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Americas
The Americas, or America, are lands in the Western hemisphere, also known as the New World.
In the English language, the Americas refers to the landmasses of North America and South America with their associated islands and regions, whereas America, in current usage, usually refers to the United States of America.
The Americas cover 8.3% of the Earth's total surface area (28.4% of its land area) and contain about 13.5% of the human population (about 900 million people).
The specifics of Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the exact dates and routes traveled, are subject to ongoing research and discussion. The traditional theory has been that these early migrants moved into the Beringia land bridge between eastern Siberia and present-day Alaska around 40,000–17,000 years ago, when sea levels were significantly lowered due to the Quaternary glaciation. These people are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct pleistocene megafauna along ice-free corridors that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran ice sheets. Another route proposed is that, either on foot or using primitive boats, they migrated down the Pacific Northwest coast to South America. Evidence of the latter would since have been covered by a sea level rise of hundreds of meters following the last ice age.
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Argentina
Argentina
i/ˌɑrdʒənˈtiːnə/, officially the Argentine Republic (Spanish: República Argentina [reˈpuβlika aɾxenˈtina]), is a country in South America, the continent's second largest by land area, after Brazil. It is constituted as a federation of 23 provinces and an autonomous city, Buenos Aires. It is the eighth-largest country in the world by land area and the largest among Spanish-speaking nations.
Argentina's continental area is between the Andes mountain range in the west and the Atlantic Ocean in the east. It borders Paraguay and Bolivia to the north, Brazil and Uruguay to the northeast, and Chile to the west and south. Argentine claims over Antarctica, as well as overlapping claims made by Chile and the United Kingdom, are suspended by the Antarctic Treaty of 1961. Argentina also claims the Falkland Islands (Spanish: Islas Malvinas) and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, which are administered by the United Kingdom as British Overseas Territories.
A recognised middle power, Argentina is Latin America's third-largest economy, with a "very high" rating on the Human development index. Within Latin America, Argentina has the fifth highest nominal GDP per capita and the highest in purchasing power terms. Analysts have argued that the country has a "foundation for future growth due to its market size, levels of foreign direct investment, and percentage of high-tech exports as share of total manufactured goods", and it is classed by investors as middle emerging economy. Argentina is a founding member of the United Nations, Mercosur, the Union of South American Nations, the Organization of Ibero-American States, the World Bank Group and the World Trade Organization, and is one of the G-15 and G-20 major economies.
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Bialystok
Białystok ([bʲaˈwɨstɔk] (
listen)) (Belarusian: Беласток, Biełastok) is the largest city in northeastern Poland and the capital of the Podlaskie Voivodeship. Located in the North Podlasie Lowland (pl:Nizina Północnopodlaska) on the banks of the Biała River, Białystok ranks second in terms of population density, eleventh in population, and thirteenth in area, of the cities of Poland. It has historically attracted migrants from elsewhere in Poland and beyond, particularly from Central and Eastern Europe. This is facilitated by the fact that the nearby border with Belarus is also the eastern border of the European Union, as well as the Schengen Area. The city and its adjacent municipalities constitute Metropolitan Białystok. The city has a Warm Summer Continental climate, characterized by warm summers and long frosty winters. Forests are an important part of Białystok's character, and occupy around 1,756 ha (4,340 acres) (17.2% of the administrative area of the city) which places it as the fifth most "wooded" city in Poland.
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Brazil
Brazili/brəˈzɪl/ (Portuguese: Brasil, IPA: [bɾaˈziw]), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: República Federativa do Brasil, 
listen (help·info)), is the largest country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country, both by geographical area and by population with over 192 million people. It is the only Portuguese-speaking country in the Americas and the largest lusophone country in the world.
Bounded by the Atlantic Ocean on the east, Brazil has a coastline of 7,491 km (4,655 mi). It is bordered on the north by Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname and the French overseas region of French Guiana; on the northwest by Colombia; on the west by Bolivia and Peru; on the southwest by Argentina and Paraguay and on the south by Uruguay. Numerous archipelagos form part of Brazilian territory, such as Fernando de Noronha, Rocas Atoll, Saint Peter and Paul Rocks, and Trindade and Martim Vaz. It borders all other South American countries except Ecuador and Chile.
Brazil was a colony of Portugal from the landing of Pedro Álvares Cabral in 1500 until 1815, when it was elevated to the rank of kingdom and the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves was formed. The colonial bond was in fact broken in 1808, when the capital of the Portuguese colonial empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro, after Napoleon invaded Portugal.Independence was achieved in 1822 with the formation of the Empire of Brazil, a unitary state governed under a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary system. The country became a presidential republic in 1889, when a military coup d'état proclaimed the Republic, although the bicameral legislature, now called Congress, dates back to the ratification of the first constitution in 1824. Its current Constitution, formulated in 1988, defines Brazil as a Federal Republic. The Federation is formed by the union of the Federal District, the 26 States, and the 5,564 Municipalities.
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Canada
Canada ( /ˈkænədə/) is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean. Spanning over 9,900,000 km2 (3,800,000 sq mi), Canada is the world's second-largest country by total area, and its common border with the United States is the longest land border in the world.
The land that is now Canada has been inhabited for millennia by various Aboriginal peoples. Beginning in the late 15th century, British and French colonial expeditions explored, and later settled, along the region's Atlantic coast. France ceded nearly all of its colonies in North America in 1763 after the Seven Years' War. In 1867, with the union of three British North American colonies through Confederation, Canada was formed as a federal dominion of four provinces. This began an accretion of provinces and territories and a process of increasing autonomy; the Canada Act 1982 severed the vestiges of legal dependence on Britain.
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China
China (i/ˈtʃaɪnə/; Chinese: 中国; pinyin: Zhōngguó; see also Names of China), officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is the world's most-populous country, with a population of over 1.3 billion. Covering approximately 9.6 million square kilometres, the East Asian state is the world's second-largest country by land area, and the third- or fourth-largest in total area, depending on the definition of total area.
The People's Republic of China is a single-party state governed by the Communist Party of China. It exercises jurisdiction over 22 provinces, five autonomous regions, four directly controlled municipalities (Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, and Chongqing), and two mostly self-governing special administrative regions (Hong Kong and Macau). Its capital city is Beijing. The PRC also claims Taiwan—which is controlled by the Republic of China (ROC), a separate political entity—as its 23rd province, a claim controversial due to the complex political status of Taiwan and the unresolved Chinese Civil War. The PRC government denies the legitimacy of the ROC.
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Finland
Coordinates: 65°N 27°E / 65°N 027°E / 65; 027
Finlandi/ˈfɪnlənd/ ( Finnish: Suomi; Swedish: Finland (help·info)), officially the Republic of Finland, is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of Northern Europe. It is bordered by Sweden in the west, Norway in the north and Russia in the east, while Estonia lies to its south across the Gulf of Finland.
Around 5.4 million people reside in Finland, with the majority concentrated in the southern region. It is the eighth largest country in Europe in terms of area and the most sparsely populated country in the European Union. Finland is a parliamentary republic with a central government based in Helsinki and local governments in 336 municipalities, and an autonomous region of the Åland Islands. About one million residents live in the Greater Helsinki area, which consists of Helsinki, Espoo, Kauniainen and Vantaa, and a third of the country's GDP is produced there. Other larger cities include Tampere, Turku, Oulu, Jyväskylä, Lahti and Kuopio.
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Francoist Spain
Francoist Spain refers to a period of Spanish history between 1936 and 1975 when Spain was under the authoritarian dictatorship of Francisco Franco.
The regime was formed on 1 October 1936[citation needed] by Francisco Franco and the National Defense Committee (a faction of the Spanish army rebelling against the Republic). The regime was entrenched upon the victory in the Spanish Civil War, which the regime called the Guerra de Liberación Nacional, of the rebel Nacionales coalition. Besides the internal support, Franco's rebellion had been backed from abroad by Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, while the Second Spanish Republic was backed by the Stalinist Soviet Union and Mexico.
At the end of the Spanish Civil War, according to the calculations of the regime, there were more than 270,000 men and women held in the regime's prisons and some 500,000 fled into exile. Large numbers of those captured were returned to Spain or interned in Nazi concentration camps as stateless enemies. Between six and seven thousand exiles from Spain died in Mauthausen. It has been estimated that more than 200,000 Spaniards died in the first years of the dictatorship, from 1940–42, as a result of political repression, hunger and disease related to the conflict.
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Hungary
Hungaryi/ˈhʌŋɡəri/ (Hungarian: Magyarország [ˈmɒɟɒrorsaːɡ] ( listen)) is a country, which is located in Central Europe. It is situated in the Carpathian Basin and is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine and Romania to the east, Serbia and Croatia to the south, Slovenia to the southwest and Austria to the west. The country's capital, and largest city, is Budapest. Hungary is a member of the European Union, NATO, the OECD, the Visegrád Group, and is a Schengen state. The official language is Hungarian, also known as Magyar, which is part of the Finno-Ugric group and is the most widely spoken non-Indo-European language in Europe.
Following a Celt (after c. 450 BC) and a Roman (AD 9 - c. 430) period, the foundation of Hungary was laid in the late 9th century by the Hungarian prince Árpád, whose great-grandson Saint Stephen I was crowned with a crown sent by the pope from Rome in 1000 AD. The Kingdom of Hungary lasted for 946 years, and at various points was regarded as one of the cultural centres of the Western world. After about 150 years of partial Ottoman occupation (1541–1699), Hungary was integrated into the Habsburg Monarchy, and later constituted half of the Austro-Hungarian dual monarchy (1867–1918).
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Iran
Coordinates: 32°N 53°E / 32°N 53°E / 32; 53
Iran (i/ɪˈrɑːn/ or /aɪˈræn/;Persian: ایران [ʔiˈɾɒn] ( listen)), officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (Persian: جمهوری اسلامی ایران Jomhuri-ye Eslāmi-ye Irān), is a country in Southern and Western Asia. The name "Iran", which in Persian means "Land of the Aryans", has been in use natively since the Sassanian era. It came into use internationally in 1935, before which the country was known to the Western world as Persia ( /ˈpɜrʒə/ or /ˈpɜrʃə/). Both "Persia" and "Iran" are used interchangeably in cultural contexts; however, "Iran" is the name used officially in political contexts.
The 18th-largest country in the world in terms of area at 1,648,195 km2 (636,372 sq mi), Iran has a population of around 79 million. It is a country of particular geopolitical significance owing to its location in the Middle East and central Eurasia. Iran is bordered on the north by Armenia, Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan. As Iran is a littoral state of the Caspian Sea, which is an inland sea, Kazakhstan and Russia are also Iran's direct neighbors to the north. Iran is bordered on the east by Afghanistan and Pakistan, on the south by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman, on the west by Iraq and on the northwest by Turkey. Tehran is the capital, the country's largest city and the political, cultural, commercial and industrial center of the nation. Iran is a regional power, and holds an important position in international energy security and world economy as a result of its large reserves of petroleum and natural gas. Iran has the second largest proven natural gas reserves in the world and the fourth largest proven petroleum reserves.
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Ireland
Coordinates: 53°20′N 08°00′W / 53.333°N 8°W / 53.333; -8
Ireland (pronounced [ˈaɪrlənd] ( listen); Irish: Éire [ˈeːɾʲə] ( listen); Ulster Scots: Airlann or Airlan) is an island to the northwest of continental Europe. It is the third-largest island in Europe and the twentieth-largest island on Earth. To its east is the larger island of Great Britain, from which it is separated by the Irish Sea.
Politically, Ireland is divided between the Republic of Ireland, which covers just under five-sixths of the island, and Northern Ireland, a part of the United Kingdom, which covers the remainder and is located in the northeast of the island. The population of Ireland is approximately 6.4 million. Just under 4.6 million live in the Republic of Ireland and just under 1.8 million live in Northern Ireland.
Relatively low-lying mountains surrounding a central plain epitomise Ireland's geography with several navigable rivers extending inland. The island has lush vegetation, a product of its mild but changeable oceanic climate, which avoids extremes in temperature. Thick woodlands covered the island until the 17th century. Today, it is one of the most deforested areas in Europe. There are twenty-six extant mammal species native to Ireland.
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Japan
Japan
i/dʒəˈpæn/ (Japanese: 日本 Nihon or Nippon; formally 日本国 
Nippon-koku or Nihon-koku, literally the State of Japan) is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south. The characters that make up Japan's name mean "sun-origin", which is why Japan is sometimes referred to as the "Land of the Rising Sun".
Japan is an archipelago of 6,852 islands. The four largest islands are Honshū, Hokkaidō, Kyūshū and Shikoku, together accounting for ninety-seven percent of Japan's land area. Japan has the world's tenth-largest population, with over 127 million people. The Greater Tokyo Area, which includes the de facto capital city of Tokyo and several surrounding prefectures, is the largest metropolitan area in the world, with over 30 million residents.
Archaeological research indicates that people lived in Japan as early as the Upper Paleolithic period. The first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other nations followed by long periods of isolation has characterized Japan's history. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, victory in the First Sino-Japanese War, the Russo-Japanese War and World War I allowed Japan to expand its empire during a period of increasing militarism. The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Since adopting its revised constitution in 1947, Japan has maintained a unitary constitutional monarchy with an emperor and an elected parliament called the Diet.
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Korea
Korea (/kəˈriːə/ kə-REE-ə; Korean: 한국 Hanguk [hanɡuːk] or 조선 Joseon [tɕosʌn] – (see etymology) is an East Asian region that is divided into two separate sovereign states — North Korea and South Korea. Located on the Korean Peninsula, Korea is bordered by China to the northwest, Russia to the northeast, and is separated from Japan to the east by the Korea Strait and the Sea of Japan (East Sea), and separated from Taiwan to the south by the East China Sea.
Archaeological and linguistic evidence suggest the origins of the Korean people might have been Altaic language-speaking people from south-central Siberia,[dubious – discuss] who populated ancient Korea in successive waves from the Neolithic age to the Bronze Age. The adoption of the Chinese writing system ("Hanja" in Korean) in the 2nd century BC, and Buddhism in the 4th century AD, had profound effects on the Three Kingdoms of Korea.
The Three Kingdoms of Korea was first united during the Silla dynasty under the king Munmu of Silla. The united Silla dynasty fell to Goryeo Dynasty in 935 at the end of Later Three Kingdoms of Korea era. Goryeo was a highly cultural state and created the Jikji in the 14th century, using the world's first movable metal type printing press. The Mongol invasions in the 13th century, however, greatly weakened the nation which was forced to become a tributary state. After the Mongol Empire's collapse, severe political strife followed and Goryeo was replaced by the Joseon Dynasty in 1388.
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Livingston Island
Livingston Island (historical Russian name Smolensk, 62°36′S 60°30′W / 62.6°S 60.5°W / -62.6; -60.5) is an Antarctic island in the South Shetland Islands, Western Antarctica lying between Greenwich Island and Snow Islands. This island was known to sealers as early as 1819, and the name Livingston, although of unknown derivation, has been well established in international usage since the 1820s.
Livingston is situated in the Southern Ocean 110 km (68 mi) to the northwest of Cape Roquemaurel on the Antarctic mainland, 809.4 km (503 mi) to the south-southeast of Cape Horn in South America, 820 km (510 mi) to the southeast of the Diego Ramirez Islands (the southernmost land of South America), 1,000 km (621 mi) due south of the Falkland Islands, 1,600 km (994 mi) to the southwest of South Georgia Island, and 3,000 km (1,864 mi) from the South Pole.
The island is part of the South Shetlands archipelago, an islands chain extending over 500 km (311 mi) in east-northeast to west-southwest direction, and separated from the nearby Antarctic Peninsula by Bransfield Strait, and from South America by the Drake Passage. The South Shetlands cover a total land area of 3,687 km2 (1,424 sq mi) comprising (from east to west) Clarence Island, Elephant Island, King George Island, Nelson Island, Robert Island, Greenwich Island, Livingston Island, Deception Island, Snow Island, Low Island and Smith Island, as well as numerous smaller islets and rocks.
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Mexico
Mexico (i/ˈmɛksɨkoʊ/; Spanish: México, IPA: [ˈmexiko] ( listen)), officially the United Mexican States (Spanish: Estados Unidos Mexicanos (help·info)), is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States of America; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of Mexico. Covering almost two million square kilometres (over 760,000 sq mi), Mexico is the fifth largest country in the Americas by total area and the thirteenth largest independent nation in the world. With an estimated population of over 113 million, it is the eleventh most populous country and the most populous Spanish-speaking country. Mexico is a federation comprising thirty-one states and a Federal District, the capital city.
In Pre-Columbian Mexico many cultures matured into advanced civilizations such as the Olmec, the Toltec, the Teotihuacan, the Zapotec, the Maya and the Aztec before the first contact with Europeans. In 1521, Spain conquered and colonized the territory from its base in México-Tenochtitlan, which was administered as the Viceroyalty of New Spain. This territory would eventually become Mexico as the colony's independence was recognized in 1821. The post-independence period was characterized by economic instability, the Mexican-American War and territorial cession to the United States, a civil war, two empires and a domestic dictatorship. The latter led to the Mexican Revolution in 1910, which culminated with the promulgation of the 1917 Constitution and the emergence of the country's current political system. Elections held in July 2000 marked the first time that an opposition party won the presidency from the Institutional Revolutionary Party.
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Nazi Germany
The Third Reich, also Nazi Germany, is the common name for Germany when it was a totalitarian state ruled by Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP). On 30 January 1933 Hitler became chancellor of Germany, quickly eliminating all opposition to rule as sole leader. The state idolized Hitler as its Führer ("leader"), centralizing all power in his hands. Historians have emphasized the hypnotic effect of his rhetoric on large audiences, and of his eyes in small groups. Kessel writes, "Overwhelmingly...Germans speak with mystification of Hitler's 'hypnotic' appeal..." Under the "leader principle", the Führer's word was above all other laws. Top officials reported to Hitler and followed his policies, but they had considerable autonomy. The government was not a coordinated, cooperating body, but rather a collection of factions struggling to amass power and curry favor with the Führer. In the midst of the Great Depression, the Nazi government restored prosperity and ended mass unemployment using heavy military spending and a mixed economy of free-market and central-planning practices. Extensive public works were undertaken, including the construction of the Autobahns. The return to prosperity gave the regime enormous popularity; the suppression of all opposition made Hitler's rule mostly unchallenged.
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Neutral Moresnet
Neutral Moresnet was a tiny Belgian-Prussian condominium that existed from 1816 to 1920 between present-day Belgium and Germany. Prior to Belgian independence in 1830, the territory was a Dutch-Prussian condominium. During the First World War, the territory was annexed into Prussia, although the allies did not recognise the annexation.
The former territory is now in the Belgian city of Kelmis. Today, it is especially of interest to Esperantists because of initiatives to found an Esperanto-speaking state on the territory in the early 20th century.
After the demise of Napoleon's Empire, the Congress of Vienna of 1814/1815 redrew the European map, aiming at creating a balance of power. One of the borders to be delineated was the one between the newly-founded United Kingdom of the Netherlands and the Kingdom of Prussia. Both parties could agree on the larger part of the territory, as borders mostly followed older lines, but the district of Moresnet proved problematic, mainly because of the valuable zinc spar mine called Altenberg (German) or Vieille Montagne (French) located there. Both the Netherlands and Prussia were keen to appropriate this resource, which was needed in the processing of zinc and brass - at that time, Bristol in England was the only other place where zinc was processed.
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Nigeria
Nigeriai/naɪˈdʒɪəriə/, officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a federal constitutional republic comprising 36 states and its Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. The country is located in West Africa and shares land borders with the Republic of Benin in the west, Chad and Cameroon in the east, and Niger in the north. Its coast in the south lies on the Gulf of Guinea on the Atlantic Ocean. The three largest and most influential ethnic groups in Nigeria are the Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba.
In terms of religion Nigeria is roughly split half and half between Muslims in the North and Christians in the South; a very small minority practice traditional religion. Since 2002 there have been a spate of clashes, particularly in the North of the country, between government forces and the Islamists Boko Haram, militant jihadists who seek to establish sharia law.
The people of Nigeria have an extensive history. Archaeological evidence shows that human habitation of the area dates back to at least 9000 BCE. The area around the Benue and Cross River is thought to be the original homeland of the Bantu migrants who spread across most of central and southern Africa in waves between the 1st millennium BC and the 2nd millennium.
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San Marino
San Marino, officially the Republic of San Marino (i/sæn məˈriːnoʊ/ san-mə-REE-noh; Italian: Repubblica di San Marino) and also known as the Most Serene Republic of San Marino (Italian: Serenissima Repubblica di San Marino), is a state situated on the Italian Peninsula on the eastern side of the Apennine Mountains. It is an enclave surrounded by Italy. Its size is just over 61 km2 (24 sq mi) with an estimated population of over 30,000. Its capital is the City of San Marino. San Marino has the smallest population of all the members of the Council of Europe.
San Marino is the oldest surviving sovereign state and constitutional republic in the world, as the continuation of the monastic community founded on 3 September 301, by stonecutter Marinus of Rab. Legend has it that Marinus left Rab, then the Roman colony of Arba, in 257 when the future emperor, Diocletian, issued a decree calling for the reconstruction of the city walls of Rimini, which had been destroyed by Liburnian pirates.
The constitution of San Marino, enacted in 1600, is the world's oldest constitution still in effect. The country's economy mainly relies on finance, industry, services and tourism. It is one of the wealthiest countries in the world in terms of GDP (per capita), with a figure comparable to some of the more developed Italian regions, such as Lombardy and Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol. San Marino is considered to have a highly stable economy, with one of the lowest unemployment rates in Europe, no national debt and a budget surplus.
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Scotland
Scotland (Scottish Gaelic: Alba ([ˈalˠ̪apə] listen (help·info))) is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain, it shares a border with England to the south and is bounded by the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the southwest. In addition to the mainland, Scotland constitutes over 790 islands including the Northern Isles and the Hebrides.
Edinburgh, the country's capital and second largest city, is one of Europe's largest financial centres. Edinburgh was the hub of the Scottish Enlightenment of the 18th century, which transformed Scotland into one of the commercial, intellectual and industrial powerhouses of Europe. Glasgow, Scotland's largest city, was once one of the world's leading industrial cities and now lies at the centre of the Greater Glasgow conurbation. Scottish waters consist of a large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union. This has given Aberdeen, the third largest city in Scotland, the title of Europe's oil capital.
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Soviet Union
The Soviet Union (Russian: Советский Союз, tr. Sovetsky Soyuz), officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR; Russian: Сою́з Сове́тских Социалисти́ческих Респу́блик, tr. Soyuz Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik; IPA: [sɐˈjus sɐˈvʲetskʲɪx sətsɨəlʲɪˈstʲitɕɪskʲɪx rʲɪsˈpublʲɪk] ( listen); abbreviated СССР, SSSR), was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991.
The Soviet Union was a single-party state ruled by the Communist Party from its foundation until 1990. A union of 15 subnational Soviet republics, the Soviet state was structured under a highly centralized government and economy.
The Russian Revolution of 1917 caused the downfall of the Russian Empire. Following the Russian Revolution, there was a struggle for power between the Bolshevik party, led by Vladimir Lenin, and the anti-communist White movement. In December 1922, the Bolsheviks won the civil war, and the Soviet Union was formed with the merger of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic and the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic.
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Togo
Togo, officially the Togolese Republici/ˈtoʊɡoʊ/, is a country in West Africa bordered by Ghana to the west, Benin to the east, and Burkina Faso to the north. It extends south to the Gulf of Guinea, on which the capital Lomé is located. Togo covers an area of approximately 57,000 square kilometres (22,000 sq mi) with a population of approximately 6.7 million.
Togo is a tropical, sub-Saharan nation, highly dependent on agriculture, with a climate that provides good growing seasons. The official language is French, with many other languages spoken in Togo, particularly those of the Gbe family. The largest religious group in Togo are those with indigenous beliefs, and there are significant Christian and Muslim minorities. Togo is a member of the United Nations, African Union, Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone, La Francophonie and Economic Community of West African States.
From the 11th to the 16th century, various tribes entered the region from all directions. From the 16th century to the 18th century, the coastal region was a major trading centre for Europeans in search of slaves, earning Togo and the surrounding region the name "The Slave Coast". In 1884, Germany declared Togoland a protectorate. After World War I, rule over Togo was transferred to France. Togo gained its independence from France in 1960.
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United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK, or Britain) is a sovereign state located off the north-western coast of continental Europe. The country includes the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland and many smaller islands. Northern Ireland is the only part of the UK that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. Apart from this land border the UK is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea, the English Channel and the Irish Sea.
The United Kingdom is a unitary state governed under a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary system, with its seat of government in the capital city of London. It is a country in its own right and consists of four countries: England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales. There are three devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in Belfast, Edinburgh and Cardiff, the capitals of Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales. Associated with the UK, but not constitutionally part of it, are three Crown Dependencies. The United Kingdom has fourteen overseas territories. These are remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in 1922, encompassed almost a quarter of the world's land surface and was the largest empire in history. British influence can still be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former territories.
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Warsaw
Warsaw (Polish: Warszawa [varˈʂava] ( listen); see also other names) is the capital and largest city of Poland. It is located on the Vistula River, roughly 260 kilometres (160 mi) from the Baltic Sea and 300 kilometres (190 mi) from the Carpathian Mountains. Its population in 2010 was estimated at 1,716,855 residents with a greater metropolitan area of 2,631,902 residents, making Warsaw the 10th most populous city proper in the European Union. The area of the city covers 516.9 square kilometres (199.6 sq mi), while the city's agglomeration covers 6,100.43 square kilometres (2,355.39 sq mi).
Warsaw is an Alpha- global city, a major international tourist destination and an important economic hub in Central Europe. It is also known as the "phoenix city" because it has survived many wars throughout its history. Most notably, the city had to be painstakingly rebuilt after the extensive damage it suffered from World War II, during which 80% of its buildings were destroyed. On 9 November 1940 the city was awarded Poland's highest military decoration for heroism, the Virtuti Militari, for the Siege of Warsaw (1939).
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Warsaw ghetto
The Warsaw Ghetto (pol. "Getto Warszawskie" ) was the largest of all Jewish Ghettos in Nazi-occupied Europe during World War II. It was established in the Polish capital between October and November 15, 1940, in the territory of General Government of the German-occupied Poland, with over 400,000 Jews from the vicinity residing in an area of 1.3 square miles (3.4 km2). From there, about 254,000 Ghetto residents were sent to Treblinka extermination camp during the three months of summer 1942.
The sheer death-toll among the Jewish inhabitants of the Ghetto during the Großaktion Warschau would have been difficult to compare even with the liquidation of the Ghetto in spring of next year during and after the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising which meant annihilation of an additional 50,000 people followed by the actual razing of the ghetto. With the inclusion of the Ghetto falling at least 300,000 Polish Jews lost their lives there.
The Warsaw Ghetto was established by the German Governor-General Hans Frank on October 16, 1940. Frank ordered Jews in Warsaw and its suburbs rounded up and herded into the Ghetto. At this time, the population in the Ghetto was estimated to be 400,000 people, about 30% of the population of Warsaw; however, the size of the Ghetto was about 2.4% of the size of Warsaw.
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1462 Zamenhof
1462 Zamenhof is an asteroid in the asteroid belt discovered by the Finnish astronomer and physicist Yrjö Väisälä on February 6, 1938. It has a diameter of 25.82 km and geometric albedo of 0.1268. It is named for L. L. Zamenhof, ophthalmologist and creator of the constructed language, Esperanto.
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Ayatollah Khomeini
Sayyed Ruhollah Musavi Khomeini (روحاللّه مصطفوی موسوی خمینی, Persian pronunciation: [ruːholˈlɑːhe muːsæˈviːje xomeiˈniː], 22 or 24 September 1902 – 3 June 1989) was an Iranian religious leader and politician, and leader of the 1979 Iranian Revolution which saw the overthrow of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, the Shah of Iran. Following the revolution, Khomeini became the country's Supreme Leader — a position created in the constitution as the highest ranking political and religious authority of the nation – until his death.
Khomeini was a marja ("source of emulation") in Twelver Shi'a Islam, author of more than forty books, but is primarily known for his political activities. He spent more than 15 years in exile for his opposition to the last Shah. In his writings and preachings he expanded the Shi'a Usuli theory of velayat-e faqih, the "guardianship of the jurisconsult (clerical authority)" to include theocratic political rule by the Islamic jurists. This principle (though not known to the wider public before the revolution) was installed in the new Iranian constitution after being put to a referendum.
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Baldur Ragnarsson
Baldur Ragnarsson (born 25 August 1930) is an Icelandic poet and author of Esperanto works. He was a teacher and a superintendent of schools in Iceland.
He learned Esperanto at school in 1949 and has been active in the movement to promote the use of this language since 1952.
Ragnarsson was president of the Icelandic Esperanto Association for many years. He presided over the World Esperanto Association's literary contest from 1975 to 1985. He was president of the organizing committee for the 1977 World Esperanto Congress at Reykjavík and vice-president of the UEA in charge of culture and education from 1980 to 1986. He has since then been an honorary member of this organization.
A Member of the Esperanto Academy since 1979, he was editor of the journal Norda Prismo from 1958 to 1974.
In 2007 the Association of Esperanto-speaking authors (Esperantlingva Verkista Asocio) nominated him as their candidate for the Nobel Prize in Literature following the death of William Auld in 2006.
Ragnarsson has composed poetic works in Icelandic as well as books on the Icelandic language. He has also written two celebrated collections of Esperanto poems: Ŝtupoj sen nomo and Esploroj.
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Charlie Chaplin
Sir Charles Spencer "Charlie" Chaplin, KBE (16 April 1889 – 25 December 1977) was an English comic actor, film director and composer best known for his work during the silent film era. He became the most famous film star in the world before the end of World War I. Chaplin used mime, slapstick and other visual comedy routines, and continued well into the era of the talkies, though his films decreased in frequency from the end of the 1920s. His most famous role was that of The Tramp, which he first played in the Keystone comedy Kid Auto Races at Venice in 1914. From the April 1914 one-reeler Twenty Minutes of Love onwards he was writing and directing most of his films, by 1916 he was also producing them, and from 1918 he was even composing the music for them. With Mary Pickford, Douglas Fairbanks and D. W. Griffith, he co-founded United Artists in 1919.
Chaplin was one of the most creative and influential personalities of the silent-film era. He was influenced by his predecessor, the French silent film comedian Max Linder, to whom he dedicated one of his films. His working life in entertainment spanned over 75 years, from the Victorian stage and the music hall in the United Kingdom as a child performer, until close to his death at the age of 88. His high-profile public and private life encompassed both adulation and controversy. Chaplin was identified with left-wing politics during the McCarthy era and he was ultimately forced to resettle in Europe from 1952.
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China
China (i/ˈtʃaɪnə/; Chinese: 中国; pinyin: Zhōngguó; see also Names of China), officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is the world's most-populous country, with a population of over 1.3 billion. Covering approximately 9.6 million square kilometres, the East Asian state is the world's second-largest country by land area, and the third- or fourth-largest in total area, depending on the definition of total area.
The People's Republic of China is a single-party state governed by the Communist Party of China. It exercises jurisdiction over 22 provinces, five autonomous regions, four directly controlled municipalities (Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, and Chongqing), and two mostly self-governing special administrative regions (Hong Kong and Macau). Its capital city is Beijing. The PRC also claims Taiwan—which is controlled by the Republic of China (ROC), a separate political entity—as its 23rd province, a claim controversial due to the complex political status of Taiwan and the unresolved Chinese Civil War. The PRC government denies the legitimacy of the ROC.
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Claude Piron
Claude Piron (26 February 1931 – 22 January 2008) was a psychologist and a translator for the United Nations (from Chinese, English, Russian and Spanish into French) from 1956 to 1961.
After leaving the UN, he worked the world over for the World Health Organization.
He was a prolific author of Esperanto works. He spoke Esperanto from childhood and used it in Japan, the People's Republic of China, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, in Africa and Latin America, and in nearly all the countries of Europe.
In some of his books, he used the pseudonym Johán Valano.
Piron was a psychotherapist and taught from 1973 to 1994 in the psychology department at the University of Geneva in Switzerland. His French-language book Le défi des langues — Du gâchis au bon sens (The Language Challenge: From Chaos to Common Sense, 1994) is a kind of psychoanalysis of international communication. A Portuguese version, O desafio das linguas, was published in 2002 (Campinas, São Paulo, Pontes).
In a lecture on the current system of international communication Piron argued that "Esperanto relies entirely on innate reflexes" and "differs from all other languages in that you can always trust your natural tendency to generalize patterns... The same neuropsychological law...—called by Jean Piaget generalizing assimilation—applies to word formation as well as to grammar."
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Edmond Privat
Edmond Privat (17 August 1889 - August 28, 1962) was a Francophone Swiss Esperantist. A historian, university professor, author, journalist and peace activist, he was a graduate of the University of Geneva and a lecturer for the World Peace Foundation. His collective works consist of original dramas, poems, stories, textbooks and books about the Esperanto movement.
Having already learned Esperanto in childhood, Privat and fellow student Hector Hodler founded in 1903 the journal Juna Esperantisto (The Young Esperantist). Though still an adolescent in 1905, he walked 600 kilometres to participate in the first World Congress of Esperanto in Boulogne-sur-Mer, France, where he spoke with mature eloquence.
At the 1907 International Socialist Congress, Privat advocated the use of Esperanto by the International Socialist Bureau in Brussels. Privat served as a committee member of the World Esperanto Association (in Esperanto "UEA: Universala Esperanto-Asocio") beginning in 1912. From 1920 until 1934, he was editor-in-chief of Esperanto's eponymous official magazine. From 1924 until 1938 he was president of the UEA and at the same time president of the International Central Committee. He resigned after a scandal. Privat advanced the international Esperanto organization inside and outside UEA.
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Esperantist
An Esperantist is a person who speaks or uses Esperanto. Etymologically, an Esperantist is someone who hopes (from Esperanto esperanto "a hoping one", "someone who hopes", from esperi "to hope"). Although definitions of "Esperantist" vary, according to the Declaration of Boulogne, a document agreed at the first World Congress of Esperanto, an Esperantist is someone who speaks Esperanto and uses it for any purpose. An Esperantist is also a person who participates in Esperanto culture.
This page has been translated from the article fr:Espérantiste on the French wikipedia, accessed on June 13, 2006.
Information on William Thomas Stead from the Esperanto Vikipedio article.
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Fritz Lang
Friedrich Christian Anton "Fritz" Lang (December 5, 1890 – August 2, 1976) was an Austrian-American filmmaker, screenwriter, and occasional film producer and actor. One of the best known émigrés from Germany's school of Expressionism, he was dubbed the "Master of Darkness" by the British Film Institute. His most famous films are the groundbreaking Metropolis (the world's most expensive silent film at the time of its release) and M, made before he moved to the United States, his iconic precursor to the film noir genre.
Lang was born in Vienna as the second son of Anton Lang (1860–1940), an architect and construction company manager, and his wife Pauline "Paula" Lang née Schlesinger (1864–1920). Fritz Lang himself was baptized on 28 December 1890 at the Schottenkirche in Vienna.
Lang's parents were of Moravian[citation needed] descent and practicing Roman Catholics. His mother was born Jewish, but had converted to Catholicism when Fritz was ten. His mother took this conversion seriously and was dedicated to raising Fritz as a Catholic. Lang never had an interest in his Jewish heritage and identified himself as Catholic. Although he was not a particularly devout Catholic, he "regularly used Catholic images and themes [in] his films".
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Gaston Waringhien
Gaston Waringhein (July 20, 1901 - December 20, 1991) was a French linguist, lexicographer, and Esperantist. He wrote poems as well as essays and books on linguistics. He was chairman of the Akademio de Esperanto.
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Germanic languages
The Germanic languages constitute a sub-branch of the Indo-European (IE) language family. The common ancestor of all of the languages in this branch is called Proto-Germanic (also known as Common Germanic), which was spoken in approximately the mid-1st millennium BC in Iron Age northern Europe. Proto-Germanic, along with all of its descendants, is characterized by a number of unique linguistic features, most famously the consonant change known as Grimm's law. Early varieties of Germanic enter history with the Germanic peoples moving south from northern Europe in the 2nd century BC, to settle in north-central Europe.
The most widely spoken Germanic languages are English and German, with approximately 300–400 million and over 100 million native speakers respectively. They belong to the West Germanic family. The West Germanic group also includes other major languages, such as Dutch with 23 million and Afrikaans with over 6 million native speakers;. The North Germanic languages include Norwegian, Danish, Swedish, Icelandic, and Faroese, which have a combined total of about 20 million speakers. The SIL Ethnologue lists 53 different Germanic languages.
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Harry Harrison
Harry Harrison (born March 12, 1925) is an American science fiction author best known for his character the Stainless Steel Rat and the novel Make Room! Make Room! (1966), the basis for the film Soylent Green (1973). He is also (with Brian Aldiss) co-president of the Birmingham Science Fiction Group.
Before becoming an editor, Harrison started in the science fiction field as an illustrator, notably with EC Comics' two science fiction comic books, Weird Fantasy and Weird Science. He has used house names such as Wade Kaempfert and Philip St. John to edit magazines, and has published other fictions under the names Felix Boyd, Leslie Charteris, and Hank Dempsey (but see Personal Life below). Harrison also wrote for syndicated comic strips, creating the Rick Random character. Harrison is now much better known for his writing, particularly his humorous and satirical science fiction, such as the Stainless Steel Rat series and the novel Bill, the Galactic Hero (which satirises Robert A. Heinlein's Starship Troopers).
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Helmar Frank
Helmar Gunter Frank, born February 19, 1933, is a German mathematician and pedagogist. He was among the first scientists to apply mathematical methods in teaching and psychology.[citation needed] He established a method to measure intelligence on an absolute and homogeneous scale rather than by comparison between individuals.
Frank got his PhD from the University of Stuttgart in 1959, working on the principles of an informational esthetics. From 1961 to 1963 he was a member of the research group on "learning automata" at the University of Karlsruhe. In 1963 he was appointed professor for informational sciences (later cybernetics) at the Pädagogische Hochschule Berlin (being the youngest full professor in Germany, with an age of 30) and established the Institute of Cybernetics.
In 1972 he became one of the founders of the University of Paderborn where he continued his work on a cybernetic theory of psychology and pedagogy. In 1985 he founded, together with Reinhard Selten, Ivo Lapenna, Fabrizio Pennacchietti, Humphrey Tonkin, and others, the Akademio Internacia de la Sciencoj San Marino (AIS), an international academy of sciences. He was its president until December 2007.
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Hitler
Adolf Hitler (German: [ˈadɔlf ˈhɪtlɐ] ( listen); 20 April 1889 – 30 April 1945) was an Austrian-born German politician and the leader of the National Socialist German Workers Party (German: Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (NSDAP), commonly referred to as the Nazi Party). He was chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945 and dictator of Nazi Germany (as Führer und Reichskanzler) from 1934 to 1945. Hitler is commonly associated with the rise of fascism in Europe, World War II, and the Holocaust.
A decorated veteran of World War I, Hitler joined the German Workers' Party, precursor of the Nazi Party, in 1919, and became leader of the NSDAP in 1921. In 1923, he attempted a coup d'état, known as the Beer Hall Putsch, in Munich. The failed coup resulted in Hitler's imprisonment, during which time he wrote his memoir, Mein Kampf (My Struggle). After his release in 1924, Hitler gained popular support by attacking the Treaty of Versailles and promoting Pan-Germanism, antisemitism, and anticommunism with charismatic oratory and Nazi propaganda. After his appointment as chancellor in 1933, he transformed the Weimar Republic into the Third Reich, a single-party dictatorship based on the totalitarian and autocratic ideology of Nazism. His aim was to establish a New Order of absolute Nazi German hegemony in continental Europe.
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Humphrey Tonkin
Humphrey R. Tonkin (born December 2, 1939) is professor of English, president emeritus of the University of Hartford in Connecticut, and a dedicated Esperantist. Born in Truro, UK, Tonkin is a dual citizen of the U.K. and the U.S. He earned his undergraduate degree from Cambridge University and his PhD from Harvard University. His academic specialities include the English Renaissance and Edmund Spenser, as well as language use and international languages.
As a professor of the University of Pennsylvania, Tonkin in 1970 received the Lindback Award for Distinguished Teaching. In 1974 he was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship for a research year at Oxford University. The years 1980-81 he spent as a guest professor at Columbia University; in 1983 he became president of the Potsdam College of the State University of New York. From 1989 he was president of the University of Hartford. In 2006 he received the Cassandra Pyle Award for Leadership and Collaboration in International Education and Exchange. He currently teaches Shakespeare and Development of Theatre at the University of Hartford's Hartt School.
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Jack T. Chick
Jack Thomas Chick (born April 13, 1924) is an American publisher, writer, and comic book artist of fundamentalist Christian tracts and comic books. His comics have been described by the Los Angeles Magazine as "equal parts hate literature and fire-and-brimstone sermonizing".
Chick's company, Chick Publications, claims to have sold over 750 million tracts,comics tracts, videos, books, and posters designed to promote Protestant evangelism from a Christian fundamentalist point of view. Many of these are controversial, as they accuse Roman Catholics, Freemasons, Muslims and many other groups of murder and conspiracies, while Chick maintains his views are simply politically incorrect.
His views have been spread worldwide, mostly through the tracts and now online. They have been translated into more than 100 languages. As evidenced from his writings and publications, Chick is an Independent Baptist who follows a dispensational premillennialist view of the end times. He is an ardent believer in the King James Only movement, which posits that every English translation of the Bible more recent than 1611 promotes heresy or immorality.
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Jean Forge
Jan Fethke (26 February 1903 – 16 December 1980) was a German-Polish film director and, under the pen name Jean Forge, a successful author. He also was a famous proponent of the language Esperanto.
Born in Oppeln, Silesia, Jan Fethke attended Oppeln's grammar school. Together with his brothers Stefan and Edmond, Fethke learned Esperanto in 1919, when aged sixteen. After leaving grammar school, he edited the periodical Esperanto Triumfonta for several years.
Between 1923 and 1924 studied at Technical University of Danzig and worked for a local newspaper before moving to Berlin.
In 1921, aged 18, he penned his first novel, the German language Der ausgestopfte Papagei ("The stuffed parrot"). After 1923, he wrote his novels in Esperanto and used the pseudonym Jean Forge. His most important Esperanto works are Abismoj (Abysses, 1923), Saltego trans jarmiloj ("A leap across the millennia", 1924) and Mr. Tot Aĉetas Mil Okulojn ("Mr. Tot buys a thousand eyes", 1931), which have been translated into several languages. His books were inventive, rich in ideas, and a witty representative of enjoyable light literature with a talent for psychological observation and a precise knowledge of effects.
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Jean Piaget
Jean Piaget (French pronunciation: [ʒɑ̃ pjaʒɛ]; 9 August 1896 – 16 September 1980) was a French-speaking Swiss developmental psychologist and philosopher known for his epistemological studies with children. He was the eldest son of Arthur Piaget (Swiss) and Rebecca Jackson (French). His theory of cognitive development and epistemological view are together called "genetic epistemology".
Piaget placed great importance on the education of children. As the Director of the International Bureau of Education, he declared in 1934 that "only education is capable of saving our societies from possible collapse, whether violent, or gradual."
Piaget created the International Center for Genetic Epistemology in Geneva in 1955 and directed it until 1980. According to Ernst von Glasersfeld, Jean Piaget is "the great pioneer of the constructivist theory of knowing."
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John C. Wells
John Christopher Wells (born 11 March 1939 in Bootle, Merseyside) is a British phonetician and Esperanto teacher. Wells is a professor emeritus at University College London, where until his retirement in 2006 he held the departmental chair in phonetics.
His father was originally from South Africa, and his mother was English; he has two younger brothers. After a childhood in poverty, he studied languages and taught himself Gregg Shorthand. Having learned Welsh, he was interviewed in Welsh on radio; he has a reasonable knowledge of ten different languages. He was apparently approached by the Home Office to work on speaker identification but turned down the offer as it was still considered unacceptable to be homosexual at the time, and he feared that the security check would make his homosexuality public.
Wells earned his BA at Cambridge, and his MA and Ph.D. at London.
He is well known for his book and cassette Accents of English, the book and CD The Sounds of the IPA, Lingvistikaj Aspektoj de Esperanto, and the Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. He is the author of the most widely used English-Esperanto dictionary.
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Joseph Stalin
Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin (Russian: Иосиф Виссарионович Сталин; born Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili, Russian: Иосиф Виссарионович Джугашвили; 18 December 1878 – 5 March 1953) was the Premier of the Soviet Union from 6 May 1941 to 5 March 1953. He was among the Bolshevik revolutionaries who brought about the October Revolution in Russia in 1917 and later held the position of General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union's Central Committee from 1922 until his death in 1953. While the office of the General Secretary was officially elective and not initially regarded as the top position in the Soviet state, Stalin managed to use it to consolidate more and more power in his hands after the death of Vladimir Lenin in 1924 and gradually put down all opposition groups within the Communist Party. This included Leon Trotsky, a socialist theorist and the principal critic of Stalin among the early Soviet leaders, who was exiled from the Soviet Union in 1929. Whereas Trotsky was an exponent of permanent revolution, it was Stalin's concept of socialism in one country that became the primary focus of Soviet politics.
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Julio Baghy
Julio Baghy (13 January 1891, Szeged – 18 March 1967, Budapest) was a Hungarian actor and one of the leading authors of the Esperanto movement. He is the author of several famous novels but it is particularly in the field of poetry that he proved his mastery of Esperanto.
Baghy was born into a theatrical family — his father was an actor, and his mother a stage prompter. He began learning Esperanto in 1911. He started work as an actor and theatre manager, but the First World War intervened and took him out of his home country for six years.
He was captured and made a prisoner of war in Siberia. It was during this time that he began to work for the Esperanto movement, writing poetry and teaching the language to his fellow inmates.
Baghy wrote two books on the subject of captivity in Siberia: Viktimoj (Victims, 1925), and Sur Sanga Tero (On Bloody Soil, 1933), republished together as a single volume in 1971. His satirical novel Hura! (Hooray!, 1930) was somewhat less of a success. Its sequel Insulo de Espero (Island of Hope) was lost during the war.
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Kazimierz Bein
Kazimierz Bein (1872 – June 15, 1959) was a Polish ophthalmologist, the founder and sometime director of the Warsaw Ophthalmic Institute (Warszawski Instytut Oftalmiczny).
He was also, for a time, a prominent Esperanto author, translator and activist, until in 1911 he suddenly, without explanation, abandoned the Esperanto movement. Bein became at least as well known for his involvement with Esperanto as for his medical accomplishments, and as much for the manner in which he left the Esperanto movement as for what he had accomplished within it. Among Esperantists, he is commonly known by his pseudonym, Kabe.
As a young man, Bein participated in the Polish movement for independence from Russia, for which he was exiled for several years; thus he was forced to finish his medical training in Kazan. Bein authored many technical books and articles, and founded the Warsaw Ophthalmic Institute and the Polish Ophthalmological Society. He was also a noted amateur photographer.
Bein was among the earliest adopters of Esperanto, the international language that had been created by a fellow Polish ophthalmologist, Ludwik Zamenhof. Bein became an eminent pioneer of Esperanto prose, writing under the pseudonym, "Kabe," an abbreviation of his actual name (and also the Polish pronunciation of his initials, "K.B."). In 1904 he gained fame with his translation of a 1900 novel by Wacław Sieroszewski, Dno nędzy (The Depths of Misery; Esperanto title: Fundo de l' Mizero).
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Krzysztof Penderecki
Krzysztof Penderecki (Polish pronunciation: [ˈkʂɨʂtɔf pɛndɛˈrɛt͡skʲi] (Krzysztof Eugeniusz Penderecki), born November 23, 1933 in Dębica) is a Polish composer and conductor. His 1960 avant-garde Threnody to the Victims of Hiroshima for string orchestra brought him to international attention, and this success was followed by acclaim for his choral St. Luke Passion. Both these works exhibit novel compositional techniques. Since the 1970s Penderecki's style has changed to encompass a post-Romantic idiom.
He has won prestigious awards including Grammy Awards in 1987 and 1998 and 2001, and the Grawemeyer Award for Music Composition in 1992. He has been called Poland's greatest living composer.
As well as the works already mentioned, his compositions include four operas, eight symphonies and other orchestral pieces, a variety of instrumental concertos, choral settings of mainly religious texts, as well as chamber and instrumental works.
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L. L. Zamenhof
Ludwig Lazarus Zamenhof ( /ˈzɑːmɨnhɒf/; born Leyzer Leyvi Zamengov; December 15, 1859 – April 14, 1917) is the creator of Esperanto, the most successful constructed language designed for international communication.
Zamenhof was born on December 15 (December 3 OS), 1859 in the town of Białystok in the Russian Empire (now part of Poland). He considered his native language to be his father's Russian, but he also spoke his mother's Yiddish natively; as he grew older, he spoke more Polish, and that became the native language of his children. His father was a teacher of German, and he also spoke that language fluently, though not as comfortably as Yiddish[dubious – discuss]. Later he learned French, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and English, and had an interest in Italian, Spanish and Lithuanian.
In addition to the Yiddish-speaking Jewish majority, the population of Białystok was made up of three other ethnic groups: Poles, Germans, and Belarusians. Zamenhof was saddened and frustrated by the many quarrels among these groups. He supposed that the main reason for the hate and prejudice lay in the mutual misunderstanding caused by the lack of one common language. If such a language existed, Zamenhof postulated, it could play the role of a neutral communication tool between people of different ethnic and linguistic backgrounds.
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Lidia Zamenhof
Lidia Zamenhof (in Esperanto, sometimes Lidja; 1904–1942) was the youngest daughter of Ludwig Zamenhof, the creator of the international auxiliary language, Esperanto. She was born 29 January 1904 in Warsaw, then in the Russian Empire. She was an active promoter of Esperanto as well as of Homaranismo, a form of religious humanism first defined by her father.
Around 1925 she became a member of the Bahá'í Faith. In late 1937 she went to the United States to teach that religion as well as Esperanto. In December 1938 she returned to Poland, where she continued to teach and translated many Bahá'í writings. In autumn 1942 she was murdered at the Treblinka extermination camp.
Lidia Zamenhof learned Esperanto as a nine year old girl. At the age of fourteen she had already done translations from Polish literature; her first publications appeared several years thereafter. Having completed her university studies in law in 1925, she dedicated herself totally to working for Esperanto. In the same year during the 17th World Congress in 1925 in Geneva she became acquainted with the Bahá'í Faith. Lidia Zamenhof became secretary of the homaranistic Esperanto-Society Concord in Warsaw and often made arrangements for speakers and courses. Starting at the Vienna World Congress of Esperanto in 1924 she attended every World Congress. (She did not attend the 1938 Universala Kongreso in England, as she was in the United States at the time.) As an instructor of the Cseh method of teaching Esperanto she made many promotional trips and taught many courses in various countries.
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M. Bison
M. Bison, known in Japan as ベガ - Vega, is a video game character created by Capcom. First introduced in Street Fighter II: The World Warrior, he is a recurring character in the Street Fighter series of fighting games, acting as the final boss and primary antagonist of the Street Fighter II and Street Fighter Alpha series, and later a supporting villain in the Street Fighter IV series. He is also the final boss of the non-canonical Street Fighter EX series.
A would-be world dictator, and a pure incarnation of evil, M. Bison's ambition is to control the world's governments through his covert crime syndicate, Shadaloo (シャドルー, Shadorū?, sometimes spelled as "Shadoloo", "Shadowloo" or "Shadowlaw"). He serves as the host of Street Fighter II 's fighting tournament and is the last opponent fought in the game. Several Street Fighter characters—including Guile, T. Hawk, Cammy, Rose and Chun-Li—have their personal vendettas against M. Bison and have entered the tournament in the hopes of facing him personally. M. Bison wields an inherently evil energy known as "Psycho Power".
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Marjorie Boulton
Marjorie Boulton (born 7 May 1924) is a British author and poet writing in both English and Esperanto.. Marjorie Boulton taught English literature in teacher training and (from 1962 to 1970) as a college principal for 24 years before turning to full-time research and writing. She is a well-known writer in Esperanto. Boulton is currently a president of two Esperanto organisations, Kat-amikaro and ODES.
Author of Zamenhof: Creator of Esperanto — a biography of L. L. Zamenhof published in 1960 by Routledge & Kegan Paul of London — she also wrote a widely used series of introductory texts on literary studies: The Anatomy of Poetry (1953), The Anatomy of Prose (1954), The Anatomy of Drama (1960), The Anatomy of Language (1968), The Anatomy of the Novel (1975) and The Anatomy of Literary Studies (1980). Her first book was Preliminaries: Poems (1949). Later books of poetry, as well as short story collections, were in Esperanto, which she learnt in 1949. She wrote as well Saying What We Mean (1959), Words in Real Life (1965) and Reading in Real Life (1971).
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Maurice René Fréchet
Maurice Fréchet (French pronunciation: [moʁis ʁəne fʁeʃɛ]; September 2, 1878 – June 4, 1973) was a French mathematician. He made major contributions to the topology of point sets and introduced the entire concept of metric spaces. He also made several important contributions to the field of statistics and probability, as well as calculus. His dissertation opened the entire field of functionals on metric spaces and introduced the notion of compactness. Independently of Riesz, he discovered the representation theorem in the space of Lebesgue square integrable functions.
He was born to a Protestant family in Maligny, Yonne to Jacques and Zoé Fréchet. At the time of his birth, his father was a director of a Protestant orphanage in Maligny and was later in his youth appointed a head of a Protestant school. However, the newly established Third Republic was not sympathetic to religious education and so the laws were enacted requiring all education to be secular. As a result, his father lost his job. To generate some income his mother set up a boarding house for foreigners in Paris. His father was able later to obtain another teaching position within the secular system - it was not a job of a headship, however, and the family could not expect as high standards as they might have otherwise.
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Muztar Abbasi
Allama Muztar Abbasi (Born 1931 in Murree - Died 26 February 2004 in Islamabad) was a Pakistani Muslim scholar belonged to the Dhund Abbasi tribe of the Murree Hills and Rawalpindi District. He was a patron of Esperanto language in Pakistan. He was patron in chief Pakistan Esperanto Association (PakEsA). He translated the Quraan into Esperanto and wrote a biography of Muhammad and several other books in Esperanto and Urdu.
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Nobuo Uematsu
Nobuo Uematsu (植松 伸夫, Uematsu Nobuo?) (born March 21, 1959) is a Japanese video game composer, best known for scoring the majority of titles in the Final Fantasy series. He is considered as one of the most famous and respected composers in the video game community. Uematsu, a self-taught musician, began playing the piano at the age of eleven or twelve, with Elton John as his biggest influence.
Uematsu joined Square (later Square Enix) in 1986, where he met Final Fantasy creator Hironobu Sakaguchi. They have worked together on many video game titles, most notably the games in the Final Fantasy series. After nearly 20 years in the company, he left Square Enix in 2004 to found his own company called Smile Please, and the music production company Dog Ear Records. He has since composed music as a freelancer for video games primarily developed by Square Enix and Sakaguchi's development studio Mistwalker.
Soundtracks and arranged albums of Uematsu's game scores have been released. Pieces from his video game works have been performed in Final Fantasy concerts. He has worked with Grammy Award-winning conductor Arnie Roth on several of these concerts. From 2002 to 2010, he was in a rock band with colleagues Kenichiro Fukui and Tsuyoshi Sekito called The Black Mages, in which he played Electronic organ and other keyboards. The band played arranged rock versions of Uematsu's Final Fantasy compositions. He has since performed with the band Earthbound Papas.
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Pope Benedict XVI
Benedict XVI (Latin: Benedictus PP. XVI; Italian: Benedetto XVI; German: Benedikt XVI.; born Joseph Aloisius Ratzinger on 16 April 1927) is the 265th Pope, a position in which he serves dual roles as Sovereign of the Vatican City State and leader of the Catholic Church. As pope he is regarded as the successor of Saint Peter. Benedict XVI was elected on 19 April 2005 in a papal conclave, celebrated his Papal Inauguration Mass on 24 April 2005, and took possession of his cathedral, the Archbasilica of St. John Lateran, on 7 May 2005. A native of Bavaria, Pope Benedict XVI has both German and Vatican citizenship.
After a long career as an academic, serving as a professor of theology at various German universities—the last being the University of Regensburg—he was appointed Archbishop of Munich and Freising and cardinal by Pope Paul VI in 1977. In 1981, he settled in Rome when he became Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, one of the most important dicasteries of the Roman Curia. From 2002 until his election as Pope, he was also Dean of the College of Cardinals, and as such the primus inter pares among the cardinals. Prior to becoming Pope, he was "a major figure on the Vatican stage for a quarter of a century" as "one of the most respected, influential and controversial members of the College of Cardinals"; he had an influence "second to none when it came to setting church priorities and directions" as one of Pope John Paul II's closest confidants.
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Pope John Paul II
Blessed Pope John Paul II (Latin: Ioannes Paulus PP. II, Italian: Giovanni Paolo II, Polish: Jan Paweł II), born Karol Józef Wojtyła (Polish: [ˈkarɔl ˈjuzɛf vɔjˈtɨwa]; 18 May 1920, Wadowice, Republic of Poland – 2 April 2005, Apostolic Palace, Vatican City), reigned as Pope of the Catholic Church from 1978 until his death in 2005. He was the second-longest serving Pope in history and the first non-Italian since 1523.
John Paul II was acclaimed as one of the most influential leaders of the 20th century. He was instrumental in ending communism in his native Poland and eventually all of Europe. John Paul II significantly improved the Catholic Church's relations with Judaism, Islam, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the Anglican Communion. Though criticised by progressives for upholding the Church's teachings against artificial contraception and the ordination of women, and by traditionalists for his support of the Church's Second Vatican Council and its reform, he was also widely praised for his firm, orthodox Catholic stances.
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Poul Anderson
Poul William Anderson (November 25, 1926 – July 31, 2001) was an American science fiction author who began his career during one of the Golden Ages of the genre and continued to write and remain popular into the 21st century. Anderson also authored several works of fantasy, historical novels, and a prodigious number of short stories. He received numerous awards for his writing, including seven Hugo Awards and three Nebula Awards.
Anderson received a degree in physics from the University of Minnesota in 1948. He married Karen Kruse in 1953. They had one daughter, Astrid, who is married to science fiction author Greg Bear. Anderson was the sixth President of Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America, taking office in 1972. He was a member of the Swordsmen and Sorcerers' Guild of America, a loose-knit group of Heroic Fantasy authors founded in the 1960s, some of whose works were anthologized in Lin Carter's Flashing Swords! anthologies. He was a founding member of the Society for Creative Anachronism. Robert A. Heinlein dedicated his 1985 novel The Cat Who Walks Through Walls to Anderson and eight of the other members of the Citizens' Advisory Council on National Space Policy.
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Raymond Schwartz
Raymond Schwartz (April 8, 1894 – May 14, 1973), was a French banker and Esperanto author who wrote many poems and novels in Esperanto, as well as skits which he directed for Parisian Esperanto cabarets.
Born in Metz, a city in Alsace-Lorraine (German: Elsass-Lothringen) that from 1871 to 1918 was part of Germany, his family was French-speaking. He received a good education in Metz and spoke not only French and German often but also Latin and Greek.
Very early he became an Esperantist and dreamt of a better future through the diffusion of Esperanto. World War I, when he was conscripted into the German army and had to fight on the Eastern Front, was a disaster for him as a pacifist and for the Esperanto movement in general. After the war he did not remain at Metz, now again a French city, but moved to Paris, where he worked in a large banking firm until his retirement.
Between the wars he published in different periodicals, particularly in Literatura Mondo, and wrote two volumes of poetry. His poetic works Verdkata testamento ("The will of the green cat") (1926) and Stranga butiko ("The strange boutique") (1931) are imaginative and humorous fantasies involving word games, characteristics also found in Prozo ridetanta (1928) ("Smiling prose").
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Reinhard Selten
Reinhard Selten (born 5 October 1930) is a German economist.
Selten was born in Breslau (Wrocław) in Lower Silesia, now in Poland, to a Jewish father, Adolf Selten, and Protestant mother, Käthe Luther. For his work in game theory, Selten won the 1994 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences (shared with John Harsanyi and John Nash). He is also well known for his work in bounded rationality, and can be considered as one of the founding fathers of experimental economics. He developed an example of a game called Selten's Horse because of its extensive form representation. He is noted for his publishing in non-refereed journals to avoid being forced to make unwanted changes to his work.
Selten is professor emeritus at the University of Bonn, Germany, and holds several honorary doctoral degrees. He has been an Esperantist since 1959., and met his wife through the Esperanto movement. He is a member and co-founder of the International Academy of Sciences San Marino.
For the European Parliament election, 2009, he was the top candidate for the German wing of Europe – Democracy – Esperanto.
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Reto Rossetti
Reto Rossetti (11 April 1909 - 20 September 1994) was a poet and an Esperantist professor. He was Italian-Swiss and retained his nationality, although he lived all his life in Britain. His professional career as a teacher in art colleges culminated as Head of the art education department at Bristol university. His elder brother was Cezaro Rossetti, author of Kredu min, sinjorino! (Believe me, Ma'am!). He died at Gosport.
His poetry appeared in the compendious work, Kvaropo (Foursome). Poems by Rossetti used to appear in the Esperanto (newspaper) press.
With his brother, Cezaro Rossetti (Caesar) he wrote and illustrated 'The Moc Gonnogal' - a collection of poems written as a spoof on the work of the Scottish poet William McGonnogal.
His other works are: Mestizo de l' Mondo (Mestizo of the World), a collection of poems; El la Maniko (Out of my Sleeve); and Pinta krajono (Sharp Pencil), a collection of novellas. His main translation is Otelo (Othello) by Shakespeare. Rossetti did many translations from English poetry. He was the editor and main collaborator on the Angla Antologio.
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Richard H. Geoghegan
Richard Henry Geoghegan ( /ˈɡeɪɡən/; 8 January 1866 – 27 October 1943) was an Englishman of Irish descent. As a young man he lived for a while in Washington State and then moved to Alaska. Geoghegan was a remarkable philologist and apparently the first English-speaking Esperantist.
When he was 3 years old, Richard Geoghegan suffered a fall on the stairs at home, as a result of which he was crippled for life, walking with difficulty and often with the help of a cane. As if in compensation for his physical handicap, from an early age he displayed extraordinary intellectual abilities, especially in the learning of languages. Around the age of 17, he became interested in oriental writing systems and entered the University of Oxford, in January 1884, to study Chinese. There he showed himself to be an outstanding student, twice receiving scholarship awards, but he never obtained a degree. At Oxford, Chinese remained a nondiploma field of study until 1936.
In the autumn of 1887, when the language Esperanto had just appeared, Geoghegan read an article about it and immediately wrote to the language's creator, L.L. Zamenhof (in Latin). Zamenhof sent Geoghegan a German edition of his Unua Libro (First Book). Having learned the language from this book in short order, a while later Geoghegan received from Zamenhof the first copies of the same book in an English translation by the Warsaw Jew J. St. (pseudonym of Julian Steinhaus). Geoghegan warned Zamenhof that this translation was a mess, and it would only make a laughingstock of Esperanto in the English-speaking world. Subsequently, Zamenhof asked Geoghegan to produce a more suitable translation himself, which he did. The translation by Steinhaus was withdrawn, and in 1889 Geoghegan's was published. In the Unua Adresaro, an early directory of supporters of Esperanto, Geoghegan appears as number 264.
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Shadaloo
M. Bison, known in Japan as ベガ - Vega, is a video game character created by Capcom. First introduced in Street Fighter II: The World Warrior, he is a recurring character in the Street Fighter series of fighting games, acting as the final boss and primary antagonist of the Street Fighter II and Street Fighter Alpha series, and later a supporting villain in the Street Fighter IV series. He is also the final boss of the non-canonical Street Fighter EX series.
A would-be world dictator, and a pure incarnation of evil, M. Bison's ambition is to control the world's governments through his covert crime syndicate, Shadaloo (シャドルー, Shadorū?, sometimes spelled as "Shadoloo", "Shadowloo" or "Shadowlaw"). He serves as the host of Street Fighter II 's fighting tournament and is the last opponent fought in the game. Several Street Fighter characters—including Guile, T. Hawk, Cammy, Rose and Chun-Li—have their personal vendettas against M. Bison and have entered the tournament in the hopes of facing him personally. M. Bison wields an inherently evil energy known as "Psycho Power".
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Sidney S. Culbert
Sidney Spence Culbert (1913 - October 28, 2003) was a linguist, psychologist and Esperantist. Born in Miles City, Montana, Culbert moved to Tacoma, Washington with his family in 1923 and lived in Tacoma and Seattle for most of his life.
He extensively researched the number of speakers of various languages throughout the world (by stratified sampling), and contributed to the World Almanac's section on "Principal Languages of the World". An Associate Professor of Psychology at the University of Washington (Seattle) for most of his academic career, in addition to his research into the speaking populations of languages he made significant contributions to the study of perception, contributions that were influential in the design of cockpit instrument panels in the Boeing 707 jet aircraft. Prior to receiving his doctorate and accepting a professorial position, Culbert had worked for a number of years as an engineer with the Boeing Company. During his tenure at the University of Washington he was actively involved in establishing the university's Linguistics Department, but chose to remain in the Psychology Department because his main linguistic focus, involving issues of perception, was in the field of psycholinguistics, which was then seen as more a matter of psychology than of language.
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Spanish Civil War
The Spanish Civil War was a major conflict fought in Spain from 17 July 1936 to 1 April 1939. The war began after a pronunciamiento (declaration of opposition) by a group of generals under the leadership of José Sanjurjo against the elected government of the Second Spanish Republic, at the time under the leadership of President Manuel Azaña. The rebel coup was supported by a number of conservative groups including the Spanish Confederation of the Autonomous Right, monarchists such as the religious conservative Carlists, and the Fascist Falange. The uprising was authoritarian and anti-separatist in inspiration; anti-Basque and anti-Catalan feeling marked the Nationalist zone.
Following the only partially successful coup, Spain was left militarily and politically divided. From that moment onwards, general Francisco Franco began a protracted war of attrition against the established government for the control of the country. The rebel forces received the support of Nazi Germany and the Kingdom of Italy, as well as neighbouring Portugal, while the Soviet Union and Mexico intervened in support of the Republican government or loyalist side.
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Tivadar Soros
Tivadar Soros (Esperanto: Teodoro Ŝvarc; 1894–1968) was a Hungarian lawyer, author and editor. He is perhaps best known for being the father of businessman and investor, George Soros.
Soros fought in World War I and spent years in a prison camp in Siberia before escaping. He founded the Esperanto literary magazine Literatura Mondo (Literary World) in 1922 and edited it until 1924. He wrote the short novel Modernaj Robinzonoj (Modern Robinsons) (1923), and Maskerado ĉirkaŭ la morto (Masquerade (dance) around death), published 1965, an autobiographical novel about his experience during the Nazi occupation of Budapest, Hungary. Maskerado has been translated into English, Russian, German, Turkish, and Hungarian. He also wrote under the name Teo Melas ("Melas" is Greek for "black", just as "schwarz" is in German). During the Hungarian Revolution of 1956, he and his wife escaped to the United States, where he lived in New York until his death in 1968.
His book Maskerado ĉirkaŭ la morto details his struggles to survive the fascist invasion of Hungary. This took the form of the Hungarian members of the Arrow Cross, their secret police searching out any signs of anti-state activity or Jewish ancestry. Soros 'masqueraded' to survive, adopting a fake name and using his connections, wealth, and skill to aid the flight of many people. He charged high fees to the rich in exchange for forged documentation they would need to escape the country. He used this money in turn to provide materials to poor clients for free or for very small fees.
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Vasili Eroshenko
Vasili Yakovlevich Eroshenko (Russian: Василий Яковлевич Ерошенко Ukrainian: Василь Якович Єрошенко) (January 12, 1890 — December 23, 1952) was an anarchist writer, esperantist, linguist, and teacher. At the age of four, he contracted measles and as a result, became blind.
From 1921 to 1923, Eroshenko stayed in Beijing, China, where he taught Esperanto. He was in contact with the Chinese writer Lu Xun, who translated a play and a collection of fairytales by Eroshenko in Chinese. Eroshenko features in Lu's short story 'The Comedy of the Ducks'.
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Vladimir Varankin
Vladimir Valentinovich Varankin (12 November 1902 – 3 October 1938) was a Russian writer of literature in Esperanto, an instructor of western European history, and director of the Moscow Ped. Instituto for foreign languages. He wrote the novel Metropoliteno.
Varankin was born in Nizhny Novgorod, in an office worker's family. His father Valentin Jegorovich Varankin (died 1921), managed a savings bank until he was recruited into the Red Army. Varankin's mother, Nina Aleksejevna (died 1953), was a librarian. Besides Vladimir, the family had two other sons: Jurij (born 1906, died 1988) and Vjacheslav (born 1916), who was still alive several years ago.
During his last year of study at the city high school (1919), he began learning Esperanto with several friends, boys and girls. Together with his equally young friends, he soon founded a little city circle of young Esperantists, which later transformed into the provincial (gubernia) circle. Both in the city and in the gubernia that union carried out an active program: in less than a year the union managed to organize six courses of Esperanto in the city itself, forty cells and little circles in the whole gubernia, and in addition, in several places, (with the help of local Esperanto instructors) even to teach the international language in the schools.
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Václav Havel
Václav Havel (Czech pronunciation: [ˈvaːt͡slaf ˈɦavɛl] ( listen); 5 October 1936 – 18 December 2011) was a Czech playwright, essayist, poet, dissident and politician.
Havel was the ninth and last president of Czechoslovakia (1989–1992) and the first president of the Czech Republic (1993–2003). He wrote more than 20 plays and numerous non-fiction works, translated internationally.
Havel was voted 4th in Prospect magazine's 2005 global poll of the world's top 100 intellectuals. At the time of his death he was Chairman of the New York-based Human Rights Foundation. He was the founder of the VIZE 97 Foundation and the principal organizer of the Forum 2000 annual global conference.
Havel was one of the signatories of the Charter 77 manifesto, a founding signatory of the Prague Declaration on European Conscience and Communism, and a council member of the Victims of Communism Memorial Foundation. Havel received many recognitions, including the United States Presidential Medal of Freedom, the Gandhi Peace Prize, the Philadelphia Liberty Medal, the Order of Canada, the freedom medal of the Four Freedoms Award, and the Ambassador of Conscience Award.
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William Auld
William Auld (6 November 1924 – 11 September 2006) was a Scottish poet, author, translator and magazine editor who wrote chiefly in Esperanto. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1999, 2004, and 2006 making him the first and only person to be nominated for works in Esperanto. His magnum opus, La infana raso (The Infant Race), is a long poem that, in Auld's words, explores "the role of the human race in time and in the cosmos," and is based heavily on The Cantos by Ezra Pound.
Auld began to learn Esperanto in 1937 but only became active in the propagation of the language in 1947, and from then on wrote many works in Esperanto. He edited various magazines and reviews, including Esperanto en Skotlando (1949–1955), Esperanto (1955–1958, 1961–1962), Monda Kulturo (1962–1963), Norda Prismo (1968–1972), La Brita Esperantisto (1973–1999) and Fonto (1980–1987). He was the Vice-President of the World Esperanto Association (1977–1980), president of the Academy of Esperanto (1979–1983), and honorary president of the Esperanto PEN Centre.
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William Shatner
William Alan Shatner (born March 22, 1931) is a Canadian actor, musician, recording artist, author and film director. He gained worldwide fame and became a cultural icon for his portrayal of James T. Kirk, captain of the USS Enterprise, in the science fiction television series Star Trek from 1966 to 1969, Star Trek: The Animated Series from 1973 to 1974, and in seven of the subsequent Star Trek feature films from 1979 to 1994. He has written a series of books chronicling his experiences playing Captain Kirk and being a part of Star Trek, and has co-written several novels set in the Star Trek universe. He has also authored a series of science fiction novels called TekWar that were adapted for television.
Shatner also played the eponymous veteran police sergeant in T. J. Hooker from 1982 to 1986. Afterwards, he hosted the reality-based television series, Rescue 911 from 1989 to 1996, which won a People's Choice Award for Favorite New TV Dramatic Series. He has since worked as a musician, author, producer, director and celebrity pitchman. From 2004 to 2008 he starred as attorney Denny Crane in the television dramas The Practice and its spin-off Boston Legal for which he won two Emmy Awards and a Golden Globe Award.
wn.com/William_Shatner -
Þórbergur Þórðarson
Þórbergur Þórðarson (Thorbergur Thordarson) (Hali í Suðursveit, 12 March 1888/1889 — Reykjavík, 12 November 1974) was an Icelandic author and Esperantist. On 30 June 2006, Þórbergssetur was opened as a museum and cultural center in Hali, Suðursveit.
wn.com/Þórbergur_Þórðarson
karaoke
Freundeskreis 99, (in) Esperanto,international verständlich, Yeah, Yeah,
Wir 'besetzen Botschaften in totgesagten Wortschätzen
Esperanto hält Einzug in bundesdeutschen Vorstädten
(und) Freundeskreis wird zu Amikaro
der 2pac Amaru des Stuttgarter Barrios
unser Lingo ist der Ausdruck dieses Schmelztiegels
wir bring'n euch Hip-Hop Sound in dem sich die Welt spiegelt
weil wir den Blick bewahrten und wir selbst blieben
das ist für die heads die raps aus 0711 lieben
miliano mondano mit der mischpoke
don philippo und frico, dem discjockey
die philosophie streetpoetrie
'ne lingua franca für alle linken und einwanderer
wir schreiben '99, heut is rap universell,
a&r;'s sehn aus wie b-boys die kultur zerschellt am geld
die mediale definition von hip-hop is ne farce
wir tun was wir immer taten nur der kontext is im arsch
ich krieg' Kopfschmerzen von zuviel Popkonserven
doch FK lässt sich nicht in diesen Topf werfen
es gibt nichts was uns zügeln kann, nichts was uns hält
wir spreaden's über stuttgarts Hügel in die Welt, Esperanto.
- refrain - Esperanto, c'est la langue de l'amour, (que)
tout à tout vient à parler
esperanto, et à ce jour l'espoir est née
Esperanto
Esperanto, Standpunkt unsresgleichen
von denen die die und nicht nur sich an der Kultur bereichern
ein Synonym für lasst hundert Blumen blühn
hundert schulen in rapcyphers miteinander wetteifern
esperanto: antwort auf den kulturellen bankrott,
musik ist weltsprache, keine schnelle geldmache
esquchar el lenguache raps belcanto
fiedel dem biz wie castro die erste geige zu seim' letzten tango
esperanto: eloquente definition:
ein schnellerlernter lingo zur verständigung der nation', (er)
basiert auf romanisch, deutsch, jiddisch, slawisch,
kein sprachimperialismus oder privileg des bildungsadels
esperanto: wenn ihrs nicht gleich versteht,wichtiger ist, dass ihr zwischen den Zeilen lest
euch unser style beseelt fühlt was mein input ist
ich sei lyricist internationaler linguist
miliano soulguerillo
der texterpartisane der letzte mohikaner
am mikro amigos estaj representando
fk amikaro, motto esperanto.
- refrain -
pour tous les gens de tous pays
pour tous les gens qui sont ici,
esperanto neuf, neuf
les temps vient changer avec ce son neuf
et si tu aimes ce son là
amikaro et déborah
c'est qu'un debuttu peux conter la dessu
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The One Show does Esperanto
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:12
- Updated: 17 Nov 2012
Feature about Esperanto, from The One Show, 11th January 2010. Presented by Arthur Smith, features Tim Morley, and Terry & Anica Page. First broadcast on BBC1 on Monday 11th January 2010
http://wn.com/The_One_Show_does_Esperanto
Freundeskreis: Esperanto
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:01
- Updated: 20 Nov 2012
Nine designers worked on the lavish mixture of styles for the Stuttgart band "Freundeskreis" - producing a four-minute animation in a record-breaking two weeks.
http://wn.com/Freundeskreis_Esperanto
Part 1 - Esperanto Encounter
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:09
- Updated: 15 Nov 2012
A chance meeting with an Esperanto traveller. An Introduction to Esperanto. www.melburno.org.au
http://wn.com/Part_1_Esperanto_Encounter
BBC Radio 4 feature about Esperanto
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:52
- Updated: 27 Oct 2012
Paul Gubbins on BBC Radio 4's Saturday Live, talking about Esperanto (7th August 2010)
http://wn.com/BBC_Radio_4_feature_about_Esperanto
Esperanto and Esperantists (Full Version)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:12
- Updated: 17 Nov 2012
A short documentary on Esperanto and the people who speak it. This film was part of a student documentary workshop held in Toronto. If you have any questions you can contact me at soroosh@rogers.com. Enjoy the video and don't hesitate to leave comments.
http://wn.com/Esperanto_and_Esperantists_Full_Version
The Stuff of Genius- Esperanto: The LL Zamenhof Story
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:27
- Updated: 19 Nov 2012
LL Zamenhof was fascinated by language from a young age. He also believed the majority of human conflict arose from miscommunication. Tune in to learn how Zamenhof used his Stuff of Genius to build a universal language. howstuffworks.com http itunes.apple.com
http://wn.com/The_Stuff_of_Genius_Esperanto_The_LL_Zamenhof_Story
The First Well: Learn Esperanto with subtitles - Story for Children "BookBox.com"
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:34
- Updated: 14 Nov 2012
A warrior sets out in search of water to save his kingdom from drought. He brings home what they think is a 'water-seed'. For more stories and more languages visit: www.bookbox.com itunes.apple.com
http://wn.com/The_First_Well_Learn_Esperanto_with_subtitles_Story_for_Children_BookBoxcom
Esperanto TV - TV Esperanto Bjalistoko.flv
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:02
- Updated: 04 Nov 2012
Elsendo de TV Esperanto
http://wn.com/Esperanto_TV_TV_Esperanto_Bjalistokoflv
Esperanto Anthem
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:55
- Updated: 16 Nov 2012
"La Espero" (The Hope)
http://wn.com/Esperanto_Anthem
Esperanto Short Film
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:53
- Updated: 18 Nov 2012
A Short experimental student film shot in South Africa - Directed by Ian Morgan (2010),
http://wn.com/Esperanto_Short_Film
How is Esperanto easier to learn than other languages
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:19
- Updated: 13 Nov 2012
Esperanto is phonetic, that means the spelling is very easy. Grammatical rules have no exceptions. Vocabulary can be learnt relatively quickly even by people who don't speak a European language thanks to the wide use of prefixes and suffixes. Esperanto is a bit like Lego. On this video you'll see 2 issues of El Popola Cinio, the Chinese magazine entirely in Esperanto. This is the third part of a talk I made a couple of years ago for future language teachers at the University of Sydney. It is read by my friend Pat.
http://wn.com/How_is_Esperanto_easier_to_learn_than_other_languages
Incubus Trailer
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:19
- Updated: 17 Nov 2012
This is the trailer for the re-release of Incubus, starring William Shatner(1965). This is an outstanding film shot entirely in the language Esperanto. You can buy the DVD at www.incubusthefilm.com And it's well worth it.
http://wn.com/Incubus_Trailer
Esperanto video: Interview with a Buddhist monk and tour of monastery / Budhista monaĥa intervjuo
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 13:19
- Updated: 09 Nov 2012
More details: fi3m.com Click "CC" to enable subtitles in English or original Esperanto. While travelling in China, I made it to the Silk Road just outside of Xi'an and was invited to get a tour of a monastery given by a local monk. He also happens to be an Esperanto speaker, so we did the video entirely in that language! Huge thanks to Goŝka for transcribing the entire video to Esperanto for me, and to Chuck Smith for double checking and copying it to a subtitle file.
http://wn.com/Esperanto_video_Interview_with_a_Buddhist_monk_and_tour_of_monastery_Budhista_monaĥa_intervjuo
World Esperanto Association - Wiki Article
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 25:53
- Updated: 27 Oct 2012
UEA was founded in 1908 by the Swiss journalist Hector Hodler and others, and is now headquartered in Rotterdam, the Netherlands. The organization has an office at the United Nations building in New ... World Esperanto Association - Wiki Article - wikiplays.org Original @ http All Information Derived from Wikipedia using Creative Commons License: en.wikipedia.org Author: oost Witteveen Image URL: en.wikipedia.org Licensed under:Creative Commons ASA 3.0, This work is in the public domain in the United States. Author: Ziko Image URL: en.wikipedia.org Licensed under:Creative Commons ASA 3.0, Licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License., GNU Free Documentation License, Creative Commons License 2.5 Generic, Creative Commons License 2.0 Generic, Creative Commons License 1.0 Generic, This work is in the public domain in the United States. Author: Jordon Kalilich Image URL: en.wikipedia.org Licensed under:This image is ineligible for copyright and therefore is in the public domain, because it consists entirely of information that is common property and contains no original authorship., This work is in the Public Domain., This work is in the public domain in the United States. Author: Ziko Image URL: en.wikipedia.org
http://wn.com/World_Esperanto_Association_Wiki_Article
Esperanto Anthem
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:16
- Updated: 26 Oct 2012
I haven't been speaking Esperanto for long, so please comment or something if you disagree with correct translation.
http://wn.com/Esperanto_Anthem
Esperanto
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:47
- Updated: 11 Nov 2012
Pequeño documental sobre el esperanto, realizado por Gecko Y G. Secuoia.
http://wn.com/Esperanto
The Wind and the Sun: Learn Esperanto with subtitles - Story for Children "BookBox.com"
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:19
- Updated: 11 Nov 2012
Who is stronger, the blazing Sun or the proud Wind? For more stories and more languages visit: www.bookbox.com itunes.apple.com
http://wn.com/The_Wind_and_the_Sun_Learn_Esperanto_with_subtitles_Story_for_Children_BookBoxcom
Esperanto, the Aggressor Language
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:23
- Updated: 18 Nov 2012
Esperanto, the Aggressor Language From the 1950s through the 1970s, Esperanto was used by the US Army for war games, as the language of the "Maneuver Enemy", also known as the "Aggressor". The goal was an added touch of realism, with the enemy speaking a "foreign" language. Spanish was the original candidate for Aggressor's national language, but it was soon superseded by Esperanto. Learn more at bit.ly The Universal Language is a new documentary from Academy Award-nominated director Sam Green (The Weather Underground). This 30-minute film traces the history of Esperanto, an artificial language that was created in the late 1800s by a Polish eye doctor who believed that if everyone in the world spoke a common tongue, humanity could overcome racism and war. Fittingly, the word "Esperanto" means "one who hopes."
http://wn.com/Esperanto,_the_Aggressor_Language
Santa's Christmas: Learn Esperanto with subtitles - Story for Children "BookBox.com"
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:46
- Updated: 10 Nov 2012
Santa has fallen ill. He is worried the children will not get gifts but a surprise awaits him. For more stories and more languages visit: www.bookbox.com Download the Free BookBox iPhone App in English: itunes.apple.com
http://wn.com/Santa's_Christmas_Learn_Esperanto_with_subtitles_Story_for_Children_BookBoxcom
Portraits of Esperantists at the 2007 World Esperanto Congress in Yokohama
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:59
- Updated: 19 Nov 2012
Portraits of Esperantists at the 2007 World Esperanto Congress in Yokohama Learn more at bit.ly The Universal Language is a new documentary from Academy Award-nominated director Sam Green (The Weather Underground). This 30-minute film traces the history of Esperanto, an artificial language that was created in the late 1800s by a Polish eye doctor who believed that if everyone in the world spoke a common tongue, humanity could overcome racism and war. Fittingly, the word "Esperanto" means "one who hopes."
http://wn.com/Portraits_of_Esperantists_at_the_2007_World_Esperanto_Congress_in_Yokohama
Esperanto, what kind of language is it?
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:01
- Updated: 29 Oct 2012
Esperanto has nothing to do with Spain. Its grammar is very different from those from European languages. It does have similarities with Chinese for example. Esperanto is not just a code, but a whole language allowing to express feelings for example with great precision. William Auld wrote poems in Esperanto. This is the second part of a talk I made a couple of years ago for future language teachers at the University of Sydney. It is read by my friend Pat.
http://wn.com/Esperanto,_what_kind_of_language_is_it?
Rosa Goes to the City: Learn Esperanto with subtitles - Story for Children "BookBox.com"
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:47
- Updated: 03 Nov 2012
Rosa escapes from the zoo and wanders about the city looking for someone. Want to join in her adventures? For more stories and more languages visit: www.bookbox.com Download the Free BookBox iPhone App in English: itunes.apple.com
http://wn.com/Rosa_Goes_to_the_City_Learn_Esperanto_with_subtitles_Story_for_Children_BookBoxcom
Esperanto - Night of the Wolf
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:24
- Updated: 20 Nov 2012
The hard hitting cover of Al Foster's classic! 7" (2007) Freestyle UK
http://wn.com/Esperanto_Night_of_the_Wolf
Photo: AP / Hatem Moussa
18 Nov 2012
Israeli air strikes killed 16 Palestinians in Gaza on Saturday, prompting the Arab League to announce a visit to the battered enclave and a review of its Middle East peace policy. Egypt’s President...
Photo: AP / Hatem Moussa
19 Nov 2012
Gaza/Jerusalem - Israel bombed dozens of targets in the Gaza Strip on Monday and said that while it was prepared to step up its offensive by sending in troops, it preferred a diplomatic solution that...
Photo: EC / EC
19 Nov 2012
BRUSSELS/WASHINGTON (Reuters) - The shadow banking system - blamed for aggravating the financial crisis - grew to a new high of $67 trillion globally last year, a top regulatory group said, calling...
Photo: AP / Pablo Martinez Monsivais
19 Nov 2012
Yangon, November 19: Newly re-elected US President Barack Obama arrived here Monday to kick off his visit to Myanmar, becoming the first sitting US president to visit the Southeast Asian nation. As...
Photo: AP / Pablo Martinez Monsivais
20 Nov 2012
Article by WN.com Correspondent Dallas Darling President Barack Obama's whirlwind tour of southeast Asia and meetings with dignitaries will have to walk a tightrope between either appearing to endorse...
Engadget
The potential for home 3D printing has regularly been limited by size; even MakerBot's Replicator 2 can only go so far in matching our ambitions. Solidoodle sees that deficit as a chance to make its name in a still very young industry. Its new Solidoodle 3 printer covers an extra two inches in every...(size: 12.7Kb)
Sam Green's most treasured book
19 Nov 2012
San Francisco Chronicle
This is a tough one. Certainly at the top of the list would be my copy of Mao's Red Book in Esperanto; you can unpack the entire history of the 20th century in this one single...(size: 1.2Kb)
Judit Polgar: 'Everything was about chess'
12 Nov 2012
The Guardian
Judith Polgar was the youngest ever grandmaster at 15 and is the best female of all time. When will more join her at the top of chess?...(size: 6.4Kb)
Noosa festival spreads its wings
12 Nov 2012
The Australian
SHOULD Esperanto be the official language of Noosa's next Food and Wine Festival? Login to read the rest of this article User Login Username * Password * Remember me Login...(size: 3.2Kb)
AV Club
Welcome back to AVQ&A, where we throw out a question for discussion among the staff and readers. Consider this a prompt to compare notes on your interface with pop culture, to reveal your embarrassing tastes and experiences, and to ponder how our diverse lives all led us to convene here...(size: 18.4Kb)
The Verge
Check this pic I found online of a guy hanging out with / doing his best to be Pikachu. Look familiar? He's the Canadian dance music producer Joel Zimmerman, more popularly known as deadmau5. His CV is even longer than those Jnco’s are wide: he produced the most mindblowing concert experience I've...(size: 16.6Kb)
Jakarta Post
Paper Edition | Page: 8 Nov. 3, p. 7 When reading an article in The Jakarta Post recently titled “Govt to omit English from primary schools,” I could not help but think of my 3-year-old son Ben. If the government scraps English in the elementary school curriculum, schools that provide alternative...(size: 2.7Kb)
Religion calendar for the week of Nov. 3, 2012
03 Nov 2012
my SA
SATURDAY Arts and crafts show 9 a.m.-4 p.m., Coker United Methodist Church, 231 N.E. Loop 410. More than 100 vendors. 210-494-3455. Perfectly set tables 2-3 p.m., Universal City United Methodist Church, 90 Winn Ave. Mission event will feature tables set and decorated with different themes. Coffee...(size: 2.9Kb)
Business Insider
Report: Chinese Premier Wen Jibao's Family Denies It Took $2.7 Billion In Assets Forget What You've Heard About Who Runs China — It All Comes Down To 9 People More Proof That The Worst Of China's Slowdown Is Over In the first of a three-part series, Mick Brown travels to the Chinese city of Wuhan to...(size: 36.9Kb)
The Daily Telegraph
In the first of a three-part series, Mick Brown travels to the Chinese city of Wuhan to see whether its emerging great wealth has also brought great happiness. Kite-fliers by the Yangtze in Wuhan, one of China’s rapidly growing urban centres Photo: Zhang Kechun...(size: 47.4Kb)
This article is about the language. For other uses, see Esperanto (disambiguation).
| Esperanto | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
 |
||||
| Created by | L. L. Zamenhof | |||
| Date | 1887 | |||
| Setting and usage | International auxiliary language | |||
| Users | Native: 200 to 1,000 (1996) L2 users: 10,000 to 2,000,000 |
|||
| Purpose | ||||
| Writing system | Latin (Esperanto alphabet) | |||
| Sources | Vocabulary from Romance and Germanic languages; phonology from Slavic languages | |||
| Official status | ||||
| Regulated by | Akademio de Esperanto | |||
| Language codes | ||||
| ISO 639-1 | eo | |||
| ISO 639-2 | epo | |||
| ISO 639-3 | epo | |||
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Esperanto (help·info) is the most widely spoken constructed international auxiliary language.[1] Its name derives from Doktoro Esperanto (Esperanto translates as "one who hopes"), the pseudonym under which L. L. Zamenhof published the first book detailing Esperanto, the Unua Libro, in 1887. Zamenhof's goal was to create an easy-to-learn and politically neutral language that transcends nationality and would foster peace and international understanding between people with different regional and/or national languages.
Estimates of Esperanto speakers range from 10,000 to 2,000,000 active or fluent speakers, as well as native speakers, that is, people who learned Esperanto from their parents as one of their native languages. Esperanto is spoken in about 115 countries. Usage is particularly high in Europe, East Asia, and South America.[2] The first World Congress of Esperanto was organized in France in 1905. Since then congresses have been held in various countries every year with the exception of years in which there were world wars. Although no country has adopted Esperanto officially, Esperanto was recommended by the French Academy of Sciences in 1921 and recognized in 1954 by UNESCO (which later, in 1985, also recommended it to its member states). In 2007 Esperanto was the 32nd language that adhered to the "Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment (CEFR)".[3] As of October 2011, the Esperanto Wikipedia had the 27th highest count of Wikipedia articles.[4] Esperanto is currently the language of instruction of the International Academy of Sciences in San Marino.[5] There is evidence that learning Esperanto may provide a superior foundation for learning languages in general, and some primary schools teach it as preparation for learning other foreign languages. On February 23, 2012, Google Translate added Esperanto as its 64th language.
Contents
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History[link]
Main article: History of Esperanto
Esperanto was created in the late 1870s and early 1880s by Dr. Ludwig Lazarus Zamenhof, an ophthalmologist of mixed cultural heritage from Bialystok, then part of the Russian Empire. According to Zamenhof, he created this language to foster harmony between people from different countries. His feelings and the situation in Bialystok may be gleaned from an extract from his letter to Nikolai Borovko:[6]
The place where I was born and spent my childhood gave direction to all my future struggles. In Bialystok the inhabitants were divided into four distinct elements: Russians, Poles, Germans and Jews; each of these spoke their own language and looked on all the others as enemies. In such a town a sensitive nature feels more acutely than elsewhere the misery caused by language division and sees at every step that the diversity of languages is the first, or at least the most influential, basis for the separation of the human family into groups of enemies. I was brought up as an idealist; I was taught that all people were brothers, while outside in the street at every step I felt that there were no people, only Russians, Poles, Germans, Jews and so on. This was always a great torment to my infant mind, although many people may smile at such an 'anguish for the world' in a child. Since at that time I thought that 'grown-ups' were omnipotent, so I often said to myself that when I grew up I would certainly destroy this evil.—L. L. Zamenhof, in a letter to N. Borovko, ca. 1895
After some ten years of development, which Zamenhof spent translating literature into Esperanto as well as writing original prose and verse, the first book of Esperanto grammar was published in Warsaw in July 1887. The number of speakers grew rapidly over the next few decades, at first primarily in the Russian Empire and Eastern Europe, then in Western Europe, the Americas, China, and Japan. In the early years, speakers of Esperanto kept in contact primarily through correspondence and periodicals, but in 1905 the first world congress of Esperanto speakers was held in Boulogne-sur-Mer, France. Since then world congresses have been held in different countries every year, except during the two World Wars. Since the Second World War, they have been attended by an average of over 2,000 and up to 6,000 people.
Zamenhof's name for the language was simply La Internacia Lingvo "the International Language".[7]
Reactions of 20th-century totalitarian regimes to Esperanto[link]
As a potential vehicle for international understanding, Esperanto attracted the suspicion of many totalitarian states. The situation was especially pronounced in Nazi Germany, Imperial Japan and the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin.
In Germany, there was additional motivation to persecute Esperanto because Zamenhof was Jewish. In his work, Mein Kampf, Hitler mentioned Esperanto as an example of a language that would be used by an International Jewish Conspiracy once they achieved world domination.[8] Esperantists were killed during the Holocaust, with Zamenhof's family in particular singled out for murder.[9]
In the early years of the Soviet Union, Esperanto was given a measure of government support, and the Soviet Esperanto Association was an officially recognized organization.[10] However, in 1937, Stalin reversed this policy. He denounced Esperanto as "the language of spies" and had Esperantists exiled or executed. The use of Esperanto was effectively banned until 1956.[10]
After the Spanish Civil War, Francoist Spain persecuted the Anarchists and Catalan nationalists among whom the use of Esperanto was extensive[11] but in the 1950s, the Esperanto movement was tolerated again.
Official use[link]
Esperanto has never been a secondary official language of any recognized country. However, there were plans at the beginning of the 20th century to establish Neutral Moresnet as the world's first Esperanto state. Qian Xuantong, a Chinese linguist, promoted the replacement of Chinese with Esperanto.[12] In addition, the self-proclaimed artificial island micronation of Rose Island used Esperanto as its official language in 1968.[13]
The US Army has published military phrase books in Esperanto,[14] to be used in war games by mock enemy forces. In the summer of 1924, the American Radio Relay League adopted Esperanto as its official international auxiliary language, and hoped that the language would be used by radio amateurs in international communications, but its actual use for radio communications was negligible.
Esperanto is the working language of several non-profit international organizations such as the Sennacieca Asocio Tutmonda, a left-wing cultural association, or Education@Internet, which has developed from an Esperanto organization; most others are specifically Esperanto organizations. The largest of these, the World Esperanto Association, has an official consultative relationship with the United Nations and UNESCO, which recognized Esperanto as a medium for international understanding in 1954.[15] Esperanto is also the first language of teaching and administration of one university, the International Academy of Sciences San Marino.[5]
Linguistic properties[link]
Classification[link]
As a constructed language, Esperanto is not genealogically related to any ethnic language. It has been described as "a language lexically predominantly Romance, morphologically intensively agglutinative, and to a certain degree isolating in character".[16] The phonology, grammar, vocabulary, and semantics are based on the western Indo-European languages. The phonemic inventory is essentially Slavic, as is much of the semantics, while the vocabulary derives primarily from the Romance languages, with a lesser contribution from the Germanic languages and minor contributions from Slavic languages and Greek. Pragmatics and other aspects of the language not specified by Zamenhof's original documents were influenced by the native languages of early speakers, primarily Russian, Polish, German, and French.
Typologically, Esperanto has prepositions and a free pragmatic word order that by default is subject–verb–object. Adjectives can be freely placed before or after the nouns they modify, though placing them before the noun is more common. New words are formed through extensive prefixing and suffixing.
Phonology[link]
Main article: Esperanto phonology
Esperanto has 23 consonants, 5 vowels, and 2 semivowels that combine with the vowels to form 6 diphthongs. (The consonant /j/ and semivowel /i̯/ are both written j, and the uncommon consonant /dz/ is written with the digraph dz.[17]) Tone is not used to distinguish meanings of words. Stress is always on the second-last vowel in fully Esperanto words unless a final vowel o is elided, which occurs mostly in poetry. For example, familio "family" is [fa.mi.ˈli.o], with the stress on the second i, but when the word is used without the final o (famili’), the stress remains on the second i: [fa.mi.ˈli].
Consonants[link]
The 23 consonants are:
| Bilabial | Labio- dental |
Alveolar | Post- alveolar |
Palatal | Velar | Glottal | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | m | n | ||||||||||||
| Stop | p | b | t | d | k | ɡ | ||||||||
| Affricate | t͡s | d͡z | t͡ʃ | d͡ʒ | ||||||||||
| Fricative | f | v | s | z | ʃ | ʒ | x | h | ||||||
| Trill | r | |||||||||||||
| Approximant | l | j | ||||||||||||
The sound /r/ is usually trilled [r], but may be tapped [ɾ]. The /v/ is normally pronounced like English v, but may be pronounced [ʋ] (between English v and w) or [w], depending on the language background of the speaker. A semivowel /u̯/ normally occurs only in diphthongs after the vowels /a/ and /e/, not as a consonant /w/. Common, if debated, assimilation includes the pronunciation of nk as [ŋk] and kz as [ɡz].
A large number of consonant clusters can occur, up to three in initial position (as in stranga, "strange") and four in medial position (as in instrui, "teach"). Final clusters are uncommon except in foreign names, poetic elision of final o, and a very few basic words such as cent "hundred" and post "after".
Vowels[link]
Esperanto has the five cardinal vowels found in such languages as Spanish, Swahili, Filipino, Modern Hebrew, and Modern Greek:
| Front | Back | |
|---|---|---|
| Close | i | u |
| Mid | e | o |
| Open | a | |
There are also two semivowels, /i̯/ and /u̯/, which combine with the cardinal vowels to form six falling diphthongs: aj, ej, oj, uj, aŭ, and eŭ (nearly the same as the diphthongs of Filipino).
Since there are only five vowels, a good deal of variation in pronunciation is tolerated. For instance, e commonly ranges from [e] (French é) to [ɛ] (French è). These details often depend on the speaker's native language. A glottal stop may occur between adjacent vowels in some people's speech, especially when the two vowels are the same, as in heroo "hero" ([he.ˈro.o] or [he.ˈro.ʔo]) and praavo "great-grandfather" ([pra.ˈa.vo] or [pra.ˈʔa.vo]).
Writing system[link]
Main article: Esperanto orthography
The Esperanto alphabet is based on the Latin script, using a one-sound-one-letter principle. It includes six letters with diacritics: ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ, ŝ (with circumflex), and ŭ (with breve). The alphabet does not include the letters q, w, x, or y, which are only used when writing unassimilated foreign terms or proper names.
The 28-letter alphabet is:
All unaccented letters are pronounced approximately as in the IPA, with the exception of c. Esperanto j and c have Central European values largely unfamiliar to English speakers: Esperanto j has a y sound, as in hallelujah or Jägermeister, and c has a ts sound, as in Penderecki or Václav Havel. The accented letters are a bit like h-digraphs in English: Ĉ is pronounced like English ch, and ŝ like sh. Ĝ is the g in gem, ĵ a zh sound, as in fusion or French Jacques, and the rare ĥ is like the h in the Yiddish pronunciation of Hanukkah.
| Letter | c | ĉ | ĝ | ĥ | ĵ | ŝ | ŭ |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pronunciation | t͡s | t͡ʃ | d͡ʒ | x | ʒ | ʃ | u̯ (in diphthongs) |
Writing diacritic letters[link]
The letters with diacritics (found in the "Latin-Extended A" section of the Unicode Standard) once caused problems with printing and computing. This was particularly true with the five letters with circumflexes, as they do not occur in any other language. The diacritics are normally only a problem now with computing situations such as internet chat groups and databases that are limited to ASCII characters.
There are two principal workarounds to this problem, which substitute digraphs for the accented letters. Zamenhof, the inventor of Esperanto, created an "h-convention", which replaces ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ, ŝ, and ŭ with ch, gh, hh, jh, sh, and u, respectively. If used in a database, a program in principle could not determine whether to render, for example, ch as c followed by h or as ĉ, and would fail to render, for example, the word senchava properly. A more recent "x-convention" has gained ground since the advent of computing. This system replaces each diacritic with an x (not part of the Esperanto alphabet) after the letter, producing the six digraphs cx, gx, hx, jx, sx, and ux.
There are computer keyboard layouts that support the Esperanto alphabet, and some systems use software that automatically substitutes x- or h-convention digraphs with the corresponding diacritic letters (EK for Microsoft Windows is one example).[18] Another example is the Esperanto Wikipedia, which uses the x-convention for input: when a contributor types cx when editing an article, it will appear as the correct ĉ in the article text.
Grammar[link]
Main article: Esperanto grammar
Esperanto words are derived by stringing together prefixes, roots, and suffixes. This process is regular, so that people can create new words as they speak and be understood. Compound words are formed with a modifier-first, head-final order, as in English (compare "birdsong" and "songbird," and likewise, birdokanto and kantobirdo).
The different parts of speech are marked by their own suffixes: all common nouns end in -o, all adjectives in -a, all derived adverbs in -e, and all verbs in one of six tense and mood suffixes, such as the present tense -as.
Plural nouns used as grammatical subjects end in -oj (pronounced like English "oy"), whereas their direct object forms end in -on. Plural direct objects end with the combination -ojn (rhymes with "coin"); -o- indicates that the word is a noun, -j- indicates the plural, and -n indicates the accusative. Adjectives agree with their nouns; their endings are plural -aj (pronounced "eye"), accusative -an, and plural accusative -ajn (rhymes with "fine").
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The suffix -n, besides indicating the direct object, is used to indicate movement and a few other things as well.
The six verb inflections consist of three tenses and three moods. They are present tense -as, future tense -os, past tense -is, infinitive mood -i, conditional mood -us and jussive mood -u (used for wishes and commands). Verbs are not marked for person or number. Thus, kanti means "to sing", mi kantas means "I sing", vi kantas means "you sing", and ili kantas means "they sing".
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Word order is comparatively free. Adjectives may precede or follow nouns; subjects, verbs and objects may occur in any order. However, the article la "the", demonstratives such as tiu "that" and prepositions (such as ĉe "at") must come before their related nouns. Similarly, the negative ne "not" and conjunctions such as kaj "and" and ke "that" must precede the phrase or clause that they introduce. In copular (A = B) clauses, word order is just as important as in English: "people are animals" is distinguished from "animals are people".
Vocabulary[link]
Main article: Esperanto vocabulary
The core vocabulary of Esperanto was defined by Lingvo internacia, published by Zamenhof in 1887. This book listed 900 roots; these could be expanded into tens of thousands of words using prefixes, suffixes, and compounding. In 1894, Zamenhof published the first Esperanto dictionary, Universala Vortaro, which had a larger set of roots. The rules of the language allowed speakers to borrow new roots as needed; it was recommended, however, that speakers use most international forms and then derive related meanings from these.
Since then, many words have been borrowed, primarily (but not solely) from the Western European languages. Not all proposed borrowings become widespread, but many do, especially technical and scientific terms. Terms for everyday use, on the other hand, are more likely to be derived from existing roots; komputilo "computer", for instance, is formed from the verb komputi "compute" and the suffix -ilo "tool". Words are also calqued; that is, words acquire new meanings based on usage in other languages. For example, the word muso "mouse" has acquired the meaning of a computer mouse from its usage in English. Esperanto speakers often debate about whether a particular borrowing is justified or whether meaning can be expressed by deriving from or extending the meaning of existing words.
Some compounds and formed words in Esperanto are not entirely straightforward; for example, eldoni, literally "give out", means "publish", paralleling the usage of certain Western European languages (such as German). In addition, the suffix -um- has no defined meaning; words using the suffix must be learned separately (such as dekstren "to the right" and dekstrumen "clockwise").
There are not many idiomatic or slang words in Esperanto, as these forms of speech tend to make international communication difficult—working against Esperanto's main goal.
Useful phrases[link]
Below are listed some useful Esperanto words and phrases along with IPA transcriptions:
| English | Esperanto | IPA |
|---|---|---|
| Hello | Saluton | [sa.ˈlu.ton] |
| Yes | Jes | [ˈjes] |
| No | Ne | [ˈne] |
| Good morning | Bonan matenon | [ˈbo.nan ma.ˈte.non] |
| Good evening | Bonan vesperon | [ˈbo.nan ves.ˈpe.ron] |
| Good night | Bonan nokton | [ˈbo.nan ˈnok.ton] |
| Goodbye | Ĝis revido | [dʒis re.ˈvi.do] |
| What is your name? | Kio estas via nomo? | [ˈki.o es.tas ˈvi.a ˈno.mo] |
| My name is Marc | Mia nomo estas Marko. | [mi.a 'no.mo es.tas 'mar.ko] |
| How are you doing? | Kiel vi fartas? | [ˈki.el vi ˈfar.tas] |
| Do you speak Esperanto? | Ĉu vi parolas Esperanton? | [ˈtʃu vi pa.ˈro.las es.pe.ˈran.ton] |
| I don't understand you | Mi ne komprenas vin | [mi ˈne kom.ˈpre.nas vin] |
| All right | Bone | [ˈbo.ne] |
| Okay | Ĝuste | [ˈdʒus.te] |
| Thank you | Dankon | [ˈdan.kon] |
| You're welcome | Ne dankinde | [ne.dan.ˈkin.de] |
| Please | Bonvolu | [bon.ˈvo.lu] |
| Bless you | Sanon! | [ˈsa.non] |
| Congratulations | Gratulon | [ɡra.ˈtu.lon] |
| I love you | Mi amas vin | [mi ˈa.mas vin] |
| One beer, please | Unu bieron, mi petas | [ˈu.nu bi.ˈe.ron, mi ˈpe.tas] |
| What is that? | Kio estas tio? | [ˈki.o es.tas ˈti.o] |
| That is a dog | Tio estas hundo | [ˈti.o es.tas ˈhun.do] |
| Peace! | Pacon! | [ˈpa.tson] |
Sample text[link]
The following short extract gives an idea of the character of Esperanto.[19] (Pronunciation is covered above; the Esperanto letter j is pronounced like English y.)
- Esperanto:
- «En multaj lokoj de Ĉinio estis temploj de la drako-reĝo. Dum trosekeco oni preĝis en la temploj, ke la drako-reĝo donu pluvon al la homa mondo. Tiam drako estis simbolo de la supernatura estaĵo. Kaj pli poste, ĝi fariĝis prapatro de la plej altaj regantoj kaj simbolis la absolutan aŭtoritaton de feŭda imperiestro. La imperiestro pretendis, ke li estas filo de la drako. Ĉiuj liaj vivbezonaĵoj portis la nomon drako kaj estis ornamitaj per diversaj drakofiguroj. Nun ĉie en Ĉinio videblas drako-ornamentaĵoj, kaj cirkulas legendoj pri drakoj.»
- English translation:
- In many places in China, there were temples of the dragon-king. During times of drought, people would pray in the temples that the dragon-king would give rain to the human world. At that time the dragon was a symbol of the supernatural. Later on, it became the ancestor of the highest rulers and symbolised the absolute authority of the feudal emperor. The emperor claimed to be the son of the dragon. All of his personal possessions carried the name "dragon" and were decorated with various dragon figures. Now dragon decorations can be seen everywhere in China and legends about dragons circulate.
Education[link]
The majority of Esperanto speakers learn the language through self-directed study, online tutorials, and correspondence courses taught by volunteers. In more recent years, free teaching websites like lernu! have become popular.
Esperanto instruction is occasionally available at schools, including four primary schools in a pilot project under the supervision of the University of Manchester, and by one count at 69 universities.[20] However, outside China and Hungary, these mostly involve informal arrangements rather than dedicated departments or state sponsorship. Eötvös Loránd University in Budapest had a department of Interlinguistics and Esperanto from 1966 to 2004, after which time instruction moved to vocational colleges; there are state examinations for Esperanto instructors.[21][22] The Senate of Brazil passed a bill in 2009 that would make Esperanto an optional part of the curriculum in public schools. As of 2010 the bill has not yet been passed by the Chamber of Deputies.[23][24][25]
Various educators have estimated that Esperanto can be learned in anywhere from one quarter to one twentieth the amount of time required for other languages.[26] Claude Piron, a psychologist formerly at the University of Geneva and Chinese–English–Russian–Spanish translator for the United Nations, argued that Esperanto is far more intuitive than many ethnic languages. "Esperanto relies entirely on innate reflexes [and] differs from all other languages in that you can always trust your natural tendency to generalize patterns. [...] The same neuropsychological law [—called by] Jean Piaget generalizing assimilation—applies to word formation as well as to grammar."[27]
The Institute of Cybernetic Pedagogy at Paderborn (Germany) has compared the length of study time it takes natively French-speaking high-school students to obtain comparable 'standard' levels in Esperanto, English, German, and Italian.[28] The results were:
- 2000 hours studying German = 1500 hours studying English = 1000 hours studying Italian (a Romance language like French) = 150 hours studying Esperanto.
Language acquisition[link]
Main article: Propaedeutic value of Esperanto
Four primary schools in Britain, with some 230 pupils, are currently following a course in "propaedeutic Esperanto"—that is, instruction in Esperanto to raise language awareness and accelerate subsequent learning of foreign languages—under the supervision of the University of Manchester. As they put it,
- Many schools used to teach children the recorder, not to produce a nation of recorder players, but as a preparation for learning other instruments. [We teach] Esperanto, not to produce a nation of Esperanto-speakers, but as a preparation for learning other languages.[29]
Studies have been conducted in New Zealand,[30] United States,[31][32][33] Germany,[34] Italy[35] and Australia.[36] The results of these studies were favorable and demonstrated that studying Esperanto before another foreign language expedites the acquisition of the other, natural, language. This appears to be because learning subsequent foreign languages is easier than learning one's first foreign language, while the use of a grammatically simple and culturally flexible auxiliary language like Esperanto lessens the first-language learning hurdle. In one study,[37] a group of European secondary school students studied Esperanto for one year, then French for three years, and ended up with a significantly better command of French than a control group, who studied French for all four years. Similar results have been found for other combinations of native and second languages, as well as for arrangements in which the course of study was reduced to two years, of which six months is spent learning Esperanto.[38]
Community[link]
Geography and demography[link]
Esperanto is by far the most widely spoken constructed language in the world.[39] Speakers are most numerous in Europe and East Asia, especially in urban areas, where they often form Esperanto clubs.[40] Esperanto is particularly prevalent in the northern and eastern countries of Europe; in China, Korea, Japan, and Iran within Asia;[41] in Brazil, Argentina, and Mexico in the Americas;[42] and in Togo in Africa.[43]
Number of speakers[link]
An estimate of the number of Esperanto speakers was made by Sidney S. Culbert, a retired psychology professor at the University of Washington and a longtime Esperantist, who tracked down and tested Esperanto speakers in sample areas in dozens of countries over a period of twenty years. Culbert concluded that between one and two million people speak Esperanto at Foreign Service Level 3, "professionally proficient" (able to communicate moderately complex ideas without hesitation, and to follow speeches, radio broadcasts, etc.).[44] Culbert's estimate was not made for Esperanto alone, but formed part of his listing of estimates for all languages of over one million speakers, published annually in the World Almanac and Book of Facts. Culbert's most detailed account of his methodology is found in a 1989 letter to David Wolff.[45] Since Culbert never published detailed intermediate results for particular countries and regions, it is difficult to independently gauge the accuracy of his results.
In the Almanac, his estimates for numbers of language speakers were rounded to the nearest million, thus the number for Esperanto speakers is shown as two million. This latter figure appears in Ethnologue. Assuming that this figure is accurate, that means that about 0.03% of the world's population speaks the language. Although it is not Zamenhof's goal of a universal language, it still represents a level of popularity unmatched by any other constructed language.
Marcus Sikosek (now Ziko van Dijk) has challenged this figure of 1.6 million as exaggerated. He estimated that even if Esperanto speakers were evenly distributed, assuming one million Esperanto speakers worldwide would lead one to expect about 180 in the city of Cologne. Van Dijk finds only 30 fluent speakers in that city, and similarly smaller-than-expected figures in several other places thought to have a larger-than-average concentration of Esperanto speakers. He also notes that there are a total of about 20,000 members of the various Esperanto organizations (other estimates are higher). Though there are undoubtedly many Esperanto speakers who are not members of any Esperanto organization, he thinks it unlikely that there are fifty times more speakers than organization members.[40]
Finnish linguist Jouko Lindstedt, an expert on native-born Esperanto speakers, presented the following scheme[46] to show the overall proportions of language capabilities within the Esperanto community:
- 1,000 have Esperanto as their native language.
- 10,000 speak it fluently.
- 100,000 can use it actively.
- 1,000,000 understand a large amount passively.
- 10,000,000 have studied it to some extent at some time.
In the absence of Dr. Culbert's detailed sampling data, or any other census data, it is impossible to state the number of speakers with certainty. According to the website of the World Esperanto Association:
- Numbers of textbooks sold and membership of local societies put the number of people with some knowledge of the language in the hundreds of thousands and possibly millions.[47]
In 2009 Lu Wunsch-Rolshoven used 2001 year census data[48] from Hungary[49] and Lithuania as a base for an estimate, resulting in approximately 160,000 to 300,000 to speak the language actively or fluently throughout the world, with about 80,000 to 150,000 of these being in the European Union.
Native speakers[link]
Main article: Native Esperanto speakers
Ethnologue relates estimates that there are 200 to 2000 native Esperanto speakers (denaskuloj), who have learned the language from birth from their Esperanto-speaking parents.[42] This usually happens when Esperanto is the chief or only common language in an international family, but sometimes occurs in a family of devoted Esperantists.[50]
Culture[link]
File:Cover Monato 2007.jpg
Monato, the most popular Esperanto news magazine. (The large print reads "15 years after the fall of the empire".)
Esperanto speakers can access an international culture, including a large body of original as well as translated literature. There are over 25,000 Esperanto books, both originals and translations, as well as several regularly distributed Esperanto magazines. Esperanto speakers use the language for free accommodations with Esperantists in 92 countries using the Pasporta Servo or to develop pen pal friendships abroad through the Esperanto Pen Pal Service.[51]
Every year, 1,500–3,000 Esperanto speakers meet for the World Congress of Esperanto (Universala Kongreso de Esperanto).[52][53]
Historically, much Esperanto music, such as Kaj Tiel Plu, has been in various folk traditions.[54] There is also a variety of classical and semi-classical choral music, both original and translated, as well as large ensemble music that includes voices singing Esperanto texts. Lou Harrison, who incorporated styles and instruments from many world cultures in his music, used Esperanto titles and/or texts in several of his works, most notably La Koro-Sutro (1973). David Gaines used Esperanto poems as well as an excerpt from a speech by Dr. Zamenhof for his Symphony No. 1 (Esperanto) for mezzo-soprano and orchestra (1994–98). He wrote original Esperanto text for his Povas plori mi ne plu (I Can Cry No Longer) for unaccompanied SATB choir (1994).
There are also shared traditions, such as Zamenhof Day, and shared behaviour patterns. Esperantists speak primarily in Esperanto at international Esperanto meetings.
Detractors of Esperanto occasionally criticize it as "having no culture". Proponents, such as Prof. Humphrey Tonkin of the University of Hartford, observe that Esperanto is "culturally neutral by design, as it was intended to be a facilitator between cultures, not to be the carrier of any one national culture". The late Scottish Esperanto author William Auld wrote extensively on the subject, arguing that Esperanto is "the expression of a common human culture, unencumbered by national frontiers. Thus it is considered a culture on its own."[55]
Noted authors in Esperanto[link]
Main article: Esperanto authors
Some authors of works in Esperanto are:
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Popular culture[link]
Main article: Esperanto in popular culture
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This "In popular culture" section may contain minor or trivial references. Please reorganize this content to explain the subject's impact on popular culture rather than simply listing appearances, and remove trivial references. (March 2012) |
Esperanto has been used in a number of films and novels. Typically, this is done either to add the exotic flavour of a foreign language without representing any particular ethnicity, or to avoid going to the trouble of inventing a new language. The Charlie Chaplin film The Great Dictator (1940) showed Jewish ghetto shop signs in Esperanto, to create the atmosphere of some 'foreign' East European country without referencing any particular East European language. Road to Singapore (also 1940) has a song in Esperanto.[citation needed]
Two full-length feature films have been produced with dialogue entirely in Esperanto: Angoroj, in 1964, and Incubus, a 1965 B-movie horror film. Canadian actor William Shatner learned Esperanto to a limited level so that he could star in Incubus, although Esperantists have stated that Shatner (a native of Montreal) speaks the language with a French accent. In Fritz Lang's Metropolis (1927) shop and road signs in Esperanto appear in many background scenes.[citation needed]
Other amateur productions have been made, such as a dramatisation of the novel Gerda Malaperis (Gerda Has Disappeared). A number of "mainstream" films in national languages have used Esperanto in some way, such as Gattaca (1997), in which Esperanto can be overheard on the public address system.[citation needed]
The 1939 film Idiot's Delight takes place in an unnamed European country, where the 'locals' speak Esperanto, and there are also Esperanto words and sentences written, like a sign reading Autobuso.[citation needed]
Similarly, in the 1994 film Street Fighter, Esperanto is the native language of the fictional country of Shadaloo, and in a barracks scene, the soldiers of villain M. Bison sing a rousing Russian Army-style chorus, the "Bison Troopers Marching Song", in the language. Esperanto is also spoken and appears on signs in the film Blade: Trinity.[citation needed]
Esperanto is used as the universal language in the far future of Harry Harrison's Stainless Steel Rat and Deathworld stories. Poul Anderson's story "High Treason" takes place in a future where Earth became united politically while still divided into many languages and cultures, and Esperanto became the language of its space armed forces, fighting wars with various extraterrestrial races. Therefore, in this future Esperanto is especially identified as a military language, and has gained a specialized vocabulary of military terms, as well as an extensive soldiers' slang.[citation needed]
The opening song 'Memoro de la Ŝtono' in the popular Video Game Final Fantasy XI was written in Esperanto. This was the first game in the series that was online and the composer Nobuo Uematsu felt that Esperanto was a good language to symbolize worldwide unity. The piece has been performed worldwide.[citation needed]
Science[link]
In 1921 the French Academy of Sciences recommended using Esperanto for international scientific communication.[56] A few scientists and mathematicians, such as Maurice Fréchet (mathematics), John C. Wells (linguistics), Helmar Frank (pedagogy and cybernetics), and Nobel laureate Reinhard Selten (economics) have published part of their work in Esperanto. Frank and Selten were among the founders of the International Academy of Sciences in San Marino, sometimes called the "Esperanto University", where Esperanto is the primary language of teaching and administration.[citation needed]
Goals of the movement[link]
Zamenhof's intention was to create an easy-to-learn language to foster international understanding. It was to serve as an international auxiliary language, that is, as a universal second language, not to replace ethnic languages. This goal was widely shared among Esperanto speakers in the early decades of the movement. Later, Esperanto speakers began to see the language and the culture that had grown up around it as ends in themselves, even if Esperanto is never adopted by the United Nations or other international organizations.
Those Esperanto speakers who want to see Esperanto adopted officially or on a large scale worldwide are commonly called finvenkistoj, from fina venko, meaning "final victory", or pracelistoj, from pracelo, meaning "original goal".[57] Those who focus on the intrinsic value of the language are commonly called raŭmistoj, from Rauma, Finland, where a declaration on the near-term unlikelihood of the "fina venko" and the value of Esperanto culture was made at the International Youth Congress in 1980.[58] These categories are, however, not mutually exclusive.
The Prague Manifesto (1996) presents the views of the mainstream of the Esperanto movement and of its main organisation, the World Esperanto Association (UEA).[59]
Symbols and flags[link]
Main article: Esperanto symbols
The earliest flag, and the one most commonly used today, features a green five-pointed star against a white canton, upon a field of green. It was proposed to Zamenhof by Irishman Richard Geoghegan, author of the first Esperanto textbook for English speakers, in 1887. The flag was approved in 1905 by delegates to the first conference of Esperantists at Boulogne-sur-Mer. A version with an "E" superimposed over the green star is sometimes seen. Other variants include that for Christian Esperantists, with a white Christian cross superimposed upon the green star, and that for Leftists, with the color of the field changed from green to red.[60]
In 1987, a second flag design was chosen in a contest organized by the UEA celebrating the first centennial of the language. It featured a white background with two stylised curved "E"s facing each other. Dubbed the "jubilea simbolo" (jubilee symbol),[61] it attracted criticism from some Esperantists, who dubbed it the "melono" (melon) because of the design's elliptical shape. It is still in use, though to a lesser degree than the traditional symbol, known as the "verda stelo" (green star).[62]
Politics[link]
Esperanto has been placed in many proposed political situations. The most popular of these is the Europe – Democracy – Esperanto, which aims to establish Esperanto as the official language of the European Union. The Irish political party Éirígí has recently adopted the green star as its emblem partly in support of Esperanto as an international language instead of English. The party derives its position on Esperanto from the Irish socialist leader James Connolly, who supported its use.[63]
Religion[link]
Esperanto has served an important role in several religions, such as Oomoto from Japan and the Baha'i Faith from Iran, and has been encouraged by others, like Spiritism.
Oomoto[link]
The Oomoto religion encourages the use of Esperanto among its followers and includes Zamenhof as one of its deified spirits.[64]
Bahá'í Faith[link]
The Bahá'í Faith encourages the use of an auxiliary international language. While endorsing no specific language, some Bahá'ís see Esperanto as having great potential in this role.[65] L. L. Zamenhof's daughter Lidja became a Bahá'í,[66] and various volumes of the Bahá'í literatures and other Baha'i books have been translated into Esperanto. In 1973, the Bahá'í Esperanto-League for active Bahá'í supporters of Esperanto was founded.
Spiritism[link]
In 1908, spiritist Camilo Chaigneau wrote an article named "Spiritism and Esperanto" in the periodic "La Vie d'Outre-Tombe" recommending the use of Esperanto in a "central magazine" for all spiritists and esperantists.[67]
Esperanto then became actively promoted, at least in Brazil, by spiritists. The Brazilian Spiritist Federation publishes Esperanto coursebooks, translations of Spiritism's basic books, and encourages Spiritists to become Esperantists.[68]
Bible translations[link]
The first translation of the Bible into Esperanto was a translation of the Tanakh or Old Testament done by L. L. Zamenhof. The translation was reviewed and compared with other languages' translations by a group of British clergy and scholars before its publication at the British and Foreign Bible Society in 1910. In 1926 this was published along with a New Testament translation, in an edition commonly called the "Londona Biblio". In the 1960s, the Internacia Asocio de Bibliistoj kaj Orientalistoj tried to organize a new, ecumenical Esperanto Bible version.[69] Since then, the Dutch Remonstrant pastor Gerrit Berveling has translated the Deuterocanonical or apocryphal books in addition to new translations of the Gospels, some of the New Testament epistles, and some books of the Tanakh or Old Testament. These have been published in various separate booklets, or serialized in Dia Regno, but the Deuterocanonical books have appeared in recent editions of the Londona Biblio.
Christianity[link]
Christian Esperanto organizations include two that were formed early in the history of Esperanto:
- 1910 – The International Union of Catholic Esperantists. Two Roman Catholic popes, John Paul II and Benedict XVI, have regularly used Esperanto in their multilingual urbi et orbi blessings at Easter and Christmas each year since Easter 1994.[citation needed]
- 1911 – The International Christian Esperantists League.
Individual churches using Esperanto include:
- The Quaker Esperanto Society, with activities as described in an issue of "The Friend"[70]
- 1910 – First Christadelphian publications in Esperanto.[71][72]
- There are instances of Christian apologists and teachers who use Esperanto as a medium. Nigerian Pastor Bayo Afolaranmi's "Spirita nutraĵo" (spiritual food) Yahoo mailing list, for example, has hosted weekly messages since 2003.[73]
Chick Publications, publisher of Protestant fundamentalist themed evangelistic tracts, has published a number of comic book style tracts by Jack T. Chick translated into Esperanto, including "This Was Your Life!" ("Jen Via Tuta Vivo!")[74]
Islam[link]
Ayatollah Khomeini of Iran called on Muslims to learn Esperanto and praised its use as a medium for better understanding among peoples of different religious backgrounds. After he suggested that Esperanto replace English as an international lingua franca, it began to be used in the seminaries of Qom. An Esperanto translation of the Qur'an was published by the state shortly thereafter.[75][76] In 1981, its usage became less popular when it became apparent that followers of the Bahá'í Faith were interested in it.[75]
Criticism[link]
Main article: Criticism of Esperanto
Esperanto was conceived as a language of international communication, more precisely as a universal second language.[77] Since publication, there has been debate over whether it is possible for Esperanto to attain this position, and whether it would be an improvement for international communication were it to do so; Esperanto proponents have also been criticized for diverting public funds to encourage its study over more "useful national languages".[78]
Since Esperanto is a planned language, there have been many criticisms of minor points.[79] An example is Zamenhof's choice of the word edzo over something like spozo for "husband, spouse",[80] or his choice of the Classic Greek and Old Latin singular and plural endings -o, -oj, -a, -aj over their Medieval contractions -o, -i, -a, -e. (Both these changes were adopted by the Ido reform, though Ido dispensed with adjectival agreement altogether.) Some more common examples of general criticism include the following:
- Esperanto has not yet achieved the hopes of its founder to become a universal second language. Although many promoters of Esperanto stress the successes it has had, the fact remains that well over a century since its publication, the Esperanto-speaking community remains comparatively tiny with respect to the world population. In the case of the United Kingdom, for instance, Esperanto is rarely taught in schools, because it is regarded by the government as not meeting the needs of the national curriculum.[81] Many critics see its aspirations for the role of a preponderant international auxiliary language as doomed because they believe it cannot compete with English in this regard.[82]
- The vocabulary and grammar are based on major European languages, and are not universal. Simultaneously, the vocabulary, diacritic letters,[80] and grammar are too dissimilar from the major Western European languages,[citation needed] and therefore Esperanto is not as easy as it could be for speakers of those languages to learn, even though it is much easier to learn than any other European language.[83][84] The "too European" criticism is often specific to a few points such as adjectival agreement and the accusative case (generally such obvious details are all that reform projects suggest changing),[citation needed] but sometimes it is more general: Both the grammar and the 'international' vocabulary are difficult for many Asians, among others, and give an unfair advantage to speakers of European languages.[85] One attempt to address this issue is Lojban, which draws from the six most populous languages, Arabic, Mandarin Chinese, English, Hindi, Russian, and Spanish, and whose grammar is designed for computer parsing.[86] Attempts to address the "not European enough" criticism include the younger planned languages Ido and Interlingua.[87]
- Esperanto simultaneously has no culture[88] and it is culturally European. Although it has a large international literature, Esperanto does not encapsulate a specific culture. Its vocabulary and semantics are derived from European languages. Both infuse the language with a European world view.[89]
- The vocabulary is too large. Rather than deriving new words from existing roots, large numbers of new roots are adopted into the language with the intent of being internationally accommodating when in reality the language only caters to European languages. This makes the language more difficult for non-Europeans than it needs to be.[85] A similar argument is made by many Esperanto speakers, not against the language itself but against the way it is (in their view) misused by many (mostly European) speakers; they argue that compounds or derivations should be used whenever possible, and new root words borrowed only when absolutely necessary.[90][91]
- Esperanto asymmetry in gender formation makes it sexist.[88] Most kin terms and titles are masculine by default and only feminine when so specified. There have been many attempts to address this issue, of which one of the better known is iĉism[92] (used by the Esperantist writer Jorge Camacho),[93] from which Riism derived.
- Esperanto is, looks, and/or sounds artificial. This criticism is often due to the letters with circumflex diacritics, which some find odd or cumbersome.[88] Others claim that an artificial language will necessarily be deficient, due to its very nature,[94] although the Hungarian Academy of Sciences has found that Esperanto fulfills all the requirements of a living language.[95]
Modifications[link]
Main article: Esperantido
Though Esperanto itself has changed little since the publication of the Fundamento de Esperanto (Foundation of Esperanto), a number of reform projects have been proposed over the years, starting with Zamenhof's proposals in 1894 and Ido in 1907. Several later constructed languages, such as Universal, were based on Esperanto.
In modern times, attempts have been made to eliminate perceived sexism in the language. One example of this is Riism. However, as Esperanto has become a living language, changes are as difficult to implement as in ethnic languages.
Eponymous entities[link]
There are many geographical and astronomical features named after Esperanto, or after its creator L. L. Zamenhof. These include Esperanto Island in Zed Islands off Livingston Island,[96] and the asteroids 1421 Esperanto and 1462 Zamenhof discovered by Finnish astronomer and Esperantist Yrjö Väisälä.
See also[link]
This audio file was created from a revision of the "Esperanto" article dated 2010-08-18, and does not reflect subsequent edits to the article. (Audio help)
- Akademio de Esperanto
- Distributed Language Translation
- Comparison between Esperanto and Ido
- Comparison between Esperanto and Interlingua
- Comparison between Esperanto and Novial
- Encyclopedia of Esperanto
- EoLA
- ESP-Disk
- Esperantic Studies Foundation
- Esperanto library
- Esperanto magazine
- Esperanto Wikipedia
- Esperantujo
- Indigenous Dialogues
- North American Summer Esperanto Institute
- Semajno de Kulturo Internacia
References[link]
- ^ Zasky, Jason (2009-07-20), "Discouraging Words", Failure Magazine, http://failuremag.com/index.php/feature/article/discouraging_words/, "But in terms of invented languages, it’s the most outlandishly successful invented language ever. It has thousands of speakers—even native speakers—and that’s a major accomplishment as compared to the 900 or so other languages that have no speakers."
- ^ Overview of the spread of Esperanto speakers worldwide.
- ^ Official European CEFR papers in Esperanto.
- ^ Ranking of Wikipedias by number of articles Retrieved on 2011-10-04
- ^ a b "Akademio Internacia de la Sciencoj (AIS) San-Marino". Ais-sanmarino.org. http://www.ais-sanmarino.org/. Retrieved 2010-12-05.
- ^ The letter is quoted in Esperanto: The New Latin for the Church and for Ecumenism, by Ulrich Matthias. Translation from Esperanto by Mike Leon and Maire Mullarney
- ^ "Esperanto". Ling.ohio-state.edu. 2003-01-25. http://www.ling.ohio-state.edu/~hana/esr/. Retrieved 2010-12-05.
- ^ Adolf Hitler (1924). "Mein Kampf". Volume 1, Chapter XI. http://www.hitler.org/writings/Mein_Kampf/mkv1ch11.html. Retrieved 2007-05-22. "As long as the Jew has not become the master of the other peoples, he must speak their languages whether he likes it or not, but as soon as they became his slaves, they would all have to learn a universal language (Esperanto, for instance!), so that by this additional means the Jews could more easily dominate them!"
- ^ "About ESW and the Holocaust Museum". Esperantodc.org. 1995-12-05. http://esperantodc.org/esw6.html. Retrieved 2010-12-05.
- ^ a b "Donald J. Harlow, The Esperanto Book, chapter 7". Donh.best.vwh.net. http://donh.best.vwh.net/Esperanto/EBook/chap07.html. Retrieved 2010-12-05.
- ^ La utilización del esperanto durante la Guerra Civil Española, Toño del Barrio and Ulrich Lins. Paper for the International Congress on the Spanish Civil War, (Madrid, 27–29 November 2006).
- ^ The Languages of China by S. Robert Ramsey
- ^ Chaudhary, M. A.; Chaudhary, Gautam (2009). Global Encyclopaedia of Political Geography. Global Vision Publishing House. p. 142. ISBN 978-81-8220-233-7.
- ^ "''The Maneuver Enemy'' website". Kafejo.com. 2004-06-02. http://www.kafejo.com/lingvoj/auxlangs/eo/maneuver/. Retrieved 2010-12-05.
- ^ "Unesco and Esperanto". Uea.org. 2010-06-08. http://www.uea.org/info/angle/an_ghisdatigo.html. Retrieved 2010-12-05.
- ^ Blank, Detlev (1985). Internationale Plansprachen. Eine Einführung ("International Planned Languages. An Introduction"). Akademie-Verlag. ISSN 0138-55 X.
- ^ Kalocsay & Waringhien (1985) Plena analiza gramatiko de Esperanto, §17, 22
- ^ EK
- ^ Maire Mullarney Everyone's Own Language, p147, Nitobe Press, Channel Islands, 1999
- ^ "Esperanto en universitatoj". Uea.Org. 2003-04-17. http://uea.org/agadoj/instruado/pirlot.html. Retrieved 2010-12-05.
- ^ "enhavo". Web.archive.org. 2009-10-27. Archived from the original on 2009-10-27. http://web.archive.org/web/20091027105835/http://geocities.com/bujdosoivan/tarte.htm. Retrieved 2010-12-05.
- ^ "Elte Btk". Webcitation.org. http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http://www.geocities.com/bujdosoivan/okt.htm%233&date=2009-10-25+16:42:39. Retrieved 2010-12-05.
- ^ PLS 27/08 (Senate).
- ^ PL-6162/2009 (Chamber of Deputies).
- ^ Entidades manifestam apoio à proposta de incluir ensino de Esperanto na grade de disciplinas da rede pública (Portuguese) Agência Senado
- ^ "Is Esperanto four times easier to learn?". Esperanto-USA. http://esperanto-usa.org/?q=node/77. Retrieved 2010-12-05.
- ^ Piron, Claude: "The hidden perverse effect of the current system of international communication", published lecture notes
- ^ Flochon, Bruno, 2000, « L'espéranto », in Gauthier, Guy (ed.) Langues: une guerre à mort, Panoramiques. 4e trim. 48: 89-95. Cited in François Grin, L'enseignement des langues étrangères comme politique publique (French)
- ^ "Springboard to Languages". Springboard2languages.org. http://www.springboard2languages.org. Retrieved 2010-12-05.
- ^ Report: Article in Enciklopedio de Esperanto, volume I, p.436, on the pedagogic value of Esperanto.
- ^ Report: Christian Rudmick, The Wellesley College Danish-Esperanto experiment.
- ^ Report: Edward Thorndike, Language Learning. Bureau of Publications of Teachers College, 1933. Interlingua.org
- ^ Helen S. Eaton, "The Educational Value of an Artificial Language." The Modern Language Journal, #12, pp. 87-94 (1927). Blackwellpublishing.com
- ^ Protocols of the annual November meetings in Paderborn "Laborkonferencoj: Interlingvistiko en Scienco kaj Klerigo" (Working conference: Interlinguistics in Science and Education), which can be obtained from the Institute of Pedagogic Cybernetics in Paderborn. Also in the works by Frank, Lobin, Geisler, and Meder.
- ^ Study International Language (known as Esperanto) Commission, Interministerial Decree April 29/October 5, 1993, Italian ministry of public instruction.
- ^ Study Monash University EKPAROLI project home page
- ^ Williams, N. (1965) 'A language teaching experiment', Canadian Modern Language Review 22.1: 26-28
- ^ Andrew Norman. "home". Web.archive.org. http://web.archive.org/web/20040215074307/%68ttp://www.education.monash.edu.au/projects/esperanto/. Retrieved 2010-12-05.
- ^ Byram, Michael (2001). Routledge Encyclopedia of Language Teaching and Learning. Routledge. p. 464. ISBN 0-415-33286-9.
- ^ a b Sikosek, Ziko M. Esperanto Sen Mitoj ("Esperanto without Myths"). Second edition. Antwerp: Flandra Esperanto-Ligo, 2003.
- ^ Ulrich Lins, 2008. "Esperanto as language and idea in China and Japan". In Language Problems and Language Planning, 32:1:47–60
- ^ a b "Ethnologue report for language code:epo". Ethnologue.com. http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=epo. Retrieved 2010-12-05.
- ^ "Afrika Agado". Pagesperso-orange.fr. http://pagesperso-orange.fr/eric.coffinet/Afrika_Agado.html. Retrieved 2010-12-05.
- ^ Culbert, Sidney S. Three letters about his method for estimating the number of Esperanto speakers, scanned and HTMLized by David Wolff
- ^ "Number of Esperantists (methods)". Panix.com. http://www.panix.com/~dwolff/docs/culbert-methods.html. Retrieved 2010-12-05.
- ^ Lindstedt, Jouko. "Re: Kiom?" (posting). DENASK-L@helsinki.fi, 22 April 1996.
- ^ An Update on Esperanto, Universala Esperanto-Asocio (World Esperanto Association)
- ^ "Popolnombradoj donas indikon pri la kvanto de esperantistoj — Libera Folio" (in (Esperanto)). Liberafolio.org. http://www.liberafolio.org/2009/popolnombradoj-donas-indikon-pri-la-kvanto-de-esperantistoj/. Retrieved 2010-12-05.
- ^ "Population by knowledge of languages". Nepszamlalas.hu. http://www.nepszamlalas.hu/eng/volumes/06/00/tabeng/2/load01_13_0.html. Retrieved 2010-12-05.
- ^ Jouko Lindstedt (January 2006) (PDF). Native Esperanto as a Test Case for Natural Language. University of Helsinki – Department of Slavonic and Baltic Languages and Literatures. http://www.ling.helsinki.fi/sky/julkaisut/SKY2006_1/1FK60.1.5.LINDSTEDT.pdf.
- ^ Esperanto Koresponda Servo ("Esperanto Pen Pal Service"). Retrieved March 29, 2008.
- ^ Ziko van Dijk. Sed homoj kun homoj: Universalaj Kongresoj de Esperanto 1905–2005. Rotterdam: UEA, 2005.
- ^ Szilvási László. "International Esperanto meetings". Eventoj.hu. http://www.eventoj.hu/. Retrieved 2010-12-05.
- ^ Kaj Tiel Plu Esperanto folk music as downloadable MP3 file
- ^ Auld, William. La Fenomeno Esperanto ("The Esperanto Phenomenon"). Rotterdam: Universala Esperanto-Asocio, 1988.
- ^ Peter Glover Forster (1982). The Esperanto Movement. Walter de Gruyter. p. 181. ISBN 978-90-279-3399-7.
- ^ "Esperanto" by Mark Feeney. The Boston Globe, 12 May 1999
- ^ "Kion Signifas Raŭmismo", by Giorgio Silfer.
- ^ "Prague Manifesto" (English version). Universala Esperanto-Asocio, updated 2003-03-26.
- ^ Esperanto flag, flagspot.net
- ^ "Esperanto flag: The jubilee symbol". Fotw.net. http://www.fotw.net/flags/qy-eo.html#jub. Retrieved 2010-12-05.
- ^ "Esperanto flag". Fotw.net. http://www.fotw.net/flags/qy-eo.html. Retrieved 2010-12-05.
- ^ "James Connolly". Esperanto.ie. http://esperanto.ie/english/ireland/connolly.html. Retrieved 2010-06-17.
- ^ "The Oomoto Esperanto portal". Oomoto.or.jp. http://www.oomoto.or.jp/Esperanto/index-es.html. Retrieved 2010-12-05.
- ^ "The Baha'i Faith and Esperanto". Bahaa Esperanto-Ligo ( B.E.L. ). http://www.bahai.de/bahaaeligo/angla/englisch.htm. Retrieved 2006-08-26.
- ^ Smith, Peter (2000). "Zamenhof, Lidia". A concise encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith. Oxford: Oneworld Publications. pp. 368. ISBN 1-85168-184-1.
- ^ (Portuguese) O Espiritismo e o Esperanto (Spiritism and Esperanto)
- ^ "Uma só língua, uma só bandeira, um só pastor: Spiritism and Esperanto in Brazil by David Pardue" (PDF). University of Kansas Libraries. http://www.math.uu.se/esperanto/207pardue.pdf#search=%22esperanto%20%2Breligion%22. Retrieved 2006-08-26.
- ^ "La Sankta Biblio – "Londona text"". http://home.att.net/~el_sxadaj/kbiblio.htm. Retrieved 2006-08-26.
- ^ Eric Walker (May 27, 2005). "Esperanto Lives On". The Friend.
- ^ Botten J. The Captive Conscience 2002 p.110 re. Esperanto speaking Christadelphians in Tsarist Russia.
- ^ "Internacia Biblio-Misio". Biblio-misio.org. http://www.biblio-misio.org. Retrieved 2010-12-05.
- ^ Bayo Afolaranmi. "Spirita nutraĵo". http://groups.yahoo.com/group/spiritanutrajxo/. Retrieved 2006-09-13.
- ^ "Esperanto "This Was Your Life"". Chick.com. http://chick.com/reading/tracts/1370/1370_01.asp. Retrieved 2010-12-05.
- ^ a b "Esperanto – Have any governments opposed Esperanto?". Donald J. Harlow. http://www.webcom.com/~donh/efaq.html. Retrieved 2006-08-26.
- ^ "Esperanto in Iran (in Persian)". Porneniu. http://porneniu.wordpress.com/learn-esperanto/. Retrieved 2006-08-26.
- ^ "Esperanto.org". Esperanto.org. http://www.esperanto.org.nz/what_is_eo.html. Retrieved 2010-12-05.
- ^ "Christopherculver.com". Christopherculver.com. http://www.christopherculver.com/en/writings/esperanto.php. Retrieved 2010-12-05.
- ^ There have been a number of attempts to reform the language, the most well-known of which is the language Ido which resulted in a schism in the community at the time, beginning in 1907. See "Why Ido?" The International Language of Ido. 18 March 2008. 4 February 2009 Idolinguo.org.uk.
- ^ a b "Why Ido?" The International Language of Ido. 18 Mach 2008. 4 February 2009 Idolinguo.org.
- ^ Who, What, Why? (2008-07-16). "Bbc News". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/7505820.stm. Retrieved 2010-12-05.
- ^ "Why Esperanto Is Different". New English Review. 2006-09-15. http://www.newenglishreview.org/custpage.cfm/frm/9560/sec_id/9560. Retrieved 2010-12-05.
- ^ Claude Piron, Linguistic Communication: A Comparative Field Study, studies about problems in learning languages
- ^ C.E. King, A.S. Bryntsev, F.D. Sohn, Report on the implications of additional languages in the United Nations system, Geneva: UN, Joint Inspection Unit, 1977, document A/32/237
- ^ a b "Is Esperanto's vocabulary bloated?". Rickharrison.com. http://www.rickharrison.com/language/bloated.html. Retrieved 2010-12-05.
- ^ "Lojban". Neptune.spaceports.com. 2004-03-01. http://neptune.spaceports.com/~words/lojban.html. Retrieved 2010-12-05.
- ^ "What is Esperanto?". Langsuuage-learning-advisor.com. http://www.language-learning-advisor.com/what-is-esperanto.html. Retrieved 2010-12-05.
- ^ a b c "Critiche all'esperanto ed alle altre lingue internazionali". Parracomumangi.altervista.org. http://parracomumangi.altervista.org/domande.htm. Retrieved 2010-12-05.
- ^ Europe's Babylon[dead link]
- ^ La Bona Lingvo, Claude Piron. Vienna: Pro Esperanto, 1989. La lingvo volas eleganti, ne elefanti. "The language wants to be elegant, not elephantine."
- ^ "Ĉi-tiu Esperanto estus turka...", Renato Corsetti. 2007.
- ^ 'Seksaj vortoj', Bertilo Wennergren, Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko
- ^ Camacho, Jorge. Sur la linio. Rakontoj kaj noveloj de Georgo Kamaĉo. Enkonduko de Fernando de Diego. – Berkeley : Eldonejo Bero, 1991.
- ^ Claude Piron cites and replies to several such criticisms in his Le Défi des Langues (Paris: L'Harmattan, 1994).
- ^ Laŭ la komuna opinio de gvidaj fakuloj de la Instituto, Esperanto apartenas al la kategorio de vivaj lingvoj. Pli detale traktante la temon, konsiderante la historion kaj la nunan staton de Esperanto, a.) ĝi estas grandmezure normigita, b.) amplekse sociiĝinta, c.) ne-etna viva lingvo, kiu en sekundara lingva komunumo plenumas ĉiujn eblajn lingvajn funkciojn, kaj samtempe ĝi funkcias kiel pera lingvo. – Ĉi supre diritaj respegulas la sciencan starpunkton de nia Instituto. "Malgranda fina venko". El Hungario
- ^ Composite Gazetteer of Antarctica: Esperanto Island
Further reading[link]
- Emily van Someren. Republication of the thesis 'The EU Language Regime, Lingual and Translational Problems'.
- Ludovikologia dokumentaro I Tokyo: Ludovikito, 1991. Facsimile reprints of the Unua Libro in Russian, Polish, French, German, English and Swedish, with the earliest Esperanto dictionaries for those languages.
- Fundamento de Esperanto. HTML reprint of 1905 Fundamento, from the Academy of Esperanto.
- Esperanto Lessons. Including the alphabet, adjectives, nouns, plural, gender, numbers, phrases, grammar, vocabulary, verbs, exam, audio, and translation.
- Auld, William. La Fenomeno Esperanto ("The Esperanto Phenomenon"). Rotterdam: Universala Esperanto-Asocio, 1988.
- Butler, Montagu C. Step by Step in Esperanto. ELNA 1965/1991. ISBN 0-939785-01-3.
- DeSoto, Clinton (1936). 200 Meters and Down. West Hartford, Connecticut, US: American Radio Relay League, p. 92.
- Crystal, Professor David, article "Esperanto" in The New Penguin Encyclopedia, Penguin Books, 2002.
- ditto, How Language Works (pages 424-5), Penguin Books, 2006. ISBN 978-0-14-101552-1.
- Everson, Michael. The Alphabets of Europe: EsperantoPDF (25.4 KB). Evertype, 2001.
- Forster, Peter G. The Esperanto Movement. The Hague: Mouton Publishers, 1982. ISBN 90-279-3399-5.
- Gledhill, Christopher. http://stl.recherche.univ-lille3.fr/sitespersonnels/gledhill/Esperanto_a_corpus-based_description_GLEDHILL.pdf The Grammar of Esperanto: A Corpus-Based Description.] Second edition. Lincom Europa, 2000. ISBN 3-89586-961-9.
- Harlow, Don. The Esperanto Book. Self-published on the web (1995–96).
- Okrent, Arika. In the Land of Invented Languages.
- Wells, John. Lingvistikaj aspektoj de Esperanto ("Linguistic aspects of Esperanto"). Second edition. Rotterdam: Universala Esperanto-Asocio, 1989.
- Zamenhof, Ludovic Lazarus, Dr. Esperanto's International Language: Introduction & Complete Grammar The original 1887 Unua Libro, English translation by Richard H. Geoghegan; HTML online version 2006. Print edition (2007) also available from ELNA or UEA.
External links[link]
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Look up Esperanto in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. |
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Esperanto edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia |
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Definitions and translations from Wiktionary |
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Source texts from Wikisource |
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Textbooks from Wikibooks |
- Esperanto at Ethnologue (16th ed., 2009)
- Esperanto at the Open Directory Project
- UEA.org - Website of the World Esperanto Association
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This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esperanto
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This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
For other people with the same name, see Zamenhof (disambiguation).
| Ludwig Lazarus Zamenhof | |
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| Born | Leyzer Leyvi Zamengov (1859-12-15)December 15, 1859 Białystok, Russian Empire |
| Died | April 14, 1917(1917-04-14) (aged 57) Warsaw, Poland |
| Nationality | Russian |
| Ethnicity | Jewish |
| Citizenship |  Russian Empire |
| Known for | Devising Esperanto |
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Related topics
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Wikimedia
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Ludwig Lazarus Zamenhof ( /ˈzɑːmɨnhɒf/; born Leyzer Leyvi Zamengov;[1] December 15, 1859 – April 14, 1917) is the creator of Esperanto, the most successful constructed language designed for international communication.
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Cultural background[link]
Zamenhof was born on December 15 (December 3 OS), 1859 in the town of Białystok in the Russian Empire (now part of Poland). He considered his native language to be his father's Russian,[2] but he also spoke his mother's Yiddish natively;[3] as he grew older, he spoke more Polish, and that became the native language of his children. His father was a teacher of German, and he also spoke that language fluently, though not as comfortably as Yiddish[dubious – discuss]. Later he learned French, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and English, and had an interest in Italian, Spanish and Lithuanian.
In addition to the Yiddish-speaking Jewish majority, the population of Białystok was made up of three other ethnic groups: Poles, Germans, and Belarusians. Zamenhof was saddened and frustrated by the many quarrels among these groups. He supposed that the main reason for the hate and prejudice lay in the mutual misunderstanding caused by the lack of one common language. If such a language existed, Zamenhof postulated, it could play the role of a neutral communication tool between people of different ethnic and linguistic backgrounds.
Work for an international language[link]
As a student at secondary school in Warsaw, Zamenhof made attempts to create some kind of international language with a grammar that was very rich, but also very complex. When he later studied English, he decided that the international language must have a simpler grammar. Apart from his parents' native languages Russian and Yiddish and his adopted language Polish, his linguistics attempts were also aided by his mastering of German, a good passive understanding of Latin, Hebrew and French, and a basic knowledge of Greek, English and Italian.[4]
By 1878, his project Lingwe uniwersala was almost finished. However, Zamenhof was too young then to publish his work. Soon after graduation from school he began to study medicine, first in Moscow, and later in Warsaw. In 1885, Zamenhof graduated from a university and began his practice as a doctor in Veisiejai and after 1886 as an ophthalmologist in Płock and Vienna. While healing people there he continued to work on his project of an international language.
For two years he tried to raise funds to publish a booklet describing the language until he received the financial help from his future wife's father. In 1887, the book titled Lingvo internacia: Antaŭparolo kaj plena lernolibro (International language: Foreword and complete textbook) was published in Russian[5] under the pseudonym "Doktoro Esperanto" (Doctor Hopeful), from which the name of the language derives. For Zamenhof this language, far from being merely a communication tool, was a way of promoting the peaceful coexistence of different people and cultures.
Work on Yiddish language and Jewish issues[link]
In 1879, Zamenhof wrote the first grammar of the Yiddish language, which he published in part years later in the Yiddish magazine Lebn un visnshaft.[6] The complete original Russian text of this manuscript with parallel Esperanto translation was only published in 1982 (translated by Adolf Holzhaus in L. Zamenhof, provo de gramatiko de novjuda lingvo, Helsinki, p. 9-36). In this work, not only does he provide a review of Yiddish grammar, but also proposes its transition to the Latin script and other orthographic innovations. In the same period, Zamenhof wrote some other works in Yiddish, including perhaps the first survey of Yiddish poetics (see p. 50 in the above-cited book).
In 1882, a wave of pogroms in the Russian empire motivated Zamenhof to take part in the early Zionist movement, the Hibbat Zion.[7] He left the movement in 1887, and in 1901 published a statement in Russian with the title Hillelism, in which he argued that the Zionist project could not solve the problems of the Jewish people.[7]
In 1914, he politely declined an invitation to join a new organization of Jewish Esperantists, the TEHA. In his letter to the organizers, he said: "I am profoundly convinced that every nationalism offers humanity only the greatest unhappiness... It is true that the nationalism of oppressed peoples – as a natural self-defensive reaction – is much more excusable than the nationalism of peoples who oppress; but, if the nationalism of the strong is ignoble, the nationalism of the weak is imprudent; both give birth to and support each other..."[7]
Among the many works Zamenhof translated into Esperanto is the Hebrew Bible or Old Testament.
Zamenhof died in Warsaw on April 14, 1917, and is buried in the Okopowa Street Jewish Cemetery in that city.
Religious philosophy[link]
Main article: Homaranismo
Besides his linguistic work, Zamenhof published a religious philosophy he called Homaranismo (loosely translated as humanitarianism), based on the principles and teachings of Hillel the Elder.
Children[link]
Zamenhof and his wife Klara raised three children, a son, Adam, and two daughters, Sofia and Lidia. All three died in the Holocaust.[8]
Lidia Zamenhof in particular took a keen interest in Esperanto, and as an adult became a teacher of the language, traveling through Europe and to America to teach classes in it. Through her friendship with Martha Root, Lidia accepted Bahá’u’lláh and became a member of the Bahá’í faith. As one of its social principles, the Bahá’í faith teaches that an auxiliary world language should be selected by the representatives of all the world's nations.
Name discrepancy[link]
Zamenhof's parents gave him the Hebrew name Eliezer, which appeared on his birth certificate in its Yiddish form Leyzer. In his adolescence he used both Leyzer and the Russian equivalent Lazar (the form Lazarus is often used in English texts). In some Russian documents Lazar was followed by the patronymic Markovich.
While at university, Zamenhof began using the Russian name Lyudovik (often transcribed Ludovic; in English the form Ludwig is also used) in place of Lazar. When his brother Leon became a doctor and started signing his name "Dr L. Zamenhof",[9] Ludwik reclaimed his birth name Lazar and from 1901 signed his name "Dr L. L. Zamenhof". The two L's do not seem to have specifically represented either name, and the order Ludwik Lazar is a modern convention.
Zamenhof may have chosen the name Ludwik in honor of Francis Lodwick (or Lodowyck), who in 1652 had published an early conlang proposal.[10]
His family name was originally written Samenhof, in German orthography; the spelling Zamenhof reflects the romanization of the Yiddish spelling זאַמענהאָף, as well as the Esperanto and Polish spellings.
Honours and namesakes[link]
In 1910, Zamenhof was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize, by four British Members of Parliament (including James O'Grady, Philip Snowden) and Professor Stanley Lane Poole.[11] (The Prize was instead awarded to the International Peace Bureau.) On the occasion of the 5th Universala Kongreso de Esperanto in Barcelona, Zamenhof was made a Commander of the Order of Isabella the Catholic by King Alfonso XIII of Spain.[12]
The minor planet 1462 Zamenhof is named in his honor. It was discovered on February 6, 1938, by Yrjö Väisälä. Also, hundreds of city streets, parks, and bridges worldwide have been named after Zamenhof.[13] In Lithuania, the best-known Zamenhof Street is in Kaunas, where he lived and owned a house for some time. There are others in England, France, Hungary, Poland, the Czech Republic, Spain (mostly in Catalonia), Italy, Israel, and Brazil. There are Zamenhof Hills in Hungary and Brazil, and a Zamenhof Island in the Danube River.[14]
In some Israeli cities, street signs identify Esperanto's creator and give his birth and death dates, but refer to him solely by his Jewish name Eliezer (a variant of which, El'azar, is the origin of Lazarus). Zamenhof is honored as a deity by the Japanese religion Oomoto, which encourages the use of Esperanto among its followers. Also, a genus of lichen has been named Zamenhofia rosei in his honour.[15]
His birthday, December 15, is celebrated annually as Zamenhof Day by users of Esperanto. On December 15, 2009, Esperanto's green-starred flag flew on the Google search web page, in a commemorative Google Doodle to mark Zamenhof's 150th birthday.[16]
The house of the Zamenhof family, dedicated to Ludwik Zamenhof and the Białystok Esperanto Centre, are sites of the Jewish Heritage Trail in Białystok, which was opened in June 2008 by volunteers at The University of Białystok Foundation.[17]
See also[link]
- The Life of Zamenhof
- The Ludwik Zamenhof Centre in Białystok
- 1462 Zamenhof, a minor planet named in Zamenhof's honour
- 1421 Esperanto, another minor planet, similarly named
Notes[link]
- ^ Birth Certificate N 47: "Leyzer Zamengov, son of Mordkha Fayvelovich Zamengov and Liba Sholemovna Sofer"
- ^ In a letter to a Th. Thorsteinsson dated 1901 March 08 he wrote, Mia gepatra lingvo estas la rusa; sed nun mi parolas pli pole... "My mother tongue is Russian, but now I speak more Polish..." See also his biographers A. Zakrzewski and E. Wiesenfeld.
- ^ Claude Piron (1984). "Kontribuaĵo al la studo pri la influoj de la jida sur Esperanton". Jewish Language Review 4. http://user.in-berlin.de/~maxnet/esperanto/piron/jida.htm.
- ^ Holzhaus, Adolf: Doktoro kaj lingvo Esperanto. Helsinki : Fondumo Esperanto. 1969
- ^ Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie, Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World (Elsevier, 2009: ISBN 0-08-087774-5), p. 375.
- ^ Vilnius, 1909; see Esperanto translation as Pri jida gramatiko kaj reformo en la jida in Hebreo el la geto: De cionismo al hilelismo, Eldonejo Ludovikito, vol. 5, 1976
- ^ a b c N. Z. Maimon (May–June 1958). "La cionista periodo en la vivo de Zamenhof". Nica Literatura Revuo (3/5): 165–177. http://donh.best.vwh.net/Esperanto/Literaturo/Revuoj/nlr/nlr35/cionistau.html.
- ^ Hoffmann, Frank W.; William G. Bailey (1992). Mind & Society Fads. Haworth Press. ISBN 1-56024-178-0. , p. 116: "Between world wars, Esperanto fared worse and, sadly, became embroiled in political power moves. Adolf Hitler wrote in Mein Kampf that the spread of Esperanto throughout Europe was a Jewish plot to break down national differences so that Jews could assume positions of authority.... After the Nazis' successful Blitzkrieg of Poland, the Warsaw Gestapo received orders to 'take care' of the Zamenhof family.... Zamenhof's son was shot... his two daughters were put in Treblinka death camp."
- ^ Wincewicz, Andrzej; Sulkowska Mariola, Musiatowicz Marcin, Sulkowski Stanislaw (Jun. 2009). "Laryngologist Leon Zamenhof--brother of Dr. Esperanto". American journal of audiology (United States) 18 (1): 3–6. DOI:10.1044/1059-0889(2008/08-0002). ISSN 1059-0889. PMID 18978199.
- ^ Umberto Eco & James Fentress (September 9, 1995). The Search for the Perfect Language. Blackwell Publishing. p. 324. ISBN 0-631-17465-6.
- ^ Nobel Prize nomnination database
- ^ Olaizola, Borja. "Chatear en Esperanto, vigésimo idioma del mundo más usado en la red." El Correo. 30/03/2011.
- ^ See the list of Zamenhof/Esperanto Objects on the Wikipedia in Esperanto
- ^ Hommages au Dr Zamenhof, à l’espéranto et à ses pionniers.
- ^ Zamenhofia rosei: Francis' lichen. Range, habitat, biology.
- ^ Google logos 4thQ'09 archive page. Retrieved 2010-04-01.
- ^ Jewish Heritage Trail in Białystok accessed July 25, 2009.
References[link]
- Elwood, Ann (1975). "Toward a Universal Language". The Peoples Almanac. Garden City NY: Doubleday and Company. ISBN 0-385-04060-1.
- Le Petit Robert: 'Zamenhof'. Paris; Montréal: Dictionnaires Le Robert, 1990. ISBN 2-85036-074-0.
- Schmadel, Lutz D (1993). Dictionary of Minor Planet Names (2 ed.). Berlin; New York: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 3-540-66292-8.
- Wincewicz, A; M. Sulkowska; S. Sulkowski (2007). "To heal the mind's eye of hate--Dr. Ludwik Zamenhof" (PDF). Isr Med Assoc J 9 (5): 352–4. PMID 17591370. http://www.ima.org.il/imaj/ar07may-2.pdf.
- Korĵenkov, Aleksander (2009). Homarano : La vivo, verkoj kaj ideoj de d-ro L.L.Zamenhof (1 ed.). Kaliningrad; Kaunas: Sezonoj; Litova Esperanto-Asocio. pp. 320. ISBN 978-609-95087-0-2.
External links[link]
| Find more about L. L. Zamenhof on Wikipedia's sister projects: | |
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Definitions and translations from Wiktionary |
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Images and media from Commons |
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Quotations from Wikiquote |
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Source texts from Wikisource |
- Zamenhof, Esperanto's founder (in English) on lernu!, an Esperanto study portal
- Zamenhof: The Life, Works, and Ideas of the Author of Esperanto by Aleksandr Korzhenkov – a 53 pages scholarly text abridged from a 2009 book (in English)
- Works by L. L. Zamenhof at Project Gutenberg (in Esperanto)
- ZAMENHOF, LAZARUS LUDWIG by Joseph Jacobs, Isidore Harris. Jewish Encyclopedia, 1906 ed.
- L.L. Zamenhof and the Shadow People by Esther Schor, The New Republic, December 30, 2009
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Zamenhof, Ludvic Lazarus |
| Alternative names | Ludwik Lejzer, Ludwik Łazarz |
| Short description | Inventor of Esperanto |
| Date of birth | (1859-12-15)December 15, 1859 |
| Place of birth | Białystok, Russian Empire (now Poland) |
| Date of death | April 14, 1917(1917-04-14) |
| Place of death | Warsaw, Kingdom of Poland |
http://wn.com/L._L._Zamenhof
Related pages:
http://it.wn.com/Ludwik Lejzer Zamenhof
http://cs.wn.com/Ludvík Lazar Zamenhof
http://es.wn.com/L. L. Zamenhof
http://ru.wn.com/Заменгоф, Людвик Лазарь
http://nl.wn.com/Lejzer Zamenhof
http://id.wn.com/L.L. Zamenhof
http://pl.wn.com/Ludwik Zamenhof
http://fr.wn.com/Ludwik Lejzer Zamenhof
http://de.wn.com/Ludwik Lejzer Zamenhof
http://pt.wn.com/Ludwik Lejzer Zamenhof
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This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
