- published: 08 Nov 2012
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- author: AlJazeeraEnglish
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- 6-10 Office
- Able Archer 83
- Active measures
- AKEL
- Anarchism in China
- Angolan Civil War
- Anhui clique
- Anti-Fengtian War
- Anti-revisionist
- ANZUS
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- ASEAN Declaration
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- Cambodian Civil War
- Cao Gangchuan
- Capitalism
- Carnation Revolution
- Carter Doctrine
- Castroism
- Category Cold War
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- Chen Duxiu
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- China Today
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- Communism in Peru
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- Congo Crisis
- Conservatism
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- De facto
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- Deng Xiaoping Theory
- Developing nation
- Domino theory
- Détente
- Eastern Bloc
- Eisenhower Doctrine
- Eurocommunism
- Falun Gong
- Far-left
- Fengtian clique
- First Indochina War
- First United Front
- Free trade
- French Concession
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- Guevarism
- Guo Boxiong
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- Hallstein Doctrine
- Harmonious Society
- He Guoqiang
- He Yong (politician)
- History of communism
- Hokkien
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- Hu Jintao
- Hu Yaobang
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- Huanggutun Incident
- Hui Liangyu
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- Invasion of Grenada
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- Template Cold War
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- United Front (China)
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- USS Pueblo (AGER-2)
- Vietnam War
- Voice of America
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- Wang Lequan
- Wang Ming
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- War of Attrition
- Warlord era
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- West (publisher)
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- WP NPOVD
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- Wu Yi
- Xi Jinping
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- Xu Caihou
- Yalta Conference
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- Youth wing
- Yu Zhengsheng
- Yuan Shikai
- Yue Chinese
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- Yunnan–Guangxi War
- Zeng Peiyan
- Zeng Qinghong
- Zhang Dejiang
- Zhang Lichang
- Zhang Wentian
- Zhao Ziyang
- Zhili clique
- Zhili–Anhui War
- Zhongnanhai
- Zhou Yongkang
- Zhu Rongji
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Berlin Wall
The Berlin Wall (German: Berliner Mauer) was a barrier constructed by the German Democratic Republic (GDR, East Germany) starting on 13 August 1961, that completely cut off West Berlin from surrounding East Germany and from East Berlin. The barrier included guard towers placed along large concrete walls, which circumscribed a wide area (later known as the "death strip") that contained anti-vehicle trenches, "fakir beds" and other defenses. The Eastern Bloc claimed that the wall was erected to protect its population from fascist elements conspiring to prevent the "will of the people" in building a socialist state in East Germany. In practice, the Wall served to prevent the massive emigration and defection that marked Germany and the communist Eastern Bloc during the post-World War II period.
The Berlin Wall was officially referred to as the "Anti-Fascist Protection Rampart" (German: Antifaschistischer Schutzwall) by GDR authorities, implying that neighbouring West Germany had not been fully de-Nazified. The West Berlin city government sometimes referred to it as the "Wall of Shame"—a term coined by mayor Willy Brandt—while condemning the Wall's restriction on freedom of movement. Along with the separate and much longer Inner German border (IGB) that demarcated the border between East and West Germany, both borders came to symbolize the "Iron Curtain" that separated Western Europe and the Eastern Bloc during the Cold War.
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Bunkers in Albania
During the forty-year leadership of Enver Hoxha of the People's Socialist Republic of Albania, over 700,000 bunkers were built in the country – one for every four inhabitants. The bunkers (Albanian: bunkeri) are still a ubiquitous sight in Albania, with an average of 24 bunkers for every square kilometer of the country.
Hoxha's programme of "bunkerisation" resulted in the construction of bunkers in every corner of Albania, from mountain passes to city streets. They are considered to have had little military value and were never used for their intended purpose during the years of Communist rule (1945–1990). The cost of constructing them was a drain on Albania's resources, diverting them away from more pressing needs such as dealing with the country's housing shortage and poor roads.
The bunkers were abandoned following the collapse of Communism in 1990. Most are now derelict, though some have been reused for a variety of purposes including residential accommodation, cafés, storehouses and shelters for animals or the homeless. A few briefly saw use in the Balkan conflicts of the 1990s but their most common use now is said to be as a convenient place for young Albanians to lose their virginity.
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Communist Party USA
Coordinates: 40°44′40.8″N 73°59′48.5″W / 40.744667°N 73.996806°W / 40.744667; -73.996806
The Communist Party USA (CPUSA) is a Marxist political party in the United States, established in 1919. It has a long, complex history that is closely related to the histories of similar communist parties worldwide and the U.S. labor movement.
For the first half of the 20th century, the CPUSA was the largest and most influential communist party in the United States. It played a very prominent role in the U.S. labor movement from the 1920s through the 1940s, having a major hand in founding most of the country's first industrial unions (which would later use the McCarran Internal Security Act to expel their Communist members) while also becoming known for opposing racism and fighting for integration in workplaces and communities during the height of the Jim Crow period of U.S. racial segregation. Historian Ellen Schrecker concludes that decades of recent scholarship offers a "nuanced portrayal of the party as both a Stalinist sect tied to a vicious regime and the most dynamic organization within the American Left during the 1930s and '40s". In regards to the former charge, the CPUSA, claiming proletarian internationalism (while the U.S. Government called it espionage), sponsored an elaborate intelligence network on behalf of the Soviet Union, involving over 500 members acting as agents. The most prominent example dealt with the Manhattan Project in which the network was accused in giving the blueprints of the atomic bomb to the Soviets; Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were thereafter convicted and executed as the chief architects of this plan. Subsequent examination of the trial record shows the testimony directly tying the Rosenbergs to the atomic blueprints was conflicted and possibly false.
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Cuban Missile Crisis
The Cuban Missile Crisis, – known as the October Crisis in Cuba and the Caribbean Crisis (Russian: Kарибский кризис) in the USSR – was a thirteen-day confrontation between the Soviet Union and Cuba on one side and the United States on the other; the crisis occurred in October 1962, during the Cold War. In August 1962, after some unsuccessful operations by the US to overthrow the Cuban regime (Bay of Pigs, Operation Mongoose), the Cuban and Soviet governments secretly began to build bases in Cuba for a number of medium-range and intermediate-range ballistic nuclear missiles (MRBMs and IRBMs) with the ability to strike most of the continental United States. This action followed the 1958 deployment of Thor IRBMs in the UK (Project Emily) and Jupiter IRBMs to Italy and Turkey in 1961 – more than 100 US-built missiles having the capability to strike Moscow with nuclear warheads. On October 14, 1962, a United States Air Force U-2 plane on a photoreconnaissance mission captured photographic proof of Soviet missile bases under construction in Cuba.
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Guangzhou Uprising
The Guangzhou Uprising (simplified Chinese: 广州起义; traditional Chinese: 廣州起義; pinyin: Gǔangzhōu Qǐyì) of 1927 was a failed Communist uprising in the city of Guangzhou in southern China.
On December 11, 1927, Red Guard citizens, directed by Communist political leaders, took over Guangzhou (then known as Canton in English). The uprising occurred despite the strong objections of Communist military commanders such as Ye Ting, Ye Jianying and Xu Xiangqian. Using the element of surprise, rebel forces took over most of the city within hours, despite a huge numerical and technical advantage held by government troops. The Communist leaders officially renamed the city's political structure "Guangzhou Soviet". However, the uprising was quickly crushed by warlord armies. Zhang Tailei, the leading Red Guard organizer, was killed in an ambush as he returned from a meeting. The takeover dissolved by the early morning of December 13, 1927.
In the resulting purges, many young Communists were killed, and the Guangzhou Soviet became known as the "Guangzhou Commune" or "Paris Commune of the East"; it lasted only a short time at the cost of more than 5,000 Communists dead and an equal number missing. Ye Ting, the military commander, was scapegoated, purged and blamed for the failure, despite the fact that the obvious disadvantage of the Communist force was the main cause of the defeat, as Ye Ting and other military commanders had correctly pointed out. Enraged by his unjustified treatment, Ye Ting left China and went into exile in Europe, not returning until nearly a decade later.
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Huanggutun Incident
Huanggutun Incident (Chinese: 皇姑屯事件; Japanese: Zhang Zuolin Assassination Incident (張作霖爆殺事件, Chosakurin bakusatsu jiken?)) was an assassination plotted by the Japanese Kwantung Army that targeted Fengtian warlord Zhang Zuolin. It took place on June 4, 1928 at Huanggutun rail station near Shenyang in which Zhang's train was destroyed by an explosion. This incident was concealed in Japan at the time and was referred only as "満州某重大事件" (Manshuboujudaijiken A Certain Important Incident in Manchuria).
Following the Xinhai Revolution of 1911, China dissolved in spontaneous devolution, with local officials and military leaders assuming power independent of control by the weak central government. In north China, the once powerful Beiyang Army split up into various factions after the death of Yuan Shikai in 1916. Zhang Zuolin, being the leader of the Fengtian clique, was one of the most powerful warlords as he managed to seize control of the three northeastern provinces of Manchuria.
At the time of the First United Front in 1924, the foreign support in China was generally divided as below:
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NATO
Coordinates: 50°52′34.16″N 4°25′19.24″E / 50.8761556°N 4.4220111°E / 50.8761556; 4.4220111
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization or NATO (
/ˈneɪtoʊ/ NAY-toh; French: Organisation du traité de l'Atlantique Nord (OTAN)), also called the (North) Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty which was signed on 4 April 1949. The organization constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its member states agree to mutual defense in response to an attack by any external party. NATO's headquarters are in Brussels, Belgium, one of the 28 member states across North America and Europe, the newest of which, Albania and Croatia, joined in April 2009. An additional 22 countries participate in NATO's Partnership for Peace, with 15 other countries involved in institutionalized dialogue programs. The combined military spending of all NATO members constitutes over 70% of the world's defence spending.
For its first few years, NATO was not much more than a political association. However, the Korean War galvanized the member states, and an integrated military structure was built up under the direction of two U.S. supreme commanders. The course of the Cold War led to a rivalry with nations of the Warsaw Pact, which formed in 1955. The first NATO Secretary General, Lord Ismay, stated in 1949 that the organization's goal was "to keep the Russians out, the Americans in, and the Germans down." Doubts over the strength of the relationship between the European states and the United States ebbed and flowed, along with doubts over the credibility of the NATO defence against a prospective Soviet invasion—doubts that led to the development of the independent French nuclear deterrent and the withdrawal of the French from NATO's military structure in 1966.
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Poznań 1956 protests
The Poznań 1956 protests, also known as Poznań 1956 uprising or Poznań June (Polish: Poznański Czerwiec), were the first of several massive protests of the Polish people against the communist government of the People's Republic of Poland. Demonstrations by workers demanding better conditions began on June 28, 1956, at Poznań's Cegielski Factories and were met with violent repression.
A crowd of approximately 100,000 gathered in the city center near the UB secret police building. About 400 tanks and 10,000 soldiers of Ludowe Wojsko Polskie and the Internal Security Corps under Polish-Soviet general Stanislav Poplavsky were ordered to suppress the demonstration and during the pacification fired at the protesting civilians.
The death toll was placed between 57 and over a hundred people, including a 13-year-old boy, Romek Strzałkowski. Hundreds of people sustained injuries. Nonetheless the Poznań protests were an important milestone on the way to the installation of a less Soviet-controlled government in Poland in October.
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South Korea
South Korea ( listen), officially the Republic of Korea (Hangul: 대한민국; Hanja: 大韓民國; Daehan Minguk listen), is a sovereign state in the southern part of the Korean Peninsula. The name "Korea" is derived from Goryeo, a dynasty which ruled in the Middle Ages (an initial "G" in Korean is pronounced like an English "K").
Its neighbors are China to the west, Japan to the east, North Korea to the north, and the Korea Strait to the south. South Korea lies in the north temperate zone with a predominantly mountainous terrain. It covers a total area of 99,392 square kilometers and has a population of almost 50 million. The capital and largest city is Seoul, with a population of 9,794,304.
Archaeological findings show that the Korean Peninsula was occupied by the Lower Paleolithic period.Korean history begins with the founding of Gojoseon in 2333 BC by the legendary Dan-gun. Following the unification of the Three Kingdoms of Korea under Silla 668 AD, Korea went through the Goryeo Dynasty and Joseon Dynasty as one nation until the end of the Korean Empire in 1910, when it was annexed by Japan. After liberation and occupation by Soviet and U.S. forces at the end of World War II, the nation was divided into North and South Korea. The latter was established in 1948 as a democracy, though political turmoil and times of military rule and martial law characterized much of the period until the foundation of the Sixth Republic in 1987.
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Soviet Union
The Soviet Union (Russian: Советский Союз, tr. Sovetsky Soyuz), officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR; Russian: Сою́з Сове́тских Социалисти́ческих Респу́блик, tr. Soyuz Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik; IPA: [sɐˈjus sɐˈvʲetskʲɪx sətsɨəlʲɪˈstʲitɕɪskʲɪx rʲɪsˈpublʲɪk] (
listen); abbreviated СССР, SSSR), was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991.
The Soviet Union was a single-party state ruled by the Communist Party from its foundation until 1990. A union of 15 subnational Soviet republics, the Soviet state was structured under a highly centralized government and economy.
The Russian Revolution of 1917 caused the downfall of the Russian Empire. Following the Russian Revolution, there was a struggle for power between the Bolshevik party, led by Vladimir Lenin, and the anti-communist White movement. In December 1922, the Bolsheviks won the civil war, and the Soviet Union was formed with the merger of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic and the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic.
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Taiwan
Taiwan (
i/ˌtaɪˈwɑːn/ TY-WAHN; Chinese: 臺灣 or 台灣; pinyin: Táiwān; see below), officially the Republic of China (ROC; Chinese: 中華民國; pinyin: Zhōnghuá Mínguó), is a state in East Asia. Originally based in mainland China, the Republic of China now governs the island of Taiwan (formerly known as Formosa), which forms over 99% of its current territory, as well as Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu, and other minor islands. Neighboring states include the People's Republic of China to the west, Japan to the east and northeast, and the Philippines to the south. Taipei is the capital city and economic and cultural centre of the country, and New Taipei is the most populous city.
The earliest evidence of inhabitation of Taiwan dates back to the late Paleolithic era. The island of Taiwan was mainly inhabited by Taiwanese aborigines before being colonized in the 17th century by the Dutch and the Spanish Empire. The first Han Chinese polity on Taiwan began when Koxinga's troops defeated Dutch forces and established the Kingdom of Tungning. The island was subsequently ruled by the Qing Dynasty after the kingdom's defeat in the Battle of Penghu in 1683, a period that lasted for over 200 years. Following Japan's victory over the Qing Dynasty in the first Sino-Japanese war, Taiwan was ceded to Japan under the Treaty of Shimonoseki in 1895.
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Xintiandi
Xintiandi (Chinese: 新天地; pinyin: Xīntiāndì, lit. "New Heaven and Earth") is an affluent car-free shopping, eating and entertainment district of Shanghai, China. It is composed of an area of reconstituted traditional shikumen ("stone gate") houses on narrow alleys, some adjoining houses which now serve as book stores, cafes and restaurants, and shopping malls. Most of the cafes and restaurants feature both indoor and outdoor seatings. Xintiandi has an active nightlife on weekdays as well as weekends, though romantic settings are more common than loud music and dance places. It is considered one of the first lifestyle centers in China.
Xintiandi is the location of the site of the first congress of and the Communist Party of China, now preserved at the Museum of the First National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party. Also nearby is the site of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea when Korea was a Japanese colony.
The area was developed by Shui On Land during the re-development of the surrounding area. Some houses in Xintiandi were then limited (and not renovated, unlike the Chinese government and the real estate agency official version ), in order to implant an art gallery, cafes, and restaurants. Many tour groups both domestic and from abroad also visit Xintiandi as one of the main attractions in Shanghai.
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Yalta Conference
The Yalta Conference, sometimes called the Crimea Conference and codenamed the Argonaut Conference, held February 4–11, 1945 , was the wartime meeting of the heads of government of the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union, represented by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and General Secretary Joseph Stalin, respectively, for the purpose of discussing Europe's post-war reorganization. The conference convened in the Livadia Palace near Yalta, in the Crimea.
The meeting was intended mainly to discuss the re-establishment of the nations of war-torn Europe. Within a few years, with the Cold War dividing the continent, Yalta became a subject of intense controversy. To some extent, it has remained controversial.
Yalta was the second of three wartime conferences among the Big Three (Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin). It had been preceded by the Tehran Conference in 1943, and it was followed by the Potsdam Conference in July 1945, which was attended by Harry S Truman, who replaced the late Roosevelt, Stalin, and Churchill, who was replaced mid-point by the newly elected British Prime Minister Clement Attlee.
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Zhongnanhai
Zhongnanhai (Chinese: 中南海; pinyin: Zhōngnánhǎi) is an area in central Beijing, China adjacent to the Forbidden City which serves as the central headquarters for the Communist Party of China and the State Council (Central government) of the People's Republic of China. The term Zhongnanhai is closely linked with the central government and senior Communist Party officials. It is often used as a metonym for the Chinese leadership at large (in the same sense that the term White House frequently refers to the President of the United States and his associates). The state leaders, including Hu Jintao, and other top CPC and PRC leadership figures carry out many of their day-to-day administrative activities inside the compound, such as meetings with foreign dignitaries. China Central Television frequently shows footage of meetings inside the compound, but limits its coverage largely to views of the interior of buildings.
The name of the Zhongnanhai complex, located west of the Forbidden City, means "central and southern seas/lakes", referring to two lakes (the "Central Sea" and "Southern Sea") located within the compound; it is sometimes translated as "Sea Palaces". These two lakes are part of a series of irrigation projects carried out during the construction of the nearby Forbidden City. Also part of the same system is the "Northern Sea", or "Beihai", now a public park. And the "Ten Temple Sea", or "Shichahai", is connected to Beihai at the north.
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Angolan Civil War
The Angolan Civil War was a major civil conflict in the Southern African state of Angola, beginning in 1975 and continuing, with some interludes, until 2002. The war began immediately after Angola became independent from Portugal in November 1975. Prior to this, a decolonisation conflict had taken place in 1974–75, following the Angolan War of Independence. The Civil War was primarily a struggle for power between two former liberation movements, the People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA). At the same time, it served as a surrogate battleground for the Cold War, due to heavy intervention by major opposing powers such as the Soviet Union and the United States.
Each organisation had different roots in the Angolan social fabric and mutually incompatible leaderships, despite their sharing the aim of ending colonial occupation. Although both the MPLA and UNITA had socialist leanings, for the purpose of mobilising international support they posed as "Marxist-Leninist" and "anti-communist", respectively. A third movement, the National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA), having fought the MPLA alongside UNITA during the war for independence and the decolonization conflict, played almost no role in the Civil War. Additionally, the Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (FLEC), an association of separatist militant groups, fought for the independence of the province of Cabinda from Angola.
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Bo Gu
Qin Bangxian (Chinese: 秦邦憲; pinyin: Qín Bāngxiàn), better known as Bo Gu (Chinese: 博古; pinyin: Bó Gǔ) (May 14, 1907 – April 8, 1946) was a senior leader of the Chinese Communist Party in its early stages, and well known as a member of the group of 28 Bolsheviks.
A native of Wuxi, Jiangsu, Qin was born in 1907. He studied in the Suzhou Industrial School in his early years, and took an active role in the activities against imperialism and warlords tyrannizing China at that time. In 1925 Qin entered the Shanghai University, known for its impact on young revolutionists, early CCP leaders such as Qu Qiubai and Deng Zhongxia being its teachers and introducing Marxism and Leninism. It was there that Qin showed great interest in Marxism and Leninism. In the same year, Qin joined the May 30th Movement for protest and boycott against imperialism; and he joined the CPC before long.
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Cambodian Civil War
The Cambodian Civil War was a conflict that pitted the forces of the Communist Party of Kampuchea (known as the Khmer Rouge) and their allies the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) and the Viet Cong against the government forces of Cambodia (after October 1970, the Khmer Republic), which were supported by the United States (U.S.) and the Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam).
The struggle was exacerbated by the influence and actions of the allies of the two warring sides. People's Army of Vietnam (North Vietnamese Army) involvement was designed to protect its Base Areas and sanctuaries in eastern Cambodia, without which the prosecution of its military effort in South Vietnam would have been more difficult. Then following the Cambodian coup of 1970, the North Vietnamese Army's attempt to overrun the entire country in March–April 1970 plunged Cambodia into civil war. The U.S. was motivated by the need to buy time for its withdrawal from Southeast Asia and to protect its ally, the South Vietnamese regime. American and both South and North Vietnamese forces directly participated (at one time or another) in the fighting. The central government was mainly assisted by the application of massive U.S. aerial bombing campaigns and direct material and financial aid.
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Cao Gangchuan
Cao Gangchuan (simplified Chinese: 曹刚川; traditional Chinese: 曹剛川; pinyin: Cáo Gāngchuān; born December 1935) was vice chairman of Central Military Commission and former Minister of National Defense of the People's Republic of China. He was also state councilor and director of the PLA General Armament Department.
Cao Gangchuan, native of Wugang, Henan, was born in December 1935. For two years from 1954 he was a student of Nanjing No. 3 Artillery Ordnance Technical School and No.1 Ordnance Technical School. Then in 1956, he became a teacher of the No. 1 Ordnance Technical School. In the same year he attended the PLA Dalian Russian-Language School, before spending six years from 1957 at the Military Engineering School of the Artillery Corps of the Soviet Union. On returning in China in 1963 he was Assistant of Ammunition Division of Ordnance Department of PLA General Logistics Department, until 1969, when he became Assistant of Munitions Division in the same department.
He was promoted in 1975 to a staff officer and deputy director of General Planning Division of Military Equipment Department of PLA Headquarters of the General Staff. Then in 1982 he was made deputy director of Military Equipment Department. Steadily moving through the ranks of the PLA's hierarchy, in 1989 he was made director of Military Affairs Department of PLA Headquarters of the General Staff, then one year later, director of the Office of Military Trade of Central Military Commission. For four years from 1992 he was deputy chief of the general staff of PLA.
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Central Plains War
Central Plains War (simplified Chinese: 中原大战; traditional Chinese: 中原大戰; pinyin: Zhōngyúan Dàzhàn) was a civil war within the factionalised Kuomintang (KMT) that broke out in 1930. It was fought between the forces of Chiang Kai-shek and the coalition of three military commanders who had previously allied with Chiang: Yan Xishan, Feng Yuxiang, and Li Zongren. The war spread wide across Central Plains, a core region of China.
In consolidating power for the Kuomintang in the Northern Expedition of 1927–1928, Chiang had forged alliances with the warlord armies of Yan, Feng, and Li. However, relations between Chiang and his warlord allies soon soured, resulting in the war. This war almost bankrupted Chiang's Nationalist Government and cost over 300,000 casualties on both sides. However, Chiang's victory allowed him to further consolidate power as the undisputed leader of most of China.
Compared to other senior party officials like Hu Hanmin and Wang Jingwei, Chiang Kai-shek in contrast was rather a junior official in the Kuomintang (KMT) . He began to rise to prominence in 1917 in the Guangzhou government with his militaristic talent. In 1923, Chiang reached the turning point of his life when Chen Jiongming launched a rebellion against Sun Yat-sen in Guangzhou. Chiang helped Sun to retreat out of Guangzhou which gained Sun's ultimate trust.
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Chen Duxiu
Chen Duxiu (simplified Chinese: 陈独秀; traditional Chinese: 陳獨秀; pinyin: Chén Dúxiù; October 8, 1879 – May 27, 1942) played many different roles in Chinese history. He was a leading figure in the anti-imperial Xinhai Revolution and the May Fourth Movement for Science and Democracy. Along with Li Dazhao, Chen was a co-founder of the Chinese Communist Party in 1921. He was its first General Secretary. Chen was an educator, philosopher, and politician. His ancestral home was in Anqing (安慶), Anhui, where he established the influential vernacular Chinese periodical La Jeunesse.
Chen Duxiu was born in the city of Anqing (安慶), in Anhui (安徽) province. He was born to a wealthy family of officials, the youngest of four children. In his youth, he was described as volatile, emotional, intuitive, non-intellectual, and a defender of the underdog. His father died when Chen was two years old, and he was raised primarily by his grandfather; and, later, by his older brother.
Chen was given a traditional Confucian education by his grandfather, several private tutors, and his elder brother. A thorough knowledge of Confucian literary and philosophical works was the pre-requisites for civil service in Imperial China. Chen was an exceptional student, but this poor experiences taking the Confucian civil service exams resulted in a lifelong tendency to advocate unconventional beliefs and to criticize traditional ideas.
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Chen Jitang
Chen Jitang (traditional Chinese: 陳濟棠; simplified Chinese: 陈济棠; pinyin: Chén Jìtáng) (January 23, 1890 - November 3, 1954), also spelled Chen Chi-tang, was born into a Hakka family in Fangcheng, Guangxi, China. He joined the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance in 1908 and began serving in the Guangdong Army in 1920, rising from battalion to brigade commander. He was designated commander of the 11th Division within the 4th Army in 1925 and took up the garrison of Qinzhou city, Guangxi, in 1926, thus staying in the south during the Northern Expedition. In 1928 he was made Commander of the 4th Route Army.
In addition to his military position, Chen also held governing authority over the Guangdong province. From 1929 to 1936, he made tremendous contributions to the province’s development, growth, and modernization. He paved the city streets and built high-rise commercial centers, numerous factories, and the first modern bridge across the Pearl River. He oversaw the establishment of a public school system with modern elementary and high schools and prestigious colleges and universities (including the Sun Yat-Sen University). People of the province fondly referred this period as the Golden Age of Guangdong and called him 南天王 (the Celestial King of the South).
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Congo Crisis
The Congo Crisis (1960–1966) was a period of turmoil in the First Republic of the Congo that began with national independence from Belgium and ended with the seizing of power by Joseph Mobutu. At various points, it had the characteristics of anti-colonial struggle, a secessionist war with the province of Katanga, a United Nations peacekeeping operation, and a Cold War proxy battle between the United States and the Soviet Union. The Crisis resulted in the deaths of some 100,000 people (King Léopold II’s rule had resulted in the deaths of around 10,000,000 Congolese people). It led to the assassination of Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba, as well as a traumatic setback to the United Nations following the death of UN Secretary General Dag Hammarskjöld in a plane crash as he sought to mediate.
Prior to the establishment of the First Republic in 1960, the native Congolese elites had formed semi-political organizations which gradually evolved into the main parties striving for independence. These organizations were formed on one of three foundations: ethnic kinship, connections formed in schools, and urban intellectualism[citation needed].
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Deng Xiaoping
Deng Xiaoping (IPA: [tə̂ŋ ɕjɑ̀ʊpʰǐŋ] ( listen); 22 August 1904 – 19 February 1997) was a Chinese politician, statesman, and diplomat. As leader of the Communist Party of China, Deng was a reformer who led China towards a market economy. While Deng never held office as the head of state, head of government or General Secretary of the Communist Party of China (historically the highest position in Communist China), he nonetheless served as the paramount leader of the People's Republic of China from 1978 to 1992. As the core of the second generation leaders Deng shared his power with the two most powerful men after him: Li Xiannian and Chen Yun.
Born into a peasant background in Guang'an, Sichuan, China, Deng studied and worked in France in the 1920s, where he was influenced by Marxism. He joined the Communist Party of China in 1923. Upon his return to China he worked as a political commissar in rural regions and was considered a "revolutionary veteran" of the Long March. Following the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, Deng worked in Tibet and other southwestern regions to consolidate Communist control. He was also instrumental in China's economic reconstruction following the Great Leap Forward in the early 1960s. His economic policies were at odds with the political ideologies of Chairman Mao Zedong. As a result, he was purged twice during the Cultural Revolution but regained prominence in 1978 by outmaneuvering Mao's chosen successor, Hua Guofeng.
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Guo Boxiong
Guo Boxiong (Chinese: 郭伯雄; pinyin: Guō Bóxióng; Wade–Giles: Kuo Po-hsiung), born July 1942 in Xianyang, Shaanxi province is the current Vice Chairman of the Central Military Commission, a position he was appointed during the 16th National Congress of the Communist Party of China along with membership of the Politburo of the Communist Party of China.
As one of the Vice Chairman of the Central Military Commission currently, he is one of the highest-ranking military officers of PLA.
In 1961 he joined the People's Liberation Army, and in 1963 joined the Communist Party of China. Guo was trained at China's National Defense University and the Xian Army Academy in People's Liberation Army Military Academy where he graduated. He currently holds the rank of General. In the 55th Division of the 19th Army, Guo rose from a soldier to chief of staff of the 55th Division by 1982. By 1983 Guo was chief of staff of the 19th Army until 1985, when he became deputy chief of staff of the Lanzhou Military Region. Afterwards Guo became commander of the 47th Army Group for three years. In 1993 Guo became deputy commander of the Beijing Military Region and in 1997 commander of the Lanzhou Military Region.
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He Guoqiang
He Guoqiang (simplified Chinese: 贺国强; traditional Chinese: 賀國強; pinyin: Hè Guóqiáng; born October 1943) is a high-ranking government official in the People's Republic of China. Currently he is the eighth ranked member of the Politburo Standing Committee (PSC), China's highest ruling council, and the head of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection. Previously He was the head of the Organization Department of the Communist Party, the Governor of Fujian, and the party chief of Chongqing. He Guoqiang is said to be a 'moderating' force on the PSC, with no apparent loyalties to any particular factions or patrons.
He Guoqiang is a native of Xiangxiang, Hunan. He joined the Communist Party of China in January 1966 and joined the work force in September 1966. He graduated from the Inorganic Chemistry Department at the Beijing Institute of Chemical Engineering where he had majored in Inorganics. With his university education, he holds the title of Senior Engineer. He was first assigned to work as a technician at the synthesis division of the Lunan Chemical Fertilizer Plant in Shandong. During his eleven years there he eventually made his way up to party branch secretary. Eventually became an official at the chemical industry department at the Shandong provincial government, ascending through the ranks to become party chief in Jinan, the capital of Shandong, in 1987. He was transferred to become Governor of Fujian between 1997 to 1999, and then as the party chief of Chongqing until 2002. He moved to national politics that year, becoming the head of the Organization Department of the Communist Party of China, overseeing personnel.
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Hu Jintao
Hu Jintao (Pinyin: Hú Jǐntāo, pronounced [xǔ tɕìntʰɑ́ʊ]; born 21 December 1942) is the current Paramount leader of the People's Republic of China. He has held the titles of General Secretary of the Communist Party of China since 2002, President of the People's Republic of China since 2003, and Chairman of the Central Military Commission since 2004, succeeding Jiang Zemin as the chief of the fourth generation of leadership of the Communist Party of China.
Hu has been involved in the Communist party bureaucracy for most of his adult life, notably as Party secretary for Guizhou province and the Tibet Autonomous Region, and then later first Secretary of the CPC Secretariat and Vice-President under former leader Jiang Zemin. Hu is the first leader of the Communist Party without any significant revolutionary credentials. As such, his rise to the presidency represented China's transition of leadership from establishment communists to younger, more pragmatic technocrats.
During his term in office, Hu has reintroduced state control in some sectors of the economy that were relaxed by the previous administration, and has been conservative with political reforms. Along with his colleague, Premier Wen Jiabao, Hu presided over nearly a decade of consistent economic growth and development that cemented China as a major world power. He sought to improve socio-economic equality domestically through the Scientific Development Concept, which aimed to build a "Harmonious Society" that was prosperous and free of social conflict. Meanwhile, Hu kept a tight lid on China politically, cracking down on social disturbances, ethnic minority protests, and dissident figures. In foreign policy, Hu advocated for "China's peaceful development", pursuing soft power in international relations and a business-oriented approach to diplomacy. Through Hu's tenure, China's influence in Africa, Latin America, and other developing countries has increased.
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Hu Yaobang
Hu Yaobang (20 November 1915 – 15 April 1989) was a leader of the People's Republic of China who served as both Chairman and Party General Secretary. Hu joined the Chinese Communist Party in the 1930s, and rose to prominence as a comrade of Deng Xiaoping. During the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976), Hu was purged, recalled, and purged again, following the political career of Deng.
After Deng rose to power, following the death of Mao Zedong, Deng promoted Hu to a series of high political positions. Throughout the 1980s Hu pursued a series of economic and political reforms under the direction of Deng. Hu's political and economic reforms made him the enemy of several powerful Party elders, who opposed free market reforms and attempts to make China's government more transparent. When a series of widespread student protests occurred across China in 1987, Hu's political opponents successfully blamed Hu for the disruptions, claiming that Hu's "laxness" and "bourgeois liberalization" had either led to, or worsened, the protests. Hu was forced to resign as Party General Secretary, but was allowed to retain a seat in the Politburo.
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Hua Guofeng
Su Zhu (16 February 1921 – 20 August 2008), better known by the nom de guerre Hua Guofeng, was Mao Zedong's designated successor as the Paramount Leader of the Communist Party of China and the People's Republic of China.
A regional official in Hunan between 1949 and 1971, he became the head of the party leadership in the province during the latter stages of the Cultural Revolution. Hua was elevated to the national stage in early 1976, and was known for his loyalty to Mao. Upon Zhou Enlai's death in January 1976, Hua succeeded Zhou as Premier of the People's Republic of China. After Mao's death, Hua took on the titles of Chairman of the Communist Party of China and the Chairman of the Central Military Commission, to the surprise and dismay of Jiang Qing and the rest of the Gang of Four. Hua is the only leader to have simultaneously held the three highest offices of the PRC - leading the Party, State Council, and the Central Military Commission.
Hua brought the Cultural Revolution to an end and ousted the Gang of Four from political power by staging their arrests in Beijing. He attempted moderate reforms and reversing some of the excesses of Cultural Revolution-era policies. However, because of his insistence on continuing the Maoist line, he was himself outmaneuvered a few years later by Deng Xiaoping, a pragmatic reformer, who forced Hua into early retirement. As Hua faded into political obscurity, he continued to insist on the correctness of Maoist principles. He is remembered as a largely benign transitional figure in modern Chinese political history.
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Hui Liangyu
Hui Liangyu (simplified Chinese: 回良玉; traditional Chinese: 回良玉; pinyin: Huí Liángyù : born October 1944 in Yushu, Changchun, Jilin) is the Vice Premier of the People's Republic of China in charge of agriculture in China.
He is part of the Hui ethnic group. Since 1969, he has been working for the Communist Party and the Chinese Government in a number of positions, rising to full membership in the Politburo of the CPC Central Committee since November 2002. He was the CPC party chief in Jiangsu from 2000 to 2002. Since 2003, he has been a Vice Premier.
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Igor Gouzenko
Igor Sergeyevich Gouzenko (January 13, 1919 – June 28, 1982) was a cipher clerk for the Soviet Embassy to Canada in Ottawa, Ontario. He defected on September 5, 1945, with 109 documents on Soviet espionage activities in the West. This forced Prime Minister Mackenzie King to call a Royal Commission to investigate espionage in Canada.
Gouzenko exposed Joseph Stalin's efforts to steal nuclear secrets, and the technique of planting sleeper agents. The "Gouzenko Affair" is often credited as a triggering event of the Cold War.
Gouzenko was born to a Ukrainian family on January 26, 1919, in the village of Rogachevo not far from Moscow. At the start of World War II, he joined the military where he trained as a cipher clerk. In 1943, he was stationed in Ottawa, where for two years he enciphered outgoing messages and deciphered incoming messages for the GRU. His position gave him knowledge of Soviet espionage activities in the West.
In 1945, hearing that he and his family were to be sent home to the Soviet Union and dissatisfied with the quality of life and the politics of his homeland, he decided to defect. Gouzenko walked out of the embassy door carrying with him a briefcase with Soviet code books and deciphering materials. He initially went to the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, but the RCMP officers on duty refused to believe his story. He then went to the Ottawa Journal newspaper, but the paper's night editor was not interested, and suggested he go to the Department of Justice – however nobody was on duty at night when he arrived. Terrified that the Soviets had discovered his duplicity, he went back to his apartment and hid his family in the apartment across the hall for the night. Gouzenko, hidden by a neighbour, watched through the keyhole as a group of Soviet agents broke into his apartment. They began searching through his belongings, and only left when confronted by Ottawa police.
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Jia Qinglin
Jia Qinglin (born March 1940 in Botou, Hebei, China) is a senior leader of the People's Republic of China. He is the fourth ranking member of the Politburo Standing Committee of the Communist Party of China, the Chairman and Party secretary of the National Committee of the People's Political Consultative Conference. Jia's functions as the head of China's consultative legislative body are largely ceremonial in nature. Earlier he had served as the CPC Party Chief in the country's southern Fujian province and Beijing.
An engineer by profession, and one of former General Secretary Jiang Zemin's trusted allies and protege, Jia Qinglin's rise in the politburo is attributed to his relationship with Jiang. Jia served as the Party chief in Fujian in the early 1990s. He was later transferred to Beijing in 1996 to replace then Beijing Party-chief Chen Xitong who was arrested on corruption charges. Jia served as the acting Mayor, Mayor and Party Chief in Beijing, coming onto the national and international spotlight during the 50th Anniversary of PRC celebrations as the event's host.
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Jiang Zemin
Jiang Zemin (born 17 August 1926) is a former Chinese politician, who served as General Secretary of the Communist Party of China from 1989 to 2002, as President of the People's Republic of China from 1993 to 2003, and as Chairman of the Central Military Commission from 1989 to 2005. His long career and political prominence have led to him being described as the "core of the third generation" of Communist Party leaders.
Jiang Zemin came to power following Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, replacing Zhao Ziyang as CPC General Secretary. With the waning influence of Deng Xiaoping and the other members of Eight Elders due to old age,and with the help of old and powerful party and state leaders, former President Li Xiannian and Chen Yun Jiang effectively became the "Paramount Leader" in the 1990s. Under his leadership, China experienced substantial developmental growth with reforms, saw the peaceful return of Hong Kong from the United Kingdom and Macau from Portugal, and improved its relations with the outside world while the Communist Party maintained its tight control over the government. Jiang has been criticized for being too concerned about his personal image at home, and too conciliatory towards Russia and the United States abroad.
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Joseph Stalin
Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin (Russian: Иосиф Виссарионович Сталин; born Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili, Russian: Иосиф Виссарионович Джугашвили; 18 December 1878 – 5 March 1953) was the Premier of the Soviet Union from 6 May 1941 to 5 March 1953. He was among the Bolshevik revolutionaries who brought about the October Revolution in Russia in 1917 and later held the position of General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union's Central Committee from 1922 until his death in 1953. While the office of the General Secretary was officially elective and not initially regarded as the top position in the Soviet state, Stalin managed to use it to consolidate more and more power in his hands after the death of Vladimir Lenin in 1924 and gradually put down all opposition groups within the Communist Party. This included Leon Trotsky, a socialist theorist and the principal critic of Stalin among the early Soviet leaders, who was exiled from the Soviet Union in 1929. Whereas Trotsky was an exponent of permanent revolution, it was Stalin's concept of socialism in one country that became the primary focus of Soviet politics.
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Korean War
The Korean War (Korean: 한국전쟁 or 조선전쟁, Hanja: 韓國戰爭 or 朝鮮戰爭; 25 June 1950 – 27 July 1953) was a war between the Republic of Korea (supported primarily by the United States of America, with contributions from allied nations under the aegis of the United Nations) and the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (supported by the People's Republic of China, with military and material aid from the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics). The Korean War was primarily the result of the political division of Korea by an agreement of the victorious Allies at the conclusion of the Pacific War at the end of World War II. The Korean Peninsula was ruled by the Empire of Japan from 1910 until the end of World War II. Following the surrender of the Empire of Japan in September 1945, American administrators divided the peninsula along the 38th parallel, with U.S. military forces occupying the southern half and Soviet military forces occupying the northern half.
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Leonid Brezhnev
Leonid Ilyich Brezhnev (Russian: Леони́д Ильи́ч Бре́жнев; IPA: [lʲɪɐˈnʲid ɪlʲˈjitɕ ˈbrʲeʐnʲɪf] ( listen); Ukrainian: Леоні́д Іллі́ч Бре́жнєв, 19 December 1906 (O.S. 6 December) – 10 November 1982) was the General Secretary of the Central Committee (CC) of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), presiding over the country from 1964 until his death in 1982. His eighteen-year term as General Secretary was second only to that of Joseph Stalin in length. During Brezhnev's rule, the global influence of the Soviet Union grew dramatically, in part because of the expansion of the Soviet military during this time, but his tenure as leader has often been criticised for marking the beginning of a period of economic stagnation in which serious economic problems were overlooked, problems which eventually led to the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991.
Brezhnev was born in Kamenskoe into a Russian worker's family. After graduating from the Dniprodzerzhynsk Metallurgical Technicum, he became a metallurgical engineer in the iron and steel industry, in Ukraine. He joined Komsomol in 1923, and in 1929 became an active member of the Communist Party. He was drafted into immediate military service during World War II and left the army in 1946 with the rank of Major General. In 1952 Brezhnev became a member of the Central Committee, and in 1964, Brezhnev succeeded Nikita Khrushchev as First Secretary. Alexei Kosygin succeeded Khrushchev in his post as Chairman of the Council of Ministers.
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Li Changchun
Li Changchun (simplified Chinese: 李长春; traditional Chinese: 李長春; pinyin: Lǐ Chángchūn; born February 1944) is the Propaganda chief of the Communist Party of China. He is the 5th ranked member of the Politburo Standing Committee of the Communist Party of China, China's de facto top power organ, and has been a member since 2002. He also serves as Chairman of the CPC Central Guidance Commission for Building Spiritual Civilization, de facto Head of propaganda and media relations. Previously he had served in Liaoning, Henan and Guangdong.
Li Changchun was born in February 1944 at Dairen in the Japanese Kwantung Leased Territory. He joined the Communist Party of China in 1965 and graduated with a degree in electrical engineering from the Harbin Institute of Technology in 1966. In 1983, at age 39, he became the youngest mayor and Party secretary of a major city, of Shenyang, the capital of Liaoning. In 1987, he became governor of the province, a post he kept until 1990. As governor, mainland China's first expressway was built in the province, linking the cities of Shenyang and Dalian. After Zhao Ziyang was purged from the party leadership in 1989 during the fallout from the Tiananmen Square protests that same year, Li was initially also thought to have been removed from the leadership of the Communist Party because Li was a supporter of Zhao. Li's appearance on state television weeks later confirmed that this was not the case. Li served briefly as the Party chief in the agricultural province of Henan in the 1990s.Jiang Zemin sent him to serve as Guangdong Party Secretary, where he cracked down on corruption to 'put the house in order'. Li, again the youngest ever member, was promoted to the Politburo of the Communist Party of China in 1998, and made a member of its Standing Committee after General Secretary Jiang Zemin's retirement in 2002. In October 2007, the Communist Party of China announced that Li would serve another term as Propaganda Chief.
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Li Keqiang
Li Keqiang (born 1 July 1955) is the Executive Vice-Premier of the State Council of the People's Republic of China, the seventh ranked member of the Politburo Standing Committee, the People's Republic of China's de facto highest decision-making body. As Premier Wen Jiabao's top lieutenant, Li's official portfolio includes economic development, price controls, finance, climate change, and macroeconomic management.
Li rose through the ranks of the Communist Youth League. From 1998 to 2004, Li served as the Governor of Henan and the province's CPC party chief, and then the Liaoning party chief, an office that made him first-in-charge in that province. Li is speculated as the likely successor to Wen Jiabao as Premier in the "fifth generation" (Xi-Li Administration) of CPC leadership.
Li Keqiang was born in Dingyuan County, Anhui on 1 July 1955. His father was a local official in Anhui. Li graduated from high school in 1974, during the Cultural Revolution, and was sent for rural labour in Fengyang County, Anhui, where he eventually joined the Communist Party of China and made his way to becoming the party head of the local production team. He was awarded with the honour of Outstanding Individual in the Study of Mao Zedong Thought during this time.
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Li Lisan
Lǐ Lìsān (Chinese: 李立三; pinyin: Lǐ Lìsān) (March 1899–June 22, 1967) was an early leader of the Chinese communists, and the top leader of the Chinese Communist Party from 1928 to 1930, member of the Politburo, and later a member of the Central Committee.
Li was born in Liling, Hunan province in China in 1899, under the name of Li Rongzhi. His father, a teacher, taught Li Chinese traditional poems and classics. In 1915, he arrived at Changsha for high school and saw an advertisement in a newspaper written by a student from First Normal School of Changsha with the pen name 28 Strokes. Li met, and then became friends with, the young man whose real name was Mao Zedong. Later, Li joined the army of a local warlord in Hunan. One of the Division Commanders, Cheng Qian (程潜), who was both Li's father's townsman and alumni, sponsored Li to study in Beijing.
When Li reached Beijing, he applied to study in France and arrived there in 1920. He worked part-time as assistant to a boilermaker to earn his tuition. His boss was a member of Communist Party, and Li was influenced in accepting Communism, taking part actively in the struggles for Chinese labor rights in France. For his active and fearless revolutionary work, Li was labelled as a trouble-maker. In 1921, Li was expelled back to China with more than 100 other Chinese by the French authorities.
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Liu Yunshan
Liu Yunshan (simplified Chinese: 刘云山; traditional Chinese: 劉云山; pinyin: Liú Yúnshān; born July 1947) is a leader in the Communist Party of China.
Liu worked in Inner Mongolia for 20 years, beginning with his appointment there in 1968.
Mr. Liu is the Director of the Propaganda Department of the Communist Party of China Central Committee. But because of party seniority, he serves behind Li Changchun. He is one of 24 members of the Politburo, the most influential group of politicians in the Communist Party.
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Luo Gan
Luo Gan (born July 1935 in Shandong) is a former member of the Politburo Standing Committee of the Communist Party of China and former Political and Legislative Affairs Committee secretary of the People's Republic of China.
Luo Gan studied engineering at the Beijing Steel and Iron Institute. Luo joined the Communist Party of China in 1960.
Afterwards, he moved to East Germany and spent eight years as a student at Technische Universität Bergakademie Freiberg as well as working in steel plants. Upon returning to China, Luo continued to work in the steel industry and became Party chief of the central Henan Province in the 1980s.
Luo has developed a close relationship with Li Peng and is considered his protégé. He was appointed as the Minister of Labor from April to December in 1988.
Luo was appointed a state councillor in 1993 (served until 2003) and became a member of the Politburo in 1998. Serving as the security chief, he implemented the "strike hard" anti-crime campaign, which blamed to have led to increased executions, and is said to have personally directed the suppression of illegal organisations and protests such as that at the Pubugou Dam protest in 2004. He was also instrumental in the Falun Gong crackdown.
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Ma clique
The Ma clique or Ma family warlords is a collective name for a group of Hui (Muslim Chinese) warlords in Northwestern China who ruled the Chinese provinces of Qinghai, Gansu and Ningxia from the 1910s until 1949. There were 3 families in the Ma clique ("Ma" being a common Hui rendering of the common Muslim name "Muhammad"), each of them respectively controlled 3 areas, Gansu, Qinghai, and Ningxia. The three most prominent members of the clique were Ma Bufang, Ma Hongkui, and Ma Hongbin, collectively known as the Xibei San Ma (Chinese: 西北三马, Three Mas of the Northwest). Some contemporary accounts, such as Edgar Snow's, described the clique as the "Four Ma" (rather than Three), adding Ma Bufang's brother Ma Buqing to the list of the top warlords. Other prominent Mas included Ma Anliang, Ma Qi, Ma Lin, Ma Hu-shan, and Ma Zhongying.
The Ma Clique warlords were all Generals in the military of the Republic of China. The clique was begun by Muslim generals who served in the military of the Qing dynasty, most notably in the Kansu Braves army, who fought in the Boxer Rebellion against invading foreign forces. It was continued by two generations of their descendants.
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Mao Zedong
Mao Zedong, also transliterated as Mao Tse-tung listen (help·info), and commonly referred to as Chairman Mao (December 26, 1893 – September 9, 1976), was a Chinese Communist revolutionary, guerrilla warfare strategist, Marxist political philosopher, and leader of the Chinese Revolution. He was the architect and founding father of the People's Republic of China (PRC) from its establishment in 1949, and held authoritarian control over the nation until his death in 1976. His theoretical contribution to Marxism–Leninism, along with his military strategies and brand of policies, are collectively known as Maoism.
Mao rose to power by commanding the Long March, forming a Second United Front with Kuomintang (KMT) during the Second Sino-Japanese War to repel a Japanese invasion, and leading the Communist Party of China (CPC) to victory against Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek's Kuomintang (KMT) in the Chinese Civil War. After solidifying the reunification of China through his Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries, Mao enacted sweeping land reform, by using violence and terror to overthrow the feudal landlords before seizing their large estates and dividing the land into people's communes. During the years when Mao was China’s 'Great Helmsman', a range of positive changes came to China. These included promoting the status of women, improving popular literacy, doubling the school population, providing universal housing, abolishing unemployment and inflation, increasing health care access, and dramatically raising life expectancy. In addition, China's population almost doubled during the period of Mao's leadership (from around 550 to over 900 million). As a result, Mao is still officially held in high regard by many in China as a great political strategist, military mastermind, and savior of the nation. Maoists further promote his role as a theorist, statesman, poet, and visionary, while anti-revisionists continue to defend most of his policies.
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Mozambican Civil War
The Mozambican Civil War began in 1977, two years after the end of the war of independence. The ruling party, Front for Liberation of Mozambique (FRELIMO) and the national armed forces FAM (Armed Forces of Mozambique), was violently opposed from 1977 by the Rhodesian- and (later) South African-funded Mozambique Resistance Movement (RENAMO). About 1 000 000 people died in fighting and from starvation, five million civilians were displaced, many were made amputees by landmines, a legacy from the war that continues to plague Mozambique. Fighting ended in 1992 and the country's first multi-party elections were held in 1994.
Mozambican resistance began to surface, as some groups within the Mozambican society eventually started to blame the Portuguese authorities for centuries of exploitation, oppression and neglect.[citation needed] After a successful wave of independence movements in other African territories, cold war powers and the international community started to suggest that Portugal should leave its territories in Africa. Sentiment for Mozambique's own national independence developed and on 25 June 1962 several Mozambican anti-Portuguese political groups formed the Mozambique Liberation Front (FRELIMO) in Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania.
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Nikita Khrushchev
Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev (April 15 [O.S. April 3] 1894, – September 11, 1971) led the Soviet Union during part of the Cold War. He served as First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964, and as Chairman of the Council of Ministers, or Premier, from 1958 to 1964. Khrushchev was responsible for the partial de-Stalinization of the Soviet Union, for backing the progress of the early Soviet space program, and for several relatively liberal reforms in areas of domestic policy. Khrushchev's party colleagues removed him from power in 1964, replacing him with Leonid Brezhnev as First Secretary and Alexei Kosygin as Premier.
Khrushchev was born in the Russian village of Kalinovka in 1894, close to the present-day border between Russia and Ukraine. He was employed as a metalworker in his youth, and during the Russian Civil War was a political commissar. With the help of Lazar Kaganovich, he worked his way up the Soviet hierarchy. He supported Joseph Stalin's purges, and approved thousands of arrests. In 1939, Stalin sent him to govern Ukraine, and he continued the purges there. During what was known in the Soviet Union as the Great Patriotic War (Eastern Front of World War II), Khrushchev was again a commissar, serving as an intermediary between Stalin and his generals. Khrushchev was present at the bloody defense of Stalingrad, a fact he took great pride in throughout his life. After the war, he returned to Ukraine before being recalled to Moscow as one of Stalin's close advisers.
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Politics of Shanghai
The Politics of Shanghai is structured in a dual party-government system like all other governing institutions in the mainland of the People's Republic of China (PRC). In the last few decades the city has produced many of the country's eventual senior leaders. The city has been important politically to China since the end of the 19th Century.
The Mayor of the Shanghai Municipal People's Government (上海市人民政府市长, abbreviated as Mayor of Shanghai 上海市市长) is the highest ranking executive official in Shanghai. Since Shanghai is a direct-controlled municipality of China, the mayor occupies the same level in the order of precedence as provincial governors. However, in the city's dual party-government governing system, the mayor has less power than the Communist Party of China Shanghai Municipal Committee Secretary (中国共产党上海市委员会书记, abbreviated as 中共上海市委书记), colloquially termed the "Shanghai CPC Party chief".
Before 1941, Shanghai had a split administration: the International Settlement (governed under the Shanghai Municipal Council), the French Concession, and the Chinese City. The Chinese city was invaded by the Japanese in 1937 and the foreign concessions were occupied by the Japanese in 1941. After the occupation, the foreign powers formally ceded the territory to the Nationalist Government in Chongqing (a move largely symbolic until the Japanese surrender since the Nationalists no longer controlled Shanghai).
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Qu Qiubai
Qu Qiubai (Chinese: 瞿秋白; pinyin: Qū Qiūbái; Wade–Giles: Ch'ü Ch'iu-pai) (January 29, 1899 – June 18, 1935) was born in Changzhou, Jiangsu, China. He was a leader of the Communist Party of China in the late 1920s.
Qu was born in the southeast corner of Changzhou city, Jiangsu province, China. His family lived in a building named TianXianLou, and the building was in a lane named QingGuo. Qu's father, Qu Shiwei, was born in a downfallen family which used to be powerful and glorious. Qu Shiwei was good at painting, fencing, and medical knowledge, but he wasn't interested in other things, particularly politics and business. Qu's mother, Kim Xuan, the daughter of elite government officials, was skilled in poetry. Qu had five brothers and one sister, and he was the eldest one. When Qu was young, his family lived in his uncle's house, on the support from their relatives. Though Qu’s father took a job as teacher, he was unable to gain enough money to support his family because he became an opium addict afterwards. In 1915, Qu’s mother, overcame by her life's mounting difficulties and debts, committed suicide.
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Rhodesian Bush War
The Rhodesian Bush War – also known as the Second Chimurenga or the Zimbabwe War of Liberation – was a civil war which took place between July 1964 and December 1979 in the unrecognised country of Rhodesia (latterly Zimbabwe Rhodesia). The conflict pitted three forces against one another: on one side was the Rhodesian government, under Ian Smith (later the Zimbabwe Rhodesian government under Abel Muzorewa), on another was the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army, the military wing of Robert Mugabe's Zimbabwe African National Union, and on the third was the Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army of Joshua Nkomo's Zimbabwe African People's Union.
The war and its subsequent Internal Settlement, signed in 1978 by Smith and Muzorewa, led to the implementation in June 1979 of universal suffrage and end of white minority rule in Rhodesia, which was renamed Zimbabwe Rhodesia under a black majority government. However, this new order failed to win international recognition and the war continued. Negotiations between the government of Zimbabwe Rhodesia, the British government and Mugabe and Nkomo's united "Patriotic Front" took place at Lancaster House, London in December 1979, and the Lancaster House Agreement was signed. The country returned temporarily to British control and new elections were held under British and Commonwealth supervision in March 1980. ZANU won the election and Mugabe became the first Prime Minister of Zimbabwe on 18 April 1980, when the country achieved internationally-recognised independence.
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Richard Nixon
Richard Milhous Nixon (January 9, 1913 – April 22, 1994) was the 37th President of the United States, serving from 1969 to 1974. The only president to resign the office, Nixon had previously served as a US representative and senator from California and as the 36th Vice President of the United States from 1953 to 1961.
Nixon was born in Yorba Linda, California. After completing his undergraduate work at Whittier College, he graduated from Duke University School of Law in 1937, and returned to California to practice law. He and his wife, Pat Nixon, moved to Washington to work for the federal government in 1942. He subsequently served in the United States Navy during World War II. Nixon was elected to the House of Representatives in 1946 and to the Senate in 1950. His pursuit of the Hiss Case established his reputation as a leading anti-communist, and elevated him to national prominence. He was the running mate of Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Republican Party presidential nominee in the 1952 election. Nixon served for eight years as vice president. He waged an unsuccessful presidential campaign in 1960, narrowly losing to John F. Kennedy, and lost a race for Governor of California in 1962. In 1968, he ran again for the presidency and was elected.
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Wang Lequan
Wang Lequan (born December 1944) is a Chinese politician, currently serving as the Deputy Chair of the Political and Legislative Affairs Committee of the Communist Party of China. He was a prominent regional leader in Xinjiang, China, serving as the Region's Communist Party chief between 1994 and 2010. From 2004, he has also served as a member of the Politburo of the Communist Party of China.
Wang Lequan was born in Shouguang, Shandong in December 1944. He joined the Communist Party of China in 1966. He was a post-graduate at the Central Party School of the CPC Central Committee. Wang ran the Communist Youth League in Shandong Province in the mid-1980s and became vice governor of Shandong in 1989.
Wang was the Secretary of the CPC Xinjiang Committee from 1994 until 2010. As Secretary, he was responsible for implementing modernization programs in Xinjiang. He encouraged industrialization, development of commerce, and investments in roads and railways. He furthered the development of the oil and gas fields in the region, link-up of pipelines from Kazakhstan to eastern China. On the other hand, he constrained local culture and religion, substituted Mandarin for Uyghur language in primary schools; restricted or banned, among government workers, the wearing of beards and headscarves, fasting and praying while on the job.
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Wang Ming
Wang Ming (Chinese: 王明; pinyin: Wáng Míng; May 23, 1904 - March 27, 1974) was a senior leader of the early Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the mastermind of the famous 28 Bolsheviks group.[citation needed] Wang was also a major political rival of Mao Zedong during the 1930s, opposing Mao's nationalist deviation from the Comintern and orthodox Marxism and Leninism lines. Wang epitomized the intellectualism and foreign dogmatism Mao criticized in his essays "On Practice" and "On Contradiction". The competition between Wang and Mao was a reflection of the power struggle between the Soviet Union, through the vehicle of the Comintern, and the CCP to control both the direction and future of the Chinese revolution.
On May 23, 1904, Wang was born in Jinzhai, Anhui, as Chen Shaoyu (陈绍禹) to a poor peasant family. In 1920, he entered the Zhicheng Elementary School in Gushi County. Wang then entered the Third Agricultural School of the Anhui Province, which was founded by the revolutionary Zhu Yunshan. Zhu had a strong influence on the school's students, introducing many progressive journals and books such as New Youth and Communism ABC. In the school, Wang would encounter another strong influential figure in his life, A Ying (Qian Xinchun), his teacher. A Ying would teach Wang about Vladimir Lenin and Chen Duxiu.
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Wang Zhaoguo
Wang Zhaoguo (simplified Chinese: 王兆国; traditional Chinese: 王兆國; pinyin: Wáng Zhàoguó; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Ong Tiau-kok, born July 1941) is a Chinese politician who came to prominence during the era of Deng Xiaoping. At age 41, he had already acquired a ministerial position job.
Wang Zhaoguo was born in Fengrun, Hebei in 1941. He joined the Communist Party of China in 1965. He graduated from Harbin Institute of Technology in 1966 specializing in Mechanical Engineering.
He served as the First Secretary of the Communist Youth League from 1982 to 1984, at which point he was of a higher position than both current President Hu Jintao and Premier Wen Jiabao. He became Governor of Fujian from 1987 to 1990.
He was the Head of United Front Department from 1992 to 2002. In 2003 he became the Vice-Chairman of standing committee of 10th National People's Congress, and was re-elected in 11th National People's Congress in 2008. He is a member of the 16th and 17th Politburo of the Communist Party of China. In addition, he serves as the Chairman of the All-China Federation of Trade Unions.
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Wen Jiabao
Wen Jiabao (born 19 September 1942) is the sixth and current Premier of the State Council of the People's Republic of China, serving as China's head of government and leading its cabinet. In his capacity as Premier, Wen is regarded as the leading figure behind China's economic policy. He also holds membership in the Politburo Standing Committee of the Communist Party of China, the country's de facto top power organ, where he is ranked third out of nine members.
Wen has a professional background in geology and engineering. He holds a postgraduate degree from the Beijing Institute of Geology, where he graduated in 1968. He was subsequently sent to Gansu province for geological work, and remained in China's hinterland regions during his climb up the bureaucratic ladder. He was transferred to Beijing to work as the Chief of the Party General Office between 1986 and 1993, and accompanied General Secretary Zhao Ziyang to Tiananmen Square during the 1989 Tiananmen Square Protests. In 1998, he was promoted to the post of Vice Premier under Zhu Rongji, his mentor, and oversaw the broad portfolios of agriculture and finance.
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Wu Bangguo
Wu Bangguo (born July 1941) is a high-ranking politician in the People's Republic of China. He is currently Chairman and Party secretary of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress, a position that makes him China's chief legislator. He is also ranked second in official rankings of state and party leaders according to his qualifications in the Party. A native of Anhui, Wu is an electrical engineer by profession, and rose to national fame through regional work as the party chief of Shanghai and as Vice-Premier.
Wu was born at Feidong County in Anhui. He entered Tsinghua University in 1960, majoring in electron tube engineering at the Department of Radio Electronics, where he graduated in 1967. He subsequently was employed as a worker and technician at Shanghai's No. 3 Electronic Tube Factory, and then deputy chief and chief of the technical section from 1976 to 1978. He would eventually go on to lead the factory as its party secretary. In 1978 he was assigned to become the deputy manager of Shanghai Electronic Elements Company, and between 1979 and 1981 the deputy manager of Shanghai Electron Tube Company. Between 1981 and 1983 he worked as the deputy secretary of Shanghai Meters, Instruments and Telecommunications Bureau.
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Wu Guanzheng
Wu Guanzheng (born August 1938) was the head of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection of the Communist Party of China, an anti-corruption body from 2002 to 2007.
Wu is a native of Yugan, Jiangxi. He joined the Communist Party of China in March 1963. Wu graduated in thermal engineering from Tsinghua University in 1968. Wu was mayor of Wuhan from 1983 to 1986. He became the governor of Jiangxi in 1986, and was the Jiangxi CPC party chief from 1995 to 1997. He moved to Shandong in 1997 to become the party chief of the province and was made a full member of the Politburo the same year.
He is known to have good relationships with both General Secretary Hu Jintao and former General Secretary Jiang Zemin. Some sources consider him to be Hu's ally, while other consider him to be Jiang's. As a result, he is sometimes included in the list of people in the Shanghai clique.
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Wu Yi
Wu Yi (born November 1938 in Wuhan, Hubei, China) was one of four Vice Premiers of the State Council of the People's Republic of China, overseeing the country's economy until March 2008. Known as the "iron lady", Wu is one of the toughest negotiators in China's government.
In April 1962, she joined the Communist Party of China. In August of the same year, she graduated from the Petroleum Refinery department at the Beijing Petroleum Institute, with a degree in petroleum engineering. She spent much of her career as a petroleum technician, eventually becoming deputy manager at the Beijing Dongfang Hong refinery, and assistant manager and party secretary at the Beijing Yanshan Petrochemical Corporation.
She was elected deputy mayor of Beijing in 1988, and held that office until 1991. Following the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, she persuaded coal workers threatening to go on strike to continue working after some of their colleagues had been killed. From 1991 until 1998, she held successively the posts of Deputy Minister of Foreign Economic Relations and Trade, Minister of Foreign Trade and Economic Co-operation, and member of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Central Committee of the Communist Party of China. A protege of Zhu Rongji, she became a state councillor in 1998, and was appointed Vice Premier of the State Council in March 2003. She was the first woman to hold the position since economic and political reforms in 1978, and the most powerful woman in Chinese politics since Jiang Qing. She helped negotiate the PRC's entry into the World Trade Organization and reorganised the customs service after U.S. complaints over the widespread violation of intellectual property rights.
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Xi Jinping
Xi Jinping (pronounced [ɕǐ tɕînpʰǐŋ] English approx.:SHEE JIN PING; born 1 June 1953) is a high-ranking politician of the People's Republic of China. He currently serves as the top-ranked member of the Central Secretariat of the Communist Party of China, the country's Vice President, Vice-Chairman of the Central Military Commission, President of the Central Party School and the 6th ranked member of the CPC Politburo Standing Committee, China's de facto top power organ.
Son of communist veteran Xi Zhongxun, Xi Jinping served mostly in Fujian province in his early career. He was later appointed party chief of the neighboring Zhejiang province, and then was appointed as Shanghai's party chief following the dismissal of Chen Liangyu. Known for his tough stance on corruption and a frank openness about political and market economy reforms, Xi's combination of positions makes him the presumptive heir to current General Secretary and President Hu Jintao and the Paramount leader of the Communist Party of China's fifth generation of leadership.
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Xiang Zhongfa
Xiang Zhongfa (simplified Chinese: 向忠发; traditional Chinese: 向忠發; pinyin: Xiàng Zhōngfǎ) (1880 - June 24, 1931) was one of the early senior leaders of the Communist Party of China (CPC).
Xiang was born in 1880 to a poor family living in Shanghai. He dropped out of elementary school to move with his parents to their ancestral home in Hubei. When he was 14 years old, he became an apprentice in a weapons factory in Hanyang, a county of Wuhan.
When the factory closed, Xiang found work as a servant in Jiangxi. Three years later, he was recommended by his employer to work for a liner company in Wuhan. He received a promotion to Second Mate four months later and became Chief Mate after two years.
After several years, Xiang transferred to a ship of the major liner company Han Zhiping. There, he was elected as a labor union leader because of his literacy and activity in worker movements. In 1921, Xiang became the Vice Chairman of Han Zhiping's labor union and joined the Communist Party of China.
During the Northern Expedition, the army of Kuomintang (KMT) took over some parts of Hubei and marched towards Wuhan. Xiang and Xu Baihao mobilized workers for strikes against local warlords and set up the labor union of the Hubei province, greatly assisting the KMT army. After the CCP headquarters moved to Wuhan, Xiang was elected a member of the Central Committee of CCP for his contributions. Xiang was then among the most prominent worker activists, along with Su Zhaozheng, Wang Hebo and Deng Pei.
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Xu Caihou
Xu Caihou (Chinese: 徐才厚; pinyin: Xú Cáihòu; born June 1943 in Wafangdian, Dalian, Liaoning) is one of three vice chairmen of the Central Military Commission of the People's Republic of China along with Guo Boxiong. He succeeded Hu Jintao to the post on September 19, 2004 upon the latter's promotion to the chairmanship. His appointment came as a surprise to some analysts, as it was thought that Zeng Qinghong would be Hu's successor.
Xu was also a member of the Secretariat of the Communist Party of China Central Committee for the 16th CPC Central Committee and is currently a member of the 17th CPC Central Committee.
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Yu Zhengsheng
Yu Zhengsheng (simplified Chinese: 俞正声; traditional Chinese: 俞正聲 born April 1945) is the current CPC party chief in Shanghai, China, a post which makes him first-in-charge of China's largest city. Formerly the party chief in Hubei, Yu is also concurrently a member of the Politburo, and has been since 2002.
Yu Zhengsheng, a native of Shaoxing, Zhejiang, graduated from Harbin's Military Engineering Institute specializing in the design of automated missiles. He is the son of Yu Qiwei, better known by the name Huang Jing, a Communist politician, and Fan Jin, a frontline journalist. In December 1968 he was sent to work in Zhangjiakou, until the mid-1980s his career concentration was in electronic engineering.
Yu was mayor of Qingdao and Yantai in his early political career. He lost his election to the Central Committee in 1992, subsequently being sent to become Party chief in Qingdao. Yu served as Deputy Minister of Construction when he was recalled back to Beijing in 1997, and a year later promoted to the Minister position. He remained in that position in Zhu Rongji's cabinet from 1998 to 2001. He became a member of the powerful Politburo of the Communist Party of China in November 2002. Following the 17th Party Congress, Yu became the party chief in Shanghai, replacing Xi Jinping.
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Yuan Shikai
Yuan Shikai (courtesy Wèitíng 慰亭; pseudonym: Róng'ān 容庵, also named after birthplace Yuán Xiàngchéng 袁項城) (16 September 1859 – 6 June 1916) was an important Chinese general and politician, famous for his influence during the late Qing Dynasty, his role in the events leading up to the abdication of the last Qing Emperor of China, his autocratic rule as the second President of the Republic of China (following Sun Yatsen), and his short-lived attempt to revive the Chinese monarchy, with himself as the "Great Emperor of China."
Yuan Shikai was born in the village of Zhangying (張營村), Xiangcheng County, Chenzhou Prefecture, Henan, though the clan later moved 16 kilometers southeast of Xiangcheng to a hilly area that was easier to defend. There the Yuans had built a fortified village, Yuanzhaicun (Chinese: 袁寨村; literally "the fortified village of the Yuan family").
Yuan's family was affluent enough to provide Yuan with a traditional Confucian education. As a young man he enjoyed riding, boxing, and entertainment with friends. Though hoping to pursue a career in the civil service, he failed the Imperial examinations twice, leading him to decide an entry into politics through the Huai Army, where many of his relatives served. His career began by purchasing a minor official title in 1880, which was a common method of official promotion in the late Qing. Using his father's connections, Yuan travelled to Tengzhou, Shandong, and sought a post in the Qing Brigade. Yuan's first marriage was in 1876 to a woman of the Yu family who bore him a first son, Keding, in 1878. Yuan Shikai married nine further concubines throughout the course of his life.
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Zeng Peiyan
Zeng Peiyan (Chinese: 曾培炎; pinyin: Zēng Péiyán; born December 1938 in Shaoxing, Zhejiang) is a Chinese politician. He was a member of the Politburo of the Communist Party of China from 2002 to 2007 and was a Vice-premier from 2003 to 2008.
Zeng Peiyan was born in Shaoxing, Zhejiang. He graduated from Tsinghua University in 1962. Zeng joined the CPC in 1978.
Following his post as Vice Premier of the State Council, Zeng has been serving as Chairman of the China Center for International Economic Exchanges, a think tank with the mission of promoting international economic research and exchanges and providing consulting service. In 2009, he also became a member of the International Advisory Council of the sovereign wealth fund China Investment Corporation.
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Zeng Qinghong
Zeng Qinghong (born July 1939) was a prominent Chinese politician. He served as the Vice-President of the People's Republic of China from 2003 to 2008. He was a member of the Politburo Standing Committee, China's highest leadership council, and member of the Secretariat of the CPC Central Committee during between 2002 and 2007.
During the 1990s, Zeng was a close ally of then-President Jiang Zemin, and was instrumental in consolidating Jiang's power. For years, Zeng was the primary force behind the party's organization and personnel. During his term in the PSC, although he was formally ranked fifth, Zeng was seen as a 'power broker' in the party, believed to possess power that was second only to President Hu Jintao. Initially seen as a rival to President Hu Jintao, Zeng showed a willingness to work towards consensus with Hu following Jiang's retirement. Zeng left public life in 2008. However there are hints that he is still active behind the scenes[citation needed]. His son, Zeng Wei used over millions of dollars to purchase an Australian property alarmed the whole world.This incidence caused the Chinese retired leaders raise doubt on his credibility. As a result Zeng had to cut off all his relationships with his son to maintain his innocence.
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Zhang Dejiang
Zhang Dejiang (born November 1946 in Tai'an, Liaoning) is a high-ranking Chinese official. He currently serves as Vice-Premier in charge of energy, telecommunications, and transportation. He is also a member of the Communist Party of China's Politburo.
Zhang rose to prominence as the party chief of the coastal provinces of Zhejiang and Guangdong, where he presided over rapid economic growth. In March 2012 Zhang was appointed to replace Bo Xilai as the party chief of Chongqing.
Zhang rose to prominence during the era of Jiang Zemin, first in Yanbian, where he is credited with handling the issue of illegal immigration from North Korea. He was then transferred to Zhejiang in 1998. Zhang accompanied Jiang on a visit to North Korea in March 1990 and was promoted to deputy party secretary for Jilin soon after. Jiang described Yanbian under Zhang as a "model prefecture" later that year. In 1995 he was made party secretary of Jilin.
In 1998 Zhang became party secretary of Zhejiang. Zhang was popular among business leaders in Zhejiang due to his relatively laissez-faire attitude towards private enterprise. Zhang was known for allowing private business to operate freely, within the bounds of the law.
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Zhang Lichang
Zhang Lichang (July 1939 – 10 January 2008) was a Chinese politician. He was a member of the 16th Politburo of the Communist Party of China, and the Communist Party Secretary of Tianjin.
Zhang was born in July 1939, in Nanpi County, Hebei. He joined the Communist Youth League of China in April 1955, and began working in May 1958. He rose through a number of positions in [[Tianjin] city government, before becoming mayor and Vice-Party Chief in June 1993. He was elevated to the position of Tianjin Communist Party Secretary in August 1997, and to the Politburo of the Communist Party of China in November 2002. He died following an illness on 10 January, 2008.
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Zhang Wentian
Zhang Wentian (simplified Chinese: 张闻天; traditional Chinese: 張聞天; pinyin: Zhāng Wéntiān; 30 June 1900 – 1 July 1976). He is also known as Luo Fu (洛甫). His names in Wade-Giles are Chang Wen-t'ien and Lo Fu.
Born in Jiangsu, he attended engineering school in Nanjing and also spent a year at the University of California. He later joined the Communist Party and was sent to study at Sun Yat-sen University in Moscow from 1926 to 1930. He was one of the group known as the 28 Bolsheviks, but switched to supporting Mao Zedong during the Long March. He was General Secretary of the Communist Party of China from 1935 to 1945, when the post was abolished. He remained a member of the Politbureau, but ranked 12th of 13 in the 7th Politburo and reduced to Alternate Member in the 8th Politburo
He was First Vice Minister of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China from December, 1954 to November, 1960. He was a participant of the Long March, and later served as an ambassador to the Soviet Union from April 1951 to January 1955. At the Lushan Conference in 1959 he supported Peng Dehuai and lost power along with Peng. During the Cultural Revolution he was attacked as an ally of Peng and Liu Shaoqi; he was rehabilitated by Deng Xiaoping after Mao's death.
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Zhao Ziyang
Zhao Ziyang (pronounced [tʂɑ̂ʊ tsɨ̀jɑ̌ŋ]; 17 October 1919 – 17 January 2005) was a high-ranking politician in the People's Republic of China (PRC). He was the third Premier of the People's Republic of China from 1980 to 1987, and General Secretary of the Communist Party of China from 1987 to 1989.
As a senior government official, Zhao was critical of Maoist policies and instrumental in implementing free-market reforms, first in Sichuan, subsequently nationwide. He emerged on the national scene due to support from Deng Xiaoping after the Cultural Revolution. He also sought measures to streamline the bureaucracy and fight corruption, which was severely affecting the Party's legitimacy in the 1980s. Zhao Ziyang was also an advocate of the privatization of state-owned enterprises, the separation of the Party and the state, and general market economic reforms. Many of these views were shared by then-General Secretary Hu Yaobang.
His economic reform policies and sympathies to student demonstrators during the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 placed him at odds with some members of the party leadership, including Premier Li Peng. Zhao also began to lose favour with paramount leader Deng Xiaoping. In the aftermath of the events, Zhao was purged politically and effectively placed under house arrest for the next 15 years. He died in Beijing in 2005, but because of his political fall from grace he was not given the funeral rites generally accorded to senior Chinese officials.
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Zhou Yongkang
Zhou Yongkang (born December 1942) is a senior leader in the Communist Party of China (CPC) who is currently serving as the 9th ranked member of the powerful Politburo Standing Committee (PSC), and the head of the Central Political and Legislative Committee, an organ directing central government legal policy and the legislative agenda. In this position Zhou also oversees China's security forces and law enforcement institutions.
Zhou was a State Councillor until March 2008 and is a member of the Secretariat of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China. He was mayor of Panjin in Liaoning province from 1983 until 1985, and served as the Minister of Public Security of the People's Republic of China from 2002 to 2007.
Born in December 1942, Zhou Yongkang is a native of Wuxi, Jiangsu province. In November 1964 Zhou joined the CPC and joined geological survey work in north-east China in 1966 after the Cultural Revolution broke out. He graduated from the Survey and Exploration Department of Beijing Petroleum Institute majoring in geophysical survey and exploration. As a university graduate he holds the title Senior Engineer with a rank equivalent to that of Professor.
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Zhu Rongji
Zhū Róngjī (pinyin: Zhū Róngjī; Wade-Giles: Chu Jung-chi; IPA: [tʂú ʐʊ̌ŋtɕí]; born 23 October 1928 in Changsha, Hunan) is a prominent Chinese politician who served as the Mayor and Party chief in Shanghai between 1987 and 1991, before serving as Vice-Premier and then the fifth Premier of the People's Republic of China from March 1998 to March 2003.
A tough administrator, his time in office saw the continued double-digit growth of the Chinese economy and China's increased assertiveness in international affairs. Known to be engaged in a testy relationship with General Secretary Jiang Zemin, under whom he served, Zhu provided a novel pragmatism and strong work ethic in the government and party leadership increasingly infested by corruption, and as a result gained great popularity with the Chinese public. His opponents, however, charge that Zhu's tough and pragmatic stance on policy was unrealistic and unnecessary, and many of his promises were left unfulfilled. Zhu retired in 2003, and has not been a public figure since. Premier Zhu was also widely known for his charisma and tasteful humour.
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RELEASE
ALBUMS
- Good Lovin'
- Juste un mot
- Choisis-moi
- Interlude radio
- Si c'était à refaire
- Combien de fois
- Ailleurs
- La la
- Ce serait si simple
- How Could You
- Le Mec parfait
- Présomptions
- Danger
- Never Enough Love (live)
- Interludes Live
- Choisis-moi (remix)
- You Can't Treat Love That Way
- Runnin' Around
- Fast Livin'
- There Was a Time
- Shootout in the Parking Lot
- Never Gonna Let You Go
- Roll Me Over
- Little Dancer
- Come and Take My Love
- Days and Nights
- Près de toi
- Somebody
- Interlude
- On tourne en rond
- Ne crois pas
- Life Goes On
- Être là-bas
- Y'a pas moyen
- J'ai besoin d'amour (feat. Dee Dee Bridgewater)
- Tu disais
- Never Really Mattered
- Carmen
- T'es où ? (feat. Fabe)
- Gabriel
- Soleil
- Take the Time
- C'est fini
- Bad for Me
- Never Enough Love
- All of Me
- Baiser volé
- Choisir
- Let's Get Busy
- Battles of the Heart
- I'm on My Way
- Ce que je ressens
- À l'interieur de moi
- Time
- The Fight Is On
- In the Middle of the Night
- Hot Lovin' Night
- So Long (live)
- Second Chance
- Medicine Man
- Living on the Stage
- Rock City
- Sign in the Sky
- Animal Victim
- Wild Jealousy
- Proud Mary (live)
- Slow Dancing (remix)
- Somebody (demo)
- Rag Blues (demo)
- All Through the Night (demo)
- Pictures of You
- Medicine Man (intro)
- Medicine Man
- Slow Dancing in Hell
- She Did a Real Good Job
- So Damn Easy
- Lost Gardens
- Shake Your Cages
- Go All the Way
- Don't Let in the Night
- In Love Again
- Face to the Wind
- In Trouble With Angels
- Life Keeps Moving On
- You've Got Me
- The Great Wall
- Dead Lights
- Animal Victim
- In the Middle of the Night
- Won't Give It Up
- Sign in the Sky
- Don't Ever Say Goodbye
- Broken Dream
- Second Change
- Bitter Cold
- Take Your Time
- Harder Than Hell
- So Long
- Intro
- Shout It Out
- Back to You
- The Fight Is On
- Wild Jealousy
- Rock City
- Hot Lovin' Night
- Living on the Stage
- I Need Your Love
- One Shot to the Heart
- Staying Alive
- Don't Look Back
- Intro
- Shout It Out
- Back to You
- The Fight Is On
- Wild Jealousy
- Rock City
- Hot Lovin' Night
- Living on the Stage
- I Need Your Love
- When Passion Burns
- Staying Alive
- One Shot to the Heart
- Don't Look Back
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Explaining China's Communist Party
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:30
- Updated: 06 Jan 2013
The Communist Party Congress is a gathering of China's most powerful people. One of the key tasks is to announce the Party's new leadership line-up. Al Jazeera's Gerald Tan looks at the structure behind the highly choreographed Congress.
http://wn.com/Explaining_China's_Communist_Party
The Communist Party Congress is a gathering of China's most powerful people. One of the key tasks is to announce the Party's new leadership line-up. Al Jazeera's Gerald Tan looks at the structure behind the highly choreographed Congress.
China opens Communist Party congress
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:46
- Updated: 28 Dec 2012
China's ruling Communist Party has launched its national congress, a pivotal event that ushers in a new set of top leaders for the next decade. More than 2200 delegates gathered at Beijing's Great Hall of the People on Thursday for the start of the week-long session that will install Vice President Xi Jinping as the party's new general-secretary. Laura Kyle reports from Beijing.
http://wn.com/China_opens_Communist_Party_congress
China's ruling Communist Party has launched its national congress, a pivotal event that ushers in a new set of top leaders for the next decade. More than 2200 delegates gathered at Beijing's Great Hall of the People on Thursday for the start of the week-long session that will install Vice President Xi Jinping as the party's new general-secretary. Laura Kyle reports from Beijing.
- published: 08 Nov 2012
- views: 3234
- author: AlJazeeraEnglish
China's economy faltering: Gordon Chang
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:23
- Updated: 09 Jan 2013
China must go for fundamental economic reforms. The country should move away from its investment-led model to a consumption-based one, says lawyer and author Gordon Chang, who in 2001 predicted the collapse of Chinese Communist Party within a decade. Watch full show: profit.ndtv.com
http://wn.com/China's_economy_faltering_Gordon_Chang
China must go for fundamental economic reforms. The country should move away from its investment-led model to a consumption-based one, says lawyer and author Gordon Chang, who in 2001 predicted the collapse of Chinese Communist Party within a decade. Watch full show: profit.ndtv.com
- published: 08 Jan 2013
- views: 114
- author: ndtv
Chinese Journalists Protest Government Censorship
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:57
- Updated: 09 Jan 2013
Chinese government censors forced journalists at a Guangzhou newspaper in southern China to replace an editorial calling for political reform with a tribute to the Communist Party. Ray Suarez reports on the response by the journalists who went on strike to protest suppression of free speech.
http://wn.com/Chinese_Journalists_Protest_Government_Censorship
Chinese government censors forced journalists at a Guangzhou newspaper in southern China to replace an editorial calling for political reform with a tribute to the Communist Party. Ray Suarez reports on the response by the journalists who went on strike to protest suppression of free speech.
- published: 09 Jan 2013
- views: 204
- author: PBSNewsHour
The brutality of Chinese Communist Party and Government
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 78:41
- Updated: 07 Jan 2013
The brutality of Chinese Communist Party and Government - 1989 Chinese Student Demonstration - 1989 Tiananmen Square Massacre - Mass Murdering - Mass Killing - Cold Blood - Brutal China - Dictatorship - Totalitarianism
http://wn.com/The_brutality_of_Chinese_Communist_Party_and_Government
The brutality of Chinese Communist Party and Government - 1989 Chinese Student Demonstration - 1989 Tiananmen Square Massacre - Mass Murdering - Mass Killing - Cold Blood - Brutal China - Dictatorship - Totalitarianism
- published: 31 Aug 2011
- views: 7087
- author: hochiminhchetsinh
The Chinese Communist Party, the US, and the Year of Selection and Elections
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 80:32
- Updated: 15 Dec 2012
Sixth Annual Borton-Mosely Distinguished Lecture on Eurasia with Richard McGregor, Washington Bureau Chief, The Financial Times; Moderated by Alexander Cooley, Tow Professor of Political Science, Barnard College Presented by the Weatherhead East Asian Institute and the Harriman Institute at Columbia University on Wednesday, April 11, 2012 at Faculty House.
http://wn.com/The_Chinese_Communist_Party,_the_US,_and_the_Year_of_Selection_and_Elections
Sixth Annual Borton-Mosely Distinguished Lecture on Eurasia with Richard McGregor, Washington Bureau Chief, The Financial Times; Moderated by Alexander Cooley, Tow Professor of Political Science, Barnard College Presented by the Weatherhead East Asian Institute and the Harriman Institute at Columbia University on Wednesday, April 11, 2012 at Faculty House.
- published: 16 Apr 2012
- views: 534
- author: weaicolumbia
Xi Jinping to lead China's Communist Party
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:17
- Updated: 05 Jan 2013
Xi Jinping confirmed as new leader of Communist Party amid urgent calls for it to clean its ranks of corruption.
http://wn.com/Xi_Jinping_to_lead_China's_Communist_Party
Xi Jinping confirmed as new leader of Communist Party amid urgent calls for it to clean its ranks of corruption.
- published: 15 Nov 2012
- views: 12563
- author: AlJazeeraEnglish
'Sexiest Man Alive' Spoof Fools China's Communist Party (LinkAsia: 11/30/12)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:02
- Updated: 04 Jan 2013
The American satirical news outlet The Onion ran a piece last week naming North Korean leader Kim Jong-un the Sexiest Man Alive. Something must have been lost in translation, because China's Communist Party-run People's Daily picked up the story with a straight face. Watch more at linkasia.org. IMAGE North Korean leader Kim Jong-Un waves as he visits military units on islands in the most southwest of Pyongyang: REUTERS/KCNA
http://wn.com/'Sexiest_Man_Alive'_Spoof_Fools_China's_Communist_Party_LinkAsia_11_30_12
The American satirical news outlet The Onion ran a piece last week naming North Korean leader Kim Jong-un the Sexiest Man Alive. Something must have been lost in translation, because China's Communist Party-run People's Daily picked up the story with a straight face. Watch more at linkasia.org. IMAGE North Korean leader Kim Jong-Un waves as he visits military units on islands in the most southwest of Pyongyang: REUTERS/KCNA
- published: 30 Nov 2012
- views: 2289
- author: linktv
Murder Scandal Causes Fallout in China's Communist Party
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:48
- Updated: 14 Sep 2012
A year ago, Bo Xilai had been a rising Chinese politician in Chongqing Party. But all that changed after his wife was implicated and now indicted for the murder of British businessman Neil Heywood. Margaret Warner talks to the Atlantic's James Fallows about the impact the trial will have on Chinese leadership in the near future.
http://wn.com/Murder_Scandal_Causes_Fallout_in_China's_Communist_Party
A year ago, Bo Xilai had been a rising Chinese politician in Chongqing Party. But all that changed after his wife was implicated and now indicted for the murder of British businessman Neil Heywood. Margaret Warner talks to the Atlantic's James Fallows about the impact the trial will have on Chinese leadership in the near future.
- published: 28 Jul 2012
- views: 1177
- author: PBSNewsHour
The far reach of China's Communist Party
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:32
- Updated: 27 Dec 2012
China's leaders are beginning the complex process of transferring power to a new generation - the first such handover in a decade. All this week, Al Jazeera has been looking at the role of the Communist Party in modern China. In Melissa Chan's final report, she heads to Sichuan province to see how far the party reaches into the country's rural heartland.
http://wn.com/The_far_reach_of_China's_Communist_Party
China's leaders are beginning the complex process of transferring power to a new generation - the first such handover in a decade. All this week, Al Jazeera has been looking at the role of the Communist Party in modern China. In Melissa Chan's final report, she heads to Sichuan province to see how far the party reaches into the country's rural heartland.
- published: 26 Jan 2012
- views: 6711
- author: AlJazeeraEnglish
China News - November 9, 2012: Communist Party Clings on to Maoism for Legitimacy
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 16:44
- Updated: 30 Dec 2012
In today's NTD China News, Chongqing's new party chief denounces the political movements started by his predecessor, Bo Xilai. The Chinese Communist Party expels Wang Lijun from the Party. The Chinese regime has reaffirmed that it will hold on to its single-party rule, and continue to cling on to the ideologies of Mao Zedong. Rights groups report lengthy jail terms are being handed out dissidents and other persecuted groups in China ahead of the 18th Party Congress. One practitioner of the Falun Gong spiritual practice was sentenced to 14 years in prison in May. The Chinese regime says demands for international investigators to go Tibet are "arrogant". Ordinary Chinese citizens issue open letters to delegates of the 18th Party Congress, raising issues ranging from forced abortion, botched blood transfusions and corruption of the judiciary. Chinese stocks closed lower on Friday, with the 18th Party Congress yet to announce any concrete plans on the economy. A giant panda returns to China from Austria. For more news and videos visit ☛ ntd.tv Follow us on Twitter ☛ http Add us on Facebook ☛ on.fb.me
http://wn.com/China_News_November_9,_2012_Communist_Party_Clings_on_to_Maoism_for_Legitimacy
In today's NTD China News, Chongqing's new party chief denounces the political movements started by his predecessor, Bo Xilai. The Chinese Communist Party expels Wang Lijun from the Party. The Chinese regime has reaffirmed that it will hold on to its single-party rule, and continue to cling on to the ideologies of Mao Zedong. Rights groups report lengthy jail terms are being handed out dissidents and other persecuted groups in China ahead of the 18th Party Congress. One practitioner of the Falun Gong spiritual practice was sentenced to 14 years in prison in May. The Chinese regime says demands for international investigators to go Tibet are "arrogant". Ordinary Chinese citizens issue open letters to delegates of the 18th Party Congress, raising issues ranging from forced abortion, botched blood transfusions and corruption of the judiciary. Chinese stocks closed lower on Friday, with the 18th Party Congress yet to announce any concrete plans on the economy. A giant panda returns to China from Austria. For more news and videos visit ☛ ntd.tv Follow us on Twitter ☛ http Add us on Facebook ☛ on.fb.me
- published: 09 Nov 2012
- views: 642
- author: NTDTV
Schooling the ruling for China's communists
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:35
- Updated: 11 Nov 2012
China's ruling Communist Party's 80 million members attend special schools to learn Party ideology at facilities that serve as a training ground for the next generation. Al Jazeera's Melissa Chan reports from Beijing.
http://wn.com/Schooling_the_ruling_for_China's_communists
China's ruling Communist Party's 80 million members attend special schools to learn Party ideology at facilities that serve as a training ground for the next generation. Al Jazeera's Melissa Chan reports from Beijing.
- published: 24 Jan 2012
- views: 12220
- author: AlJazeeraEnglish
Wikileaks:CCP Officialdom Filled with Political Assassinations
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:00
- Updated: 23 Dec 2012
Follow us on TWITTER: twitter.com Like us on FACEBOOK: www.facebook.com WikiLeaks has released a cable sent by the US Consulate in Shanghai. It has disclosed the prevalence of political violence and assassinations within the officialdom of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). The elder son of Wu Guanzheng, former party secretary of the Disciplinary Inspection Commission, was murdered. The son of CCP President Hu Jintao was once the target of an attempted assassination. On October 5, 2007, the confidential cable was sent from the US Consulate in Shanghai. It was titled "A Nanjing Academic's View on Political Violence in China." The cable cited professor Gu, of Nanjing University. Gu's relatives worked at Beijing Public Security Bureau. Gu revealed that the elder son of Wu Guanzheng was murdered in January 2007. The son was on a business trip to Qingdao. His body was found in his hotel room three days after his death. No criminal evidence was left at the scene, said the cable. Qingdao Public Security Bureau officers told Gu's relatives that the assassins came from Beijing. The murder was said to involve investigations into corruption of Shanghai Party Secretary Chen Liangyu. It also involved "unnamed top-level Beijing municipal leaders." The assassination was presumed to have been conducted by the officials under investigation. It was seen as a threat to Wu Guanzheng. Wu was "devastated by his son's murder." Wu was said to have said in a top-level CCP meeting that his son ...
http://wn.com/WikileaksCCP_Officialdom_Filled_with_Political_Assassinations
Follow us on TWITTER: twitter.com Like us on FACEBOOK: www.facebook.com WikiLeaks has released a cable sent by the US Consulate in Shanghai. It has disclosed the prevalence of political violence and assassinations within the officialdom of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). The elder son of Wu Guanzheng, former party secretary of the Disciplinary Inspection Commission, was murdered. The son of CCP President Hu Jintao was once the target of an attempted assassination. On October 5, 2007, the confidential cable was sent from the US Consulate in Shanghai. It was titled "A Nanjing Academic's View on Political Violence in China." The cable cited professor Gu, of Nanjing University. Gu's relatives worked at Beijing Public Security Bureau. Gu revealed that the elder son of Wu Guanzheng was murdered in January 2007. The son was on a business trip to Qingdao. His body was found in his hotel room three days after his death. No criminal evidence was left at the scene, said the cable. Qingdao Public Security Bureau officers told Gu's relatives that the assassins came from Beijing. The murder was said to involve investigations into corruption of Shanghai Party Secretary Chen Liangyu. It also involved "unnamed top-level Beijing municipal leaders." The assassination was presumed to have been conducted by the officials under investigation. It was seen as a threat to Wu Guanzheng. Wu was "devastated by his son's murder." Wu was said to have said in a top-level CCP meeting that his son ...
- published: 06 Aug 2012
- views: 2517
- author: ChinaForbiddenNews
China Focus - Zhang Dejiang and China's 18th Party Congress
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 13:17
- Updated: 27 Nov 2012
China Focus has moved to a new channel, Be sure to subscribe to www.youtube.com Former Party official Bo Xilai was finally expelled from the Chinese Communist Party over the weekend. It's the next step to Bo being put on trial. But as his fate becomes clearer, attention is turning to Bo's successor in Chongqing, Zhang Dejiang. Zhang, who belongs to former Party leader Jiang Zemin's faction, is one of the candidates for the next Politburo Standing Committee, the group of men that rule the Communist Party. The new Standing Committee will be revealed during the upcoming 18th Party Congress, which starts this week, and whether Zhang makes it into the Standing Committee could be an indication of the Jiang faction's standing in the current power struggle. Join us as we discuss Zhang's background, the 18th Party Congress, and why Jiang's faction may be losing steam.
http://wn.com/China_Focus_Zhang_Dejiang_and_China's_18th_Party_Congress
China Focus has moved to a new channel, Be sure to subscribe to www.youtube.com Former Party official Bo Xilai was finally expelled from the Chinese Communist Party over the weekend. It's the next step to Bo being put on trial. But as his fate becomes clearer, attention is turning to Bo's successor in Chongqing, Zhang Dejiang. Zhang, who belongs to former Party leader Jiang Zemin's faction, is one of the candidates for the next Politburo Standing Committee, the group of men that rule the Communist Party. The new Standing Committee will be revealed during the upcoming 18th Party Congress, which starts this week, and whether Zhang makes it into the Standing Committee could be an indication of the Jiang faction's standing in the current power struggle. Join us as we discuss Zhang's background, the 18th Party Congress, and why Jiang's faction may be losing steam.
- published: 06 Nov 2012
- views: 860
- author: NTDTV
Neo-Liberal Capitalists Strengthen Control of Chinese Communist Party
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:06
- Updated: 06 Jan 2013
Minqi Li: Recent struggle in the leadership has been a decisive defeat for forces pushing for more income distribution and social reform more at therealnews.com
http://wn.com/Neo-Liberal_Capitalists_Strengthen_Control_of_Chinese_Communist_Party
Minqi Li: Recent struggle in the leadership has been a decisive defeat for forces pushing for more income distribution and social reform more at therealnews.com
- published: 11 Oct 2012
- views: 2660
- author: TheRealNews
China News - September 28th, 2012: Bo Xilai Kicked Out of Communist Party
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 13:26
- Updated: 27 Nov 2012
In today's NTD China News, disgraced politician Bo Xilai is kicked out of the Chinese Communist Party. State-run media announced on Friday that Bo has also been removed from all official positions. He faces accusations of massive bribery, sexual misconduct and various other crimes. Bo Xilai's expulsion from the Communist Party pushes back the 18th Party Congress to November 8th. Beijing's rights activists are facing more pressure from authorities as the Party Congress approaches. Japan and China trade words over their islands dispute at the United Nations. Five Chinese are amongst 19 dead after a plane crashed in Nepal. A giant "golden moon" lands in Hong Kong's Victoria Park in preparation for the Mid-Autumns Festival. For more news and videos visit ☛ ntdtv.org Follow us on Twitter ☛ http Add us on Facebook ☛ on.fb.me
http://wn.com/China_News_September_28th,_2012_Bo_Xilai_Kicked_Out_of_Communist_Party
In today's NTD China News, disgraced politician Bo Xilai is kicked out of the Chinese Communist Party. State-run media announced on Friday that Bo has also been removed from all official positions. He faces accusations of massive bribery, sexual misconduct and various other crimes. Bo Xilai's expulsion from the Communist Party pushes back the 18th Party Congress to November 8th. Beijing's rights activists are facing more pressure from authorities as the Party Congress approaches. Japan and China trade words over their islands dispute at the United Nations. Five Chinese are amongst 19 dead after a plane crashed in Nepal. A giant "golden moon" lands in Hong Kong's Victoria Park in preparation for the Mid-Autumns Festival. For more news and videos visit ☛ ntdtv.org Follow us on Twitter ☛ http Add us on Facebook ☛ on.fb.me
- published: 29 Sep 2012
- views: 1100
- author: NTDTV
Chinese Communist Party Has An Unshakable Grip On News Media
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:43
- Updated: 09 Jan 2013
January 08, 2013 BBC News MOXNews.com
http://wn.com/Chinese_Communist_Party_Has_An_Unshakable_Grip_On_News_Media
China Focus - Can the 18th Party Congress Save China's Economy?
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 12:31
- Updated: 27 Nov 2012
China Focus has moved to a new channel, Be sure to subscribe to www.youtube.com The 18th Party Congress will begin on November 8, 2012. It will be the Communist Party's biggest leadership change in a decade. On today's show, China analysts Jason Ma and Matt Gnaizda discuss what impact the new leadership is likely to have—and whether it can save China's weakening economy.
http://wn.com/China_Focus_Can_the_18th_Party_Congress_Save_China's_Economy?
China Focus has moved to a new channel, Be sure to subscribe to www.youtube.com The 18th Party Congress will begin on November 8, 2012. It will be the Communist Party's biggest leadership change in a decade. On today's show, China analysts Jason Ma and Matt Gnaizda discuss what impact the new leadership is likely to have—and whether it can save China's weakening economy.
- published: 02 Oct 2012
- views: 1555
- author: NTDTV
Michael Jackson - Beat It (Chinese Communist Party Version)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:04
- Updated: 09 Jan 2013
The People's Republic of China decided that the original Beat It videoclip was not fit for the chinese people and asked the Office of censorship to create its own version of the clip, while keeping the original song. This is what resulted. (I am of course kidding) Clip was taken from (credits to the original author): 220.170.79.109 "The video was edited from a Chinese masterpiece, the Long March Song Cycle (长征组歌) which was made in February 1976."
http://wn.com/Michael_Jackson_Beat_It_Chinese_Communist_Party_Version
The People's Republic of China decided that the original Beat It videoclip was not fit for the chinese people and asked the Office of censorship to create its own version of the clip, while keeping the original song. This is what resulted. (I am of course kidding) Clip was taken from (credits to the original author): 220.170.79.109 "The video was edited from a Chinese masterpiece, the Long March Song Cycle (长征组歌) which was made in February 1976."
- published: 09 Jul 2010
- views: 533194
- author: aerialpc
Chinese Communist Party Member Now Runs AMC!
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:08
- Updated: 28 Oct 2012
Chinese company Wanda has announced it will buy AMC, the second-largest theater chain in the USA, increasing fears that the Chinese Communist Party is expanding its influence globally as part of a media takeover. "Beijing is investing heavily in projecting its "soft power," or cultural influence, by boosting Chinese state media's presence abroad, including the USA, where the Chinese government has also run advertisements in New York's Times Square," reports USA Today. Wanda's acquisition of AMC increases concerns that Chinese-style censorship of politically controversial movies may become commonplace in the United States. "We have no plan whatsoever to promote Chinese movies in the US market," said Wang Jianlin, Chairman and President of Wanda. Billionaire Jianlin, the 15th richest person in China according to Forbes, is also a "Communist Party member, who sits on the nation's top advisory council." However, box office money from the Chinese market is already influencing movie industry titans in America to tone down negative portrayals of China itself. During the 2009 production of Red Dawn, a re-make of the 1984 classic which featured Soviet troops invading America, producers changed the identity of the villains after initially having agreed to portray the bad guys as Chinese troops. When distributors became nervous about the film harming profits from Chinese movie-goers, MGM decided to ditch Chinese soldiers in favor of North Korean invaders. www.infowars.com by Paul ...
http://wn.com/Chinese_Communist_Party_Member_Now_Runs_AMC!
Chinese company Wanda has announced it will buy AMC, the second-largest theater chain in the USA, increasing fears that the Chinese Communist Party is expanding its influence globally as part of a media takeover. "Beijing is investing heavily in projecting its "soft power," or cultural influence, by boosting Chinese state media's presence abroad, including the USA, where the Chinese government has also run advertisements in New York's Times Square," reports USA Today. Wanda's acquisition of AMC increases concerns that Chinese-style censorship of politically controversial movies may become commonplace in the United States. "We have no plan whatsoever to promote Chinese movies in the US market," said Wang Jianlin, Chairman and President of Wanda. Billionaire Jianlin, the 15th richest person in China according to Forbes, is also a "Communist Party member, who sits on the nation's top advisory council." However, box office money from the Chinese market is already influencing movie industry titans in America to tone down negative portrayals of China itself. During the 2009 production of Red Dawn, a re-make of the 1984 classic which featured Soviet troops invading America, producers changed the identity of the villains after initially having agreed to portray the bad guys as Chinese troops. When distributors became nervous about the film harming profits from Chinese movie-goers, MGM decided to ditch Chinese soldiers in favor of North Korean invaders. www.infowars.com by Paul ...
- published: 22 May 2012
- views: 7563
- author: TheAlexJonesChannel
Struggle in the Chinese Communist Party
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 11:42
- Updated: 14 Dec 2012
Minqi Li: The division between the pro "free market" forces vs those who want some socialism grows more intense For more Real News go to therealnews.com
http://wn.com/Struggle_in_the_Chinese_Communist_Party
Minqi Li: The division between the pro "free market" forces vs those who want some socialism grows more intense For more Real News go to therealnews.com
- published: 25 Mar 2012
- views: 4312
- author: TheRealNews
Remembering the Lost Art of 'China Watching' (LinkAsia: 10/5/12)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:12
- Updated: 11 Oct 2012
It wasn't that long ago that journalists had to set up shop in Hong Kong, sift through propaganda, and interview defectors to report on news from China. LinkAsia speaks with Mike Chinoy of USC's US-China Institute about their new documentary, 'China Watching', on going behind the Bamboo Curtain. Watch more at linkasia.org. IMAGE An old photo of a communist party meeting in China is seen at a communist party school called China Executive Leadership Academy of Pudong in Shanghai: REUTERS/Carlos Barria
http://wn.com/Remembering_the_Lost_Art_of_'China_Watching'_LinkAsia_10_5_12
It wasn't that long ago that journalists had to set up shop in Hong Kong, sift through propaganda, and interview defectors to report on news from China. LinkAsia speaks with Mike Chinoy of USC's US-China Institute about their new documentary, 'China Watching', on going behind the Bamboo Curtain. Watch more at linkasia.org. IMAGE An old photo of a communist party meeting in China is seen at a communist party school called China Executive Leadership Academy of Pudong in Shanghai: REUTERS/Carlos Barria
- published: 05 Oct 2012
- views: 636
- author: linktv
China Focus - China Focus - Why the 18th Party Congress Can't Bring Reform?
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 12:01
- Updated: 09 Dec 2012
China Focus has moved to a new channel, Be sure to subscribe to www.youtube.com The one-a-decade power transfer has come at a turbulent year for the Chinese regime. Western observers have lapped up the rare public power struggle between Party leaders. Others have debated whether reform is the key for the Communist regime's survival. In this China Focus, we speak with senior China analyst Heng He about putting the 18th Party Congress into perspective, and look at what's ahead for the Chinese Communist Party.
http://wn.com/China_Focus_China_Focus_Why_the_18th_Party_Congress_Can't_Bring_Reform?
China Focus has moved to a new channel, Be sure to subscribe to www.youtube.com The one-a-decade power transfer has come at a turbulent year for the Chinese regime. Western observers have lapped up the rare public power struggle between Party leaders. Others have debated whether reform is the key for the Communist regime's survival. In this China Focus, we speak with senior China analyst Heng He about putting the 18th Party Congress into perspective, and look at what's ahead for the Chinese Communist Party.
- published: 11 Nov 2012
- views: 453
- author: NTDTV
photo: AP / Menahem Kahana
08 Jan 2013
Enjoying a wide opinion poll lead before a January 22 election, Benjamin Netanyahu has been lecturing the international community - vocal in its criticism of settlement expansion on occupied territory and his hints of military action against Iran - about what it should really be worried about ... "The danger to the world is not from the university in Ariel or Israeli construction in the neighbourhoods of Jerusalem....(size: 3.8Kb)
photo: AP / Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics
08 Jan 2013
A US research team has conducted an analysis of data collected by NASA's Kepler Space Telescope, and “determined that about 17 percent of stars in our galaxy harbor a roughly Earth-size exoplanet in a close orbit.”. That translates to a minimum of 17 billion planets as there are about 100 billion stars in the Milky Way....(size: 1.7Kb)
photo: AP / Channi Anand
09 Jan 2013
JAMMU, India (Reuters) - India slammed arch-rival Pakistan on Wednesday over a fire fight in the disputed territory of Kashmir in which two of its soldiers were killed, and said the mutilation of one of the bodies was "inhuman" ... Antony waits to speak at a plenary session of the 11th International Institute of Strategic Studies (IISS) Asia Security Summit ... Pakistan contests that and demands implementation of a 1948 U.N....(size: 2.6Kb)
photo: AP / Richard Drew
09 Jan 2013
Officials say at least two of the passengers were in a critical condition, one with confirmed head injuries. ... Images showed a corner of the ferry ripped open. ... A corner of the ferry appeared to have been ripped open by the impact. Passenger Ellen Foran said people tumbled on top of each other, hysterical and crying.. "All of a sudden, the boat felt like it smashed into a wall," Richard Correra told WCBS-TV.....(size: 4.5Kb)
photo: US Army / Sgt. Christopher Bonebrake
07 Jan 2013
Johnson absolute powers to "take all necessary measures to repel any armed attack against the forces of the United States and to prevent further aggression," Congress could have also included "all necessary vanities." The 1964 Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which greatly escalated a foreign imperial war in Vietnam, added fuel to the bonfires of vanity ... The policy of "any vanity necessary" is also immoral and destructive....(size: 5.2Kb)
Xinhua
19 Nov 2012
The Communist Party of China is the vanguard both of the Chinese working class and of the Chinese people and the Chinese nation ... The Communist Party of China takes Marxism-Leninism, Mao Zedong Thought, Deng Xiaoping Theory, the important thought of Three Represents and the Scientific Outlook on Development as its guide to action....(size: 8.1Kb)
noodls
16 Nov 2012
SACP congratulates the Communist Party Of China and Cde Xi Jinping on his election as General Secretary ... The SACP congratulates the Communist Party of China on the successful conclusion of its 18th National Congress. Furthermore, we extend our congratulations to Cde Xi Jinping who was elected General Secretary of the Communist Party of China Central ......(size: 2.3Kb)
noodls
16 Nov 2012
... you on your election as General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China (CPC) ... I am prepared to work actively with you in order to further strengthen cooperation between United Russia and the Communist Party of China ... And I wish the Communist Party of China new achievements for the benefit of the friendly people of China....(size: 2.1Kb)
noodls
15 Nov 2012
Prime Minister of Ukraine MykolaAzarovcongratulates Xi Jinpingon his election on the post of General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China. "On behalf of the Ukrainian government and myself I heartily congratulate you ......(size: 1.5Kb)
The Himalayan
08 Nov 2012
Chinese President Hu Jintao (left) assists former president Jiang Zemin to stand up as PM Wen Jiabo (left) looks on at the opening of the 18th Communist Party Congress in Beijing, on Thursday ... President Hu Jintao warned China’s incoming leaders today that corruption threatened the ruling Communist Party and the state, but said the party must stay in charge as it battles growing social unrest....(size: 6.0Kb)
Newstrack India
07 Nov 2012
Beijing, Nov 7 (IANS) The 18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China (CPC) is scheduled to open Thursday ... -- In line with the CPC Constitution, the National Congress and the Central Committee elected at the congress are the supreme leading organ of the Party, reported Xinhua ... (4) To revise the Constitution of the Party;....(size: 2.1Kb)
Zeenews
07 Nov 2012
The 18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China (CPC) is scheduled to open Thursday ... the National Congress and the Central Committee elected at the congress are the supreme leading organ of the Party, reported Xinhua ... (4) To revise the Constitution of the Party;....(size: 1.5Kb)
The Independent
07 Nov 2012
The major beneficiary of the power transition will be Mr Xi, 59, China’s vice president and President Hu Jintao’s anointed successor, who is due to take over as Communist Party boss at the congress and then as head of state in March. Despite being one of the ......(size: 1.3Kb)
CNTV
07 Nov 2012
7 (Xinhua) -- The 18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China (CPC) is scheduled to open on Thursday ... -- In line with the CPC Constitution, the National Congress and the Central Committee elected at the congress are the supreme leading organ of the Party ... -- The functions and power of the National Congress are as follows. ... (4) To revise the Constitution of the Party; ... China » ... Germans no longer see China as a threat....(size: 5.6Kb)
Deccan Herald
04 Nov 2012
Disgraced politician Bo Xilai's expulsion from China's top legislature was endorsed Sunday, reported Xinhua news agency. The seventh plenary session of the 17th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China (CPC) Sunday endorsed a decision by the Political Bureau of the CPC Central Committee to expel Bo Xilai from the CPC ... The Political Bureau of ......(size: 1.9Kb)
The Times of India
23 Oct 2012
The Communist Party of China (CPC) is going to amend the Party Constitution at its upcoming 18th National Congress scheduled for November 8, according to a ......(size: 0.8Kb)
noodls
20 Sep 2012
Member of the Standing Committee of the Political Bureau (PSC) of the Communist Party of China Zhou Yongkang will visit Singapore from 21 to 22 September 2012 at the invitation of Deputy Prime Minister, Coordinating Minister for National Security and Minister for Home Affairs Teo Chee Hean....(size: 2.5Kb)
noodls
31 Aug 2012
As part of his official visit to the People's Republic of China, Defense Minister Ante Kotromanović met in Beijing with the Co-chairman of the Central Military Commission of the Communist Party of the People's Republic of China, General Caihou Xu, who last year visited Croatia ... General Xu also presented systematic reforms in the People's Republic of China....(size: 2.4Kb)
| Communist Party of China 中國共產黨 中国共产党 Zhōngguó Gòngchǎndǎng |
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|---|---|
 The emblem of the Communist Party of China. |
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| General Secretary | Hu Jintao |
| Standing Committee | Hu Jintao, Wu Bangguo, Wen Jiabao Jia Qinglin, Li Changchun Xi Jinping, Li Keqiang He Guoqiang, Zhou Yongkang |
| Founded | July, 1921 (1st Party Congress) August 1920 (de facto) |
| Headquarters | Zhongnanhai, Beijing |
| Youth wing | Communist Youth League of China Young Pioneers of China |
| Membership (2010) | 80,269,000 |
| Ideology | De jure Communism Marxism–Leninism De jure Factions * Maoism * Deng Xiaoping Theory * Three Represents * Scientific Development Concept De facto Factions * Conservatism[1] * Consumerism[2] * Nationalism (Chinese)[3] * Liberalism[4] * Social democracy[5] |
| Political position | De jure: Left to Far-left De facto: Right to Far-left[6] |
| Website | |
| english.cpc.people.com.cn | |
| Party flag | |
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| Politics of the People's Republic of China Political parties Elections |
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| Communist Party of China | |||||||||||||||
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| Simplified Chinese | 中国共产党 | ||||||||||||||
| Traditional Chinese | 中国共產黨 | ||||||||||||||
| Hanyu Pinyin | Zhōngguó Gòngchǎndǎng | ||||||||||||||
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| Abbreviated name | |||||||||||||||
| Chinese | 中共 | ||||||||||||||
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This article contains Chinese text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Chinese characters. |
The Communist Party of China (CPC), also known as the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), is the founding and ruling political party of the People's Republic of China (PRC). Although nominally it exists alongside the United Front,[7] a coalition of governing political parties, in practice, the CPC is the only party in the PRC,[8] maintaining a unitary government and centralizing the state, military, and media.[9] The legal power of the Communist Party is guaranteed by the national constitution.[9] The current party leader is Hu Jintao, who holds the title of General Secretary of the Communist Party of China. Since becoming an institution of the state, aside from official commitment to communism and Marxism-Leninism, the party also has de facto unrecognized factions including consumerist and neoliberal figures including business people on the right who effectively support capitalism, as well as factions on the left that oppose the right in the party, and other factions.[10]
The party was founded in July 1921 in Shanghai.[11][12][13] After a lengthy civil war, the CPC defeated its primary rival, the Kuomintang (KMT), and assumed full control of mainland China by 1949.[14] The Kuomintang retreated to the island of Taiwan, where it still remains to this day.
The party has fluctuated between periods of reformism and political conservatism throughout its history. Both before and after the founding of the PRC, the CPC's history is defined by various power struggles and ideological battles, including destructive socio-political movements such as the Cultural Revolution. At first a conventional member of the international Communist movement, the CPC broke with its counterpart in the Soviet Union over ideological differences in the 1960s. The Communist Party's ideology was redefined under Deng Xiaoping to incorporate principles of market economics, and the corresponding reforms enabled rapid and sustained economic growth. [15]
The CPC is the world's largest political party,[16] claiming over 80 million members[17] at the end of 2010 which constitutes about 6.0% of the total population of mainland China. The vast majority of military and civil officials are members of the Party.[18] Since 1978, the Communist Party has attempted to institutionalize transitions of power and consolidate its internal structure. The modern party stresses unity and avoids public conflict while practicing a pragmatic and open democratic centralism within the party structure.
Contents |
Organization[link]
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The party's organizational structure was destroyed during the Cultural Revolution and rebuilt afterwards by Deng Xiaoping, who subsequently initiated "Socialism with Chinese characteristics" and brought all state apparatuses back under the rule of the CPC.
Theoretically, the party's highest body is the National Congress of the Communist Party of China, which meets at least once every five years. The primary organs of power in the Communist Party which is detailed in the party constitution include:
- Central Committee, which includes:
- The General Secretary, which is the highest ranking official within the Party and usually the Chinese paramount leader.
- The Politburo, presently consisting of 25 full members (including the members of the Politburo Standing Committee); see current members of the Politburo for a complete list.
- The Politburo Standing Committee, which currently consists of nine members; see current members of the Politburo Standing Committee for a complete list.
- The Secretariat, the principal administrative mechanism of the CPC, headed by the General Secretary of the Central Committee;
- The Central Military Commission (a parallel organization of the government institution of the same name);
- The Central Discipline Inspection Commission, which is directly under the National Congress and on the same level with the Central Committee, charged with rooting out corruption and malfeasance among party cadres.
Organizations under the Central Committee[link]
Other central organizations directly under the Party Central Committee include:
- General Office[19]
- Central Organization Department;
- Central Propaganda Department;
- Central International Liaison Department;
- Central United Front Work Department;
- Central Policy Research Office;
- Central Taiwan Work Office;
- Central External Publicity Office;
- Central Security Office;
- Central Party School;
- People's Daily;
- Seeking Truth From Facts;
- Party History Research Centre;
- Party Research Centre;
- Central Compilation and Translation Bureau.
In addition, there are numerous commissions and leading groups. Usually those commissions and leading groups have jurisdiction on both Party and State apparatus, and include ranking leaders up to the President of the People's Republic of China and the Premier of the State Council. The most important of them are:
- Central Political and Legislative Affairs Commission;
- Central Guidance Commission for Building Spiritual Civilization;
- Central Commission for Comprehensive Management of Social Order;
- State Commission for Public Sector Reform;
- Central Leading Group for Financial Work;
- Central Leading Group for Financial and Economic Affairs;
- Central Leading Group for Taiwan Affairs;
- Central Leading Group for Foreign Affairs;
- Central National Security Leading Group;
- Central Leading Group for Rural Work;
- Central Leading Group for Party Building;
- Central Leading Group for Propaganda and Ideological Work;
- Central Leading Group for Combating Pornography and Illegal Publications;
- Central Leading Group for Preventing and Handling the Problem of Heretical Organizations (related to Falun Gong);
- Central Leading Group for Preserving Stability;
- Central Leading Group for Cultural System Reform;
- Central Leading Group for Hong Kong and Macao Affairs;
- Central Leading Group for Combating Bribery;
- Central Leading Group for Protection of Party Secrets;
- Central Leading Group for Advancing Grass-roots Party Organization and Training Party Members;
- Central Leading Group for Tibet Work;
- Central Leading Group for Xinjiang Work;
- Central Anti-Corruption Guidance Group.
Every five years, the Communist Party of China holds a National Congress. The latest happened on October 19, 2007. Formally, the Congress serves two functions: to approve changes to the Party constitution regarding policy and to elect a Central Committee, about 300 strong. The Central Committee in turn elects the Politburo. In practice, positions within the Central Committee and Politburo are determined before a Party Congress, and the main purpose of the Congress is to announce the party policies and vision for the direction of China in the following few years.
The party's central focus of power is the Politburo Standing Committee. The process for selecting Standing Committee members, as well as Politburo members, occurs behind the scenes in a process parallel to the National Congress. The new power structure is announced obliquely through the positioning of portraits in the People's Daily, the official newspaper of the Party. The number of Standing Committee members varies and has tended to increase over time. The Committee was expanded to nine at the 16th Party National Congress in 2009.
There are two other key organs of political power in the People's Republic of China: the formal government and the People's Liberation Army. The Party's main bodies to oversee the PLA are the Central Military Commission and the General Political Department.
There are, in addition to decision-making roles, advisory committees, including the People's Political Consultative Conference. During the 1980s and 1990s there was a Central Advisory Commission established by Deng Xiaoping which consisted of senior retired leaders, but with their death this has been abolished since 1992.
Factions[link]
Political theorists have identified two groupings within the Communist Party[20] leading to a structure which has been called "one party, two factions".[21] The first is the "elitist coalition" or Shanghai clique which contains mainly officials who have risen from the more prosperous provinces. The second is the "populist coalition", the core of which are the tuanpai, or the "Youth League faction" which consists mainly of officials who have risen from the rural interior, through the Communist Youth League. Minor informal groupings include the reformist Qinghua clique, and the derogatorily termed Crown Prince Party of officials benefiting from nepotism. The interaction between the two main factions is largely complementary with each faction possessing a particular expertise and both committed to the continued rule of the Communist Party and not allowing intra-party factional politics threaten party unity. It has been noted that party and government positions have been assigned to create a very careful balance between these two groupings.
Within his "one party, two factions" model, Li Chen has noted that one should avoid labelling these two groupings with simplistic ideological labels, and that these two groupings do not act in a zero-sum, winner take all fashion. Neither group has the ability or will to dominate the other completely.[22]
Membership[link]
The party was small at first, but grew intermittently through the 1920s. Twelve voting delegates were seated at the 1st National Congress in 1921, as well as at the 2nd (in 1922), when they represented 195 party members. By 1923, the 420 members were represented by 30 delegates. The 1925 4th Congress had 20 delegates representing 994 members; then real growth kicked in. The 5th Congress (held in April–May 1927 as the KMT was cracking down on communists) comprised 80 voting delegates representing 57,968 members.
It was on October 3, 1928 6th Congress that the now-familiar ‘full’ and ‘alternate’ structure originated, with 84 and 34 delegates, respectively. Membership was estimated at 40,000. In 1945, the 7th Congress had 547 full and 208 alternate delegates representing 1.21 million members, a ratio of one representative per 1,600 members as compared to 1:725 in 1927.
After the Party defeated the Nationalists, participation at National Party Congresses became much less representative. Each of the 1026 full and 107 alternate members represented 9,470 party members (10.73 million in total) at the 1956 8th Congress. Subsequent congresses held the number of participants down despite membership growing to more than 60 million by 2000.[23]
History[link]
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Main article: History of the Communist Party of China
The CPC has its origins in the May Fourth Movement of 1919, where radical political systems like anarchism and Communism gained traction among Chinese intellectuals.[24] Stalin opposed the Chinese Communist Party in Xinjiang because he wanted to expand Soviet influence in the province.[25] The CPC's ideologies have significantly evolved since its founding and establishing political power in 1949. Mao's revolution that founded the PRC was nominally based on Marxism-Leninism with a rural focus based on China's social situations at the time. During the 1960s and 1970s, the CPC experienced a significant ideological breakdown with the Communist Party of the Soviet Union under Nikita Khrushchev, and later, Leonid Brezhnev. Since then Mao's peasant revolutionary vision and so-called "continued revolution under the dictatorship of the proletariat" stipulated that class enemies continued to exist even though the socialist revolution seemed to be complete, giving way to the Cultural Revolution. This fusion of ideas became known officially as "Mao Zedong Thought", or Maoism outside of China. It represented a powerful branch of communism that existed in opposition to the Soviet Union's "Marxist revisionism".
Following the death of Mao Zedong in 1976, however, the CPC under the leadership of Deng Xiaoping moved towards Socialism with Chinese characteristics and instituted Chinese economic reform.[26] In reversing some of Mao's "extreme-leftist" policies, Deng argued that a socialist country and the market economy model were not mutually exclusive. While asserting the political power of the Party itself, the change in policy generated significant economic growth.[27] The ideology itself, however, came into conflict on both sides of the spectrum with Maoists as well as progressive liberals, culminating with other social factors to cause the 1989 Tiananmen Square Protests. Deng's vision for economic success and a new socialist market model became entrenched in the Party constitution in 1997 as Deng Xiaoping Theory.
The "third generation" of leadership under Jiang Zemin, Zhu Rongji, and associates largely continued Deng's progressive economic vision while overseeing the re-emergence of Chinese nationalism in the 1990s. Nationalist sentiment has seemingly also evolved to become informally the part of the Party's guiding doctrine. As part of Jiang's nominal legacy, the CPC ratified the Three Represents into the 2003 revision of the Party Constitution as a "guiding ideology", encouraging the Party to represent "advanced productive forces, the progressive course of China's culture, and the fundamental interests of the people." There are various interpretations of the Three Represents. Most notably, the theory has legitimized the entry of private business owners and quasi-"bourgeoisie" elements into the party.
The insistent road of focusing almost exclusively on economic growth has led to a wide range of serious social problems. The CPC's "fourth generation" of leadership under Hu Jintao and Wen Jiabao, after taking power in 2003, attempted reversing such a trend by bringing forth an integrated ideology that tackled both social and economic concerns. This new ideology was known as the creation of a Harmonious Society using the Scientific Development Concept.
The degree of power the Party had on the state has gradually decreased as economic liberalizations progressed. The evolution of CPC ideology has gone through a number of defining changes that it no longer bears much resemblance to its founding principles. Some believe that the large amount of economic liberalization starting from the late 1970s to present, indicates that the CPC has transitioned to endorse economic neoliberalism.[28][29][30][31] The CPC's current policies are fiercely rejected as capitalist by most communists, especially anti-revisionists, and by adherents of the Chinese New Left from within the PRC.
The Communist Party of China comprises a single-party state form of government; however, there are parties other than the CPC within China, which report to the United Front Department of the Communist Party of China and do not act as opposition or independent parties. Since the 1980s, as its commitment to Marxist ideology has appeared to wane, the party has begun to increasingly invoke Chinese nationalism as a legitimizing principle as opposed to the socialist construction for which the party was originally created. The change from socialism to nationalism has pleased the CPC's former enemy, the Kuomintang (KMT), which has warmed its relations with the CPC since 2003.[32]
Political ideology and stances[link]
Regional corruption and reform[link]
The leaders of the Communist Party of China realize that there are serious problems with political corruption within China and with maintaining the trust of the Chinese people because of it. However, attempts made in closed-door sessions at the Fourth Plenary Session of the 17th Communist Party of China's Central Committee in September 2009 to grapple with these problems produced inconclusive results, although a directive which requires disclosure of investments and property holdings by party and governmental officials was passed.[33]
Relationship with competing ideologies[link]
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Trotskyists argue that the party was doomed to its present character, that of petty-bourgeois nationalism in the 1920s, because of the near-annihilation of the workers' movement in the KMT betrayal of 1927, which was made possible by Stalin's order that the Communists join with the KMT in a centrist coalition, effectively disarming it, which opportunity the KMT swiftly exploited to defeat the communist revolution.[34] This slaughter forced the tiny surviving Party to switch from a workers' union- to a peasant, guerilla-based organization, and to seek the aid of the most heterodox sources: from "patriotic capitalists" to the dreaded KMT itself, with which it openly sought to participate in a coalition government, even after the Japanese general surrender in 1945.[35] Chinese Trotskyists from Chen Duxiu onward have called for a political revolution against what they see as an opportunist, capitalist leadership of the CPC.
Marxists also existed in the Kuomintang party. They viewed the Chinese revolution in different terms than the Communists, claiming that China already went past its feudal stage and in a stagnation period rather than in another mode of production. These Marxists in the Kuomintang opposed the Chinese communist party ideology.[36]
Maoists and other 'anti-revisionists' viciously attack the changes after Mao Zedong's death, calling them the precise "capitalist road" Mao had pledged to fight during the early existence of the PRC. They do not hold any allegiance to the CPC. An example of a well-known group, until recently armed, that looks to Mao's principles is the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) who the current CPC has publicly opposed. Also, some Maoist groupings attack even some of the shifts and changes that occurred while Mao was still alive and in leadership, like his 1972 welcoming of Richard Nixon (see lesser evil for more on this event). The Chinese New Left, which encompasses these Maoists and other postmodernists is a current within China that seeks to "revert China to the socialist road" – i.e., to return China to the socialist system that existed before Deng Xiaoping's reforms.
Some of the opponents of the Party within the Chinese democracy movement have tended not to argue that a strong Chinese state is inherently bad, but rather that the Communist leadership is corrupt.[clarification needed] The Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 represented a controversial point in criticism of the Chinese Communist Party by Chinese students within China.[37]
Another school of thought argues that the worst of the abuses took place decades ago, and that the current leaders were not only unconnected with them, but were actually victims of that era. They have also argued that, while the modern Communist Party may be flawed, it is comparatively better than previous regimes, with respect to improving the general standard of living, than any other government that has governed China in the past century and can be seen in a more favourable light compared with most governments of the developing nations. As a result, the CPC has recently taken sweeping measures to regain support from the countryside, with limited success.
In addition, some scholars contend that China has never operated under a decentralized democratic regime in its several thousand years of history, and therefore it can be argued that the present political structure, albeit not up to Western moral or political standards, is the best possible option when compared to the alternatives. A sudden transition to democracy, these experts contend, would result in the economic and political upheaval that occurred in the Soviet Union in the late 1980s, and that by focusing on economic growth, China is setting the stage for a more gradual but sustainable transition to a more politically liberal system. This group sees mainland China as being similar to Franco's Spain in the 1960s, and South Korea during the 1970s when South Korea was run by corrupt, authoritarian regimes. This school of thought also brings together some unlikely political allies. Not only do most intellectuals within the Chinese government follow this school of thinking, but it is also the common belief held amongst pro-free trade liberals in the West.
Many observers from both within and outside of China have argued that the CPC has taken gradual steps towards democracy and transparency, hence arguing that it is best to give it time and room to evolve into a better government that is more responsive to its people rather than forcing an abrupt change with all the deleterious effects such a loss of stability might entail.[38] However, other observers (like Minxin Pei) question whether these steps are genuine efforts towards democratic reform or disingenuous measures by the CPC to retain power.[39]
Religion[link]
The CPC is officially atheist, and prohibits party members from holding religious beliefs (though this ban is, in many cases, unenforceable).
The Party's United Front Work Department coordinates with the State Administration for Religious Affairs to manage the country's five officially sanctioned religions. Unregistered religious groups face varying degrees of suppression under the Communist Party.
Current leadership[link]
The Members of the Politburo Standing Committee of the Communist Party of China are:
- Hu Jintao: CPC General Secretary, PRC President, Chairman of the Central Military Commission.
- Wu Bangguo: Chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress
- Wen Jiabao: Premier of the State Council of the People's Republic of China
- Jia Qinglin: Chairman of the National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference
- Li Changchun: Chairman of the CPC Central Guidance Commission for Building Spiritual Civilization
- Xi Jinping: Top-ranked Secretary of CPC Central Secretariat, Vice President of the People's Republic of China, Vice Chairman of the Central Military Commission
- Li Keqiang: First-ranked Vice Premier of the State Council of the People's Republic of China
- He Guoqiang: Secretary of Central Commission for Discipline Inspection
- Zhou Yongkang: Secretary of Political and Legislative Affairs Committee
Members of the Politburo of the CPC Central committee: Wang Lequan, Wang Zhaoguo, Hui Liangyu, Liu Qi, Liu Yunshan, Li Changchun, Wu Yi, Wu Bangguo, Wu Guanzheng, Zhang Lichang, Zhang Dejiang, Luo Gan, Zhou Yongkang, Hu Jintao, Yu Zhengsheng, He Guoqiang, Jia Qinglin, Guo Boxiong, Cao Gangchuan, Zeng Qinghong, Zeng Peiyan, Wen Jiabao.
Alternate member of the Politburo of the CPC Central Committee: Wang Gang
Members of the Secretariat of the CPC Central Committee: Zeng Qinghong, Liu Yunshan, Zhou Yongkang, He Guoqiang, Wang Gang, Xu Caihou, He Yong.
Historical leaders[link]
Main article: List of leaders of the Communist Party of China
Between 1921 and 1943 the Communist Party of China was headed by the General Secretary:
- Chen Duxiu, General Secretary 1921–1922 and 1925–1927
- Qu Qiubai, General Secretary 1927–1928
- Xiang Zhongfa, General Secretary 1928–1931
- Li Lisan, acting General Secretary 1929–1930
- Wang Ming, acting General Secretary 1931
- Bo Gu, a.k.a. Qin Bangxian, acting General Secretary 1932–1935
- Zhang Wentian a.k.a. Luo Fu, acting General Secretary 1935–1943
In 1943 the position of Chairman of the Communist Party of China was created.
- Mao Zedong, Chairman 1943–1976
- Hua Guofeng, Chairman 1976–1981
- Hu Yaobang, Chairman 1981–1982
In 1982, the post of Chairman was abolished, and the General Secretary, at this time held by the same man as the post of Chairman, once again became the supreme office of the Party.
- Hu Yaobang, General Secretary 1982–1987
- Zhao Ziyang, General Secretary 1987–1989
- Jiang Zemin, General Secretary 1989–2002
- Hu Jintao, General Secretary since 2002
Funding[link]
Though the CPC charges a limited due on its members for its expenditure, its total amount would be insignificant for the continued operation of this hegemony. The actual ratio of membership dues among the total amount is less than 1/11. While the budget constitutes of limited amount of donations and business operations owned by the party, its majority comes from the grant of national treasury,[40] the same way that supports the other 8 subordinative registered parties, which making a bizarre exception among modern political parties. However, unlike the governmental departments, there is not even a de jure procedure for legal supervision of such grants as for now. Proposals for reformation has since been put aside untouched.
See also[link]
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Policy |
conflicts |
Factions |
General |
References[link]
- ^ Peter R. Moody. Conservative Thought in Contemporary China. Plymouth, England, UK: Lexington Books, 2007. Pp. 1-2.
- ^ Politics in China: An Introduction. Oxford, England, UK: Oxford University Press, 2010. Pp. 159-161.
- ^ Politics in China: An Introduction. Oxford, England, UK: Oxford University Press, 2010. Pp. 159-161.
- ^ "State Building, Capitalist Development, and Social Justice Social Democracy in China’s Modern Transformation, 1921-1949" by Edmund S. K. Fung, Modern China July 2005 vol. 31 no. 3 318-352.
- ^ "State Building, Capitalist Development, and Social Justice Social Democracy in China’s Modern Transformation, 1921-1949" by Edmund S. K. Fung, Modern China July 2005 vol. 31 no. 3 318-352.
- ^ Politics in China: An Introduction. Oxford, England, UK: Oxford University Press, 2010. Pp. 159-161.
- ^ New Approaches to the Study of Political Order in China, by Donald Clarke, Modern China, 2009
- ^ Goodman, David S. G.; Segal, Gerald. China deconstructs: politics, trade, and regionalism. Psychology Press. pp. 48. ISBN 978-0-415-11833-0.
- ^ a b Ralph H. Folsom, John H. Minan, Lee Ann Otto, Law and Politics in the People's Republic of China, West Publishing (St. Paul 1992), pp. 76–77.
- ^ Politics in China: An Introduction. Oxford, England, UK: Oxford University Press, 2010. Pp. 159-161.
- ^ "China Information: The Communist Party of China (CPC)". China Today. http://www.chinatoday.com/org/cpc/. Retrieved October 29, 2010. "The Communist Party of China (CPC) was founded on July 1, 1921 in Shanghai, China."
- ^ Tatlow, Didi Kirsten (July 20, 2011). "On Party Anniversary, China Rewrites History". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/21/world/asia/21iht-letter21.html?_r=1&emc=tnt&tntemail1=y. Retrieved July 21, 2011. "The party’s true founding date is July 23, 1921, according to official documents."
- ^ "Hu warns Chinese Communist Party". BBC. July 1, 2011. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-13985359. Retrieved July 21, 2011. "Although the Chinese are celebrating the anniversary on Friday, the party's first congress took place on July 23."
- ^ Gay, Kathlyn. [2008] (2008). 21st Century Books. Mao Zedong's China. ISBN 0-8225-7285-0. pg 7
- ^ "EPP". http://www.enrichprofessional.com/home/. Retrieved 18 April 2012.
- ^ The Communist Party of China
- ^ Xinhua – China's Communist Party members exceed 80 million
- ^ "CCP celebrates its 90th anniversary". Talking Points, July 10–20, 2011. USC US-China Institute. http://china.usc.edu/ShowArticle.aspx?articleID=2461. Retrieved July 24, 2011.
- ^ Images of GO CPC in Session
- ^ Uchicago.edu
- ^ Chinavitae.com
- ^ The Jamestown Foundation
- ^ Press centre of the 17th CPC National Congress
- ^ Dirlik, Arif (1993). Anarchism in the Chinese Revolution. University of California Press. p. 16.
- ^ Andrew D. W. Forbes (1986). Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949. Cambridge, England: CUP Archive. pp. 376. ISBN 0-521-25514-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=IAs9AAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=warlords+and+muslims#v=snippet&q=fascist%20trotskyite%20plotters&f=false. Retrieved December 31, 2010.
- ^ "NewChina". http://www.enrichprofessional.com/home/. Retrieved 18 April 2012.
- ^ "ReformingChina". http://books.google.com/books?id=LuLYSAAACAAJ&dq=Enrich+Series+on+China%27s+Economic+Reform&hl=en&sa=X&ei=nDaPT-7aDMioiQKv8-X7Ag&ved=0CD0Q6AEwAQ. Retrieved 18 April 2012.
- ^ Harvey, David. 2005. A Brief History of Neoliberalism. Oxford, England, UK: Oxford University Press. Pp. 120
- ^ Greenhalgh, Susan; Winckler, Edwin A. 2005. Governing China's Population: From Leninist to Neoliberal Biopolitics. Stanford, California, USA: Stanford University Press.
- ^ Zhang, Xudong. Whither China?: Intellectual Politics in Contemporary China. Duke University Press. Pp. 52
- ^ Wong, John; Lai, Hongyi; Hongyi, Lai. China Into the Hu-Wen Era: Policy Initiatives and Challenges. Pp. 99 "...influence of neoliberalism has spread rapidly in China", "...neoliberalism had influenced not only college students but also economists and leading party cadres"...
- ^ See 2005 Pan-Blue visits to mainland China.
- ^ "Party’s Agenda in China Seems to Fall Flat" article by Michael Wines in The New York Times September 20, 2009
- ^ The tragedy of the 1925–1927 Chinese Revolution: Part 3 Article at a Trotskyist groupings website.
- ^ The death of China’s “red capitalist” and the 1949 revolution Article at a Trotskist groupings website.
- ^ T. J. Byres, Harbans Mukhia (1985). Feudalism and non-European societies. Psychology Press. p. 207. ISBN 0-7146-3245-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=usOMZjTWrJ0C&pg=PA207&dq=china+stagnated+feudalism+political#v=onepage&q=guomindang%20marxists&f=false. Retrieved November 28, 2010.
- ^ Zhang, L., Nathan, A. J., Link, P. & Schell O. The Tiananmen Papers: The Chinese Leadership's Decision to Use Force Against Their Own People – In Their Own Words. PublicAffairs, 2002. ISBN 978-1-58648-122-3.
- ^ Yang, Dali. Remaking the Chinese Leviathan. Stanford University Press, 2004.
- ^ An, Alex and An, David, China Brief, October 7, 2008. "Media control and the Erosion of an Accountable Party-State in China."
- ^ 孙国良. "建立规范的党务经费制度" (in Chinese). 中国选举与治理. http://www.chinaelections.org/newsinfo.asp?newsid=107807. Retrieved October 24, 2011.
External links[link]
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Communist Party of China |
- Official News of the Communist Party of China
- Official newspaper
- Ninety years since the founding of the CCP – a Trotskyist apraisal
- Join the Party – slideshow by The First Post
- The Communist Party of China—Council on Foreign Relations
- "A Struggle Within the Chinese Communist Party"—Monthly Review article from May 2002
- Partying With Communists in China — slideshow by Life magazine
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This article is about the People's Republic of China. For other uses, see China (disambiguation).
"PRC" redirects here. For other uses, see PRC (disambiguation).
| People's Republic of China
中华人民共和国
Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó |
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Anthem:
 "March of the Volunteers" 《义勇军进行曲》 (Pinyin: "Yìyǒngjūn Jìnxíngqǔ") |
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| Capital | Beijing 39°55′N 116°23′E / 39.917°N 116.383°E / 39.917; 116.383 |
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| Largest city | Shanghai[1][2] | |||||
| Official language(s) | Standard Chinese[3] | |||||
| Recognised regional languages | Mongolian, Tibetan, Uyghur, Zhuang, and various others | |||||
| Official written language | Vernacular Chinese | |||||
| Official script | Simplified Chinese[3] | |||||
| Ethnic groups | 91.51% Han;[4] 55 recognised minorities |
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| Demonym | Chinese | |||||
| Government | Nominally Marxist–Leninist single-party state[5][a] | |||||
| - | President[b] | Hu Jintao | ||||
| - | Congress Chairman | Wu Bangguo | ||||
| - | Premier | Wen Jiabao | ||||
| - | Conference Chairman | Jia Qinglin | ||||
| Legislature | National People's Congress | |||||
| Establishment | ||||||
| - | Unification of China under the Qin Dynasty | 221 BC | ||||
| - | Republic established | 1 January 1912 | ||||
| - | People's Republic proclaimed | 1 October 1949 | ||||
| Area | ||||||
| - | Total | 9,640,821 km2 [c] or 9,671,018 km² [c](3rd/4th) 3,704,427 sq mi |
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| - | Water (%) | 2.8[d] | ||||
| Population | ||||||
| - | 2010 census | 1,339,724,852[4] (1st) | ||||
| - | Density | 139.6/km2 (53rd) 363.3/sq mi |
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| GDP (PPP) | 2011 estimate | |||||
| - | Total | $11.299 trillion[6] (2nd) | ||||
| - | Per capita | $8,382[6] (91st) | ||||
| GDP (nominal) | 2011 estimate | |||||
| - | Total | $7.298 trillion[6] (2nd) | ||||
| - | Per capita | $5,413[6] (90th) | ||||
| Gini (2007) | 41.5[7] | |||||
| HDI (2011) |  0.687[8] (medium) (101st) |
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| Currency | Renminbi (yuan) (¥) (CNY) |
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| Time zone | China Standard Time (UTC+8) | |||||
| Date formats | yyyy-mm-dd or yyyy年m月d日 (CE; CE-1949) |
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| Drives on the | right, except for Hong Kong & Macau | |||||
| ISO 3166 code | CN | |||||
| Internet TLD | .cn[c] .中國[9] .中国 | |||||
| Calling code | +86[c] | |||||
| a. ^ Simple characterizations of the political structure since the 1980s are no longer possible.[10]
b. ^ As paramount leader, Hu Jintao holds four concurrent positions: General Secretary of the Communist Party of China, President of the People's Republic of China, and Chairman of the Central Military Commission for both state and party.[11] c. ^ 9,598,086 km2 (3,705,842 sq mi) excludes all disputed territories. |
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China (i/ˈtʃaɪnə/; Chinese: 中国; pinyin: Zhōngguó; see also Names of China), officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is the world's most-populous country, with a population of over 1.3 billion. Covering approximately 9.6 million square kilometres, the East Asian state is the world's second-largest country by land area,[13] and the third- or fourth-largest in total area, depending on the definition of total area.[14]
The People's Republic of China is a single-party state governed by the Communist Party of China.[15] It exercises jurisdiction over 22 provinces, five autonomous regions, four directly controlled municipalities (Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, and Chongqing), and two mostly self-governing special administrative regions (Hong Kong and Macau).[16] Its capital city is Beijing.[17] The PRC also claims Taiwan—which is controlled by the Republic of China (ROC), a separate political entity—as its 23rd province, a claim controversial due to the complex political status of Taiwan and the unresolved Chinese Civil War. The PRC government denies the legitimacy of the ROC.
China's landscape is vast and diverse, with forest steppes and the Gobi and Taklamakan deserts occupying the arid north and northwest near Mongolia and Central Asia, and subtropical forests being prevalent in the wetter south near Southeast Asia. The terrain of western China is rugged and elevated, with the Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separating China from South and Central Asia. The world's apex, Mt. Everest (8,848 m), lies on the China–Nepal border, while the world's second-highest point, K2 (8,611 m), is situated on China's border with Pakistan. The country's lowest and the world's third-lowest point, Lake Ayding (−154 m), is located in the Turpan Depression. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third- and sixth-longest in the world, have their sources in the Tibetan Plateau and continue to the densely populated eastern seaboard. China's coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometres (9,000 mi) long—the 11th-longest in the world—and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East and South China Seas.
The nation of China has had numerous historical incarnations. The ancient Chinese civilization—one of the world's earliest—flourished in the fertile basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain.[18] China's political system was based on hereditary monarchies, known as dynasties, beginning with the semi-mythological Xia of the Yellow River basin (approx. 2000 BC) and ending with the fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1911. Since 221 BC, when the Qin Dynasty first conquered several states to form a Chinese empire, the country has expanded, fractured and been reformed numerous times. The Republic of China, founded in 1911 after the overthrow of the Qing dynasty, ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949. In 1945, the ROC acquired Taiwan from Japan following World War II.
In the 1946–1949 phase of the Chinese Civil War, the Chinese Communist Party defeated the nationalist Kuomintang in mainland China and established the People's Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949. The Kuomintang relocated the ROC government to Taiwan, establishing its capital in Taipei. The ROC's jurisdiction is now limited to Taiwan and several outlying islands, including Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu. Since 1949, the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China (now widely known as "Taiwan") have remained in dispute over the sovereignty of China and the political status of Taiwan, mutually claiming each other's territory and competing for international diplomatic recognition. In 1971, the PRC gained admission to the United Nations and took the Chinese seat as a permanent member of the U.N. Security Council. China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, the BCIM and the G-20. As of September 2011, all but 23 countries have recognized the PRC as the sole legitimate government of China.
Since the introduction of market-based economic reforms in 1978, China has become the world's fastest-growing major economy.[19] As of 2012, it is the world's second-largest economy, after the United States, by both nominal GDP and purchasing power parity (PPP),[20] and is also the world's largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. In per capita terms, China ranked 90th by nominal GDP and 91st by GDP (PPP) in 2011, according to the IMF. China is a recognized nuclear weapons state and has the world's largest standing army, with the second-largest defense budget. In 2003, China became the third nation in the world, after the former Soviet Union and the United States, to independently launch a successful manned space mission. China has been characterized as a potential superpower by a number of academics,[21] military analysts,[22] and public policy and economics analysts.[23]
Contents |
Etymology[link]
Main article: Names of China
| China | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| Chinese name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Simplified Chinese: | 中国 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Traditional Chinese: | 中國 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Literal meaning: | Middle Kingdom[24][25] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| People's Republic of China | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Alternative Chinese name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Simplified Chinese: | 中华人民共和国 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Traditional Chinese: | 中華人民共和國 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| Mongolian name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Mongolian: |  |
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| Tibetan name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Tibetan: | ཀྲུང་ཧྭ་མི་དམངས་སྤྱི མཐུན་རྒྱལ་ཁབ |
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| Uyghur name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Uyghur: | جۇڭخۇا خەلق جۇمھۇرىيىت | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| Zhuang name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Zhuang: | Cunghvaz Yinzminz Gunghozgoz | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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This article contains Chinese text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Chinese characters. |
The word "China" is derived from Cin (چین), a Persian name for China popularized in medieval Europe by the account of the 13th-century Venetian explorer Marco Polo.[26][27] The first recorded use in English dates from 1555.[28] The Persian word is, in turn, derived from the Sanskrit word Cīna (चीन),[29] which was used as a name for China as early as AD 150.[30] There are various scholarly theories regarding the origin of this word. The traditional theory, proposed in the 17th century by Martino Martini, is that "China" is derived from "Qin" (秦), the westernmost of the Chinese kingdoms during the Zhou Dynasty, or from the succeeding Qin Dynasty (221–206 BC).[31] The word Cīna is used in two Hindu scriptures – the Mahābhārata of the 5th century BC and the Laws of Manu of the 2nd century BC – to refer to a country located in the Tibetan-Burman borderlands east of India.[32][33]
In China, common names for the country include Zhōngguó (Chinese: 中国; literally "the Central State(s)") and Zhōnghuá (Chinese: 中华), although the country's official name has been changed numerous times by successive dynasties and modern governments. The term Zhongguo appeared in various ancient texts, such as the Classic of History of the 6th century BC,[34] and in pre-imperial times it was often used as a cultural concept to distinguish the Huaxia from the barbarians. The term, which can be either singular or plural, referred to the group of states in the central plain. It was only in the nineteenth century that the term emerged as the formal name of the country. The Chinese were not unique in regarding their country as "central", since other civilizations had the same view.[35]
History[link]
Main articles: History of China and Timeline of Chinese history
Prehistory[link]
Main article: Chinese prehistory
Archaeological evidence suggests that early hominids inhabited China between 250,000 and 2.24 million years ago.[36] A cave in Zhoukoudian (near present-day Beijing) exhibits fossils dated at between 300,000 and 780,000 BC.[37][38][39] The fossils are of Peking Man, an example of Homo erectus who used fire. There are also remains of Homo sapiens dating back to 18,000–11,000 BC found at the Peking Man site.[40]
Early dynastic rule[link]
See also: Dynasties in Chinese history
Chinese tradition names the first dynasty Xia, but it was considered mythical until scientific excavations found early Bronze Age sites at Erlitou in Henan Province in 1959.[41] Archaeologists have since uncovered urban sites, bronze implements, and tombs in locations cited as Xia's in ancient historical texts, but it is impossible to verify that these remains are of the Xia without written records from the period.
The first Chinese dynasty that left historical records, the loosely feudal Shang (Yin), settled along the Yellow River in eastern China from the 17th to the 11th century BC. The oracle bone script of the Shang Dynasty represent the oldest forms of Chinese writing found and the direct ancestor of modern Chinese characters used throughout East Asia. The Shang were invaded from the west by the Zhou, who ruled from the 12th to the 5th century BC, until their centralized authority was slowly eroded by feudal warlords. Many independent states eventually emerged out of the weakened Zhou state, and continually waged war with each other in the Spring and Autumn Period, only occasionally deferring to the Zhou king. By the time of the Warring States Period, there were seven powerful sovereign states, each with its own king, ministry and army.
Imperial China[link]
The first unified Chinese state was established by Qin Shi Huang of the Qin state in 221 BC. Qin Shi Huang proclaimed himself the "First Emperor" (始皇帝), and imposed many reforms throughout China, notably the forced standardization of the Chinese language, measurements, length of cart axles, and currency. The Qin Dynasty lasted only fifteen years, falling soon after Qin Shi Huang's death, as its harsh legalist and authoritarian policies led to widespread rebellion.[42][43]
The subsequent Han Dynasty ruled China between 206 BC and 220 AD, and created a lasting Han cultural identity among its populace that extends to the present day.[42][43] The Han Dynasty expanded the empire's territory considerably with military campaigns reaching Korea, Vietnam, Mongolia and Central Asia, and also helped establish the Silk Road in Central Asia. China was for a large part of the last two millennia the world's largest economy.[44] However, in the later part of the Qing Dynasty, China's economic development began to slow and Europe's rapid development during and after the Industrial Revolution enabled it to surpass China.
After the collapse of Han, another period of disunion followed, including the highly chivalric period of the Three Kingdoms.[45] Independent Chinese states of this period such as Wu opened diplomatic relations with Japan,[46] introducing the Chinese writing system there. In 580 AD, China was reunited under the Sui.[47] However, the Sui Dynasty was short-lived after a failure in the Goguryeo-Sui Wars (598–614) weakened it.[48][49]
Under the succeeding Tang and Song dynasties, Chinese technology and culture reached its zenith.[50] The Tang Empire was at its height of power until the middle of the 8th century, when the An Shi Rebellion destroyed the prosperity of the empire.[51] The Song Dynasty was the first government in world history to issue paper money and the first Chinese polity to establish a permanent standing navy.[52] Between the 10th and 11th centuries, the population of China doubled in size. This growth came about through expanded rice cultivation in central and southern China, and the production of abundant food surpluses.
Within its borders, the Northern Song Dynasty had a population of some 100 million people. The Song Dynasty was a culturally rich period for philosophy and the arts. Landscape art and portrait painting were brought to new levels of maturity and complexity after the Tang Dynasty, and social elites gathered to view art, share their own, and trade precious artworks. Philosophers such as Cheng Yi and Chu Hsi reinvigorated Confucianism with new commentary, infused Buddhist ideals, and emphasized a new organization of classic texts that brought about the core doctrine of Neo-Confucianism.
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In 1271, the Mongol leader and fifth Khagan of the Mongol Empire Kublai Khan established the Yuan Dynasty, with the last remnant of the Song Dynasty falling to the Yuan in 1279. Before the Mongol invasion, Chinese dynasties reportedly had approximately 120 million inhabitants; after the conquest was completed in 1279, the 1300 census reported roughly 60 million people.[53]
Late dynastic rule[link]
A peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang overthrew the Yuan Dynasty in 1368 and founded the Ming Dynasty.[54] Ming Dynasty thinkers such as Wang Yangming would further critique and expand Neo-Confucianism with ideas of individualism and innate morality that would have tremendous impact on later Japanese thought. Chosun Korea also became a nominal vassal state of Ming China and adopted much of its Neo-Confucian bureaucratic structure.
Under the Ming Dynasty, China enjoyed another golden age, developing one of the strongest navies in the world and a rich and prosperous economy amid a flourishing of art and culture. It was during this period that Zheng He led explorations throughout the world, possibly reaching America. During the early Ming Dynasty, China's capital was moved from Nanjing to Beijing. In 1644, Beijing was sacked by a coalition of rebel forces led by Li Zicheng, a minor Ming official turned leader of the peasant revolt. The last Ming Chongzhen Emperor committed suicide when the city fell. The Manchu Qing Dynasty then allied with Ming Dynasty general Wu Sangui and overthrew Li's short-lived Shun Dynasty, and subsequently seized control of Beijing, which became the new capital of the Qing Dynasty.
The Qing Dynasty, which lasted until 1912, was the last imperial dynasty of China. In the 19th century, the Qing Dynasty adopted a defensive posture towards European imperialism, even though it engaged in an imperialistic expansion of its own into Central Asia. At this time, China awoke to the significance of the rest of the world, the West in particular. As China opened up to foreign trade and missionary activity, opium produced by British India was forced onto Qing China. Two Opium Wars with Britain weakened the Emperor's control. European imperialism proved to be disastrous for China:
The Arrow War (1856–1860) [2nd Opium War] saw another disastrous defeat for China. The subsequent passing of the humiliating Treaty of Tianjin in 1856 and the Beijing Conventions of 1860 opened up more of the country to foreign penetrations and more ports for their vessels. Hong Kong was ceded over to the British. Thus, the "unequal treaties system" was established. Heavy indemnities had to be paid by China, and more territory and control were taken over by the foreigners.[55]
The weakening of the Qing regime, and the apparent humiliation of the unequal treaties in the eyes of the Chinese people had several consequences. One consequence[according to whom?] was the Taiping Rebellion, a civil war which lasted from 1851 to 1862. The rebellion was led by Hong Xiuquan, who was partly influenced by an idiosyncratic interpretation of Christianity. Hong believed himself to be the son of God and the younger brother of Jesus. Although the Qing forces were eventually victorious, the civil war was one of the bloodiest in human history, costing at least 20 million lives (more than the total number of fatalities in World War I), with some estimates of up to two hundred million. Other costly rebellions followed the Taiping Rebellion, such as the Punti-Hakka Clan Wars (1855–67), Nien Rebellion (1851–1868), Miao Rebellion (1854–73), Panthay Rebellion (1856–1873) and the Dungan revolt (1862–1877).[56][57]
These rebellions resulted in an estimated loss of several million lives each and led to disastrous results for the economy and the countryside.[58][59][60] The flow of British opium hastened the empire's decline. In the 19th century, the age of colonialism was at its height and the great Chinese Diaspora began; today, about 35 million overseas Chinese live in Southeast Asia.[61] Emigration rates were strengthened by domestic catastrophes such as the famine of 1876–79, which claimed between 9 and 13 million lives in northern China.[62] From 108 BC to 1911 AD, China experienced 1,828 famines,[63] or one per year, somewhere in the empire.[64]
While China was wracked by continuous war, Meiji Japan succeeded in rapidly modernizing its military, and set its sights on the conquest of Korea and Manchuria. At the request of the Korean emperor, the Qing government sent troops to aid in suppressing the Tonghak Rebellion in 1894. However, Japan also sent troops to Korea, leading to the First Sino-Japanese War, which resulted in Qing China's loss of influence in the Korean Peninsula as well as the cession of Taiwan (including the Pescadores) to Japan.
Following this series of defeats, a reform plan for the empire to become a modern Meiji-style constitutional monarchy was drafted by the Guangxu Emperor in 1898, but was opposed and stopped by the Empress Dowager Cixi, who placed Emperor Guangxu under house arrest in a coup d'état. Further destruction followed the ill-fated 1900 Boxer Rebellion against westerners in Beijing.
By the early 20th century, mass civil disorder had begun, and calls for reform and revolution were heard across the country. The 38-year-old Emperor Guangxu died under house arrest on 14 November 1908, suspiciously just a day before Cixi's own death. With the throne empty, he was succeeded by Cixi's handpicked heir, his two year old nephew Puyi, who became the Xuantong Emperor. Guangxu's consort became the Empress Dowager Longyu. In another coup de'tat, Yuan Shikai overthrew the last Qing emperor, and forced empress Dowager Longyu to sign the abdication decree as regent in 1912, ending two thousand years of imperial rule in China. She died, childless, in 1913.
Republic of China (1912–1949)[link]
Main articles: Republic of China (1912–1949) and History of the Republic of China
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This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2011) |
On 1 January 1912, the Republic of China was established, heralding the end of Imperial China. Sun Yat-sen of the Kuomintang (the KMT or Nationalist Party) was proclaimed provisional president of the republic. However, the presidency was later given to Yuan Shikai, a former Qing general, who had ensured the defection of the entire Beiyang Army from the Qing Empire to the revolution. In 1915, Yuan proclaimed himself Emperor of China, but was forced to abdicate and reestablish the republic in the face of popular condemnation, not only from the general population but also from among his own Beiyang Army and its commanders.
After Yuan Shikai's death in 1916, China was politically fragmented, with an internationally recognized but virtually powerless national government seated in Beijing. Regional warlords exercised actual control over their respective territories. In the late 1920s, the nationalist Kuomintang, under Chiang Kai-shek, was able to reunify the country under its own control with a series of deft military and political maneuverings, known collectively as the Northern Expedition. The Kuomintang moved the nation's capital to Nanjing and implemented "political tutelage", an intermediate stage of political development outlined in Sun Yat-sen's San-min program for transforming China into a modern democratic state. Effectively, political tutelage meant one-party rule by the Kuomintang, but the party was politically divided into competing cliques. This political division made it difficult for Chiang to battle the Communists, which the Kuomintang had been warring against since 1927 in the Chinese Civil War. This war continued successfully for the Kuomintang, especially after the Communists were forced to retreat in the Long March, until the Xi'an Incident and Japanese aggression forced Chiang to confront Imperial Japan.
The Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), a part of World War II, forced an uneasy alliance between the Kuomintang and the Communists. The Japanese "three-all policy" in northern China—"kill all, burn all and destroy all"—led to numerous war atrocities being committed against the civilian population; in all, as many as 20 million Chinese civilians were killed.[65][66] An estimated 200,000 Chinese were massacred in the city of Nanjing alone during the Japanese occupation.[67] Japan unconditionally surrendered to China in 1945. Taiwan, including the Pescadores, was retroceded. China emerged victorious but war-ravaged and financially drained. The continued distrust between the Kuomintang and the Communists led to the resumption of the Chinese Civil War. In 1947, constitutional rule was established, but because of the ongoing Civil War many provisions of the ROC constitution were never implemented in mainland China.[citation needed]
People's Republic of China (1949–present)[link]
Main article: History of the People's Republic of China
Major combat in the Chinese Civil War ended in 1949 with the Communist Party in control of mainland China, and the Kuomintang retreating offshore, reducing the ROC's territory to only Taiwan, Hainan, and their surrounding islands. On 1 October 1949, Mao Zedong proclaimed the People's Republic of China,[68] which was commonly known in the West as "Communist China" or "Red China" during the Cold War.[69] In 1950, the People's Liberation Army succeeded in capturing Hainan from the ROC, occupying Tibet, and defeating the majority of the remaining Kuomintang forces in Yunnan and Xinjiang provinces, though some Kuomintang holdouts survived until much later.
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Mao encouraged population growth, and under his leadership the Chinese population almost doubled from around 550 million to over 900 million.[70] However, Mao's Great Leap Forward, a large-scale economic and social reform project, resulted in an estimated 45 million deaths between 1958 and 1961, mostly from starvation.[71] In 1966, Mao and his allies launched the Cultural Revolution, which would last until Mao's death a decade later. The Cultural Revolution, motivated by power struggles within the Party and a fear of the Soviet Union, led to a major upheaval in Chinese society. In October 1971, the PRC replaced the Republic of China in the United Nations, and took its seat as a permanent member of the Security Council. In that same year, for the first time, the number of countries recognizing the PRC surpassed those recognizing the ROC in Taipei as the government of China.[72] In February 1972, at the peak of the Sino-Soviet split, Mao and Zhou Enlai met Richard Nixon in Beijing. However, the U.S. did not officially recognise the PRC as China's sole legitimate government until 1 January 1979.
After Mao's death in 1976 and the arrest of the Gang of Four, who were blamed for the excesses of the Cultural Revolution, Deng Xiaoping quickly wrested power from Mao's anointed successor Hua Guofeng. Although he never became the head of the party or state himself, Deng was in fact the Paramount Leader of China at that time, his influence within the Party led the country to significant economic reforms. The Communist Party subsequently loosened governmental control over citizens' personal lives and the communes were disbanded with many peasants receiving multiple land leases, which greatly increased incentives and agricultural production. This turn of events marked China's transition from a planned economy to a mixed economy with an increasingly open market environment, a system termed by some "market socialism";[73] the Communist Party of China officially describes it as "socialism with Chinese characteristics". China adopted its current constitution on 4 December 1982.
The death of pro-reform official Hu Yaobang helped to spark the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, during which students and others campaigned for several months, speaking out against corruption and in favour of greater political reform, including democratic rights and freedom of speech. However, they were eventually put down on 4 June when PLA troops and vehicles entered and forcibly cleared the square, resulting in numerous casualties. This event was widely reported and brought worldwide condemnation and sanctions against the government.[74][75] The "Tank Man" incident in particular became famous.
President Jiang Zemin and Premier Zhu Rongji, both former mayors of Shanghai, led the nation in the 1990s. Under Jiang and Zhu's ten years of administration, China's economic performance pulled an estimated 150 million peasants out of poverty and sustained an average annual gross domestic product growth rate of 11.2%.[76][77] The country formally joined the World Trade Organization in 2001.
Although rapid economic growth has made the Chinese economy the world's second-largest, this growth has also severely impacted the country's resources and environment.[78] Another concern is that the benefits of economic development has not been distributed evenly, resulting in a wide development gap between urban and rural areas. As a result, under President Hu Jintao and Premier Wen Jiabao, the Chinese government initiated policies to address these issues of equitable distribution of resources, though the outcome remains to be seen.[79] More than 40 million farmers have been displaced from their land,[80] usually for economic development, contributing to the 87,000 demonstrations and riots across China in 2005.[81] Living standards have improved significantly but political controls remain tight.[82]
Geography[link]
Main article: Geography of the People's Republic of China
See also: Geography of Taiwan
A composite satellite image showing the topography of China.
Longsheng Rice Terrace in Guangxi.
The Li River in Guangxi.
Political geography[link]
The People's Republic of China is the second-largest country in the world by land area after Russia[13] and is either the third- or fourth-largest by total area, after Russia, Canada and, depending on the definition of total area, the United States.[83] China's total area is generally stated as being approximately 9,600,000 km2 (3,700,000 sq mi).[84] Specific area figures range from 9,572,900 km2 (3,696,100 sq mi) according to the Encyclopædia Britannica,[85] 9,596,961 km2 (3,705,407 sq mi) according to the UN Demographic Yearbook,[86] to 9,596,961 km2 (3,705,407 sq mi) according to the CIA World Factbook,[87] and 9,640,011 km2 (3,722,029 sq mi) including Aksai Chin and the Trans-Karakoram Tract, which are controlled by China and claimed by India.[88] None of these figures include the 1,000 square kilometres (386.1 sq mi) of territory ceded to China by Tajikistan following the ratification of a Sino-Tajik border agreement in January 2011.[89]
According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, the total area of the United States, at 9,522,055 km2 (3,676,486 sq mi), is slightly smaller than that of China. Meanwhile, the CIA World Factbook states that China's total area was greater than that of the United States until the coastal waters of the Great Lakes was added to the United States' total area in 1996.[90]
China has the longest combined land border in the world, measuring 22,117 km (13,743 mi) from the mouth of the Yalu River to the Gulf of Tonkin. China borders 14 nations, more than any other country except Russia, which also borders 14. China extends across much of East Asia, bordering Vietnam, Laos, and Burma in Southeast Asia; India, Bhutan, Nepal and Pakistan[91] in South Asia; Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan in Central Asia; a small section of Russian Altai and Mongolia in Inner Asia; and the Russian Far East and North Korea in Northeast Asia.
Additionally, China shares maritime boundaries with South Korea, Japan, Vietnam and the Philippines. The PRC and the Republic of China (Taiwan) make mutual claims over each other's territory and the frontier between areas under their respective control is closest near the islands of Kinmen and Matsu, off the Fujian coast, but otherwise run through the Taiwan Strait. The PRC and ROC assert identical claims over the entirety of the Spratly Islands in the South China Sea, and the southern-most extent of these claims reach Zengmu Ansha (James Shoal), which would form a maritime frontier with Malaysia.
Landscape and climate[link]
Mount Everest, the world's highest mountain, in Tibet.
The South China Sea coast at Hainan.
The territory of China lies between latitudes 18° and 54° N, and longitudes 73° and 135° E. China's landscapes vary significantly across its vast width. In the east, along the shores of the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea, there are extensive and densely populated alluvial plains, while on the edges of the Inner Mongolian plateau in the north, broad grasslands predominate. Southern China is dominated by hills and low mountain ranges, while the central-east hosts the deltas of China's two major rivers, the Yellow River and the Yangtze River. Other major rivers include the Xi, Mekong, Brahmaputra and Amur. To the west, major mountain ranges, most notably the Himalayas, and high plateaus feature among the more arid landscapes of the north, such as the Taklamakan and the Gobi Desert. China's highest point, Mt. Everest (8848m), lies on the Sino-Nepalese border. The country's lowest point is the dried lake bed of Ayding Lake (−154m) in the Turpan Depression.
A major environmental issue in China is the continued expansion of its deserts, particularly the Gobi Desert, which is currently the world's fifth-largest desert.[92][93] Although barrier tree lines planted since the 1970s have reduced the frequency of sandstorms, prolonged drought and poor agricultural practices have resulted in dust storms plaguing northern China each spring, which then spread to other parts of East Asia, including Korea and Japan. According to China's environmental watchdog, Sepa, China is losing a million acres (4,000 km²) per year to desertification.[94] Water quality, erosion, and pollution control have become important issues in China's relations with other countries. Melting glaciers in the Himalayas could potentially lead to water shortages for hundreds of millions of people.[95]
China's climate is mainly dominated by dry seasons and wet monsoons, which lead to a pronounced temperature differences between winter and summer. In the winter, northern winds coming from high-latitude areas are cold and dry; in summer, southern winds from coastal areas at lower latitudes are warm and moist. The climate in China differs from region to region because of the country's extensive and complex topography.
Biodiversity[link]
Main article: Wildlife of China
China is one of 17 megadiverse countries,[96] lying in two of the world's major ecozones: the Palearctic and the Indomalaya. In the Palearctic zone, mammals such as the horse, camel, tapir, and jerboa can be found. Among the species found in the Indomalaya region are the Leopard Cat, bamboo rat, treeshrew, and various monkey and ape species. Some overlap exists between the two regions due to natural dispersal and migration; deer, antelope, bears, wolves, pigs, and numerous rodent species can all be found in China's diverse climatic and geological environments. The famous giant panda is found only in a limited area along the Yangtze River. China suffers from a continuing problem with trade in endangered species, although there are now laws to prohibit such activities.
China also hosts a variety of forest types. Cold coniferous forests predominate in the north of the country, supporting animal species such as moose and the Asian black bear, along with over 120 bird species. Moist conifer forests can have thickets of bamboo as an understorey, replaced by rhododendrons in higher montane stands of juniper and yew. Subtropical forests, which dominate central and southern China, support as many as 146,000 species of flora. Tropical and seasonal rainforests, though confined to Yunnan and Hainan Island, contain a quarter of all the plant and animal species found in China.
Environmental issues[link]
Main article: Environment in the People's Republic of China
In recent decades, China has suffered from severe environmental deterioration and pollution.[97] While regulations such as the 1979 Environmental Protection Law are fairly stringent, enforcement of them is poor, as they are frequently disregarded by local communities and government officials in favour of rapid economic development.
Environmental campaigners such as Ma Jun have warned of the danger that water pollution poses to Chinese society.[98] According to the Chinese Ministry of Water Resources, roughly 300 million Chinese do not have access to safe drinking water, and 40% of China’s rivers have been polluted by industrial and agricultural waste as of late 2011.[99] This crisis is compounded by the perennial problem of water shortages, with 400 out of 600 surveyed Chinese cities reportedly short of drinking water.[100][101]
However, China is the world's leading investor in renewable energy technologies, with $34.6 billion invested in 2009 alone.[102][103] China produces more wind turbines and solar panels than any other country,[104] and renewable energy projects, such as solar water heating, are widely pursued at the local level.[105] By 2009, over 17% of China's energy was derived from renewable sources – most notably hydroelectric power plants, of which China has a total installed capacity of 197 GW.[106] In 2011, the Chinese government announced plans to invest four trillion yuan (US$618.55 billion) in water infrastructure projects over a ten-year period, and to complete construction of a flood prevention and anti-drought system by 2020.[107]
Politics[link]
Main article: Politics of the People's Republic of China
See also: Politics of the Republic of China
The People's Republic of China, along with Vietnam, North Korea, Laos, and Cuba, is one of the five remaining official Communist states in the world.[108][109] but simple characterizations of China's political structure since the 1980s are no longer possible.[10] The Chinese government has been variously described as communist and socialist, but also as authoritarian, with heavy restrictions remaining in many areas, most notably on the Internet, the press, freedom of assembly, reproductive rights, and freedom of religion.[110] Its current political/economic system has been termed by its leaders as "Socialism with Chinese characteristics".
Compared to its closed-door policies until the mid-1970s, the liberalization of China has resulted in the administrative climate being less restrictive than before. China is far different from liberal democracy or social democracy that exists in most of Europe or North America, and the National People's Congress (highest state body) has been described as a "rubber stamp" body.[111] China's incumbent President is Hu Jintao, who is also the General Secretary of the Communist Party of China, and its Premier is Wen Jiabao, who is also a senior member of the CPC Politburo Standing Committee.
The country is ruled by the Communist Party of China (CPC), whose power is enshrined in China's constitution.[112] The Chinese electoral system is hierarchical, whereby local People's Congresses are directly elected, and all higher levels of People's Congresses up to the National People's Congress (NPC) are indirectly elected by the People's Congress of the level immediately below.[113] The political system is partly decentralized,[114] with limited democratic processes internal to the party and at local village levels, although these experiments have been marred by corruption. There are other political parties in China, referred to in China as democratic parties, which participate in the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC).
There have been some moves toward political liberalization, in that open contested elections are now held at the village and town levels,[115][116] and that legislatures have shown some assertiveness from time to time. However, the Party retains effective control over government appointments: in the absence of meaningful opposition, the CPC wins by default most of the time. Political concerns in China include lessening the growing gap between rich and poor and fighting corruption within the government leadership.[117]
The level of support to the government action and the management of the nation is among the highest in the world, with 86% of people who express satisfaction with the way things are going in their country and with their nation's economy according to a 2008 Pew Research Center survey.[118]
Administrative divisions[link]
Main articles: Administrative divisions of the People's Republic of China, Districts of Hong Kong, and Municipalities of Macau
The People's Republic of China has administrative control over 22 provinces, and considers Taiwan to be its 23rd province, although Taiwan is currently governed by the Republic of China, which disputes the PRC's claim.[119] China also has five subdivisions officially termed autonomous regions, each with a designated minority group; four municipalities; and two Special Administrative Regions (SARs), which enjoy a degree of political autonomy. These 22 provinces, five autonomous regions, and four municipalities can be collectively referred to as "mainland China", a term which usually excludes the SARs of Hong Kong and Macau.
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Foreign relations[link]
Main article: Foreign relations of the People's Republic of China
China has diplomatic relations with 171 countries and maintains embassies in 162.[120] Its legitimacy is disputed by the Republic of China and a few other countries; it is thus the largest and most populous state with limited recognition. Sweden was the first western country to establish diplomatic relations with the People's Republic on 9 May 1950.[121] In 1971, the PRC replaced the Republic of China as the sole representative of China in the United Nations and as one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council.[122] China was also a former member and leader of the Non-Aligned Movement, and still considers itself an advocate for developing countries.[123]
Under its interpretation of the One-China policy, China has made it a precondition to establishing diplomatic relations that the other country acknowledges its claim to Taiwan and severs official ties with the government of the Republic of China. Chinese officials have protested on numerous occasions when foreign countries have made diplomatic overtures to Taiwan,[124] especially in the matter of armament sales.[125] Political meetings between foreign government officials and the 14th Dalai Lama are also opposed by China, as it considers Tibet to be formally part of China.[126]
Much of China's current foreign policy is reportedly based on the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence of Zhou Enlai—non-interference in other states' affairs, non-aggression, peaceful coexistence, equality and mutual benefits. China's foreign policy is also driven by the concept of "harmony without uniformity", which encourages diplomatic relations between states despite ideological differences. This policy has led China to support states that are regarded as dangerous or repressive by Western nations, such as Zimbabwe, North Korea, and Iran.[127] Conflicts with foreign countries have occurred at times in China's recent history, particularly with the United States; for example, the US bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade during the Kosovo conflict in May 1999 and the US-China spy plane incident in April 2001. China's foreign relations with many Western nations suffered for a time following the military crackdown on the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, although in recent years China has improved its diplomatic links with the West.[128][129]
Trade relations[link]
In recent decades, China has played an increasing role in calling for free trade areas and security pacts amongst its Asia-Pacific neighbors. In 2004, China proposed an entirely new East Asia Summit (EAS) framework as a forum for regional security issues, pointedly excluding the United States.[130] The EAS, which includes ASEAN Plus Three, India, Australia and New Zealand, held its inaugural summit in 2005. China is also a founding member of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), along with Russia and the Central Asian republics.
In 2000, the U.S. Congress approved "permanent normal trade relations" (PNTR) with China, allowing Chinese exports in at the same low tariffs as goods from most other countries.[131] Both Bill Clinton and George W. Bush asserted that free trade would gradually open China to democratic reform.[132] Bush was furthermore an advocate of China's entry into the World Trade Organization (WTO).[133] China has a significant trade surplus with the United States, its most important export market.[134] In the early 2010s, U.S. politicians argued that the Chinese yuan was significantly undervalued, giving China an unfair trade advantage.[135]
Sinophobic attitudes often target Chinese minorities and nationals living outside of China. Sometimes, such anti-Chinese attitudes turn violent, as occurred during the 13 May Incident in Malaysia in 1969 and the Jakarta riots of May 1998 in Indonesia, in which more than 2,000 people died.[136] In recent years, a number of anti-Chinese riots and incidents have also occurred in Africa and Oceania.[137][138] Anti-Chinese sentiment is often rooted in socio-economics.[139]
Territorial disputes[link]
Main article: Foreign relations of the People's Republic of China#International territorial disputes
China has been involved in a number of international territorial disputes, mostly resulting from the legacy of unequal treaties imposed on China during the historical period of New Imperialism. Since the 1990s, China has been entering negotiations to resolve its disputed land borders, usually by offering concessions and accepting less than half of the disputed territory with each party. China's only remaining land border disputes are a disputed border with India and an undefined border with Bhutan. China is additionally involved in more minor multilateral disputes over the ownership of several small islands in the East and South China Seas.[140][141]
Sino-Japanese relations[link]
Main article: Sino-Japanese relations
The relationship between China and Japan has been strained at times by Japan's refusal to acknowledge its wartime past to the satisfaction of China. Revisionist comments made by prominent Japanese officials and some Japanese history textbooks regarding the 1937 Nanjing Massacre have been a focus of particular controversy. Sino-Japanese relations warmed considerably after Shinzo Abe became the Prime Minister of Japan in September 2006, and a joint historical study conducted by China and Japan released a report in 2010 which pointed toward a new consensus on the issue of World War 2-era atrocities.[142] However, in the early 2010s, relations cooled once more, with Japan accusing China of withholding its reserves of valuable rare earth elements.[143]
China and the developing world[link]
China is heavily engaged, both politically and economically, with numerous nations in the developing world. Most notably, they have followed a policy of engaging with African nations for trade and bilateral co-operation.[144][145] Xinhua, China's official news agency, states that there are no less than 750,000 Chinese nationals working or living in Africa.[146] China has furthermore strengthened its ties with major South American economies, becoming the largest trading partner of Brazil and building strategic links with Argentina.[147][148] Along with Brazil, Russia, India and South Africa, China is a member of the BRICS group of emerging major economies, and hosted the group's third official summit at Sanya in Hainan Province in April 2011.[149]
Emerging superpower status[link]
China is regularly hailed as a potential new superpower, with certain commentators citing its rapid economic progress, growing military might, very large population, and increasing international influence as signs that it will play a prominent global role in the 21st century. Others, however, warn that economic bubbles and demographic imbalances could slow or even halt China's growth as the century progresses.[150][151][152][153][154]
Sociopolitical issues and reform[link]
See also: Human rights in the People's Republic of China, Hukou system, Social welfare in China, Elections in the People's Republic of China, and Feminism in the People's Republic of China
The Chinese democracy movement, social activists, and some members of the Communist Party of China have all identified the need for social and political reform. While economic and social controls have been greatly relaxed in China since the 1970s, political freedom is still tightly restricted. The Constitution of the People's Republic of China states that the "fundamental rights" of citizens include freedom of speech, freedom of the press, the right to a fair trial, freedom of religion, universal suffrage, and property rights. However, in practice, these provisions do not afford significant protection against criminal prosecution by the State.[155][156][157]
As the Chinese economy expanded following Deng Xiaoping's 1978 reforms, tens of millions of rural Chinese who have moved to the cities[158] find themselves treated as second-class citizens by China's hukou household registration system, which controls state benefits.[159] Property rights are often poorly protected, and eminent domain land seizures have had a disproportionate effect on poorer peasants.[158] In 2003, the average Chinese farmer paid three times more taxes than the average urban dweller, despite having one-sixth of the annual income.[159] However, a number of rural taxes have since been reduced or abolished, and additional social services provided to rural dwellers.[160][161][162]
Censorship of political speech and information, most notably on the Internet,[163] is openly and routinely used in China to silence criticism of the government and the ruling Communist Party.[164][165] In 2005, Reporters Without Borders ranked China 159th out of 167 states in its Annual World Press Freedom Index, indicating a very low level of perceived press freedom.[166] The government has suppressed demonstrations by organizations that it considers a potential threat to "social stability", as was the case with the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989. The Communist Party has had mixed success in controlling information: a powerful and pervasive media control system faces equally strong market forces, an increasingly educated citizenry, and technological and cultural changes that are making China more open to the wider world, especially on environmental issues.[167][168] However, attempts are still made by the Chinese government to control public access to outside information, with online searches for politically sensitive material being blocked by the so-called Great Firewall.[169]
A number of foreign governments and NGOs routinely criticize China's human rights record, alleging widespread civil rights violations, including systematic use of lengthy detention without trial, forced confessions, torture, mistreatment of prisoners, and restrictions of freedom of speech, assembly, association, religion, the press, and labor rights.[110] China executes more people than any other country, accounting for 72% of the world's total in 2009, though it is not the largest executioner per capita.[170] This high execution rate is partly due to the fact that numerous white-collar crimes, such as fraud, are punishable by death in China. However, in the early 2010s, China began restricting the application of capital punishment for some such crimes.[171]
The Chinese government has responded to foreign criticism by arguing that the notion of human rights should take into account a country's present level of economic development, and focus more on the people's rights to subsistence and development in poorer countries.[172] The rise in the standard of living, literacy, and life expectancy for the average Chinese since the 1970s is seen by the government as tangible progress made in human rights.[173] Improvements in workplace safety, and efforts to combat natural disasters such as the perennial Yangtze River floods, are also portrayed in China as progress in human rights for a still largely poor country.[172][174]
Some Chinese politicians have spoken out in favor of reforms, while others remain more conservative. In 2010, Premier Wen Jiabao stated that China needs "to gradually improve the democratic election system so that state power will truly belong to the people and state power will be used to serve the people." Despite his status, Wen's comments were later censored by the government.[175]
As the social, cultural and political consequences of economic growth and reform become increasingly manifest, tensions between the conservatives and reformists in the Communist Party are sharpening. Zhou Tianyong, the vice director of research of the Central Party School, argues that gradual political reform as well as repression of those pushing for overly rapid change over the next thirty years will be essential if China is to avoid an overly turbulent transition to a democratic, middle-class-dominated polity.[176][177]
Military[link]
Main article: People's Liberation Army
With 2.3 million active troops, the People's Liberation Army (PLA) is the largest standing military force in the world, commanded by the Central Military Commission (CMC).[178] The PLA consists of the People's Liberation Army Ground Force (PLAGF), the People's Liberation Army Navy (PLAN), the People's Liberation Army Air Force (PLAAF), and a strategic nuclear force, the Second Artillery Corps. According to SIPRI, China's military expenditure in 2011 totalled US$129.2 billion (923 billion yuan), constituting the world's second-largest military budget.[179] However, other nations, such as the United States, have claimed that China does not report its real level of military spending, which is allegedly much higher than the official budget.[180]
As a recognised nuclear weapons state, China is considered both a major regional military power and a potential military superpower.[181] As of August 2011, China's Second Artillery Corps is believed to maintain at least 195 nuclear missiles, including 75 ICBMs.[182] Nonetheless, China is the only member of the UN Security Council to have relatively limited power projection capabilities.[183] To offset this, it has begun developing power projection assets, such as aircraft carriers, and has established a network of foreign military relationships that has been compared to a string of pearls.
China has made significant progress in modernizing its military since the early 2000s. It has purchased advanced Russian fighter jets, such as the Sukhoi Su-30, and has also produced its own modern fighters, most notably the Chengdu J-10 and Shenyang J-11.[184] China is furthermore engaged in developing an indigenous stealth aircraft, the Chengdu J-20.[185][186][187] China's ground forces have also undergone significant modernisations, replacing its ageing Soviet-derived tank inventory with numerous variants of the modern Type 99 tank, and upgrading its battlefield C3I systems to enhance its network-centric warfare capabilities.[188] China has furthermore acquired and improved upon the Russian S-300 surface-to-air missile system.[189] Russia later produced the next-generation S-400 Triumf system, with China reportedly having spent $500 million on a downgraded export version of it.[190] A number of indigenous missile technologies have also been developed – in 2007, China conducted a successful test of an anti-satellite missile,[191] and its first indigenous land-attack cruise missile, the CJ-10, entered service in 2009. In 2011, the Pentagon reported that China was believed to be testing the JL-2 missile, a submarine-launched nuclear ICBM with multiple-warhead delivery capabilities.[182]
In recent years, much attention has been focused on enhancing the blue-water capabilities of the People's Liberation Army Navy.[192] In August 2011, China's first aircraft carrier, the refurbished Soviet vessel Varyag, began sea trials.[193] China furthermore maintains a substantial fleet of submarines, including several nuclear-powered attack and ballistic missile submarines.[194] On 13 March 2011, the PLAN missile frigate Xuzhou was spotted off the coast of Libya, marking the first time in history a Chinese warship sailed into the Mediterranean. The ship's entrance into the Mediterranean was officially part of a humanitarian mission to rescue Chinese nationals from the 2011 Libyan civil war, though analysts such as Fareed Zakaria viewed the mission as also being an attempt to increase China's global military presence.[195]
Little information is available regarding the motivations supporting China's military modernization. A 2007 report by the US Secretary of Defense noted that "China's actions in certain areas increasingly appear inconsistent with its declaratory policies".[196] For its part, China claims it maintains an army purely for defensive purposes.[197]
Economy[link]
Main articles: Economy of the People's Republic of China and List of Chinese administrative divisions by GDP
As of 2012, China has the world's second-largest economy in terms of nominal GDP, totalling approximately US$7.298 trillion according to the International Monetary Fund (IMF).[6] However, China's 2011 nominal GDP per capita of US$5,184 puts it behind around ninety countries (out of 183 countries on the IMF list) in global GDP per capita rankings.[6] If PPP is taken into account in total GDP figures, China is again second only to the United States—in 2011, its PPP GDP reached $11.316 trillion, corresponding to $8,394 per capita.[6] In 2009, China's primary, secondary, and tertiary industries contributed 10.6%, 46.8%, and 42.6% respectively to its total GDP.
From its founding in 1949 until late 1978, the People's Republic of China was a Soviet-style centrally planned economy, without private businesses or capitalism. To propel the country towards a modern, industrialized communist society, Mao Zedong instituted the Great Leap Forward in the early 1960s, although this had decidedly mixed economic results.[199] Following Mao's death in 1976 and the consequent end of the Cultural Revolution, Deng Xiaoping and the new Chinese leadership began to reform the economy and move towards a more market-oriented mixed economy under one-party rule. Collectivization of the agriculture was dismantled and farmlands were privatized to increase productivity. Modern-day China is mainly characterized as having a market economy based on private property ownership,[200][201] and is one of the leading examples of state capitalism.[202][203]
Under the post-Mao market reforms, a wide variety of small-scale private enterprises were encouraged, while the government relaxed price controls and promoted foreign investment. Foreign trade was focused upon as a major vehicle of growth, leading to the creation of Special Economic Zones (SEZs), first in Shenzhen and then in other Chinese cities. Inefficient state-owned enterprises (SOEs) were restructured by introducing western-style management systems, with unprofitable ones being closed outright, resulting in massive job losses. By the latter part of 2010, China was reversing some of its economic liberalization initiatives, with state-owned companies buying up independent businesses in the steel, auto and energy industries.[204]
Since economic liberalization began in 1978, China's investment- and export-led[205] economy has grown almost a hundredfold[206] and is the fastest-growing major economy in the world.[207] According to the IMF, China's annual average GDP growth between 2001 and 2010 was 10.5%, and the Chinese economy is predicted to grow at an average annual rate of 9.5% between 2011 and 2015. Between 2007 and 2011, China's economic growth rate was equivalent to all of the G7 countries' growth combined.[208] According to the Global Growth Generators index announced by Citigroup in February 2011, China has a very high 3G growth rating.[209]
China is the third-most-visited country in the world, with 55.7 million inbound international visitors in 2010.[210] It is a member of the WTO and is the world's second-largest trading power behind the US, with a total international trade value of US$3.64 trillion in 2011.[211] Its foreign exchange reserves reached US$2.85 trillion by the end of 2010, an increase of 18.7% over the previous year, making its reserves by far the world's largest.[212][213] China owns an estimated $1.6 trillion of US securities.[214] China, holding US$1.16 trillion in US Treasury bonds,[215] is the largest foreign holder of US public debt.[216][217] China is the world's third-largest recipient of inward foreign direct investment (FDI), attracting $115 billion in 2011 alone, marking a 9% increase over 2010.[218][219] China also increasingly invests abroad, with a total outward FDI of $68 billion in 2010.[220]
| <timeline>
ImageSize = width:300 height:140 PlotArea = left:60 bottom:20 top:10 right:0 AlignBars = justify DateFormat = yyyy Period = from:0 till:16000 TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal Colors = id:gray value:gray(0.5) id:line1 value:gray(0.9) id:line2 value:gray(0.7) ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:5000 start:0 gridcolor:line2 ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:1000 start:0 gridcolor:line1 BarData = bar:USA text:USA bar:China text:China bar:Japan text:Japan bar:Germany text:Germany bar:France text:France PlotData= color:tan1 width:10 bar:USA from:start till:15094 text:15,094 color:yellow width:10 bar:China from:start till:7298 text:7,298 color:tan1 width:10 bar:Japan from:start till:5869 text:5,869 bar:Germany from:start till:3577 text:3,577 bar:France from:start till:2776 text:2,776 TextData = pos:(5,1) textcolor:gray fontsize:S text:US$ bn </timeline> |
| A graph comparing the 2011 nominal GDPs of major economies in US$ billions, according to IMF data.[221] |
China's success has been primarily due to manufacturing as a low-cost producer. This is attributed to a combination of cheap labor, good infrastructure, relatively high productivity, favorable government policy, and a possibly undervalued exchange rate. The latter has been sometimes blamed for China's huge trade surplus (US$262.7 billion in 2007)[222] and has become a major source of dispute between China and its major trading partners—the US, EU, and Japan—despite the yuan having been de-pegged and having risen in value by 20% against the US dollar since 2005.[223] China is moreover widely criticised for manufacturing large quantities of counterfeit goods—in 2005, the Asia Business Council alleged that the counterfeiting industry accounted for 8% of China's GDP at the time.[224][225]
The state still dominates in strategic "pillar" industries (such as energy and heavy industries), but private enterprise (composed of around 30 million private businesses)[226] has expanded enormously; in 2005, it accounted for anywhere between 33%[227] to 70%[228] of national GDP, while the OECD estimate for that year was over 50%[229] of China's national output, up from 1% in 1978.[230] The Shanghai Stock Exchange has raised record amounts of IPOs, and its benchmark Shanghai Composite index has doubled since 2005. SSE's market capitalization reached US$3 trillion in 2007, making it the world's fifth-largest stock exchange.
China now ranks 29th in the Global Competitiveness Index,[231] although it is only ranked 135th among the 179 countries measured in the Index of Economic Freedom.[232] 46 Chinese companies made the list in the 2010 Fortune Global 500 (Beijing alone with 30).[233] Measured using market capitalization, four of the world's top ten most valuable companies are Chinese. Some of these include first-ranked PetroChina, third-ranked Industrial and Commercial Bank of China (the world's most valuable bank), fifth-ranked China Mobile (the world's most valuable telecommunications company) and seventh-ranked China Construction Bank.[234]
Although a middle-income country by Western standards, China's rapid growth has pulled hundreds of millions of its people out of poverty since 1978. Today, about 10% of the Chinese population live below the poverty line of US$1 per day (down from 64% in 1978), while life expectancy has increased to 73 years. More than 93% of the population is literate,[235] compared to only 20% in 1950.[236] Urban unemployment in China reportedly declined to 4% by the end of 2007, although true overall unemployment may be as high as 10%.[237]
China's middle-class population (defined as those with annual income of at least US$17,000) has reached more than 100 million as of 2011,[238] while the number of super-rich individuals worth more than 10 million yuan (US$1.5 million) is estimated to be 825,000, according to Hurun Report.[239] Based on the Hurun rich list, the number of US dollar billionaires in China doubled from 130 in 2009 to 271 in 2010, giving China the world's second-highest number of billionaires.[240] China's retail market was worth RMB 8.9 trillion (US$1.302 trillion) in 2007, and is growing at 16.8% annually.[241] China is also now the world's second-largest consumer of luxury goods behind Japan, with 27.5% of the global share.[242]
In recent years, China's rapid economic growth has contributed to severe consumer inflation,[243] causing the prices of basic goods to rise steeply. Food prices in China increased by over 21% in the first four months of 2008 alone.[244] To curb inflation and moderate rising property prices, the Chinese government has instituted a number of fiscal regulations and amendments, raising interest rates and imposing limits on bank loans. In September 2011, consumer prices rose by 6.1% compared to a year earlier, marking a reduction in inflation from the peak of 6.5% in July 2011.[245] A side-effect of increased economic regulation was a slowdown in overall growth – China's quarterly GDP growth fell to 9.1% in October 2011, down from 9.5% in the previous quarter,[245] and sank to 8.1% in April 2012.[246]
The Chinese economy is highly energy-intensive and inefficient—on average, industrial processes in China between 20% and 100% more energy than similar ones in OECD countries.[247] China became the world's largest energy consumer in 2010,[248] but still relies on coal to supply about 70% of its energy needs.[249] Coupled with lax environmental regulations, this has led to massive water and air pollution, leaving China with 20 of the world's 30 most polluted cities.[247] Consequently, the government has promised to use more renewable energy, planning to make renewables constitute 30% of China's total energy production by 2050.[250] In 2010, China became the largest wind energy provider in the world, with a total installed wind power capacity of 41.8 GW.[251] In January 2011, Russia began scheduled oil shipments to China, pumping 300,000 barrels of oil per day via the Eastern Siberia – Pacific Ocean oil pipeline.[252]
Science and technology[link]
Main article: Science and technology in the People's Republic of China
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| History of science and technology in China |
|---|
| Inventions |
| Discoveries |
| By era |
| Han Dynasty |
| Tang Dynasty |
| Song Dynasty |
| People's Republic of China |
| Present-day China |
China was a world leader in science and technology until the Ming Dynasty. Ancient Chinese discoveries and inventions, such as papermaking, printing, the compass, and gunpowder (the Four Great Inventions), contributed to the economic development of Asia and Europe. However, Chinese scientific activity entered a prolonged decline in the fourteenth century. Unlike European scientists, medieval Chinese thinkers did not attempt to reduce observations of nature to mathematical laws, and they did not form a scholarly community offering peer review and progressive research. There was an increasing concentration on literature, the arts, and public administration, while science and technology were seen as trivial or restricted to limited practical applications.[253] The causes of this Great Divergence continue to be debated.
After repeated military defeats by Western nations in the 19th century, Chinese reformers began promoting modern science and technology as part of the Self-Strengthening Movement. After the Communist victory in 1949, efforts were made to organize science and technology based on the model of the Soviet Union. However, Mao Zedong's Cultural Revolution of 1966-76 had a catastrophic effect on Chinese research, as academics were persecuted and the training of scientists and engineers was severely curtailed for nearly a decade. After Mao's death in 1976, science and technology was established as one of the Four Modernizations, and the Soviet-inspired academic system was gradually reformed.[253]
In modern China, science and technology are seen as vital for achieving economic and political goals, and are held as a source of national pride to a degree sometimes described as "techno-nationalism".[254] Almost all of the members of the Politburo Standing Committee of the Communist Party of China have engineering degrees.[255] Since the end of the Cultural Revolution, China has become one of the world's leading technological powers, spending over US$100 billion on scientific research and development in 2011 alone.[256] China is also rapidly developing its education system with an emphasis on science, mathematics and engineering; in 2009, it produced over 10,000 Ph.D. engineering graduates, and as many as 500,000 BSc graduates, more than any other country.[257] China is also the world's second-largest publisher of scientific papers, producing 121,500 in 2010 alone, including 5,200 in leading international scientific journals.[258]
The Chinese space program is one of the world's most active, and is a major source of national pride.[259] In 1970, China launched its first satellite, Dong Fang Hong I. In 2003, China became the third country to independently send humans into space, with Yang Liwei's spaceflight aboard Shenzhou 5. In 2008, China conducted its first spacewalk with the Shenzhou 7 mission. In 2011, China's first space station module, Tiangong-1, was launched, marking the first step in a project to assemble a large manned station by 2020.[260] The active Chinese Lunar Exploration Program includes a planned lunar rover launch in 2013, and possibly a manned lunar landing in 2025.[261] Experience gained from the lunar program may be used for future programs such as the exploration of Mars and Venus.[262]
Infrastructure[link]
Communications[link]
Main article: Telecommunications in the People's Republic of China
China currently has the most cellphone users of any country in the world, with over 1 billion users as of May 2012.[263][264] It also has the world's largest number of internet and broadband users.[265] By December 2010, China had around 457 million internet users, an increase of 19% over the previous year, and by the end of 2011 the number of internet users had exceeded 500 million.[266][267][268] According to the China Internet Network Information Center (CNNIC), China's average internet connection speed is 100.9 kbit/s, less than half of the global average of 212.5 kbit/s.[269]
China Telecom and China Unicom, the country's two largest broadband providers, accounted for 20% of global broadband subscribers, whereas the world's ten largest broadband service providers combined accounted for 39% of the world's broadband customers. China Telecom alone serves 55 million broadband subscribers, while China Unicom serves more than 40 million. The massive rise in internet use in China continues to fuel rapid broadband growth, whereas the world's other major broadband ISPs operate in the mature markets of the developed world, with high levels of broadband penetration and rapidly slowing subscriber growth.[270]
Transport[link]
Main article: Transport in the People's Republic of China
Transportation in mainland China has undergone intense state-led development since the late 1990s. The national road network has been significantly expanded through the creation of a network of expressways, known as the National Trunk Highway System (NTHS). By the end of 2011, China's expressways had reached a total length of 85,000 km (53,000 mi), second only to the network of the United States.[271] Private car ownership is growing rapidly in China, which surpassed the United States as the world's largest automobile market in 2009, with total car sales of over 13.6 million.[272] Analysts predict that annual car sales in China may rise as high as 40 million by 2020.[273]
China also possesses the world's longest high-speed rail network, with over 9,676 km (6,012 mi) of service routes. Of these, 3,515 km (2,184 mi) serve trains with top speeds of 300 km/h (190 mph).[274] In 2011, China unveiled a prototype train capable of reaching speeds of 310 mph (500 km/h), the first ultra-high-speed train developed solely by its domestic railway industry.[275] China intends to operate approximately 16,000 km (9,900 mi) of high-speed rail lines by 2020.[276]
As of 2012, China is the world's largest constructor of new airports, and the Chinese government has begun a US$250 billion five-year project to expand and modernize domestic air travel.[277] However, long-distance transportation remains dominated by railways and charter bus systems. Railways are the vital carrier in China; they are monopolized by the state, divided into various railway bureaux in different regions. Due to huge demand, the system is regularly subject to overcrowding, particularly during holiday seasons, such as Chunyun during the Chinese New Year. The Chinese rail network carried an estimated 1.68 billion total passengers in 2010 alone.[276]
Rapid transit systems are also rapidly developing in China's major cities, in the form of networks of underground or light rail systems. Hong Kong has one of the most developed transport systems in the world, while Shanghai has a high-speed maglev rail line connecting the city to its main international airport, Pudong International Airport. China is additionally developing its own satellite navigation system, dubbed Beidou, which began offering commercial navigation services in mainland China in 2011, and is planned to offer global coverage by 2020.[278]
Demographics[link]
Main article: Demographics of the People's Republic of China
As of July 2010, the People's Republic of China has an estimated total population of 1,338,612,968. About 21% of the population (145,461,833 males; 128,445,739 females) are 14 years old or younger, 71% (482,439,115 males; 455,960,489 females) are between 15 and 64 years old, and 8% (48,562,635 males; 53,103,902 females) are over 65 years old. The population growth rate for 2006 was 0.6%.[279]
By end of 2010, the proportion of mainland Chinese people aged 14 or younger was 16.60%, while the number aged 60 or older grew to 13.26%, giving a total proportion of 29.86% dependents. The proportion of the population of workable age was thus around 70%.[280]
With a population of over 1.3 billion and dwindling natural resources, China is very concerned about its population growth and has attempted, with mixed results,[281] to implement a strict family planning policy. The government's goal is one child per family, with exceptions for ethnic minorities and a degree of flexibility in rural areas. It is hoped that population growth in China will stabilize in the early decades of the 21st century, though some projections estimate a population of anywhere between 1.4 billion and 1.6 billion by 2025. China's family planning minister has indicated that the one-child policy will be maintained until at least 2020.[282]
The one-child policy is resisted, particularly in rural areas, because of the need for agricultural labour and a traditional preference for boys (who can later serve as male heirs). Families who breach the policy often lie during the census.[283] Official government policy opposes forced sterilization or abortion, but allegations of coercion continue as local officials, who are faced with penalties for failing to curb population growth, may resort to forcible measures, or manipulation of census figures.[citation needed]
The decreasing reliability of China population statistics since family planning began in the late 1970s has made evaluating the effectiveness of the policy difficult.[283] Data from the 2010 census implies that the total fertility rate may now be around 1.4.[284] The government is particularly concerned with the large imbalance in the sex ratio at birth, apparently the result of a combination of traditional preference for boys and family planning pressure, which led to a ban on using ultrasound devices in an attempt to prevent sex-selective abortion.
According to the 2010 census, there were 118.06 boys born for every 100 girls, which is 0.53 points lower than the ratio obtained from a population sample survey carried out in 2005.[285] However, the gender ratio of 118.06 is still beyond the normal range of around 105 percent, and experts warn of increased social instability should this trend continue.[286] For the population born between the years 1900 and 2000, it is estimated that there could be 35.59 million fewer females than males.[287] Other demographers argue that perceived gender imbalances may arise from the underreporting of female births.[288][289][290][291] A recent study suggests that as many as three million Chinese babies are hidden by their parents every year.[291] According to the 2010 census, males accounted for 51.27 percent of the total population, while females made up 48.73 percent of the total.[285]
Ethnic groups[link]
Main articles: List of ethnic groups in China, Ethnic minorities in China, and Ethnic groups in Chinese history
| Ethnic composition (2000)[292] | |
|---|---|
| Han | 91.59% |
| Zhuang | 1.28% |
| Manchu | 0.84% |
| Hui | 0.78% |
| Miao | 0.71% |
| Uyghur | 0.66% |
| Tujia | 0.63% |
| Other | 3.51% |
China officially recognizes 56 distinct ethnic groups, the largest of which are the Han Chinese, who constitute about 91.51% of the total population.[293] The Han Chinese—the world's largest single ethnic group—outnumber other ethnic groups in every province, municipality and autonomous region except Tibet and Xinjiang, and are descended from ancient Huaxia tribes living along the Yellow River.
Ethnic minorities account for about 8.49% of the population of China, according to the 2010 census.[293] Compared with the 2000 population census, the Han population increased by 66,537,177 persons, or 5.74%, while the population of the 55 national minorities combined increased by 7,362,627 persons, or 6.92%.[293]
The 2010 census recorded a total of 593,832 foreign citizens living in China. The largest such groups were from South Korea (120,750), the United States (71,493) and Japan (66,159).[294]
Languages[link]
Main articles: Languages of China and List of endangered languages in China
The languages most spoken in China belong to the Sino-Tibetan language family. There are also several major linguistic groups within the Chinese language itself. The most spoken varieties are Mandarin (spoken by over 70% of the population), Wu (includes Shanghainese), Yue (includes Cantonese and Taishanese), Min (includes Hokkien and Teochew), Xiang, Gan, and Hakka. Non-Sinitic languages spoken widely by ethnic minorities include Zhuang, Mongolian, Tibetan, Uyghur, Hmong and Korean.[295] Standard Mandarin, a variety of Mandarin based on the Beijing dialect, is the official national language of China and is used as a lingua franca between people of different linguistic backgrounds.
Classical Chinese was the written standard in China for thousands of years, and allowed for written communication between speakers of various unintelligible languages and dialects in China. Written vernacular Chinese, or baihua, is the written standard, based on the Mandarin dialect and first popularized in Ming Dynasty novels. It was adopted, with significant modifications, during the early 20th century as the national standard. Classical Chinese is still part of the high school curriculum, and is thus intelligible to some degree to many Chinese. Since their promulgation by the government in 1956, Simplified Chinese characters have become the official standardized written script used to write the Chinese language within mainland China, supplanting the use of the earlier Traditional Chinese characters.
Urbanization[link]
See also: List of cities in the People's Republic of China, List of cities in the People's Republic of China by population, and Metropolitan regions of China
Since 2000, China's cities have expanded at an average rate of 10% annually. It is estimated that China will add 400 million people to its urban population by 2025.[296] The country's urbanization rate increased from 17.4% to 46.8% between 1978 and 2009, a scale unprecedented in human history.[297] Between 150 and 200 million migrant workers work part-time in the major cities, returning home to the countryside periodically with their earnings.[298][299]
Today, the People's Republic of China has dozens of cities with one million or more long-term residents, including the three global cities of Beijing, Hong Kong, and Shanghai. The figures in the table below are from the 2008 census, and are only estimates of the urban populations within administrative city limits; a different ranking exists when considering the total municipal populations (which includes suburban and rural populations). The large "floating populations" of migrant workers make conducting censuses in urban areas difficult;[300] the figures below do not include the floating population, only long-term residents.
|
Largest cities or towns of the People's Republic of China Sixth National Population Census of the People's Republic of China (2010) |
|||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rank | City name | Province | Pop. | Rank | City name | Province | Pop. | ||
 Shanghai |
1 | Shanghai | Shanghai | 22,315,426 | 11 | Shenyang | Liaoning | 5,743,718 |  Tianjin |
| 2 | Beijing | Beijing | 18,827,000 | 12 | Hangzhou | Zhejiang | 5,695,313 | ||
| 3 | Tianjin | Tianjin | 11,090,314 | 13 | Chongqing | Chongqing | 5,402,721 | ||
| 4 | Guangzhou | Guangdong | 11,070,654 | 14 | Harbin | Heilongjiang | 4,517,549 | ||
| 5 | Shenzhen | Guangdong | 10,357,938 | 15 | Suzhou | Jiangsu | 4,074,000 | ||
| 6 | Dongguan | Guangdong | 8,220,937 | 16 | Jinan | Shandong | 3,922,180 | ||
| 7 | Chengdu | Sichuan | 7,123,697 | 17 | Xi'an | Shaanxi | 3,890,098 | ||
| 8 | Hong Kong | Hong Kong | 7,055,071 | 18 | Wuxi | Jiangsu | 3,542,319 | ||
| 9 | Nanjing | Jiangsu | 6,852,984 | 19 | Hefei | Anhui | 3,352,076 | ||
| 10 | Wuhan | Hubei | 6,434,373 | 20 | Changchun | Jilin | 3,341,700 | ||
Education[link]
Main article: Education in the People's Republic of China
In 1986, China set the long-term goal of providing compulsory nine-year basic education to every child. As of 2007, there were 396,567 primary schools, 94,116 secondary schools, and 2,236 higher education institutions in China.[301] In February 2006, the government advanced its basic education goal by pledging to provide completely free nine-year education, including textbooks and fees.[302] Free compulsory education in China consists of elementary school and middle school, which lasts for 9 years (ages 6–15); almost all children in urban areas continue with three years of high school.
As of 2007[update], 93.3% of the population over age 15 are literate.[279] In 2000, China's literacy rate among 15-to-24-year-olds was 98.9% (99.2% for males and 98.5% for females).[303] In March 2007, the Chinese government declared education a national "strategic priority"; the central budget for national scholarships was tripled between 2007 and 2009, and 223.5 billion yuan (US$28.65 billion) of extra state funding was allocated between 2007 and 2012 to improve compulsory education in rural areas.[304]
In 2009, Chinese students from Shanghai achieved the world's best results in mathematics, science and literacy, as tested by the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), a worldwide evaluation of 15-year-old school pupils' scholastic performance.[305]
The quality of Chinese colleges and universities varies considerably across the country. The consistently top-ranked universities in mainland China are:[306][307]
- Beijing: Peking University, Tsinghua University, Renmin University of China, Beijing Normal University
- Shanghai: Fudan University, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Tongji University, East China Normal University
- Harbin: Harbin Institute of Technology
- Tianjin: Nankai University, Tianjin University
- Xi'an: Xi'an Jiaotong University
- Nanjing: Nanjing University
- Hefei: University of Science and Technology of China
- Hangzhou: Zhejiang University
- Wuhan: Wuhan University
- Guangzhou: Sun Yat-sen University (aka Zhongshan University)
Health[link]
Main article: Public health in the People's Republic of China
The Ministry of Health, together with its counterparts in the provincial health bureaux, oversees the health needs of the Chinese population.[308] An emphasis on public health and preventive medicine has characterized health policy since the early 1950s. At that time, the Communist Party started the Patriotic Health Campaign, which was aimed at improving sanitation and hygiene, as well as treating and preventing several diseases. Diseases such as cholera, typhoid and scarlet fever, which were previously rife in China, were nearly eradicated by the campaign.
After Deng Xiaoping began instituting economic reforms in 1978, the health of the Chinese public improved rapidly due to better nutrition, although many of the free public health services provided in the countryside disappeared along with the People's Communes. Healthcare in China became mostly privatised, and experienced a significant rise in quality. The national life expectancy at birth rose from about 35 years in 1949 to 73.18 years in 2008,[309][310] and infant mortality decreased from 300 per thousand in the 1950s to around 23 per thousand in 2006.[39][311] Malnutrition as of 2002[update] stood at 12% of the population, according to United Nations FAO sources.[312] In 2009, the government began a large-scale healthcare provision initiative worth US$124 billion, which is expected to eventually cover 90% of China's population.[313]
Despite significant improvements in health and the construction of advanced medical facilities, China has several emerging public health problems, such as respiratory illnesses caused by widespread air pollution[314] and hundreds of millions of cigarette smokers,[315][316] a possible future HIV/AIDS epidemic, and an increase in obesity among urban youths.[317][318] China's large population and densely populated cities have led to serious disease outbreaks in recent years, such as the 2003 outbreak of SARS, although this has since been largely contained.[319]
Estimates of excess deaths in China from environmental pollution (apart from smoking) are placed at 760,000 people per annum from air and water pollution (including indoor air pollution).[320] In 2007, China overtook the United States as the world's biggest producer of carbon dioxide.[321] Some 90% of China's cities suffer from some degree of water pollution,[322] and nearly 500 million people lacked access to safe drinking water in 2005.[323] Reports by the World Bank and the New York Times have claimed industrial pollution, particularly of the air, to be a significant health hazard in China.[324]
Religion[link]
Main article: Religion in China
In mainland China, the government allows a degree of religious freedom to members of state-approved religious organizations. An accurate number of religious adherents is hard to obtain because of a lack of official data, but there is a general consensus that religion has been enjoying a resurgence in China since the late 1980s.[325] A 1998 survey by Adherents.com found that 59% (over 700 million) of the population was irreligious.[326] A later survey, conducted in 2007, found that there were 300 million religious believers in China, constituting 23% of the population, as distinct from an official figure of 100 million.[325]
Despite the surveys' varying results, most agree that China's traditional religions—Buddhism, Taoism, and Chinese folk religions—are the dominant faiths. According to various sources, Buddhism in China accounts for between 660 million (~50% of the population) and over 1 billion (~80%),[327][328][329][330] while Taoists number as many as 400 million (~30%).[331][332] However, because of the fact that one person may subscribe to two or more of these traditional beliefs simultaneously, and the difficulty in clearly differentiating Buddhism, Taoism, and Chinese folk religions, there is likely a strong degree of overlap in the number of adherents of these religions. In addition, some who subscribe to Buddhism and Taoism follow their philosophies in principle but stop short of believing in any kind of deity or divinity.[333][334][335]
Most Chinese Buddhists are merely nominal adherents, because only a small proportion of the population (around 8% or 100 million)[337][338] may have taken the formal step of going for refuge.[339][340] Even then, it is still difficult to estimate accurately the number of Buddhists, because they do not have congregational memberships and often do not participate in public ceremonies.[341] Mahayana Buddhism (大乘, Dacheng) and its subsets Pure Land (Amidism), Tiantai and Chán (better known in English by its Japanese pronunciation Zen) are the most widely practiced denominations of Buddhism. Other forms, such as Theravada and Tibetan Buddhism, are practiced largely by ethnic minorities along the geographic fringes of the Chinese mainland.[342]
Christianity was first introduced to China during the Tang Dynasty, with the arrival of Nestorian Christianity in 635 AD. This was followed by Franciscan missionaries in the 13th century, Jesuits in the 16th century, and finally Protestants in the 19th century. Of China's minority religions, Christianity is one of the fastest-growing. The total number of Christians is difficult to determine, as many belong to unauthorized house churches, but estimates of their number have ranged from 40 million (3% of the total population)[325][343] to 54 million (4%)[344] to as many as 130 million (10%).[345] Official government statistics put the number of Christians at 25 million, but these count only members of officially sanctioned church bodies.[346] China is believed to now have the world's second-largest evangelical Christian population—behind only the United States—and is also experiencing a surge in mainstream Christian publishing.[347][348] In 2011, it was reported that more people attended Sunday church services in China than in all of Europe.[346]
Islam in China dates to a mission in 651, only 18 years after the death of the Prophet Muhammad. Muslims initially came to China for trade, becoming prominent in the trading ports of the Song Dynasty.[349][350] Later, Muslims such as Zheng He, Lan Yu and Yeheidie'erding became influential in government circles, and Nanjing became an important center of Islamic study.[351] Accurate statistics on China's Muslim population are hard to find; most estimates give a figure of between 20 and 30 million Muslims (1.5% to 2% of the total population).[352][353][354][355][356]
China also plays host to numerous minority religions, including Hinduism, Dongbaism, Bön, and a number of more modern religions and sects (particularly Xiantianism). In July 1999, the Falun Gong spiritual practice was officially banned by the authorities,[357] and many international organizations have criticized the government's treatment of Falun Gong that has occurred since then.[358] There are no reliable estimates of the number of Falun Gong practitioners in China,[359] although informal estimates have given figures as high as 70 million.[360][361]
Culture[link]
Main articles: Culture of the People's Republic of China and Chinese culture
A traditional Beijing opera being performed.[362]
Beijing's Forbidden City, showing its classical Chinese architectural style.
Since ancient times, Chinese culture has been heavily influenced by Confucianism and conservative philosophies. For centuries, opportunities for social advancement could be provided by high performance in the prestigious Imperial examinations, which were instituted in 605 AD to help the Emperor select skilful bureaucrats. The literary emphasis of the exams affected the general perception of cultural refinement in China, such as the belief that calligraphy and literati painting were higher forms of art than dancing or drama.
A number of more authoritarian and rational strains of thought were also influential, with Legalism being a prominent example. There was often conflict between the philosophies – for instance, the individualistic Song Dynasty neo-Confucians believed that Legalism departed from the original spirit of Confucianism. Examinations and a culture of merit remain greatly valued in China today. In recent years, a number of New Confucians have claimed that modern democratic ideals and human rights are compatible with traditional Confucian values.[363]
The first leaders of the People's Republic of China were born into the traditional imperial order, but were influenced by the May Fourth Movement and reformist ideals. They sought to change some traditional aspects of Chinese culture, such as rural land tenure, sexism, and the Confucian system of education, while preserving others, such as the family structure and culture of obedience to the state.
Some observers see the period following the establishment of the PRC in 1949 as a continuation of traditional Chinese dynastic history, while others claim that the Communist Party's rule has damaged the foundations of Chinese culture, especially through political movements such as the Cultural Revolution of the 1960s, where many aspects of traditional culture were destroyed, having been denounced as 'regressive and harmful' or 'vestiges of feudalism'. Many important aspects of traditional Chinese morals and culture, such as Confucianism, Chinese art, literature, and performing arts like Peking opera, were altered to conform to government policies and propaganda at the time.
Today, the Chinese government has accepted numerous elements of traditional Chinese culture as being integral to Chinese society. With the rise of Chinese nationalism and the end of the Cultural Revolution, various forms of traditional Chinese art, literature, music, film, fashion and architecture have seen a vigorous revival,[364][365] and folk and variety art in particular have sparked interest nationally and even worldwide.[366]
Prior to the beginning of maritime Sino-European trade in the 16th century, medieval China and the European West were linked by the Silk Road, which was a key route of cultural as well as economic exchange. Artifacts from the history of the Road, as well as from the natural history of the Gobi desert, are displayed in the Silk Route Museum in Jiuquan.[367]
Cuisine[link]
![[icon]](http://web.archive.org./web/20130110033535/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg){kind=small} |
This section requires expansion. |
Main article: Chinese cuisine
Chinese cuisine is highly diverse, drawing on several millennia of culinary history. The dynastic emperors of ancient China were known to host banquets with over 100 dishes served at a time,[368] employing countless imperial kitchen staff and concubines to prepare the food. Such royal dishes gradually became a part of wider Chinese culture. China's staple food is rice, but the country is also well known for its meat dishes. Spices are endemic to Chinese cuisine.
Numerous foreign offshoots of Chinese food, such as Hong Kong cuisine and American Chinese food, have emerged in the various nations which play host to the Chinese diaspora.
Sports[link]
Main article: Sport in the People's Republic of China
China has one of the oldest sporting cultures in the world. There is evidence that a form of association football was played in China around 1000 AD.[369] Today, some of the most popular sports in the country include martial arts, basketball, football, table tennis, badminton, swimming and snooker. Board games such as go (weiqi), xiangqi, and more recently chess, are also played at a professional level.[370]
Physical fitness is widely emphasized in Chinese culture. Morning exercises are a common activity, with elderly citizens encouraged to practice qigong and t'ai chi ch'uan. Young people in China are also keen on basketball, especially in urban centers with limited space and grass areas. The American National Basketball Association has a huge following among Chinese youths, with Chinese players such as Yao Ming being held in high esteem.[371]
Many more traditional sports are also played in China. Dragon boat racing occurs during the annual nationwide Dragon Boat Festival, and has since gained popularity abroad. In Inner Mongolia, sports such as Mongolian-style wrestling and horse racing are popular. In Tibet, archery and equestrianism are a part of traditional festivals.[372]
China has participated at the Olympic Games since 1932, although it has only participated as the PRC since 1952. China hosted the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, and received 51 gold medals – the highest number of gold medals of any participating nation that year.[373] China will host the 2013 East Asian Games in Tianjin and the 2014 Youth Olympic Games in Nanjing.
See also[link]
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Geography portal |
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- Outline of China
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- International rankings of the People's Republic of China
References[link]
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Further reading[link]
- Chang, Jung (1992). Wild Swans. Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-42547-3.
- Meng, Fanhua (2011). Phenomenon of Chinese Culture at the Turn of the 21st century. Singapore: Silkroad Press. ISBN 978-981-4332-35-4.
- Farah, Paolo, Five Years of China’s WTO Membership. EU and US Perspectives on China’s Compliance with Transparency Commitments and the Transitional Review Mechanism, Legal Issues of Economic Integration, Kluwer Law International, Volume 33, Number 3, pp. 263–304, 2006. Abstract.
- Heilig, Gerhard K., China Bibliography – Online. 2006, 2007.
- Lynch, Michael (1998). People’s Republic of China 1949–90. Trafalgar Square Publishing. ISBN 0-340-68853-X.
- Murphey, Rhoads (1996). East Asia: A New History. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-321-07801-2.
- Sang Ye (2006). China Candid: The People on the People's Republic. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-24514-8.
- Selden, Mark (1979). The People's Republic of China: Documentary History of Revolutionary Change. New York: Monthly Review Press. ISBN 0-85345-532-5.
- Terrill, Ross (2003). The New Chinese Empire, And What It Means For The United States. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-08412-5.
- Thurston, Anne F. (1994). China Bound: A Guide to Academic Life and Work in the PRC. Washington: National Academies Press. ISBN 0-309-04932-6.
External links[link]
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- Overviews
- China at a Glance from People's Daily
- BBC News – Country Profile: China
- China entry at The World Factbook
- Modern China: A Primer—slideshow by Life magazine
- "Rethinking ‘Capitalist Restoration’ in China" by Yiching Wu
- Key Development Forecasts for China from International Futures
- Documentaries
- "China on the Rise" PBS Online NewsHour, October 2005
- China in the Red PBS Frontline, 1998–2001
- China From the Inside A documentary series co-produced by KQED Public Television and Granada Television
- Government
- The Central People's Government of People's Republic of China (English)
- China Internet Information Center (English)—Authorized government portal site to China
- Studies
- Assertive Pragmatism: China's Economic Rise and Its Impact on Chinese Foreign Policy Minxin Pei, IFRI Proliferation Papers n°15, 2006
- The Dragon's Dawn: China as a Rising Imperial Power, 11 February 2005
- History of The People's Republic of China—Timeline of key events since 1949
- Media, advertising, and urban life in China
- Travel
- Maps
- Google Maps—China
- Google Maps—China—Interesting locations
- Wikimedia Atlas of the People's Republic of China
Geographic data related to China at OpenStreetMap
Coordinates: 35°N 103°E / 35°N 103°E / 35; 103
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This article is about the factors all Communist parties have in common. For a list of Communist parties of the past and present, see List of Communist parties.
For other uses, see Communist party (disambiguation).
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It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Communist front. (Discuss) Proposed since August 2011. |
| Part of the series on |
| Communism |
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Aspects
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Variants
Marxism
Leninism Marxism-Leninism Trotskyism Maoism Luxemburgism Titoism Stalinism Castroism Guevarism Hoxhaism Juche Left communism Council communism Anarchist communism Religious communism Christian communism Eurocommunism World communism Stateless communism National communism Primitive communism Scientific communism List of communist parties |
A political party described as a Communist party includes those that advocate the application of the social principles of communism through a communist form of government. The name originates from the 1848 tract Manifesto of the Communist Party by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.[1]
A Communist party is, at least according to Leninist theory, the vanguard party of the working class, whether ruling or non-ruling, but when such a party is in power in a specific country, the party is said to be the highest authority of the dictatorship of the proletariat. Lenin's theories on the role of a communist party were developed as the early 20th-century Russian social democracy divided into Bolshevik (meaning "majority") and Menshevik (meaning "minority") factions.
Vladimir Lenin, leader of the Bolsheviks, argued that a revolutionary party should be a small vanguard party with a centralized political command and a strict cadre policy; the Menshevik faction, however, argued that the party should be a broad-based mass movement. The Bolshevik party, which eventually became the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, took power in Russia after the October Revolution in 1917. With the creation of the Communist International, the Leninist concept of party building was copied by emerging communist parties worldwide.
There currently exist hundreds of communist parties throughout the world. Their success rates vary widely: some are growing; others are in decline. In four countries, Republic of Cuba; People's Republic of China; Democratic People’s Republic of Korea; and Socialist Republic of Vietnam, communist parties retain dominance over the state.
The Chinese Communist Party is the world's largest political party,[2] claiming nearly 78 million members[3] at the end of 2009 which constitutes about 5.6% of the total population of mainland China.
Mass organizations[link]
See also: Front organization and Communist front
As the membership of a communist party was to be limited to active cadres, there was a need for networks of separate organizations to mobilize mass support for the party. Typically communist parties have built up various front organizations, whose membership is often open to non-communists. In many countries the single most important front organization of the communist parties has been its youth wing. During the time of the Communist International the youth leagues were explicit communist organizations, using the name 'Young Communist League'. Later the youth league concept was broadened in many countries, and names like 'Democratic Youth League' were adopted.
Other organizations often connected to communist parties includes trade unions, student, women's, peasant's and cultural organizations. Traditionally these mass organizations were politically subordinated to the political leadership of the party. However, in many contemporary cases mass organizations founded by communists have acquired a certain degree of independence. In some cases mass organizations have outlived the communist parties in question.
At the international level, the Communist International organized various international front organizations (linking national mass organizations with each other), such as the Young Communist International, Profintern, Krestintern, International Red Aid, Sportintern, etc.. These organizations were dissolved in the process of deconstruction of the Communist International. After the Second World War new international coordination bodies were created, such as the World Federation of Democratic Youth, International Union of Students, World Federation of Trade Unions, Women's International Democratic Federation and the World Peace Council.
Historically, in countries where Communist Parties were struggling to attain state power, the formation of wartime alliances with non-communist parties and wartime groups was enacted (such as the National Liberation Front of Albania). Upon attaining state power these Fronts were often transformed into nominal (and usually electoral) "National" or "Fatherland" Fronts in which non-communist parties and organizations were given token representation (a practice known as Blockpartei), the most popular examples of these being the National Front of East Germany (as a historical example) and the United Front of the People's Republic of China (as a modern-day example). Other times the formation of such Fronts were undertaken without the participation of other parties, such as the Socialist Alliance of Working People of Yugoslavia and the National Front of Afghanistan, though the purpose was the same: to promote the Communist Party line to generally non-communist audiences and to mobilize them to carry out tasks within the country under the aegis of the Front.
Naming[link]
A uniform naming scheme for communist parties was adopted by the Communist International. All parties were required to use the name 'Communist Party of (name of country)'. Today, there are plenty of cases where the old sections of the Communist International have retained those names. In other cases names have been changed. Common causes for the shift in naming were either moves to avoid state repression[4] or as measures to indicate a broader political acceptance.
A typical example of the latter was the renamings of various East European communist parties after the Second World War, as staged 'mergers' of the local Social Democratic parties occurred.[5] New names in the post-war era included 'Socialist Party', 'Socialist Unity Party', 'Popular Party', 'Workers' Party' and 'Party of Labour'.
The naming conventions of communist parties became more diverse as the international communist movement was fragmented due to the Sino-Soviet split in the 1960s. Those who sided with China and/or Albania in their criticism of the Soviet leadership, often added words like 'Revolutionary' or 'Marxist-Leninist' to distinguish themselves from the pro-Soviet parties.
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Communist Parties |
Notes[link]
- ^ Harper, Douglas. "communism". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=communism. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ The Communist Party of China
- ^ China's communist party members near 78 mln
- ^ One such example is the Swiss Party of Labour, which was founded in 1944 to substitute the illegalized Communist Party of Switzerland.
- ^ Such mergers occurred in East Germany (Socialist Unity Party of Germany), Hungary (Hungarian Working People's Party), Poland (Polish United Workers Party) and Romania (Romanian Workers Party).
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This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
| Xi Jinping 习近平 |
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|---|---|
 |
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| First Secretary of the Central Secretariat of the Communist Party of China | |
| Incumbent | |
| Assumed office 22 October 2007 |
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| General Secretary | Hu Jintao |
| Preceded by | Zeng Qinghong |
| Vice President of the People's Republic of China | |
| Incumbent | |
| Assumed office 15 March 2008 |
|
| President | Hu Jintao |
| Preceded by | Zeng Qinghong |
| Member of the 17th CPC Politburo Standing Committee | |
| Incumbent | |
| Assumed office 22 October 2007 |
|
| General Secretary | Hu Jintao |
| Vice Chairman of the CPC Central Military Commission | |
| Incumbent | |
| Assumed office 18 October 2010 Serving with Guo Boxiong and Xu Caihou |
|
| Leader | Hu Jintao |
| President of the CPC Central Party School | |
| Incumbent | |
| Assumed office 22 December 2007 |
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| Deputy | Li Jingtian |
| Preceded by | Zeng Qinghong |
| Communist Party Secretary of Shanghai | |
| In office 15 March 2007 – 27 October 2007 |
|
| Deputy | Han Zheng |
| Preceded by | Han Zheng (Acting) |
| Succeeded by | Yu Zhengsheng |
| Personal details | |
| Born | (1953-06-01) 1 June 1953 (age 59) Beijing, China |
| Political party | Communist Party |
| Spouse(s) | Peng Liyuan |
| Children | Mingze |
| Alma mater | Tsinghua University |
| Signature |  |
| Xi Jinping | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Simplified Chinese | 习近平 | ||||||||
| Traditional Chinese | 習近平 | ||||||||
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Xi Jinping (pronounced [ɕǐ tɕînpʰǐŋ] English approx.:SHEE JIN PING; born 1 June 1953) is a high-ranking politician of the People's Republic of China. He currently serves as the top-ranked member of the Central Secretariat of the Communist Party of China, [1]the country's Vice President, Vice-Chairman of the Central Military Commission, President of the Central Party School and the 6th ranked member of the CPC Politburo Standing Committee, China's de facto top power organ.
Son of communist veteran Xi Zhongxun, Xi Jinping served mostly in Fujian province in his early career. He was later appointed party chief of the neighboring Zhejiang province, and then was appointed as Shanghai's party chief following the dismissal of Chen Liangyu. Known for his tough stance on corruption and a frank openness about political and market economy reforms,[2] Xi's combination of positions makes him the presumptive heir to current General Secretary and President Hu Jintao and the Paramount leader of the Communist Party of China's fifth generation of leadership.[3]
Contents |
Biography[link]
Early life[link]
Xi Jinping was born on June 1st, 1953 in Beijing and is, by Chinese convention, a native of Fuping County, Shaanxi. His ancestral home is at Xiying, Dengzhou of Henan.[4] He is the second son of Xi Zhongxun, one of the founders of the Communist guerrilla movement in Shaanxi Province in northern China and former Vice-Premier. At the time his father served as the head of the Communist Party's propaganda department and later Vice-Chairman of the National People's Congress. When Xi was 10, his father was purged and sent to work in a factory in Luoyang.[5] Xi was 15 when his father was jailed in 1968, during the Cultural Revolution. Without the protection of his father, Xi went to work in Yanchuan County, Yan'an, Shaanxi, in 1969 in Mao Zedong's Down to the Countryside Movement. He later became the Party branch secretary of the production team. When he left in 1975, he was only 22 years old. When asked about this experience later by state television, Xi recalled it saying, "It was emotional. It was a mood. And when the ideals of the Cultural Revolution could not be realised, it proved an illusion."[6]
From 1975 to 1979, Xi studied chemical engineering at Beijing's prestigious Tsinghua University. From 1979 to 1982 he served as secretary for his father's former subordinate Geng Biao, the then vice premier and Secretary-General of the Central Military Commission. This gained Xi some military background. In 1985 he visited the town of Muscatine, Iowa as a part of a Chinese delegation to study American agriculture.[7]
Ascent[link]
Xi joined the Communist Youth League in 1971 and the Communist Party of China in 1974.[8] In 1982 he was sent to Zhengding County in Hebei as Deputy Secretary to the CPC Zhengding County Committee, and was promoted in 1983 to Secretary of the CPC Zhengding County Committee.[9] Xi subsequently served in four provinces during his political career: Shaanxi, Hebei, Fujian and Zhejiang.
Xi held Party positions in the CPC Fuzhou Municipal Committee, and became the president of the Party School in Fuzhou in 1990. In 1999 he was promoted to the Deputy Governor of Fujian province, then became Governor a year later. While there he made efforts to attract investment from Taiwan and to boost free market economy. In February 2000 he and provincial Party Secretary Chen Mingyi were called before the top four members of the Party Central Politburo Standing Committee – General Secretary, President Jiang Zemin, Premier Zhu Rongji, Vice-President Hu Jintao and Discipline Inspection head Wei Jianxing to explain aspects of the Yuanhua scandal.[10]
In 2002 Xi took up senior government and Party positions in Zhejiang Province, and eventually took over as party chief after several months as acting Governor, becoming the first-in-charge in the economically successful coastal province. Xi was then made an alternate member of the 15th CPC Central Committee and holds the membership of the 16th CPC Central Committee, marking his ascension to the national stage. While in Zhejiang, one of China's most affluent provinces and a center of China's successful economic development, Xi provided the economic environment which secured growth rates averaging 14% per year. His career in Zhejiang was marked by tough and straightforward stance against corrupt officials, which earned him a name on the national media and drew the attention of China's top leaders.
Following the dismissal of Shanghai Party Chief Chen Liangyu in September 2006 due to a social security fund scandal, Xi was transferred to Shanghai in March 2007 to become the new Party Chief of Shanghai. Xi's appointment to one of the most important regional posts in China was clearly a sign of confidence from the Central Government. While in Shanghai he was careful not to touch any controversial issues while largely echoing the line of the central leadership. Xi's career is notable in that during his regional tenures, he was never implicated in any serious scandals, nor did he face serious political opposition.
Joining the Standing Committee and Vice-Presidency[link]
Xi's appointment to the Party Secretary post in Shanghai was seen as a stepping stone for him to become an emerging member of the fifth generation of Chinese leadership. This was solidified by his appointment as a member of the nine-man Politburo Standing Committee at the 17th Party Congress in October 2007. Xi was ranked above Li Keqiang, which made him the most likely candidate for China's next core figure – the paramount leader. In addition, Xi also held the top-ranking membership of the Communist Party's Central Secretariat. This assessment was further supported at the 11th National People's Congress, Xi was elected as Vice-President of the People's Republic of China on 15 March 2008.[11] Some suggest this was because Xi had kept friendly relations with both Hu Jintao and the other power figure in the central leadership, Zeng Qinghong.
Since his elevation Xi has held a broad range of portfolios. He was put in charge of the comprehensive preparations for the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, as well as being the central government's leading figure in Hong Kong and Macau affairs. In addition, he also became the new President of the Central Party School, the cadre-training and ideological education wing of the Communist Party. In the wake of the 2008 Sichuan Earthquake, Xi visited disaster areas in Shaanxi and Gansu. Xi made his first foreign visit after his vice presidency to visit North Korea, Mongolia, Saudi Arabia, Qatar and Yemen from 17 to 25 June 2008.[12] After the Olympics, Xi was assigned the post of Committee Chair for the preparations of the 60th Anniversary Celebrations of the founding of the People's Republic of China. He was also reportedly at the helm of a top-level Communist Party committee dubbed the 6521 Project, which was charged with ensuring social stability during a series of political sensitive anniversaries in 2009.[13]
Xi is considered to be one of the most successful members of the Crown Prince Party, a quasi-clique of politicians who are descendants of early Chinese revolutionaries. Senior leaders consider Xi to be an emerging figure that is open to serious dialogue about deep-seated market economic reforms and even political reform, although Xi's personal political views are relatively murky.[clarification needed] He is generally popular with foreign dignitaries, who are intrigued by his openness and pragmatism. Former Prime Minister of Singapore, Lee Kuan Yew, when asked about Xi, said he felt he was "a thoughtful man who has gone through many trials and tribulations."[2] Lee also commented: "I would put him in the Nelson Mandela class of persons. A person with enormous emotional stability who does not allow his personal misfortunes or sufferings affect his judgment. In other words, he is impressive".[14] Former U.S. Treasury Secretary Henry Paulson described Xi as "the kind of guy who knows how to get things over the goal line."[15]
Tours as Vice President[link]
In February 2009, in his capacity as Vice-President, Xi Jinping embarked on a Latin American foreign trip to Mexico, Jamaica, Colombia, Venezuela, and Brazil to promote Chinese ties in the region and boost the country's reputation in the wake of the global financial crisis. Xi met with Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez.
On 11 February, while visiting Mexico, Xi spoke in front of a group of overseas Chinese and explained China's contributions to the financial crisis, saying that it was "the greatest contribution towards the whole of human race, made by China, to prevent its 1.3 billion people from hunger".[16] He followed with a rather direct accusation for "foreigners" trying to interfere in Chinese affairs, a subject that has always been sensitive in Chinese political circles. In Chinese, Xi remarked: "There are some bored foreigners, with full stomachs, who have nothing better to do than point fingers at us [China]. First, China doesn't export revolution; second, China doesn't export hunger and poverty; third, China doesn't come and cause you headaches, what more is there to be said?"[17][18]
The story was reported on some local television stations. The news led to a flood of discussions on Chinese internet forums. It was reported that the Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs was caught off-guard by Xi's non-diplomatic remarks, as the actual video was shot by some accompanying Hong Kong reporters and broadcast on Hong Kong TV, which then turned up in various internet video websites.[19]
Xi has since gone on a series of foreign visits, some say to burnish his foreign affairs credentials before he takes the helm of China's leadership. Xi visited Belgium, Germany, Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania from 7 to 21 October 2009.[20] Xi visited Japan, South Korea, Cambodia and Myanmar on his Asian trip from 14 to 22 December 2009.[21]
Xi visited the United States, Ireland and Turkey in February 2012. The visit included meeting with US President Barack Obama at the White House[22] and Vice President Joe Biden, with whom he had met extensively in China in August, 2011; and stops in California and Iowa, where he met with the family which previously hosted him during his 1985 tour as a Hebei provincial official.[23] Noted as absent was a visit with Treasury Secretary Tim Geithner,[24] who has spoken critically about Chinese currency policy.[25]
Political future[link]
Xi was named as one of the most influential people in the world in the 2009, 2011 and 2012 Time 100 lists.[26] The British magazine New Statesman listed Xi Jinping at number 4 in their annual survey of "The World's 50 Most Influential Figures 2010".[27] In September 2009, at the Fourth Plenum of the 17th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, Xi Jinping was not selected as the Vice-Chairman of the Central Military Commission (CMC) as expected, raising some questions about his succession. Political analyst Cheng Li believed that Xi's failure to secure the CMC promotion was evidence that the Communist Party was developing internal checks and balances, giving way to more sophisticated mechanisms for leadership succession.[28] Xi was officially appointed to the vice-chairmanship on 18 October 2010, a position Hu Jintao once held back in 1999 before taking over the secretaryship and the presidency years later.[29][30][31][32] By 2010, it became clear that Xi would succeed Hu as General Secretary and President in 2012 and 2013 separately.[33][34]
Personal life[link]
Xi married Ke Lingling in the early 1980s. After about 3 years, they were divorced, due to personality clashes. Xi married the famous Chinese folk singer Peng Liyuan (彭丽媛) in 1987, his second marriage.[35] Peng Liyuan, a household name in China, was much better known to the public than Xi until his political elevation. The couple frequently live apart due to their largely separate lives. They are sometimes considered China's emerging star political couple. They have a daughter named Xi Mingze (习明泽),[36] who enrolled as a freshman at Harvard University in the autumn of 2010 under a pseudonym.[37]
Xi holds doctorates in chemical engineering and political science.[38]
Peng has described Xi as frugal, hardworking and down to earth. "When he comes home, I've never thought of it as though there's some leader in the house. In my eyes, he's just my husband."[39]
Xi was described in a 2011 Washington Post article by those who know him as "pragmatic, serious, cautious, hard-working, down to earth and low-key. They also say he is a problem-solver and a leader seemingly uninterested in the trappings of high office."[40] He is also known to love Hollywood films like Saving Private Ryan[41] and The Departed.[citation needed] The Guardian noted that "perhaps more surprisingly" he has also praised the independent film maker, Jia Zhangke.[42]
See also[link]
References[link]
- ^ Forbes: Xi Jinping - First Secretary of the Secretariat of the Communist Party, People's Republic of China
- ^ a b Ansfield, Jonathan (22 December 2007). "Xi Jinping: China’s New Boss And The ‘L’ Word". Newsweek. http://www.newsweek.com/id/81558. Retrieved 20 October 2010.
- ^ "deckblatt-ca-data sup-form.pdf" (PDF). http://www.giga-hamburg.de/dl/download.php?d=/content/ias/archiv/cds/cds_0905.pdf. Retrieved 20 October 2010.
- ^ zh:习仲勋
- ^ Bouée, Charles-Edouard, China's Management Revolution: Spirit, Land, Energy, (Palgrave Macmillan, 15 Dec 2010), p. 93; via Googlebooks. Retrieved 15 February 2012.
- ^ Watts, Jonathan (26 October 2007). "Most corrupt officials are from poor families but Chinese royals have a spirit that is not dominated by money". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2007/oct/26/china.uknews4. Retrieved 11 June 2008.
- ^ China's Vice-President revisits youth with a trip to the Midwest to meet farming family he stayed with on exchange trip Associated Press, 15 February 2012
- ^ Ranade, Jayadva (25 October 2010). "China's Next Chairman - Xi Jinping". Centre for Air Power Studies. https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:Zy479_jx11YJ:www.aerospaceindia.org/Issue%2520Briefs/2010/25%2520October%25202010%2520-%2520CHINA%25E2%2580%2599S%2520NEXT%2520CHAIRMAN%25E2%2580%2594XI%2520JINPING.pdf+&hl=en&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjpQjUAtfkdEgw0cxv3UMunFfoLBcy0_po2aPN4xvPoQ-K9lFpIdgtf7PAw5ebYoTd8NwaRSswzfWmws278UPehKckL3Zb0TXlci2R0HsZGceCYRpBiD6EfBrspdjUh8CZzwcMg&sig=AHIEtbRjgFp8BCiHybWUtaP2uVF8BVuVZA. Retrieved 27 May 2012.
- ^ "Xi Jinping". GlobalSecurity.org. 7 November 2011. http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/china/xi-jinping.htm.
- ^ Xiao Yu, Fujian leaders face Beijing top brass, South China Morning Post, 2000 Feb 18
- ^ "Hu Jintao reelected Chinese president", Xinhua (China Daily), 15 March 2008.
- ^ "Vice-President Xi Jinping to Visit DPRK, Mongolia, Saudi Arabia, Qatar and Yemen". Mfa.gov.cn. 5 June 2008. http://www.mfa.gov.cn/eng/wjdt/wsrc/t462294.htm. Retrieved 20 October 2010.
- ^ Michael Wines. 'China's Leaders See a Calendar Full of Anniversaries, and Trouble'. The New York Times, 9 March 2009.
- ^ "China's Nelson Mandela". Time. 19 November 2007. http://china.blogs.time.com/2007/11/19/chinas_nelson_mandela/.
- ^ Tang, Eugene (15 March 2008). "China Appoints Xi Vice President, Heir Apparent to Hu. Retrieved June 11, 2008". Bloomberg. http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601087&sid=aDpLoVnlKn6E&refer=home. Retrieved 20 October 2010.
- ^ Original: simplified Chinese: 在国际金融风暴中，中国能基本解决13亿人口吃饭的问题，已经是对全人类最伟大的贡献; traditional Chinese: 在國際金融風暴中，中國能基本解決13億人口吃飯的問題，已經是對全人類最偉大的貢獻
- ^ Original: simplified Chinese: 有些吃饱没事干的外国人，对我们的事情指手画脚。中国一不输出革命，二不输出饥饿和贫困，三不折腾你们，还有什么好说的？; traditional Chinese: 有些吃飽沒事干的外國人，對我們的事情指手畫腳。中國一不輸出革命，二不輸出飢餓和貧困，三不折騰你們，還有什麽好說的？
- ^ "AsiaOne.com: Chinese VP blasts meddlesome foreigners". News.asiaone.com. 14 February 2009. http://news.asiaone.com/News/the%2BStraits%2BTimes/Story/A1Story20090214-121872.html. Retrieved 20 October 2010.
- ^ 記者賴錦宏 (2009.02.18). "(Chinese):習近平出訪罵老外 外交部捏冷汗 Translation:Xi Jinping scored at foreigners, Ministry of foreign affairs had cold sweat". 聯合報. http://udn.com/NEWS/MAINLAND/MAI1/4742366.shtml. Retrieved 27 February 2009. [dead link]
- ^ "Vice President Xi Jinping to visit Belgium, Germany, Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania and attend Europalia Chinese Art Festival and China's Guest-of-Honor Activities in Frankfurt Book Fair". Mfa.gov.cn. 10 October 2009. http://www.mfa.gov.cn/eng/wjdt/wsrc/t619527.htm. Retrieved 20 October 2010.
- ^ Raman, B., "China's Cousin-Cousin Relations with Myanmar" # 3566, South Asia Analysis Group, 25 December 2009. Retrieved 14 February 2012.
- ^ Reuters.
- ^ Chinese Vice President Xi Jinping heads back to his favourite U.S. town 27 years after he first stayed there Daily Mail Online, 16 February 2012
- ^ Goldstein, Steve, "China’s Xi to get softballs in visit with Obama", MarketWatch, 13 February 2012. Retrieved 14 February 2012.
- ^ Ian Katz and Cheyenne Hopkins"Geithner Presses China on Currency, Seeks Support on Iran", Businessweek, 17 January 2012. Retrieved 14 February 2012.
- ^ "The 2009 Time 100". Time. 30 April 2009. http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1894410_1893847_1894213,00.html.
- ^ "4. Xi Jinping – 50 People Who Matter 2010". New Statesman. UK. http://www.newstatesman.com/international-politics/2010/09/china-jinping-chinese-jintao. Retrieved 4 October 2010.
- ^ Garnaut, John (21 September 2009). "Chinese puzzle: who is Hu's heir?". The Age (Melbourne). http://www.theage.com.au/world/chinese-puzzle-who-is-hus-heir-20090920-fwq7.html.
- ^ Demick, Barbara (19 October 2010). "Xi Jinping on track to become China's next president". Los Angeles Times. http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-china-xi-20101019,0,604801.story. Retrieved 19 October 2010.
- ^ Sainsbury, Michael (19 October 2010). "China vice-president Xi Jinping one step from the top job". The Australian. http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/world/china-vice-president-xi-jinping-one-step-from-the-top-job/story-e6frg6so-1225940438589. Retrieved 19 October 2010.
- ^ Tsang, Steve (18 October 2010). "China's succession 'arrangement'". BBC News. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-11569053. Retrieved 19 October 2010.
- ^ Fang, Yang (18 October 2010). "Xi Jinping appointed vice-chairman of Central Military Commission". Xinhua News Agency.. http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2010-10/18/c_13563001.htm. Retrieved 19 October 2010.
- ^ "The 2011 TIME 100 – Xi Jinping: Heir Apparent (04.21.2011)". TIME (US). 21 April 2011. http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2066367_2066369_2066495,00.html. Retrieved 21 August 2011.
- ^ Page, Jeremy (22 August 2011). "China Previews Rising Leadership (August 21, 2011)". Wall Street Journal (US). http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424053111904279004576522381927671592.html. Retrieved 21 August 2011.
- ^ Magnier, Mark (23 October 2007). "China's 'fifth generation' of leaders reflects nation's shifts". Los Angeles Times. http://articles.latimes.com/2007/oct/23/world/fg-chileaders23. Retrieved 21 December 2009.
- ^ "习近平 彭丽媛：携手19年 家有小女习明泽(translation:Xi Jinping and Peng Liyuan: tied the knot for 19 years, had bred a daughter named Xi Mingze)" (in (Chinese)). Xinhua News Agency. http://news.xinhuanet.com/forum/2008-07/01/content_8469002.htm.
- ^ Liu, Melinda (18 January 2011). "Can't we just be friends?". Newsweek. http://www.newsweek.com/2011/01/18/can-t-we-just-be-friends.html. Retrieved 19 January 2011.
- ^ http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2012/02/17/2003525696
- ^ . BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/in_depth/china_politics/leadership/html/6.stm.
- ^ Richburg, Keith B. (15 August 2011). "Xi Jinping, likely China’s next leader, called pragmatic, low-key". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia-pacific/xi-jinping-likely-chinas-next-leader-called-pragmatic-low-key/2011/08/15/gIQA5W83GJ_story.html.
- ^ Buckley, Chris, "China leader-in-waiting carries heavy political baggage to U.S.", Reuters, 8 February 2012. Retrieved 14 February 2012.
- ^ Branigan, Tania (13 February 2012). "The Guardian profile: Xi Jinping". The Guardian. UK. http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2012/feb/13/xi-jinping-profile-china. Retrieved 14 February 2012.
External links[link]
 |
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Xi Jinping |
- News about Xi Jinping on the China Digital Times
- Biography at www.chinavitae.com
- U.S. Embassy Beijing, Portrait of Xi Jinping, via United States diplomatic cables leak
- Osnos, Evan, "China’s Valentine’s Day in Washington", The New Yorker, 14 February 2012. Review of comment accompanying Xi's visit.
| Party political offices | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by Zhang Dejiang |
Communist Party Committee Secretary of Zhejiang 2002–2007 |
Succeeded by Zhao Hongzhu |
| Preceded by Han Zheng |
Communist Party Committee Secretary of Shanghai 2007 |
Succeeded by Yu Zhengsheng |
| Preceded by Zeng Qinghong |
First Secretary of Secretariat of the Communist Party of China 2007–present |
Incumbent |
| Political offices | ||
| Preceded by He Guoqiang |
Governor of Fujian 1999–2002 |
Succeeded by Lu Zhangong |
| Preceded by Chai Songyue |
Governor of Zhejiang Acting 2002–2003 |
Succeeded by Lü Zushan |
| Preceded by Li Zemin |
Chairperson of the People's Congress Standing Committee of Zhejiang 2003–2007 |
Succeeded by Yu Guoxing |
| Preceded by Zeng Qinghong |
Vice President of the People's Republic of China 2008–present |
Incumbent |
| Academic offices | ||
| Preceded by Zeng Qinghong |
President of the Central Party School 2007–present |
Incumbent |
|
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|
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|
|||||||||||||||||||||||
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Xi, Jinping |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | Vice President of the People's Republic of China |
| Date of birth | 1 June 1953 |
| Place of birth | Beijing, China |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
http://wn.com/Xi_Jinping
Related pages:
http://it.wn.com/Xi Jinping
http://cs.wn.com/Si Ťin-pching
http://es.wn.com/Xi Jinping
http://ru.wn.com/Си Цзиньпин
http://nl.wn.com/Xi Jinping
http://pt.wn.com/Xi Jinping
http://pl.wn.com/Xi Jinping
http://fr.wn.com/Xi Jinping
http://de.wn.com/Xi Jinping
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xi_Jinping
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
| Zhang Dejiang 张德江 |
|
|---|---|
 |
|
| Vice Premier of the People's Republic of China | |
| Incumbent | |
| Assumed office March 2008 |
|
| Premier | Wen Jiabao |
| CPC Chongqing Committee Secretary | |
| Incumbent | |
| Assumed office March 2012 |
|
| Preceded by | Bo Xilai |
| Member of the 16, 17th Central Politburo of the Communist Party of China | |
| Incumbent | |
| Assumed office November 2002 |
|
| General Secretary | Hu Jintao |
| Personal details | |
| Born | (1946-11-01) 1 November 1946 (age 65) Tai'an, Liaoning, China |
| Nationality | Chinese |
| Political party | Communist Party of China |
| Alma mater | Yanbian University Kim Il-sung University |
| Zhang Dejiang | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Traditional Chinese | 張德江 | ||||||
| Simplified Chinese | 张德江 | ||||||
|
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Zhang Dejiang (born November 1946 in Tai'an, Liaoning) is a high-ranking Chinese official. He currently serves as Vice-Premier in charge of energy, telecommunications, and transportation. He is also a member of the Communist Party of China's Politburo.
Zhang rose to prominence as the party chief of the coastal provinces of Zhejiang and Guangdong, where he presided over rapid economic growth. In March 2012 Zhang was appointed to replace Bo Xilai as the party chief of Chongqing.
Contents |
Career[link]
Rise to power[link]
Zhang rose to prominence during the era of Jiang Zemin, first in Yanbian, where he is credited with handling the issue of illegal immigration from North Korea. He was then transferred to Zhejiang in 1998. Zhang accompanied Jiang on a visit to North Korea in March 1990 and was promoted to deputy party secretary for Jilin soon after. Jiang described Yanbian under Zhang as a "model prefecture" later that year. In 1995 he was made party secretary of Jilin.[1]
Zhejiang[link]
In 1998 Zhang became party secretary of Zhejiang.[2][1] Zhang was popular among business leaders in Zhejiang due to his relatively laissez-faire attitude towards private enterprise. Zhang was known for allowing private business to operate freely, within the bounds of the law.[3]
In 2001 Zhang wrote an article attacking the idea of allowing business owners to join the Communist Party, claiming that doing so would ruin the party.[4]
Guangdong[link]
In November 2002 Zhang was transferred to Guangdong to become its party chief.[1] During his tenure in Guangdong Zhang focused on issues such as the private economy, education, and poverty alleviation.[5]
Zhang's appointment came immediately after the start of the SARS crisis. Zhang initially responded to the outbreak by restricting the flow of information to the public about SARS. While Zhang and other leaders in Guangdong were accused of mishandling SARS they were praised by the World Health Organization and the central government for controlling the spread of the virus locally and the treatment regime employed for SARS patients.[5]
During his five-year tenure, Zhang worked to integrate the economies of the Pearl River Delta.[1] Immediately after arriving in Guangdong, Zhang commissioned studies on increasing economic interdependence among Hong Kong, Macau, Guangdong, Fujian , Jiangxi , Guizhou, Sichuan, Yunnan, Hunan, Hainan, and Guangxi. [6][5][7] Critics called Pan-Pearl Delta economic integration an empty concept and alleged that Zhang was pushing the policy as a platform for future promotions. A senior journalist said, "Zhang Dejiang is like Liaoning governor Bo Xilai. Bo Xilai manipulates the media to promote himself, while Zhang Dejiang manipulates the media to promote his grandiose plans."[5]
Critics accuse Zhang of suppressing freedom of the press and the right to protest. In addition to being criticised for poor handling of the SARS outbreak Zhang was blamed for the police shooting of villagers protesting inadequate compensation for seized land in 2005. The shooting incident is believed to have led to as many as 20 deaths. [2] During Zhang's tenure controls on the press were tightened. During this period many editors left the Southern Daily and 21st Century World Herald was shuttered.[5]
While planning for Guangzhou's Education Town began in 2000, Zhang approved the project immediately after his appointment to Guangdong and construction started in 2003. Before building began thousands of police and relocation officials armed with electric truncheons, dogs, and helicopters cleared the site of 10,000 villagers. Many villagers complained of inadequate compensation. Local media outlets were banned from reporting negative news about the project and law firms refused to handle compensation cases due to their sensitive nature. Construction was completed in only nine months. Contractors working on the project complained that the completion deadline was too tight and that they could not guarantee the quality of their work. Numerous artifacts believed to date to the Western Han Dynasty were found during construction but archaeologists were usually not allowed to enter the construction site. Zhang said of the rapid progress, "It's a modern urban construction management miracle."[8] In 2004 a group of villa owners whose homes were confiscated in order to build the Guangzhou University Town threatened to sue Zhang, along with other officials, for abusing their authority. The property owners claimed that their homes were seized in order to provide premium land for property development.[9]
In 2005, Leung Kwok-hung, also known as "Long Hair," created a stir when he carried apples to Guangdong to present to Zhang as a gift. The apples were a reference to the banning of reporters from the anti-Communist Apple Daily newspaper from attending the visit of Hong Kong lawmakers to Guangdong. During the same trip, Long Hair was not allowed to present a letter to Zhang.[10] During the same trip another legislator expressed support for independent labor unions in the Mainland. Zhang responded that China would not allow independent labor unions because it did not want a Polish-style revolution.[11]
It is widely believed that Zhang owes his appointment as Guangdong party chief to Jiang Zemin but is not considered a part of the "Shanghai gang" surrounding Jiang.[1] There is speculation that Zhang was allowed to remain in power in Guangdong because he switched allegiances in favor of Hu Jintao during the leadership struggle in 2003.[5] Critics of Zhang say he obtained power through his relationships with senior leaders instead of real achievements.[4]
Vice-premier[link]
Zhang was appointed vice-premier in 2008. As vice-premier Zhang oversees China's energy, telecommunications, and transportation industries.[1][12]
During a trip to Pakistan in 2010 Zhang was awarded the Hilal-i-Pakistan by the Pakistan's president for his role in strengthening ties between the two countries.[13]
During the July 2011 Wenzhou train collision, Zhang, in his capacity as Vice-Premier in charge of transportation, was dispatched to Wenzhou to lead the search and rescue efforts on directives from President Hu Jintao and Premier Wen Jiabao.[14] Independent sources said that he set up his 'headquarters' at the Shangri-La Hotel in downtown Wenzhou, instead of at the crash scene itself. He shouldered some responsibility for the botched handling of the rescue operations.[14]
Chongqing[link]
Zhang was appointed to lead Chongqing's party committee in March 2012 following the removal of Bo Xilai as local party chief.[2] Li Yuanchao, head of the party's Organization Department, said Zhang's appointment as party secretary was made through "discreet consideration." Li said that, "Comrade Zhang Dejiang is politically competent, fair, righteous, democratic and responsible."[1]
Immediately after taking office in Chongqing, Zhang made statements to ease the concerns of the business community. Speaking to a delegation led by Wang Jen-tang, head of Taiwan's Acer Group, Zhang said, "Chongqing has achieved remarkable economic and social development since becoming a municipality [in 1997]. One valuable lesson we have learned is that we need to stick to reform and opening up." Zhang also said that Chongqing welcomed investment from overseas.[15]
Chongqing's newspapers all featured the details of Zhang's resume immediately after his appointment. During a televised government meeting Chongqing's mayor, Huang Qifan, expressed his support for Zhang. Huang was a close ally of Bo. [16] Civil servants in Chongqing were called to meetings where they were required to pledge allegiance to the municipalities new leadership. During the same meetings, officials were told to make social and political stability their top priorities.[17]
Education[link]
Zhang, a native of Tai'an in Liaoning, attended Yanbian University, where he studied the Korean language. Zhang enrolled in Kim Il-sung University in North Korea in August of 1978 and received a degree in economics in 1980.[1] Zhang's degree in economics makes him something of a rarity among the Chinese leadership.[4] His connections to North Korea and his handling of illegal immigration from that country as a local official in Jilin are believed to be key factors in his rise to power.[4]
References[link]
- ^ a b c d e f g h Mimi Lau (16 March 2012). "Zhang on the ascent as he takes Chongqing post; Conservative vice-premier appears tipped to join top ruling body after party bosses' vote of confidence". South China Morning Post.
- ^ a b c Mimi Lau, (16 Mar 2012). "Chongqing post". South China Morning Post.
- ^ Choi Chi-yuk (21 March 2012). "Waiting game for business after Bo; Chongqing entrepreneurs are keeping a close watch for any signs of policy change under new party boss before they invest any more in the municipality". South China Morning Post.
- ^ a b c d Chow Chung-yan (23 October 2007). "Zhang Dejiang: Bumpy ride in the fast lane". South China Morning Post.
- ^ a b c d e f Leu Siew Ying (6 December 2003). "Guangdong's leaders pass muster; The Sars crisis and political ambitions aside, Huang Huahua and Zhang Dejiang are getting on with the job of driving economic growth in the southern province". South China Morning Post.
- ^ Leu Siew Ying (31 May 2004). "Forum sows seeds for new powerhouse". South China Morning Post.
- ^ Gary Cheung (2 June 2004). "Guangdong will give its all for HK, Macau: party chief". South China Morning Post.
- ^ Leu Siew Ying (9 August 2004). "A hunting ground for knowledge". South China Morning Post.
- ^ Staff (26 August 2004). "Evicted college town residents threaten lawsuits". South China Morning Post.
- ^ Chow Chung-yan and Winnie Yeung (26 September 2005). "'Long Hair' keeps up the antics despite the attention of officials". South China Morning Post.
- ^ "What it meant to be back over the border". South China Morning Post. 28 September 2005.
- ^ Malcolm Moore (16 March 2012). "China forces party secretary out of office; Was in line for role on powerful Politburo". National Post.
- ^ "President confers Hilal-i-Pakistan on Chinese Vice Premier". The Balochistan Times. 9 June 2010.
- ^ a b Niu, Ben (29 July 2012). "传张德江下令停止搜救". Duowei. http://china.dwnews.com/news/2011-07-29/57953006.html. Retrieved 16 April 2012.
- ^ Teddy Ng (23 March 2012). "New Chongqing boss reassures investors; Zhang Dejiang soothes nerves in the business community after Bo Xilai's dismissal by vowing to continue with reforms and opening up". South China Morning Post.
- ^ Choi Chi-yuk (17 March 2012). "Chongqing papers print Zhang's CV". South China Morning Post.
- ^ Choi Chi-yuk (18 March 2012). "ll change after Bo's downfall; Chongqing civil servants pledge allegiance to their new leadership and prepare for major reshuffles, with the city's propaganda department a likely target". South China Morning Post.
External links[link]
- Zhang's page on Xinhua (Chinese)
| Political offices | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by He Zhukang |
CPC Jilin Committee Secretary 1995–1998 |
Succeeded by Wang Yunkun |
| Preceded by Li Zemin |
CPC Zhejiang Committee Secretary 1998–2002 |
Succeeded by Xi Jinping |
| Preceded by Li Changchun |
CPC Guangdong Committee Secretary 2002–2007 |
Succeeded by Wang Yang |
| Preceded by Bo Xilai |
CPC Chongqing Committee Secretary 2012– |
Succeeded by Incumbent |
|
||||||||||||||
|
||||||||||||||||
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Zhang, Dejiang |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | Chinese politician |
| Date of birth | 1946-11-01 |
| Place of birth | Tai'an, Liaoning, China |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
http://wn.com/Zhang_Dejiang
Related pages:
http://fr.wn.com/Zhang Dejiang
http://de.wn.com/Zhang Dejiang
http://pl.wn.com/Zhang Dejiang
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhang_Dejiang
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
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Wiki Summary
The Communist Party of China (CPC), also known as the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), is the founding and ruling political party of the People's Republic of China (PRC). Although nominally it exists alongside the United Front, a coalition of governing political parties, in practice, the CPC is the only party in the PRC, maintaining a unitary government and centralizing the state, military, and media. The legal power of the Communist Party is guaranteed by the national constitution. The current party leader is Hu Jintao, who holds the title of General Secretary of the Communist Party of China. Since becoming an institution of the state, aside from official commitment to communism and Marxism-Leninism, the party also has de facto unrecognized factions including consumerist and neoliberal figures including business people on the right who effectively support capitalism, as well as factions on the left that oppose the right in the party, and other factions.
The party was founded in July 1921 in Shanghai. After a lengthy civil war, the CPC defeated its primary rival, the Kuomintang (KMT), and assumed full control of mainland China by 1949. The Kuomintang retreated to the island of Taiwan, where it still remains to this day.
