be determined when comparing the total plant costs and risks with and without drying.

The total (harmful) air emissions produced by wood kilns, including their heat source, can be significant. Typically, the higher the temperature the kiln operates at, the larger amount of emissions are produced (per pound of water removed). This is especially true in the drying of thin veneers and high-temperature drying of softwoods.

See also[link]

• Brickworks
• Cement kiln
• Forge
• Furnace
• Lime kiln

Gallery[link]

• Brick-kilns-mekong.jpg

  Brick and roof tile making kilns on a branch of the Mekong in the Delta region of Vietnam.

• Mekong-kilns.jpg

  Brickmaking kilns, Mekong delta. The cargo boat in the foreground is carrying the rice chaff which is the fuel for the firing.

• Wood-fired-kilns.jpg

  A wood fired pottery kiln in Hoi An Vietnam.

• Sukothai-kiln.jpg

  Remains of a ceramics producing kiln just north of Sukothai, Thailand.

• Pottery-kiln-sukothai.jpg

  Same kiln as previous shot. Glazed pottery produced in this area's kilns, dated from around the 14th - 15th century AD

• CatenaryArchAluminiumKiln.jpg

  A Catenary Arch kiln used for firing high temperature electron tube grade aluminium oxide ceramics

• KilnTransported.jpg

  Kiln from previous picture while being relocated

• 

  A two-story porcelain kiln with furnaces á alandier in Sèvres, France circa 1880

• Woodville Behive kiln.jpg

  Beehive Kiln

• Woodville tunnel kiln cutaway.jpeg

  Tunnel kiln

• Woodville tunnel kiln.jpeg

  Tunnel kiln

• 

  Drying kiln at the Ritter Mill site Hazel Creek (Great Smoky Mountains)

Notes[link]

References[link]

• Hamer, Frank and Janet. The Potter's Dictionary of Materials and Techniques. A & C Black Publishers, Limited, London, England, Third Edition 1991. ISBN 0-8122-3112-0.
• Smith, Ed. Dry Kiln Design Manual. J.E. Smith Engineering and Consulting, Blooming Grove, Texas. Available for purchase from author J.E. Smith
• M.Kornmann and CTTB, "Clay bricks and roof tiles, manufacturing and properties", Soc. industrie minérale, Paris,(2007) ISBN 2-9517765-6-X
• Rasmussen, E.F. (1988). Forest Products Laboratory, U.S. Department of Agriculture.. ed. Dry Kiln Operators Manual. Hardwood Research Council. 

For pottery kilns of middle Europe see:

Andreas Heege, Töpferöfen - Pottery kilns - Four de potiers. Die Erforschung frühmittelalterlicher bis neuzeitlicher Töpferöfen (6.-20. Jh.) in Belgien, den Niederlanden, Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz. Basler Hefte zur Archäologie 4. Basel 2007 (2008).

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Kilns

• Information about the history of bottle ovens (kilns) from Gladstone Pottery Museum in Stoke-on-Trent, UK.
• History of the Bottle Kiln (from thepotteries.org)
• How the Bottle Kiln Works (from thepotteries.org)