- published: 19 Oct 2012
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Aadloun
Aadloun, Adloun or Adlun (Arabic: عدلون) is a coastal town in South Lebanon, 17 kilometres (11 mi) south of Sidon famous for its cultivation of watermelons. It is also the site of a Phoenician necropolis and prehistoric caves where four archaeological sites have been discovered and dated to the Stone Age.
Aadloun I or Abri Zumoffen is a low cave and terrace at the foot of a cliff near a beach. It was discovered and sounded by Godefroy Zumoffen in 1898, 1900 and 1908 who found material thought to be either Acheulean or Mousterian. Dorothy Garrod suggested similarities existed to a final Acheulean (or Yarbrudian) industry of Tabun E. Along with Diana Kirkbride, she re-opened excavations in 1958 with another season in 1963 and found a pre-Aurignacian (Garrod's Amudian) blade industry in the deposits. D. A. Hooijer discussed the fauna of the site suggesting it included game animals and rhino. Materials from the site are now in collections of the Saint Joseph University, Beirut and the Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge. The site is now owned by the Directorate General of Antiquities but the previous land owner carried out private digging that has spread deposits from the Aadloun II cave site over the area creating a false layer.
wn.com/Aadloun -
Aaiha
Aaiha (or Aiha) is a village, plain, lake and temporary wetland situated in the Rashaya District and south of the Beqaa Governorate in Lebanon. It is located in an intermontane basin near Mount Hermon and the Syrian border, approximately halfway between Rashaya and Kfar Qouq.
The village sits ca. 3,750 feet (1,140 m) above sea level and the small population is predominantly Druze. Wild wheats Triticum boeoticum and T. urartu grow in this area, also used for farming goats. There is a nearby tomb of a muslim saint and a Roman ruins thought to be a temple or citadel that is now totally destroyed Fragments of blocks and inscribed stones lie around the area, some having been used in the village dwellings and others covered in rubbish in the surrounding area. Dr. Edward Robinson and Reverend Eli Smith visited in 1852 and noted some of the stones were large, unbevelled and well hewn.Sir Charles Warren also later visited and documented the area as part of an archaeological survey in 1869. The temple was completed in 92 AD but only the western part remained when visited, located on the top of a hill overlooking the plain. It was constructed of blue limestone with an entrance opening facing east and a sideways bearing of 78°30'. It has a cornice and base with Roman features in the Corinthian style and a frieze of the same style was laid nearby at the time of the survey. A stone with a Greek inscription was found built into the western wall. The structure measures 37.6 feet (11.5 m) wide by at least 47.15 feet (14.37 m) long with an entrance to vaults underneath. A column found nearby measured 3.2 feet (0.98 m) in diameter.
wn.com/Aaiha -
Aammiq
Aamiq or Aammiq II is an archaeological site southwest of Zahle in the Aammiq Wetland, Beqaa Valley, Lebanon.
It was first excavated by Jacques Cauvin in 1963, then again by M. Cavalier in 1964, 1965 by Lorraine Copeland and Peter Wescombe and Jacques Besançon & Francis Hours in 1971.
Two periods of inhabitation were found, the first period between 12000-10200 cal. BC was Natufian or perhaps preceramic neolithic where a skeleton was found covered with red ochre. Ceramics with agricultural purpose included mortars, grinders and stoneware basalt pestles. Other brown flint lithics recovered include a triangle, blades, scrapers and picks, tools suggested pre-natufian occupation. A late neolithic period was also detected at around 5000-4500 cal BC (Ubaid period) similar to late neolithic Byblos. Ceramics found inclued some Chalcolithic sherds and lithics included Canaanite blades, axes and adzes, a long, polished plano-convex flint hatchet; many large flakes and blades and sickle elements. A fragment of a stalked arrow is the only trace of occupation between the periods, Chalcolithic occupation followed the older occupation at the edge of the marsh at Mallaha.
wn.com/Aammiq -
Abu Dhabi
Abu Dhabi (Arabic: أبو ظبي Abu Dhabi, Father of Deer) is the capital and the second largest city of the United Arab Emirates in terms of population and the largest of the seven member emirates of the United Arab Emirates. Abu Dhabi lies on a T-shaped island jutting into the Persian Gulf from the central western coast. The city proper had an estimated population of 896,800 in 2009.
Abu Dhabi houses important offices of the federal government, and is the seat for the United Arab Emirates Government and the home for the Abu Dhabi Emiri Family and the President of the UAE from this family. Abu Dhabi has grown to be a cosmopolitan metropolis. Its rapid development and urbanisation, coupled with the relatively high average income of its population, has transformed Abu Dhabi to a larger and advanced metropolis. Today the city is the country's center of political, industrial activities, and a major cultural, and commercial centre due to its position as the capital. Abu Dhabi alone generated 56.7% of the GDP of the United Arab Emirates in 2008.
wn.com/Abu_Dhabi -
Achrafieh
Achrafieh, (Arabic: الأشرفية; also spelled Ashrafieh), is one of the oldest Christian (mostly Greek Orthodox) districts of East Beirut, Lebanon.
It is located on a hill in the eastern part of Beirut alongside the shore. Achrafieh is both a residential and commercial district characterized by narrow winding streets and prestigious large apartment and office buildings. It is a prime location for investment and tourism.
Until the 1930s, Achrafieh was largely composed of farmland owned and farmed by several Greek Orthodox Christian families that had ruled the country and the region for centuries. The Lebanese government, which at the time was under French Mandate, partitioned the land in Achrafieh to build roads and highways, forcing these families to eventually sell large parts of their land.
Achrafieh formerly was ruled by seven socially and economically prominent Greek Orthodox Christian families that formed Beirut's High Society for centuries: Trad, Ferneini, Araman, Bustros, Sursock, Fayyad, Tueini.
wn.com/Achrafieh -
Ain Harcha
Ain Harcha (or Ain Hircha) is a village situated in the Rashaya District and south of the Beqaa Governorate in Lebanon. It is located east of Mount Hermon close to the Syrian border south of Dahr El Ahmar.
The village sits ca. 1,200 metres (3,900 ft) above sea level and the name is claimed in Aramaic to mean "house of spirits" or "place of worship" with some seeing this as derived from "the feast of sorceries" due to local folklore suggesting an evil spirit of Ain Al-Horsh inhabits the springs of Lebanon.
2 kilometres (2,000 m) (about a forty minute walk) along a rocky path, on a ridge-top to the west, 525 metres (1,722 ft) higher than the village sits one of the best examples of a Roman temple in the vicinity of Mount Hermon. The temple of Ain Harcha can also be reached by walking down from the village of Ain Ata. It was restored in 1938-1939 and dates from a Greek inscription on one of the blocks to 114-115 AD. The temple is built of limestone, opens to the east and blends in well with the landscape. The pediment and west wall are in particularly good condition and two columns bases show what supported the beams and roof. Carved blocks show busts of Selene, the moon goddess and Helios, the sun god. Around the site are remnants of ancient habitation and tombs.
wn.com/Ain_Harcha -
Ain W Zain
Ain W Zain also known as Ain Wazein (Arabic: عين و زين) is a Lebanese village in the Chouf District in the Mount Lebanon Governorate
The village has 2000 inhabitants and 925 voters between resident and expatriate. Literacy rate is high, and they major in various fields, especially medicine, engineering, law, education and modern technology. The majority of the population are self-employed and employees in the private and public sectors. A number of the villagers depend on agriculture.
The Health Establishment of the Druze Community is a private, non-profit organization, granted the qualification of public benefit with the notification No.133/AD, Decree No.4021. Located in the Chouf region, Mount Lebanon, at 40 km from Beirut and 45 km from Saida, the Establishment’s original role was to fulfill the needs of a region deprived and destroyed by war.
By the year 1978, spiritual leader of the Druze community, Shiek Akl Druze, Sheikh Mohammad Abu Chakra founded the “aged home” with the aim to provide superior quality health and residential care for the elderly. Later on, this “home” improved to become an elderly care center serving 75 residents.
wn.com/Ain_W_Zain -
Akbiyeh
Akbiyeh is an archaeological site approximately 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) south of Sidon, northeast of Ain Kantarah in Lebanon. The area of black soil around 600 metres (2,000 ft) by 30 metres (98 ft) was found by Godefroy Zumoffen in 1894. Material recovered is in the Museum of Lebanese Prehistory including four bifaces of Lower Paleolithic form along with a variety of material suggested to be Middle Paleolithic and Heavy Neolithic of the Qaraoun culture. These include a number of rectangular picks, rough cores and flakes in various conditions. The site is now under cultivation.
wn.com/Akbiyeh -
Aleppo
Aleppo (Arabic: حلب Ḥalab [ˈħalæb], other names) is the largest city in Syria and the capital of Aleppo Governorate, the most populous Syrian governorate. With an official population of 2,132,100 (2004 census), it is also one of the largest cities in the Levant. For centuries, Aleppo was Greater Syria's largest city and the Ottoman Empire's third, after Constantinople and Cairo. Although relatively close to Damascus in distance, Aleppo is distinct in identity, architecture and culture, all shaped by a markedly different history and geography.
Aleppo is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world; it has been inhabited since perhaps as early as the 6th millennium BC. Excavations at Tell as-Sawda and Tell al-Ansari, just south of the old city of Aleppo, show that the area was occupied since at least the latter part of the 3rd millennium BC; and this is also when Aleppo is first mentioned in cuneiform tablets unearthed in Ebla and Mesopotamia, in which it is noted for its commercial and military proficiency. Such a long history is probably due to its being a strategic trading point midway between the Mediterranean Sea and Mesopotamia.
wn.com/Aleppo -
Alexandria
Alexandria (Arabic: الإسكندرية Al Iskandariyya, Coptic: Ⲣⲁⲕⲟⲧⲉ Rakotə, Greek: Αλεξάνδρεια Alexándria, Koine Greek: Ἀλεξάνδρεια ἡ κατ' Αἴγυπτον IPA: [ɑlɛˈksɑndɾiɑ e kɑt ˈɛʝypton] "Alexandria in Egypt", Egyptian Arabic: اسكندريه [eskendeˈrejːæ]) is the second-largest city of Egypt, with a population of 4.1 million, extending about 32 km (20 mi) along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea in the north central part of the country; it is also the largest city lying directly on the Mediterranean coast. It is Egypt's largest seaport, serving approximately 80% of Egypt's imports and exports. Alexandria is also an important tourist resort. It is home to the Bibliotheca Alexandrina (the new Library of Alexandria). It is an important industrial centre because of its natural gas and oil pipelines from Suez.
Alexandria was founded around a small pharaonic town c. 331 BC by Alexander the Great. It remained Egypt's capital for nearly a thousand years, until the Muslim conquest of Egypt in AD 641, when a new capital was founded at Fustat (Fustat was later absorbed into Cairo). Alexandria was known because of its Lighthouse of Alexandria (Pharos), one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World; its library (the largest library in the ancient world); and the Catacombs of Kom el Shoqafa, one of the Seven Wonders of the Middle Ages. Ongoing maritime archaeology in the harbor of Alexandria, which began in 1994, is revealing details of Alexandria both before the arrival of Alexander, when a city named Rhacotis existed there, and during the Ptolemaic dynasty.
wn.com/Alexandria -
Algeria
Coordinates: 28°N 2°E / 28°N 2°E / 28; 2
Algeria
i/ælˈdʒɪəriə/ (Arabic: الجزائر, al-Jazā'ir; Berber: ⴷⵣⴰⵢⴻⵔ Dzayer), officially the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria (الجمهورية الجزائرية الديمقراطية الشعبية, al-Jumhūriyyah al-Jazāʾiriyyah ad-Dīmuqrāṭiyyah ash-Shaʿbiyyah), also formally referred to as the Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria, is a large country in the Maghreb region of Northwest Africa with Algiers as its capital.
When referring to its land area, Algeria is the largest country in Africa, Maghreb and the Arab World. It is also the largest of the countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea; it is also the tenth-largest country in the world. The country is bordered in the northeast by Tunisia, in the east by Libya, in the west by Morocco, in the southwest by Western Sahara, Mauritania, and Mali, in the southeast by Niger, and in the north by the Mediterranean Sea. Its size is almost 2,400,000 square kilometres (926,645 sq mi) with an estimated population of 37.1 million as of 2012. Algeria is a member of the African Union, the Arab League, OPEC and the United Nations. The country is also a founding member of the Arab Maghreb Union.
wn.com/Algeria -
Algiers
Algiers (Arabic: الجزائر, al-Jazā’ir; Algerian Arabic: دزاير, Berber: Dzayer / ⴷⵣⴰⵢⴻⵔ) is the capital and largest city of Algeria. According to the 1998 census, the population of the city proper was 1,519,570 and that of the urban agglomeration was 2,135,630. In 2009, the population was about 3,500,000. An estimate puts the population at about 3,574,000 as of 2010.
Called El-Behdja (البهجة) or alternatively Alger la Blanche ("Algiers the White") for the glistening white of its buildings as seen rising up from the sea, Algiers is situated on the west side of a bay of the Mediterranean Sea. The modern part of the city is built on the level ground by the seashore; the old part, the ancient city of the deys, climbs the steep hill behind the modern town and is crowned by the casbah or citadel, 122 metres (400 ft) above the sea. The casbah and the two quays form a triangle.
The city name is derived (via French Alger and Catalan Alger) from the Arabic name الجزائر al-Jazā’ir, which translates as "The Islands", referring to the four islands which lay off the city's coast until becoming part of the mainland in 1525. Al-Jazā’ir is itself a truncated form of the city's older name جزائر بني مازغان Jazā’ir Banī Mazghannā, "The Islands of the Sons of Mazghanna", used by early medieval geographers such as al-Idrisi and Yaqut al-Hamawi.
wn.com/Algiers -
Alicante
Alicante (Spanish: [aliˈkante]) or Alacant (Valencian: [alaˈkant]) is a city in Spain, the capital of the province of Alicante and of the comarca of Alacantí, in the south of the Valencian Community. It is also a historic Mediterranean port. The population of the city of Alicante proper was 334,329, estimated as of 2011[update], ranking as the second-largest Valencian city. Including nearby municipalities, the Alicante conurbation had 462,281 residents. The population of the metropolitan area (including Elche and satellite towns) was 771,061 as of 2011[update] estimates, ranking as the eighth-largest metropolitan area of Spain.
The area around Alicante has been inhabited for over 7000 years, with the first tribes of hunter gatherers moving down gradually from Central Europe between 5000 and 3000 BC. Some of the earliest settlements were made on the slopes of Mount Benacantil. By 1000 BC Greek and Phoenician traders had begun to visit the eastern coast of Spain, establishing small trading ports and introducing the native Iberian tribes to the alphabet, iron and the pottery wheel. By the 3rd century BC, the rival armies of Carthage and Rome began to invade and fight for control of the Iberian Peninsula. The Carthaginian general Hamilcar Barca established the fortified settlement of Akra Leuka (Greek: Ἄκρα Λευκά, meaning "White Mountain" or "White Point"), where Alicante stands today.
wn.com/Alicante -
Altava
Altava is an ancient Roman city, located in modern day Algeria. Named Lamoriciere at the time of the French presence, is located at Ouled Mimoun near Tlemcen.
Altava was located on the Roman road from strategic Theveste at Numerus Syrorum (Magnia).
After the vandal invasion in 429, Altava became the capital of an independent Berber kingdom.
Between 550 and 578 the city was the capital of independent Berber kingdom Garmul.
Coordinates: 34°53′11″N 1°01′29″W / 34.88639°N 1.02472°W / 34.88639; -1.02472
wn.com/Altava -
Amarna
Amarna (commonly known as el-Amarna or incorrectly as Tel el-Amarna; see below) (Arabic: العمارنة al-‘amārnah) is an extensive Egyptian archaeological site that represents the remains of the capital city newly–established and built by the Pharaoh Akhenaten of the late Eighteenth Dynasty (c. 1353 BC), and abandoned shortly afterwards. The name for the city employed by the ancient Egyptians is written as Akhetaten (or Akhetaton – transliterations vary) in English transliteration. Akhetaten means "Horizon of the Aten."
The area is located on the east bank of the Nile River in the modern Egyptian province of Minya, some 58 km (36 mi) south of the city of al-Minya, 312 km (194 mi) south of the Egyptian capital Cairo and 402 km (250 mi) north of Luxor. The site of Amarna includes several modern villages, chief of which are el-Till in the north and el-Hagg Qandil in the south.
The area was also occupied during later Roman and early Christian times; excavations to the south of the city have found several structures from this period.
wn.com/Amarna -
Amioun
Amioun in Arabic: أميون and other scripts of the name, are most probably transliterated from the original Amyūn. It is the capital town of the predominantly Greek Orthodox area Koura District (i.e. χωριά, villages in Greek) in the North of Lebanon.
Amioun’s name is very ancient and can be traced back to the earliest Semitic and Aramean periods. The name was actually cited in the letters of Tell el Amarna, which were sent in the 14 th century B.C. by local governors in Lebanon to their overlords, the pharaohs of Egypt. Those letters provide information on conditions in Lebanon at that time. Cited in those letters is the word “ Amia”, a name that might have been used to refer to the site of present-day Amioun. In his etymological study of the names of Lebanon’s towns and villages, Anis Freiha thinks that Amioun’s name is derived from the Semitic – Aramaic word “ Emun” , which means a fortified and invincible fort.
Amioun has a population of around 15,000. The large majority are followers of the Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch. Amioun is the 2nd largest entirely Greek Orthodox city in Lebanon and the whole Middle East second to Ashrafieh, a region in East Christian Beirut. The inhabitants of the city are descendants of Phoenicians,Greeks and Ghassanids and they speak Arabic as a first language. The major political party in the city is the Syrian Social Nationalist Party. There are also supporters of the Free Patriotic Movement, Marada Movement, Lebanese Communist Party, Kataeb and Lebanese Forces. There is a large population of people from Amioun around the world.
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Amlaq Qatih
Amlaq Qatih or Amlaq el Qatih is a Heavy Neolithic archaeological site of the Qaraoun culture that is located 2.5 kilometres (1.6 mi) northwest of Baaloul, 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) north of Qaraoun, Lebanon.
The site was discovered and collections made by Henri Fleisch and Maurice Tallon in 1955. Materials recovered were found to be of a cream-coloured, cherty type of flint and were suggested to date from Acheulian, Heavy Neolithic and normal Neolithic periods and included a few Levallois cores.
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Amman
Amman (Arabic: عمان
/ɑːˈmɑːn/; ʿAmmān; Rabat Ammon) is the capital and largest city of Jordan. It is the country's political, cultural and commercial centre and one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. The Greater Amman area has a population of 2,842,629 as of 2010. The population of Amman is expected to jump from 2.8 million to almost 6.5 million by 2025 due to constant and rapid immigration. The recent economic growth experienced in Amman is unmatched by any other Arab city except those located in the Gulf. Amman is also the administrative seat of the homonymous governorate. Amman is also ranked a Gamma global city on the World city index.
Amman was named one of the MENA's best cities according to economic, labour, environmental, and socio-cultural factors. Amman is among the most popular locations for multinational corporations to set up their regional offices, alongside Doha and only behind Dubai. Furthermore, it is expected that in the next 10 years these three cities will capture the largest share of multinational corporation activity in the region. It is a major tourist destination in the region and the capital is especially popular among Gulf tourists. Amman is considered one of the richest and most Western-oriented cities in the Middle East.
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Amrit
Amrit or Amrith (Arabic: عمريت), also known as Marathos or Marathus (Ancient Greek: Μάραθος), was an ancient Phoenician city located near Tartus in Syria. Founded in the third millennium BC and abandoned during the second century BC, the city's Phoenician ruins have been preserved in their entirety without extensive remodeling by later generations.
The city lies on the Mediterranean coast around 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) south of modern-day Tartus. Two rivers cross the city: Nahr Amrit, near the main temple, and Nahr al-Kuble near the secondary temple, a fact that might be linked to the importance of water in the religious traditions in Amrit. The city was probably founded by the Arvadites, and served as their continental base. It grew to be one of the wealthiest towns in the dominion of Arwad. The city surrendered, along with Arwad, to Alexander the Great in 333 BC. During Seleucid times the town, known as Marathus, was probably larger and more prosperous than Arwad. In 219 BC Amrit gained independence from Arwad, and was later sacked by forces from the latter city in 148 BC.
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Amsterdam
Amsterdam (English /ˈæmstərdæm/; Dutch: [ˌɑmstərˈdɑm] (
listen)) is the largest city and the capital of the Netherlands. The city's status as the capital of the nation is governed by the constitution. Amsterdam has a population of 790,654 within city limits, an urban population of 1,209,419 and a metropolitan population of 2,289,762. The city is located in the province of North Holland in the west of the country. It comprises the northern part of the Randstad, one of the larger conurbations in Europe, with a population of approximately 7 million.
Amsterdam's name is derived from Amstelredamme, indicative of the city's origin: a dam in the river Amstel. Settled as a small fishing village in the late 12th century, Amsterdam became one of the most important ports in the world during the Dutch Golden Age, a result of its innovative developments in trade. During that time, the city was the leading center for finance and diamonds. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the city expanded, and many new neighborhoods and suburbs were formed. The 17th-century canals of Amsterdam (in Dutch: 'Grachtengordel'), located in the heart of Amsterdam, were added to the UNESCO World Heritage List in July 2010.
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Antelias cave
Antelias Cave was a large cave located 2.5 kilometres (1.6 mi) east of Antelias, 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) northeast of Beirut close to the wadi of Ksar Akil.
It was discovered by Heidenborg in 1833. Godefroy Zumoffen made an excavation in 1893, finding an Aurignacian industry amongst large quantities of bones and flints.Henri Fleisch re-examined the material from Zumoffen's excavation and concluded that it was not solely Aurignacian but showed evidence of successive industries present as late as the Neolithic. Raoul Describes also excavated the site and found numerous tools made of bone including two harpoons which are now in the Museum of Lebanese Prehistory.Auguste Bergy also made a small excavation here and another sounding was made possibly in 1948 by J. Ewing who described the industry as "transitional, Upper Paleolithic-to-Mesolithic".Dirk Albert Hooijer studied the fauna from the cave and found Dama and Capra to have been predominant.Neolithic finds included a long, denticulated, lustrous blade. Bones of a human foetus were also found in the cave by Delore in 1901 which were published by Vallois in 1957 as being possibly Neolithic in date. Collections from the cave can be found in the Musée de l'Homme, Paris, Museum of Lebanese Prehistory and the Archaeological Museum of the American University of Beirut.
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Arab League
The Arab League (Arabic: الجامعة العربية al-Jāmiʻa al-ʻArabiyya), officially called the League of Arab States (Arabic: جامعة الدول العربية Jāmiʻat ad-Duwal al-ʻArabiyya), is a regional organisation of Arab states in North and Northeast Africa, and Southwest Asia (Middle East). It was formed in Cairo on 22 March 1945 with six members: Egypt, Iraq, Transjordan (renamed Jordan in 1949), Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, and Syria. Yemen joined as a member on 5 May 1945. The Arab League currently has 22 members (including Syria, whose participation was suspended in November 2011). The main goal of the league is to "draw closer the relations between member States and co-ordinate collaboration between them, to safeguard their independence and sovereignty, and to consider in a general way the affairs and interests of the Arab countries."
Through institutions such as the Arab League Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organization (ALECSO) and the Economic and Social Council of the Arab League's Council of Arab Economic Unity (CAEU), the Arab League facilitates political, economic, cultural, scientific and social programs designed to promote the interests of the Arab world. It has served as a forum for the member states to coordinate their policy positions, to deliberate on matters of common concern, to settle some Arab disputes, and to limit conflicts such as the 1958 Lebanon crisis. The League has served as a platform for the drafting and conclusion of many landmark documents promoting economic integration. One example is the Joint Arab Economic Action Charter which sets out the principles for economic activities in the region.
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Ard Saouda
Ard Saouda or Ard es Saoude (Terres Noires) is a Heavy Neolithic archaeological site of the Qaraoun culture that is located in the Wadi et Taim, between Rashaya and Marjayoun in Lebanon. It is south of the branch road to Qaraoun and Kaukaba at cote 990, on the surface of fields covered in large blocks of basalt, made from an ancient lava.
The Neolithic site was located by M. Billeaux in 1957 left of the road, just before the junction. A further Acheulean site was found downhill to the southwest by Henri Fleisch. The site was extended by further discoveries by M. Le Cavalier and F. and L. Skeels at Jeb Farah. The area is notable for draining mountain waters into the most northerly feeders of the Jordan river.
The Acheulean material was published by Fleisch in 1966 with the Neolithic remains studied by Jacques Cauvin. Over three hundred Acheulean bifaces were collected along with various waste, used cores and rough-outs. It was mostly in brown, shiny flint, some with a grey film. The pieces were heavily patinated, sometimes with a number of different patinas. This allowed Fleisch to divide the tools into four groups, Early Paleolithic, Middle Paleolithic, Middle/Late Paleolithic, and Upper Paleolithic with Levallois technique being used on cores in later periods. The Heavy Neolithic and Neolithic material was mostly in a creamy chert and consisted of adzes, chisels, oval axes with retouch all over, racloirs, cores and discs. Lorraine Copeland made a collection of similar materials in 1966 and noted the problems assigning material to specific periods. It seemed apparent that the Neolithic flint knappers had re-used older Acheulean tools and that the site had been a factory throughout numerous periods in a long and ancient history.
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Ard Tlaili
Ard Tlaili or Tell Ard Tlaili is a small tell mound archaeological site in a plain at the foot of the Lebanon Mountains 11km northwest of Baalbeck, in the Beqaa Valley in Lebanon.
IIt was first surveyed and studied in 1965-6 by Lorraine Copeland and Peter Wescombe with excavations later in the 1960s by Diana Kirkbride. The perimeter of the mound was buried under a metre of soil but the remains of rectangular buildings were found in 2 phases. Building walls were of wall made of stiff earth or clay with pebble bases and large stones in the upper layers. The floors were layered with white plaster with plastered and even burnished walls. Hearths and other areas were constructed of plaster or clay.
The wide variety of materials recovered included a stone assemblage of tools, obsidian blades, basalt bowls and hammers, clay sling ammunition, finely denticulated flint blades, scrapers, borers and a few axes. Pottery included Halafian painted shards both pattern and plain burnished with incised decoration including horizontal or vertical lines with dots, waves, zig-zags and cross-hatched designs. some with an application of red wash. These finds were significant as they represented the most southerly Halaf type painted pottery yet found. Red, orange, brown and black burnished bowls and jars were found in upper levels, with lower levels showing more coarse shards smoothed by hand or with straw. This little farming village shares the material culture of Byblos and southern Syrian and Halaf sites to the north.
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Armenia
Armeniai/ɑrˈmiːniə/ (Armenian: Հայաստան Hayastan [hɑjɑsˈtɑn]), officially the Republic of Armenia (Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն, Hayastani Hanrapetut’yun, [hɑjɑstɑˈni hɑnɾɑpɛtuˈtʰjun]), is a landlocked, mountainous country in the South Caucasus region of Eurasia. Located at the crossroads of Western Asia and Eastern Europe, it is bordered by Turkey to the west, Georgia to the north, the de facto independent Nagorno-Karabakh Republic and Azerbaijan to the east, and Iran and the Azerbaijani exclave of Nakhchivan to the south.
A former republic of the Soviet Union, Armenia is a unitary, multiparty, democratic nation-state with an ancient and historic cultural heritage. The Kingdom of Armenia became the first state in the world to adopt Christianity as its religion, in the early years of the 4th century (the traditional date is 301 AD). The modern Republic of Armenia recognizes the Armenian Apostolic Church, the world's oldest national church, as the country's primary religious establishment. Armenians have their own unique alphabet invented by Mesrob Mashtots in 406 AD.
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Arqa
Arqa (originally Irqata, Arkite in the Bible) is a village near Miniara in Akkar District of the North Governorate in Lebanon, 22 km northeast of Tripoli, near the coast. It is significant for the Tell Arqa, an archaeological site that goes back to Neolithic times, and during the Crusades there was a strategically significant castle.
It is mentioned in antiquity in the Amarna letters of Egypt-(as Irqata), as well as in Assyrian documents.
The Roman town was named Caesarea of Lebanon or Arca Caesarea. The Emperor Alexander Severus was born there.
Arqa has the distinction of being a city-state that wrote one of the 382 Amarna letters to the pharaoh of Ancient Egypt.
The city-state Irqata was the 3rd city of the Rib-Hadda letters, (68 letters), that were the last hold-outs against the Hapiru. Sumur(u)-(Zemar) was the 2nd hold-out city besides Rib-Hadda's Byblos, (named Gubla). Eventually, the 'king of Irqata' , Aduna was killed along with other city kings, and also the 'mayor' of Gubla, Rib-Hadda. Rib-Hadda's brother, Ili-Rapih, became the successor mayor of Gubla, and Gubla never fell to the Hapiru.
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Arwad
Arwad (Arabic: أرواد; Biblical Hebrew: אַרְוָד, Arvad) – formerly known as Arado (Greek: Άραδο), Arados (Greek: Άραδος), Arvad, Arpad, Arphad, and Antiochia in Pieria (Greek: Αντιόχεια της Πιερίας), also called Ruad Island – located in the Mediterranean Sea, is the only inhabited island in Syria. The town of Arwad takes up the entire island. It is located 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) from Tartus, Syria's second largest port. Today, it is mainly a fishing town. (Arados was also a Greek name for Muharraq near Bahrain.)
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Baalbek
Baalbek (Greek: Ἡλιούπολις; Arabic: بعلبك / ALA-LC: Ba‘albak) is a town in the Beqaa Valley of Lebanon situated east of the Litani River. It is famous for its exquisitely detailed yet monumentally scaled temple ruins of the Roman period, when Baalbek, then known as Heliopolis, was one of the largest sanctuaries in the empire. It is Lebanon's greatest Roman treasure, and it can be counted among the wonders of the ancient world, containing some of the largest and best preserved Roman ruins.
Towering high above the Beqaa plain, their monumental proportions proclaimed the power and wealth of Imperial Rome. The gods worshiped there, the triad of Jupiter, Venus and Bacchus, were grafted onto the indigenous deities of Hadad, Atargatis and a young male god of fertility. Local influences are seen in the planning and layout of the temples, which vary from the classic Roman design.
Baalbek is home to the annual Baalbeck International Festival. The town is about 85 km (53 mi) northeast of Beirut and about 75 km (47 mi) north of Damascus. It has a population of approximately 72,000.
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Baghdad
Baghdad (Arabic: بغداد, Baġdād, IPA: [bæɣˈdæːd]) is the capital of Republic of Iraq, as well as the coterminous Baghdad Province. The population of Baghdad as of 2011 is approximately 7,216,040, making it the largest city in Iraq, the second largest city in the Arab World (after Cairo, Egypt), and the second largest city in Western Asia (after Tehran, Iran).
Located along the Tigris River, the city was founded in the 8th century and became the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate. Within a short time of its inception, Baghdad evolved into a significant cultural, commercial, and intellectual center for the Islamic World. This in addition to housing several key academic institutions (e.g. House of Wisdom) garnered the city a worldwide reputation as the "Center of Learning". Throughout the High Middle Ages, Baghdad was considered to be the largest city in the world with an estimated population of 1,200,000 people. The city was largely destroyed at the hands of the Mongol Empire in 1258, resulting in a decline that would linger through many centuries due to frequent plagues and multiple successive empires. With the recognition of Iraq as an independent state (formerly the British Mandate of Mesopotamia) in 1938, Baghdad gradually regained some of its former prominence as a significant center of Arabic culture.
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Bahrain
Bahrain ( pronunciation) (Arabic: البحرين, al-Baḥrayn) (Persian: بحرين, Baḥrain), officially the Kingdom of Bahrain (Arabic: مملكة البحرين, Mamlakat al-Baḥrayn), is a small island state near the western shores of the Persian Gulf. It is ruled by the Al Khalifa royal family. The population in 2010 stood at 1,234,571, including 666,172 non-nationals. Formerly an emirate, Bahrain was declared a kingdom in 2002.
Bahrain is an archipelago of 33 islands, the largest being Bahrain Island, at 55 km (34 mi) long by 18 km (11 mi) wide. Saudi Arabia lies to the west and is connected to Bahrain by the King Fahd Causeway. The peninsula of Qatar is to the southeast across the Gulf of Bahrain. The planned Qatar Bahrain Causeway will link Bahrain and Qatar and become the world's longest marine causeway.
Known for its oil and pearls, Bahrain is also home to many large structures, including the Bahrain World Trade Center and the Bahrain Financial Harbour, with a proposal in place to build the 1,022 m (3,353 ft) high Murjan Tower. The Qal'at al-Bahrain (the harbour and capital of the ancient land of Dilmun) was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2005. The Bahrain Formula One Grand Prix takes place at the Bahrain International Circuit.
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Bangkok
Bangkok is the capital city of and largest urban area in Thailand. It is known in Thai as Krung Thep Maha Nakhon (กรุงเทพมหานคร, pronounced [krūŋ tʰêːp máhǎː nákʰɔ̄ːn] ( listen)) or simply Krung Thep ( listen), meaning "city of angels". Bangkok is by far the most densely populated city in Thailand with about 12 million people. Bangkok was a small trading post near the mouth of the Chao Phraya River during the Ayutthaya Kingdom in the 15th century. It eventually grew in size and became the site of two capital cities: Thonburi in 1768 and Rattanakosin in 1782.
Because of its strategic location in Southeast Asia, Siam (later Thailand) acted as a buffer-zone between the French and British colonial empires. Bangkok itself has gained a reputation as an independent, dynamic and influential city. Bangkok is the political, social and economic centre of Thailand, and one of the leading cities in Southeast Asia.
Due to the 1980s and 1990s Asian investment boom, many multinational corporations make their regional headquarters in Bangkok and the city is a regional force in finance and business. Its increasing influence on global politics, culture, fashion and entertainment underlines its status as an Alpha global city. In 2009, it was the second most expensive city in South-East Asia behind Singapore. The city's many cultural landmarks and attractions in addition to its nightlife venues has made it synonymous with exoticism. Its rapid modernization, reflected in the cityscape and the urban society, has left untouched the historic Grand Palace, Wat Arun, Vimanmek Palace Complex and hundreds of Buddhist temples draw about 10 million international visitors each year, second only to London.
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Batroumine
Batroumine (or Beitroumine بترومين ) is a small Greek Orthodox village located in north Lebanon. The village is known too for Olives, Oil, Soap, Grapes, Wine, Arak, Figs and Blueberries production.
Batroumine is a Lebanese Village Located in the northern part of the country. It's located over the El-Koura district hills south east of Tripoli and lies at an altitude of 324 meters from sea level.
Although Batroumine is located over hills, it would only take 10 minutes to reach the seashore; where you can enjoy the beautiful beaches and Resorts like Las Salinas which is a fine example of how good a vacation anyone can enjoy on the beautiful Mediterranean coast.
Batroumine is a Lebanese village with a long history. This history is seen through the fine examples of traditional Lebanese houses located in the village center. Observation of the preserved architecture shows that the village has roots in the Byzantine period, such roots are strongly noted in the architecture of the church in the village center.
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Batroun
The coastal city of Batroun (Greek: Βοτρύς, Arabic: البترون) located in northern Lebanon is one of the oldest cities of the world. Batroun is home to a Lebanese Red Cross First Aid Center.
The name Batroun derives from the Greek, Botrys (also spelled Bothrys), which was later Latinized to Botrus. Historians believe that the Greek name of the town originates from the Phoenician word, bater, which means to cut and it refers to the maritime wall that the Phoenicians built in the sea to protect them from tidal waves. Other historians believe that the name of the town is derivative of the Phoenician words, beit truna, which translates to house of the chief.
Batroun is a major tourist destination in North Lebanon. The town boasts tens of historic churches, both Catholic and Greek Orthodox. The town is also a major beach resort with a vibrant nightlife. Citrus groves surround Batroun, and the town has been famous, from the early twentieth century, for its fresh lemonade, which is sold by most of the cafés and restaurants on its main street.
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Bechamoun
Bechamoun is a village in Aley District in the Mount Lebanon Governorate of Lebanon. It has an elevation between 40m and 580m above sea level, 12km from airport and Beirut (10 minutes by car). Bechamoun's main population was 5000, but now it exceeds 15000. Bchamoun population includes most of the Lebanese religions (Druze, Christians, and Muslims).
It is the first village to raise the Lebanese flag after independence by lebanese independence hero Emir Majid Arslan.
An archaeological site was discovered 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) east of Khalde by V. Hankey in 1963. The site is located on the western terraces of a conical hill, west of the main village called Qalaa' Tahun-el-Haoua. An unpublished collection was also made by R. Saidah. Various potsherds were found and dated back to the Early Bronze Age by Maurice Dunand. Amongst the pottery was a sherd with a cylinder seal showing pattern of marching and alternating goats and lions that was similar to sherds showing a similar type of animalism from Byblos, Megiddo] and other Palestinian and Syrian sites dating to the EB period. Although some thinner pink ware was found, sherds were usually red or grey, thick and well fired. The forms suggested were large, flat based jars with flared rims. Decorations found included incised patterns, made with combs to form bands of chevrons. Similar finds were discovered at Jaita I, Kaffer Jarra Roueisse, Nahr Damour, Aramoun and Khallet-el-Khazen. Two used flint blades were found along with part of a basalt object.
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Beirut
Coordinates: 33°53′13″N 35°30′47″E / 33.88694°N 35.51306°E / 33.88694; 35.51306
Beirut (Arabic: بيروت Bayrūt, Greek: Βηρυττός, Latin: Berytus, French: Beyrouth, Hebrew: ביירות Beyrut) is the capital and largest city of Lebanon. As there has been no recent population census, the exact population is unknown; estimates in 2007 ranged from slightly less than 1 million to slightly more than 2 million. Located on a peninsula at the midpoint of Lebanon's Mediterranean coast, it serves as the country's largest and main seaport. The Beirut metropolitan area consists of the city and its suburbs. The first mention of this metropolis is found in the ancient Egyptian Tell el Amarna letters, dating from the 15th century BC. The city has been inhabited continuously since then.
Beirut is Lebanon's seat of government and plays a central role in the Lebanese economy, with many banks and corporations based in its city centre, Hamra Street, Rue Verdun and Ashrafieh. The city is the focal point of the region's cultural life, renowned for its press, theatres, cultural activities and nightlife. After the destructive Lebanese Civil War, Beirut underwent major reconstruction, and the redesigned historic city centre, marina, pubs and nightlife districts have once again made it a tourist attraction. Beirut was named the top place to visit by The New York Times in 2009, and as one of the ten liveliest cities in the world by Lonely Planet in the same year.
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Beirut Art Center
Coordinates: 33°52′48″N 35°31′50″E / 33.879976°N 35.530477°E / 33.879976; 35.530477
Beirut Art Center is a space for exhibiting contemporary art in Beirut, Lebanon
Beirut Art Center opened its doors to public in January 2009. It is handled as a non profit organization whose founders and executive board members are: Sandra Dagher, Lamia Joreige, Nathalie Khoury, Rabih Mroué and Maria Ousseimi The project roots in the growing interest to local contemporary art. It was an initiative of Sandra Dagher, who previously curated a private art space, Espace SD, and Lamia Joreige, visual artist. In 2007, Sandra Dagher curated with Saleh Barakat, owner of Agial Art Gallery in Beirut, the first Lebanese Pavilion at the Venice Biennale.
In 2011, New York City's New Museum hosted “Museum as Hub: Beirut Art Center” a project that includes an exhibition, the presentation of Beirut Art Center’s Mediatheque, and a series of events.
The BAC is in an industrial area on the banks of Beirut River. The building has been refurbished by architect Raed Abillama into a white box space . The space occupies 2 floors on 1500 sq. m. Ground floor includes exhibition space, book store and auditorium. First floor includes cafe, space for BAC Design, mediatheque and administrative offices.
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Beirut Governorate
Coordinates: 33°53′N 35°30′E / 33.883°N 35.5°E / 33.883; 35.5
The Governorate of Beirut (Arabic: محافظة بيروت, Muhāfazat Bayrūt) is the only Lebanese governorate that consists of one district and one city, Beirut, which is also its capital, and the capital of Lebanon.
The area of this governorate is 19.8 km² (without suburbs); despite its small size, it is considered the most important region in Lebanon because of its economical, political, cultural, and social activity. The governor of Beirut is Greek Orthodox according to tradition, while the mayor is Sunni Muslim. Beirut is known to be the most diverse city religiously in the middle east. Christians and Muslims live in harmony and unity. There are about three million people in Beirut and its suburbs. About 50% are Christian (in the north and east), 25% Shia (in the south), and 25% Sunni (in the central and west of Beirut).
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Beirut Hippodrome
Beirut, the capital of Lebanon is home to two hippodromes, a historic one from the Roman era and a modern one that was built in the late nineteenth century.
The Roman Hippodrome, which occupies 3500 m² near the Maghen Abraham Synagogue in Wadi Abu Jamil, the historic, Jewish quarter of Beirut, was discovered in 1988. The Roman Hippodrome of Beirut was the second to be discovered in Lebanon after the Tyre Hippodrome, making Lebanon home to two of the five known Roman hippodromes in the Levant, the other three being in Caesarea in Israel, Jerash in Jordan, and Bosra in Syria. The Roman Hippodrome of Beirut is considered to have been the grandest of the five, having amphitheaters that are several meters high and a race track, which is more than 90 meters long.
In 2009, Culture Minister Tamam Salam, had the site listed officially in the general inventory of historic buildings, ruling that it should be preserved in situ and turned into a tourist landmark.
According to an article appearing in the French daily, L’Orient le Jour, Gaby Layoun, the Culture Minister at the time, approved in March of 2012 plans for a luxury residential complex to be built over the ruins of Beirut’s Roman Hippodrome, bypassing the recommendations of three of his predecessors: Tarek Mitri, Salim Wardé, and Tammam Salam. The three previous Culture Ministers, Mitri, Wardé, and Salam criticized Layoun's move and reiterated the importance of protecting and preserving the archeological site.
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Beirut Marathon
The Beirut International Marathon (BIM) is an annual event in Beirut. The first ever BIM was held on October 19, 2003 and attracted over 6,000 runners from 49 different countries and tens of thousands of spectators in Lebanon and around the world[citation needed]. These numbers increased every year which became 32.000 runners in BLOM Beirut Marathon 2009 from 71 different countries.
The race, created by businesswoman May El-Khalil, has the theme of unity at its core. Reaching out to all sides of the political spectrum in Lebanon, the day's events also include a 3 km race for MPs of any political allegiance, as well as members of the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon stationed in the country.
The 2010 edition of the men's race was won by the pacemaker Mohamed Temam. Hussein Awadah broke the Lebanese record at the race that year, completing the distance in at time of 2:20:31. The course was altered to make it faster and easier to organise at the 2011 edition and the men's and women's record were both improved that year; Seada Kedir knocked over five minutes off the women's best time.
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Beit Mery
Beit Mery (Arabic: بيت مري) is a Lebanese town overlooking the capital Beirut. The town has been a summer mountain resort since the times of the Phoenicians and later the Romans. The name derives from Aramaic and it means "The house of my Lord or Master". On one of the 3 hills of Beit Mery (Southern end of town) along the Lebanon Western mountain range are the ruins of the old Phoenician and Roman temples that were erected in the same general area in what is now known as Deir El-kalaa. At present a Christian church and monastery sit on top of parts of the old Roman temple. Beit Mery is home to a Lebanese Red Cross First Aid Center.
In winter, the town is also the scene of an annual cultural festival, the Al Bustan festival, held at the Al Bustan hotel , which features international drama and dance groups as well as orchestras and chamber ensembles.
The residents of Beit Mery are mainly Christian (Maronite, Greek Orthodox, Greek Catholic, Armenian Orthodox) and Druze.
Beit Mery occupies a hill, 750-800 meters above sea level, which gives the picturesque town spectacular views of the Beirut peninsula and part of Lebanon's Mediterranean coast.
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Beqaa Governorate
Coordinates: 33°50′N 35°54′E / 33.833°N 35.9°E / 33.833; 35.9
Beqaa (Arabic: البقاع Al Biqā') is a governorate in Lebanon with a population of 750,000 inhabitants.
The Beqaa governorate covers an area of 4,429 km². Béqaa is the primary center of Lebanon's agriculture. The Beqaa governorate forms the main geographical extension of Lebanon and it lies between the Western and Eastern Lebanese Mountain ranges. Two rivers run through Béqaa: the Litani River and the Asi River
It encompasses Beqaa Valley.
The temperature ranges from -10°C to 35°C throughout the year. Béqaa receives heavy rain and snow during the winter.
The villages of Zahlé, Baalbeck, Machgara, Niha, Anjar, Qab Elias, Kfar Zabad, Karaon Dam, Chtaura, and Furzul are the area's main tourism destinations. The Béqaa Governorate lies on an ancient route between Lebanon, Syria, and the rest of the Arab world. The governorate is known for its wine industry, summer festivals, and its cuisine.
A majority of governorate's population is Shia, accounting for 61.04%. 23.16% of the population is Christian, 12.27% is Sunni, and 3.53% Druze.
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Bizerte
Bizerte or Benzert (Arabic: بنزرت Binzart, Berber: Benzert, Italian: Biserta), is the capital city of Bizerte Governorate in Tunisia and the northernmost city in Africa. It has a population of 230,879 (2009 census).
Bizerte is known as the oldest and most European city in Tunisia. It was founded around 1000 BC by Phoenicians from Tyre. It is also known as the last town to remain under French control after the rest of the country won its independence from France.
Initially a small Phoenician harbour, the city came under the influence of Carthage after the defeat of Agathocles during the Punic Wars. The city was then occupied by the Romans, under the name of Hippo Diarrhytus or Hippo Zarrytus.
Bizerte was successively conquered by the Arabs in 647 (who gave the city its current name), by the troops of Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire in 1535, and then by the Turks in 1574. The city then became a corsair harbour and struggled against the French and the Venetians.
With the occupation of Tunisia in 1881, France gained control of Bizerte and built a large naval harbour in the city.
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Bogotá
Bogotá, Distrito Capital (Spanish pronunciation: [boɣoˈta] ( listen)), from 1991 to 2000 called Santafé de Bogotá, is the capital, and largest city, of Colombia. It is also designated by the national constitution as the capital of the department of Cundinamarca, even though the city of Bogotá now comprises an independent Capital district and no longer belongs administratively to that department. Bogotá is the most populous city in the country, with 7.363.782 inhabitants as of 2010. Bogotá and its metropolitan area, which includes municipalities such as Chía, Cota, Soacha, Cajicá and La Calera, had a population of 7,881,156 in 2005.
In terms of land area, Bogotá is the largest city in Colombia, and one of the biggest of Latin America. It figures amongst the thirty largest cities of the world and it is the third-highest capital city in South America (after La Paz and Quito) at 2,625 metres (8,612 ft) above sea level. With its many universities and libraries, Bogotá has become known as "The Athens of South America". Bogotá owns the largest moorland of the world, which is located in the Sumapaz Locality. The city ranked 54th in the 2010 Global Cities Index and is listed as global city of the Beta+ kind by the GaWC.
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Brazil
Brazili/brəˈzɪl/ (Portuguese: Brasil, IPA: [bɾaˈziw]), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: República Federativa do Brasil, listen (help·info)), is the largest country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country, both by geographical area and by population with over 192 million people. It is the only Portuguese-speaking country in the Americas and the largest lusophone country in the world.
Bounded by the Atlantic Ocean on the east, Brazil has a coastline of 7,491 km (4,655 mi). It is bordered on the north by Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname and the French overseas region of French Guiana; on the northwest by Colombia; on the west by Bolivia and Peru; on the southwest by Argentina and Paraguay and on the south by Uruguay. Numerous archipelagos form part of Brazilian territory, such as Fernando de Noronha, Rocas Atoll, Saint Peter and Paul Rocks, and Trindade and Martim Vaz. It borders all other South American countries except Ecuador and Chile.
Brazil was a colony of Portugal from the landing of Pedro Álvares Cabral in 1500 until 1815, when it was elevated to the rank of kingdom and the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves was formed. The colonial bond was in fact broken in 1808, when the capital of the Portuguese colonial empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro, after Napoleon invaded Portugal.Independence was achieved in 1822 with the formation of the Empire of Brazil, a unitary state governed under a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary system. The country became a presidential republic in 1889, when a military coup d'état proclaimed the Republic, although the bicameral legislature, now called Congress, dates back to the ratification of the first constitution in 1824. Its current Constitution, formulated in 1988, defines Brazil as a Federal Republic. The Federation is formed by the union of the Federal District, the 26 States, and the 5,564 Municipalities.
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Buenos Aires
Buenos Aires ( /ˈbweɪnəs ˈɛəriːz/ or /ˈaɪrɪs/,Spanish: [ˈbwenos ˈaiɾes]) is the capital and largest city of Argentina, and the second-largest metropolitan area in South America, after Greater Sao Paulo. It is located on the western shore of the estuary of the Río de la Plata, on the southeastern coast of the South American continent. Greater Buenos Aires conurbation, which also includes several Buenos Aires Province districts, constitutes the third-largest conurbation in Latin America, with a population of around thirteen million.
The city of Buenos Aires is not a part of Buenos Aires Province, nor is it the Province's capital, but an autonomous district. In 1880, after decades of political infighting, Buenos Aires was federalised and removed from Buenos Aires Province. The city limits were enlarged to include the towns of Belgrano and Flores (both are currently neighborhoods of the city). The 1994 constitutional amendment granted the city autonomy, hence its formal name: Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires (Autonomous City of Buenos Aires). Its citizens first elected a Chief of Government (i.e. Mayor) in 1996; before, the Mayor was directly appointed by the President of the Republic.
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Bustan Birke
Bustan Birke or Boustan el Birke is a Heavy Neolithic archaeological site of the Qaraoun culture that is located 2.5 kilometres (1.6 mi) southeast of Kefraya, Lebanon.
The site was found in a vineyard by Lorraine Copeland and Frank Skeels in 1966. Heavy Neolithic materials recovered resembled those from Kefraya with an increased proportion of lighter tools. Large flakes, picks, large scrapers and choppers made on discoid cores were found, most frequently in chert-like flint or silicious grey limestone. Other forms found included a grattoir de côté and a nose-scraper typical of the Upper Paleolithic.
Another tell was found to the northwest of the site, opposing the road to the village but had been destroyed by the building of a villa so that only Roman material could be found amongst the debris.
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Byblos
Byblos is the Greek name of the Phoenician city Gebal (Greek: Βύβλος; Hebrew: גְבַל; earlier Gubla, Phoenician: 𐤂𐤁𐤋). It is a Mediterranean city in the Mount Lebanon Governorate of present-day Lebanon under the current Arabic name of Jubayl (جبيل) and was also referred to as Gibelet during the Crusades. It is believed to have been occupied first around 5000 BC, and according to fragments attributed to the semi-legendary pre-Trojan war Phoenician historian Sanchuniathon, it was built by Cronus as the first city in Phoenicia. Today it is believed by many to be the oldest continuously-inhabited city in the world. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
The name Byblos is Greek; papyrus received its early Greek name (byblos, byblinos) from its being exported to the Aegean through Byblos. Hence the English word Bible is derived from byblos as "the (papyrus) book." The city's Canaanite/Phoenician name "GB'L" derived from "gb", meaning well or origin, and El the supreme god of Byblos's pantheon. The present day city is now known by the Arabic name Jubayl or Jbeil (جبيل), a direct descendant of the Canaanite name.
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Cadiz
Cadiz (Spanish: Cádiz, pronounced: [ˈkaðiθ], locally: [ˈkaðis] ( listen) or [ˈka.i]; Phoenician: גדר, Gader; Arabic: قَادِس ) is a city and port in southwestern Spain. It is the capital of the homonymous province, one of eight which make up the autonomous community of Andalusia.
Cadiz, the oldest continuously-inhabited city in the Iberian Peninsula and possibly all southwestern Europe, has been a principal home port of the Spanish Navy since the accession of the Spanish Bourbons in the 18th century. The city is a member of the Most Ancient European Towns Network. It is also the site of the University of Cadiz.
Despite its unique site — on a narrow slice of land surrounded by the sea — Cadiz is, in most respects, a typically Andalusian city with a wealth of attractive vistas and well-preserved historical landmarks. The older part of Cadiz, within the remnants of the city walls, is commonly referred to as the Old Town (in Spanish, Casco Antiguo). It is characterized by the antiquity of its various quarters (barrios), among them El Pópulo, La Viña, and Santa María, which present a marked contrast to the newer areas of town. While the Old City's street plan consists of narrow winding alleys connecting large plazas, newer areas of Cadiz typically have wide avenues and more modern buildings. In addition, the city is dotted by numerous parks where exotic plants flourish, including giant trees supposedly brought to Spain by Columbus from the New World.
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Cagliari
Cagliari (Italian: [ˈkaʎʎari] ( listen); Sardinian: Casteddu; Latin: Caralis) is the capital of the island of Sardinia, a region of Italy. Cagliari's Sardinian name Casteddu literally means castle. It has about 156,000 inhabitants, or about 480,000 including the outlying townships (metropolitan area): Elmas, Assemini, Capoterra, Selargius, Sestu, Monserrato, Quartucciu, Quartu Sant'Elena.
An ancient city with a long history, Cagliari has seen the rule of several civilizations. It was the capital of the Kingdom of Sardinia (which in the 1861 became the Kingdom of Italy) from 1324 to 1720 and from 1798 to 1815. Seat of the important University of Cagliari and the Primate Roman Catholic archdiocese of Sardinia, the city is an important regional cultural, educational, political and artistic centre, known for its diverse Art Nouveau architecture and several monuments. It is also Sardinia's economic and industrial hub, having one of the biggest ports in the Mediterranean sea, an international airport, and the 28th highest income rate in Italy, comparable to several Northern cities, such as Turin, Vicenza and Genoa.
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Cairo
Cairo ( /ˈkaɪroʊ/ KYE-roh; Arabic: القاهرة al-Qāhira, literally "The Vanquisher" or "The Conqueror"), is the capital of Egypt and the largest city in the Arab world and Africa, and the 16th largest metropolitan area in the world. Located near the Nile Delta, it was founded in the year 969 A.D. making it 1,043 years old. Nicknamed "The City of a Thousand Minarets" for its preponderance of Islamic architecture, Cairo has long been a centre of the region's political and cultural life. Cairo was founded by the Fatimid dynasty in the 10th century AD.; but the land composing the present-day city was the site of national capitals whose remnants remain visible in parts of Old Cairo. Cairo is also associated with Ancient Egypt due to its proximity to the ancient cities of Memphis, Giza and Fustat which are nearby to the Great Sphinx and the pyramids of Giza.
Egyptians today often refer to Cairo as Maṣr (Arabic: مصر), the Arabic pronunciation of the name for Egypt itself, emphasizing the city's continued role in Egyptian influence. Cairo has the oldest and largest film and music industries in the Arab World, as well as the world's second-oldest institution of higher learning, al-Azhar University. Many international media, businesses, and organizations have regional headquarters in the city, and the Arab League has had its headquarters in Cairo for most of its existence.
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Canada
Canada ( /ˈkænədə/) is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean. Spanning over 9,900,000 km2 (3,800,000 sq mi), Canada is the world's second-largest country by total area, and its common border with the United States is the longest land border in the world.
The land that is now Canada has been inhabited for millennia by various Aboriginal peoples. Beginning in the late 15th century, British and French colonial expeditions explored, and later settled, along the region's Atlantic coast. France ceded nearly all of its colonies in North America in 1763 after the Seven Years' War. In 1867, with the union of three British North American colonies through Confederation, Canada was formed as a federal dominion of four provinces. This began an accretion of provinces and territories and a process of increasing autonomy; the Canada Act 1982 severed the vestiges of legal dependence on Britain.
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Carthage
Carthage (Latin: Carthago or Karthago, Ancient Greek: Καρχηδών Karkhēdōn, Arabic: قرطاج Qarṭāj, Berber: ⴽⴰⵔⵜⴰⵊⴻⵏ Kartajen, Etruscan: *Carθaza, Modern Hebrew: קרתגו Qartágo, from the Phoenician Qart-ḥadašt meaning New City (Aramaic: קרתא חדאתא, Qarta Ḥdatha), implying it was a 'new Tyre', is a major urban centre that has existed for nearly 3,000 years on the Gulf of Tunis, developing from a Phoenician colony of the 1st millennium BC. It is currently a suburb of Tunis, Tunisia, with a population of 20,715 (2004 Census).
The first civilization that developed within the city's sphere of influence is referred to as Punic (a form of the word "Phoenician") or Carthaginian. The city of Carthage is located on the eastern side of Lake Tunis across from the centre of Tunis. According to Greek historians it was founded by Canaanite-speaking Phoenician colonists from Tyre (in modern Lebanon) under the leadership of Elissa who was renamed (Queen Dido) in Virgil's Aeneid. It became a large and rich city and thus a major power in the Mediterranean. The resulting rivalry with Syracuse, Numidia, and Rome was accompanied by several wars with respective invasions of each other's homeland.
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Ceuta
Ceuta (Spanish pronunciation: [ˈθeuta]) is an 18.5-square-kilometre (7.1 sq mi) autonomous city of Spain and an exclave located on the north coast of North Africa surrounded by Morocco. Separated from the Iberian peninsula by the Strait of Gibraltar, Ceuta lies on the border of the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. After Spain returned Ifni to Morocco in 1969, Ceuta and Melilla remained the sole Spanish enclave territories within mainland Africa. Ceuta was deemed a part of Cadiz province prior to 14 March 1995, when the city's Statute of Autonomy was passed.
Ceuta (like Melilla) was a free port before Spain joined the European Union. As of 2011, it has a population of 78,674. Its population consists of Christians, Muslims (chiefly Moroccan Arabic speakers), and small minorities of Jews and Hindus. Spanish is the official language.
Morocco had previously called for negotiations on the future of Ceuta, Melilla and a number of Mediterranean islands and enclaves that border it. The majority of the city's population are ethnic Spanish who are opposed to the idea of being ruled by Morocco. A poll conducted by Instituto Opina found that 87.9% of people from mainland Spain consider the two cities to be Spanish.
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Chellah
Chellah, (Arabic: شالة) or Sala Colonia is a necropolis and complex of ancient Roman Mauretania Tingitana and medievalruins at the outskirts of Rabat, Morocco. First spot of Salé, this latter was completed towards the north of the river. It is the most ancient human settlement on the mouth of the Bou Regreg River.
The Phoenicians and the Carthaginians, who founded several colonies in Morocco, probably inhabited the banks of the Bou Regreg. Chellah is the site of the ruins of the Roman town known as Sala Colonia, referred to as Sala by Ptolemy. Excavations show an important port city with ruined Roman architectural elements including a decumanus maximus or principal Roman way, a forum and a triumphal arch.
One of the two main Roman roads in Morocco reached the Atlantic through Iulia Constantia Zilil (Asilah), Lixus (Larache) and Sala Colonia. Another may have been built toward south, from Sala Colonia to modern Casablanca, then called Anfa. The Romans had two main naval ouposts on the Atlantic: Sala near modern Rabat and Mogador in north of Agadir. Roman expeditions sailed from there to find the Canary islands.
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Cirta
Cirta was the capital city of the ancient Berber kingdom of Numidia in northern Africa (modern Algeria). Its strategically important port city was Russicada. Although Numidia was a key ally of the ancient Roman Republic during the Punic Wars (264 BC-146 BC), Cirta was subject to Roman invasions during the 1st and 2nd centuries BC, eventually falling under Roman dominion during the rule of Julius Caesar. The city was destroyed in the beginning of the 4th century and was rebuilt by the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great, who gave his name to the newly constructed city, Constantine.
Cirta's populace was as diverse as the Roman Republic itself — alongside native Numidians were Carthaginians displaced by the Second and Third Punic Wars, as well as Greeks, Romans, and Italians. It served as an economic hub for Rome’s African empire, as it was inhabited by Roman and Italian merchants, bankers, and businessmen. Even prior to Cirta’s fall to Julius Caesar, these economic elites constituted an important segment of the city's population, as they kept it within Rome’s sphere of influence without having to be directly controlled.
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Colombia
Colombia (
/kəˈlʌmbiə/ kə-LUM-biə, or /kəˈlɒmbiə/ kə-LOM-biə), officially the Republic of Colombia (Spanish: República de Colombia [reˈpuβlika ðe koˈlombja]), is a unitary constitutional republic comprising thirty-two departments. The country is located in northwestern South America, bordered to the northwest by Panama; to the north by the Caribbean Sea; to the east by Venezuela and Brazil; to the south by Ecuador and Peru; and to the west by the Pacific Ocean. Colombia has maritime borders with Ecuador, Panama, Venezuela, Jamaica, Haiti, the Dominican Republic, Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica. Colombia is the 26th largest country by area and the fourth largest in South America after Brazil, Argentina and Peru. With over 46 million people, Colombia is the 27th largest country in the world by population and has the second largest population of any Spanish-speaking country in the world, after Mexico. Colombia is a middle power, with the fourth largest economy in Latin America, and the third largest in South America. Colombia is famous for the production of coffee, flowers, emeralds, coal, and oil. All of these products make up the primary sector of economy.
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Comoros
The Comorosi/ˈkɒməroʊz/ (Arabic: جزر القمر, Ǧuzur al-Qumur/Qamar), officially the Union of the Comoros (Comorian: Udzima wa Komori, French: Union des Comores, Arabic: الاتحاد القمري al-Ittiḥād al-Qumurī/Qamarī) is a sovereign, archipelago island nation in the Indian Ocean, located off the eastern coast of Africa, on the northern end of the Mozambique Channel, between northeastern Mozambique and northwestern Madagascar. Other countries near to the Comoros are Tanzania to the northwest and the Seychelles to the northeast. The capital is Moroni on Grande Comore.
At 1,862 km2 (719 sq mi) (excluding Mayotte), the Comoros is the third-smallest African nation by area. The population (excluding Mayotte) is estimated at 798,000. Its name derives from the Arabic word قمر qamar ("moon"). The archipelago is notable for its diverse culture and history, as a nation formed at the crossroads of many civilizations. It is the southernmost member state of the Arab League. Though in the contested island of Mayotte the sole official language is French, the "Union of the Comoros" has three official languages: Comorian, Arabic, and French.
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Croatia
Croatia (i/kroʊˈeɪʃə/ kroh-AY-shə; Croatian: Hrvatska pronounced [xř̩ʋaːtskaː]), officially the Republic of Croatia (Croatian: Republika Hrvatska listen (help·info)), is a unitary democratic parliamentary republic in Europe at the crossroads of Central Europe, the Balkans, and the Mediterranean. Its capital and largest city is Zagreb. The country is divided into 20 counties and the city of Zagreb. Croatia covers 56,594 square kilometres (21,851 square miles) and has diverse, mostly continental and Mediterranean climates. Croatia's Adriatic Sea coast contains more than a thousand islands. The country's population is 4.29 million, most of whom are Croats, with the most common religious denomination being Roman Catholicism.
In the early 7th century the Croats arrived in area of present-day Croatia. They organised the state into two dukedoms by the 9th century. Tomislav became the first king by 925 AD, elevating Croatia to the status of a kingdom. The Kingdom of Croatia retained its sovereignty for nearly two centuries, reaching its peak during the rule of Kings Peter Krešimir IV and Dmitar Zvonimir. Croatia entered a personal union with Hungary in 1102. In 1527, faced with Ottoman conquest the Croatian Parliament elected Ferdinand I of the House of Habsburg to the Croatian throne. In 1918, after World War I, Croatia was included in the short-lived State of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs that declared independence from Austria–Hungary and co-founded the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. A Croatian state briefly existed during World War II as a fascist puppet state. After the war, Croatia became a founding member and a federal constituent of the Second Yugoslavia, a socialist state. In June 1991, Croatia declared independence, which came into effect on 8 October of the same year. The Croatian War of Independence was fought successfully during the four years following the declaration.
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Cyprus
Cyprusi/ˈsaɪprəs/ (Greek: Κύπρος, Kýpros, IPA: [ˈcipɾos]; Turkish: Kıbrıs, IPA: [ˈkɯbɾɯs]), officially the Republic of Cyprus (Greek: Κυπριακή Δημοκρατία, Kypriakī́ Dīmokratía, IPA: [cipɾiaˈci ðimokɾaˈtia]; Turkish: Kıbrıs Cumhuriyeti, IPA: [ˈkɯbɾɯs dʒumhuɾijeˈti]), is an island country in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea, east of Greece, south of Turkey, west of Syria, Lebanon, northwest of Israel and north of Egypt. Cyprus is the third largest island in the Mediterranean Sea and the Republic of Cyprus is a member state of the European Union.
The earliest known human activity on the island dates back to around the 10th millennium BC. Archaeological remains from this period include the well-preserved Neolithic village of Khirokitia, which has been declared a World Heritage Site with an "enhanced protection" status in the event of armed conflict by UNESCO, along with the archaeological sites of Paphos and the Painted Churches of the Troodos Region. Cyprus is home to some of the oldest water wells in the world.
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Dahr El Ahmar
Dahr El Ahmar is a village in Lebanon, situated in the Rashaya District and south of the Beqaa Governorate. It is located near the Syrian border, approximately 6 km from Rashaya and south of Kfar Danis. The population of the village is predominantly Druze. There is a shrine in the village to an important woman in Druze history, Sitt Sarah, the niece of one of the authors of the Epistles of Wisdom, Baha'u d-Dīn as-Samuqī ("al-Muqtana Baha’ud-Dīn"). She is remembered for being a great peacemaker.
Some flints were found 500 metres north of the village in the hills including large axes, scrapers and sickle blades with fine denticulation. This was suggested by Jacques Cauvin and Marie-Claire Cauvin to been a site contemporary with the earliest neolithic levels at Byblos.
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Dakoue
Dakoue is a village and Heavy Neolithic archaeological site of the Qaraoun culture located 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) southwest of Mejdel Anjar, Lebanon. The archaeological site is located 700 metres (2,300 ft) northwest of the village where plentiful Heavy Neolithic flint adzes, axes, debitage and waste material were found along with large amounts of Paleolithic materials.
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Damascus
Damascus (Arabic: دِمَشق / ALA-LC: Dimashq; commonly known in Syria as al-Sham (Arabic: الشام / al-Shām), and as the City of Jasmine (Arabic: مدينة الياسمين / Madīnat al-Yāsmīn), is the capital and the second largest city of Syria. Both are part of the country's 14 governorates. In addition to being one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world, Damascus is a major cultural and religious center of the Levant. The city has an estimated population of 1,711,000 (2009 est.).
Located in southwestern Syria, Damascus is the center of a large metropolitan area of 2.6 million people (2004). Geographically embedded on the eastern foothills of the Anti-Lebanon mountain range 80 kilometres (50 mi) inland from the eastern shore of the Mediterranean on a plateau 680 metres (2,230 ft) above sea-level, Damascus experiences a semi-arid climate due to the rain shadow effect. The Barada River flows through Damascus.
First settled in the 2nd millennium BC, it was chosen as the capital of the Umayyad Caliphate from 661 to 750. After the victory of the Abbasid dynasty, the seat of Islamic power was moved to Baghdad. Damascus saw a political decline throughout the Abbasid era, only to regain significant importance in the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods. During Ottoman rule, the city decayed completely while maintaining a certain cultural prestige. Today, it is the seat of the central government and all of the government ministries. Damascus was chosen as the 2008 Arab Capital of Culture.
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Deir El Aachayer
Deir El Aachayer (Arabic: ديرالعشاير.) is a village north of Rashaya, in the Rashaya District and south of the Beqaa Governorate in Lebanon.
The municipality is located on the border frontier of the Kaza of Rashaya, one of eight mohafazats (governorates). It sits at a height of 1,250 metres (4,100 ft) above sea level an its surface area covers 2,563 hectares (9.90 sq mi) hectares. The registered population of the village is around 500, predominantly Druze. Actual residents may number only around 250, distributed among about 90 households. The village has a municipal council made up of nine members, and a town mayor. Residents rely on farming as a main source of income, especially grapes, fruit and wheat. Residents also raise and herd sheep and cows, which have been a good source of milk. Farmers in the village have had difficulty selling their products in modern times.
Deir El Aachayer has a number of local springs, including Ain Halalweh, Ain Shayeb, Ain Rouk, Ain Dibb. It also contains the remains of a substantial Greco-Roman style temple dedicated to an unknown deity, with 30 metres (98 ft) long foundations and columns re-used in local construction. The village was once known by the name Deir Mar Sema’an, owing to the Monastery of Saint Simon, known locally as Al Borj, said to have been built by the Romans for preaching, religious ceremonies and practices by disciples of Saint Simon the Baptist. The monastery having been a stronghold for the students, enabling them to expand their teaching in Syria.
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Deir el Ahmar
Deir El Ahmar (Arabic: دير الأحمر) is a Lebanese town, located at 100 km from Beirut and 12 km northeast of Baalbeck in the Bekaa Valley in Lebanon.
The population of Deir el Ahmar is around 23,000 people. The people of Deir el Ahmar are Lebanese and followers of the Maronite church. With eight historical churches, including Saint Joseph Church which was completed on September 15, 1914, Our Lady of the Tower Church which was built the ruins of the temple of Jupiter, Saint Georges, Saint Nohra, Saint Michel (old + New), Saint Elie, Our Lady of Cultivation and two musk temple one of them for man and the other for ladies. The town serves as the center of the archbishopric of Baalbek–Deir El-Ahmar.
Deir el Ahmar's climate is mild during spring and autumn, dry and warm in summer, and cold during winter. With an altitude that ranges between 950 m and 1,150 m above sea level, the town receives heavy snow during the winter, and some roads leading to the town may be temporarily closed during this period. Deir el Ahmar area is about 42 hectar (42.000 000 m2)
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Dekwaneh
Dekwaneh (Arabic: ضهر الحصين translit. Dikwene) (also Dekweneh) is a suburb north of Beirut in the Matn District of the Mount Lebanon Governorate, Lebanon. The population is predominantly Maronite Christian. Tel al-Zaatar , An UNRWA administered Palestinian Refugee camp housing approximately 50,000-60,000 refugees , and site of the Tel al-Zaatar massacre was located on the outskirts of the town.
Dekwaneh I is about 700 metres (2,300 ft) northwest of Mar Roucos monastery, in the gullies of (now deforested) pinewood slopes on the west side of a ridge. Material was found by Raoul Describes, who mentioned rock-shelters in the area that were destroyed by quarrying for quicklime. Further collections by Auguste Bergy and Peter Wescombe. Some of the flint tools recovered were determined to be Acheulean as well as a large amount of waste and bifaces from the Middle Paleolithic that suggested it was a factory site at that time.
Dekwaneh II material comes from various locations around the area, most notably the ravine below the monastery. Flint tools were also found here by Bergy and Describes which included the Qaraoun culture's Heavy Neolithic forms such as massive axes, picks, scrapers and rabots. Other early Neolithic tools were found along with some Middle Palelithic material including an Emireh point and tortoise cores. Along with material from Dekwaneh I, finds from the locations are stored in the Museum of Lebanese Prehistory.
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Djibouti
Djibouti (Arabic: جيبوتي Jībūtī, French: Djibouti, Somali: Jabuuti, Afar: Gabuuti), officially the Republic of Djibouti (Arabic: جمهورية جيبوتي Jumhūriyyat Jībūtī, French: République de Djibouti, Afar: Gabuutih Ummuuno, Somali: Jamhuuriyadda Jabuuti), is a country in the Horn of Africa. It is bordered by Eritrea in the north, Ethiopia in the west and south, and Somalia in the southeast. The remainder of the border is formed by the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden at the east. Djibouti, which had a population of 818,159 at the 2009 census, is one of the least populous countries in Africa.Islam is the largest religion in the country, practiced by 94% of the population. The land was known as Obock and French Somaliland (Côte française des Somalis) in the 19th century; in 1967, it changed its name to Afars and Issas after new treaties with France. The territory was declared an independent nation in 1977 and changed its name to the "Republic of Djibouti" after its principal city. Djibouti joined the United Nations on September 20, 1977. While Djibouti is an independent sovereign state, it maintains deep French relations, and through various military and economic agreements with France, it receives continued security and economic assistance.
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Djémila
Coordinates: 36°18′N 5°44′E / 36.3°N 5.733°E / 36.3; 5.733
Djémila (Tamazight: Ğamila, Arabic: جميلة, the Beautiful one, Latin: Cuicul or Curculum) is a mountain village in Algeria, near the northern coast east of Algiers, where some of the best preserved Berbero-Roman ruins in North Africa are found. It is situated in the region bordering the Constantinois and Petite Kabylie (Basse Kabylie).
In 1982, Djémila became a UNESCO World Heritage Site for its unique adaptation of Roman architecture to a mountain environment. Significant buildings in Djémila include a theatre, two fora, temples, basilicas, arches, streets, and houses. The exceptionally well preserved ruins surround the forum of the Harsh, a large paved square with an entry marked by a majestic arch.
Under the name of Cuicul, the city was built during the first century A.D. as a military garrison situated on a narrow triangular plateau. The terrain is somewhat rugged, being located at the confluence of two rivers. Cuicul's builders followed a standard plan with a forum at the center and two main streets, the Cardo Maximus and the Decumanus Maximus, composing the major axes. The city was initially populated by a colony of soldiers, and eventually grew to become a large trading market. The resources that contributed to the prosperity of the city were essentially agricultural (cereals, olive trees and farm).
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Doha
Doha (Arabic: الدوحة, ad-Dawḥa or ad-Dōḥa, literally: "the big tree") is the capital city of the state of Qatar. Located on the Persian Gulf, it had a population of 998,651 in 2008, and is also one of the municipalities of Qatar. Doha is Qatar's largest city, with over 60% of the nation's population residing in Doha or its surrounding suburbs, and is also the economic centre of the country.
Doha also serves as the seat of government of Qatar, which is ruled by Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani. Doha is home to the Education City, an area devoted to research and education. Doha was the site of the first ministerial-level meeting of the Doha Development Round of World Trade Organization negotiations. The city of Doha held the 2006 Asian Games, which was the largest Asian Games ever held. Doha also hosted the 2011 Pan Arab Games and most of the games at the 2011 AFC Asian Cup. Doha will also host a large number of the venues for the 2022 FIFA World Cup. The World Petroleum Council held the 20th World Petroleum Conference in Doha in December 2011.
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Dubai
Dubai (/duːˈbaɪ/ doo-BY; Arabic: دبيّ Dubeii; IPA: [du'beii]) is an emirate within the United Arab Emirates (UAE). A city within the emirate is also named Dubai. The emirate is located south east of the Persian Gulf on the Arabian Peninsula and has the largest population with the second-largest land territory by area of all the emirates, after Abu Dhabi. Dubai and Abu Dhabi are the only two emirates to have veto power over critical matters of national importance in the country's legislature. Dubai City is located on the emirate's northern coastline.
The earliest mention of Dubai is in 1095, and the earliest settlement known as Dubai town dates from 1799. Dubai was formally established in 1833 by Sheikh Maktoum bin Buti al Maktoum when he persuaded 800 members of the Bani Yas tribe, living in what is now part of Saudi Arabia, to follow him to the Dubai Creek by the Al Abu Falasa clan of Bani Yas. It remained under clan control when the United Kingdom assumed the protection of Dubai in 1892. Its geographical location made it an important trading hub and by the beginning of the 20th century, it was an important port.
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Egypt
Egypti/ˈiːdʒɪpt/ (Arabic: مصر, Miṣr, Egyptian Arabic: [mɑsˤɾ] ; Coptic: Ⲭⲏⲙⲓ, Kīmi ; Sahidic Coptic: ⲕⲏⲙⲉ, Kēme), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: جمهوريّة مصر العربيّة (help·info), is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world. Covering an area of about 1,010,000 square kilometers (390,000 sq mi), Egypt is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Red Sea to the east, Sudan to the south and Libya to the west.
Egypt is one of the most populous countries in Africa and the Middle East. The great majority of its over 81 million people live near the banks of the Nile River, in an area of about 40,000 square kilometers (15,000 sq mi), where the only arable land is found. The large areas of the Sahara Desert are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypt's residents live in urban areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria and other major cities in the Nile Delta.
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Enfeh
Enfeh(Arabic: انفه), or Enfe, Anfeh, Anfe, is a Greek Orthodox village in the Koura district of the North Governorate of Lebanon at Latitude 34°21'0"N and Longitude 35°44'0"E. Enfeh borders the villages of chekka, Al-Qalamoun , barghoun and zakroun. It is located 65 Kilometers north of Beirut and 15 Kilometers south of Tripoli. Its total area is 4,937,721 m2, and its population is around 6,500.
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Essaouira
Mogador redirects here, for the hamlet in Surrey see Mogador, Surrey.
Essaouira (Arabic: الصويرة, as-Ṣawīra; Berber Tassort) is a city in the western Moroccan economic region of Marrakech-Tensift-Al Haouz, on the Atlantic coast. Since the 16th century, the city has also been known by its Portuguese name of Mogador or Mogadore. The Berber name means the wall, a reference to the fortress walls that originally enclosed the city.
Archaeological research shows that Essaouira has been occupied since prehistoric times. The bay at Essaouira is partially sheltered by the island of Mogador, making it a peaceful harbor protected against strong marine winds.
Essaouira has long been considered as one of the best anchorages of the Moroccan coast. The Carthaginian navigator Hanno visited the place in the 5th century BC and established the trading post of Arambys.
Around the end of the 1st century BCE or early 1st century CE, Juba II established a Tyrian purple factory, processing the murex and purpura shells found in the intertidal rocks at Essaouira and the Iles Purpuraires. This dye colored the purple stripe in Imperial Roman Senatorial togas.
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Finike
Finike, the ancient Phoenicus (Ancient Greek: Φοινικοῦς), is a district on the Mediterranean coast of Antalya Province of Turkey, 90 minutes west of the city of Antalya. It is located in the south of the Teke peninsula, and the coast here is a popular tourist destination. However, Finike is best known for its oranges, the symbol of the town.
For centuries Finike, then named Phoenicus, was a trading port, the main port of Limyra, the capital city of Lycia. Phoenicus was said to have been founded by Phoenicians in the 5th Century BC, and thus named after its founders.
The area has been inhabited for much longer than that; archaeologists have found evidence near the town of Elmalı showing that the Teke peninsula has been settled since 3000 BC (although on the coast nothing has been uncovered dating before 2000 BC).
Trade along the coast was established first by the Persians, who relinquished Lycia to the armies of Alexander the Great. However, the coast was always vulnerable to forces from Syria, Egypt and Rhodes until it was brought within the empire of the Ancient Romans and the succeeding Byzantines. Even then the Byzantines were threatened by the Arabian armies coming from the Arabian Peninsula. Eventually the area was lost to the Seljuk Turks in the 13th century. These were succeeded by the Ottoman Empire from 1426.
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France
France (Englishi/ˈfræns/ FRANSS or /ˈfrɑːns/ FRAHNSS; French: [fʁɑ̃s] ( listen)), officially the French Republic (French: République française [ʁepyblik fʁɑ̃sɛz]), is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean. It is often referred to as l’Hexagone ("The Hexagon") because of the geometric shape of its territory. It is the largest western European country and it possesses the second-largest exclusive economic zone in the world, covering 11,035,000 km2 (4,260,000 sq mi), just behind that of the United States (11,351,000 km2 / 4,383,000 sq mi).
Over the past 500 years, France has been a major power with strong cultural, economic, military and political influence in Europe and around the world. During the 17th and 18th centuries, France colonised great parts of North America and Southeast Asia; during the 19th and early 20th centuries, France built the second largest colonial empire of the time, including large portions of North, West and Central Africa, Southeast Asia, and many Caribbean and Pacific Islands.
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Gibraltar
Gibraltar ( /dʒɨˈbrɒltər/) is a British overseas territory located on the southern end of the Iberian Peninsula at the entrance of the Mediterranean. It has an area of 6.8 square kilometres (2.6 sq mi) and a northern border with Andalusia, Spain. The Rock of Gibraltar is the major landmark of the region. At its foot is the densely populated city area, home to almost 30,000 Gibraltarians and other nationalities.
An Anglo-Dutch force captured Gibraltar from Spain in 1704 during the War of the Spanish Succession. The territory was subsequently ceded to Britain "in perpetuity" under the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713. It was an important base for the Royal Navy; today its economy is based largely on tourism, financial services, and shipping.
The sovereignty of Gibraltar is a major point of contention in Anglo-Spanish relations as Spain asserts a claim to the territory. Gibraltarians rejected proposals for Spanish sovereignty in a 1967 referendum and again in 2002. Under the Gibraltar constitution of 2006, Gibraltar governs its own affairs, though some powers, such as defence and foreign relations, remain the responsibility of the UK Government.
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Gozo
Gozo (Maltese: Għawdex) is a small island of the Maltese archipelago in the Mediterranean Sea. The island is part of the Southern European country of Malta; after the island of Malta itself, it is the second-largest island in the archipelago. Compared to its southeastern neighbour, Gozo is more rural and known for its scenic hills, which are featured on its coat of arms.
The island of Gozo has long been identified as Ogygia, the domain of the nymph Calypso in Homer's Odyssey. Calypso, possessed of great supernatural powers, holds Odysseus captive for a number of years because of her love for him before releasing him to continue his journey home.
The island itself has a population of around 31,000 people (all of Malta combined has 402,000), and its inhabitants are known as Gozitans (Maltese: Għawdxin). It is rich in historical locations such as the Ġgantija temples which, along with the Megalithic Temples of Malta, are the world's oldest free-standing structures and also among the world's oldest religious structures.
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Grand Serail
The Grand Serail (Arabic: السراي الكبير (al saray al kabir); also known as the Government Palace) is the headquarters of the Prime Minister of Lebanon. It is situated atop a hill in downtown Beirut a few blocks away from the Lebanese Parliament. The Grand Serail is a historic building, the most important of three Ottoman monuments on the Serail hill. The other two are the Council for Development and Reconstruction and the Hamidiyyeh clock tower. This historic building has earned its importance through successive roles which it held since 1832
After its short-lived victory over the Ottomans in 1831, an Egyptian military contingent took position and set up its barracks on the western side of a hill overlooking Beirut and outside its walls. Ibrahim Pasha selected this hill for military reasons. It was a high hill overlooking Suq-al Munajjidin (the weavers' bazaar), this Suq, known today as the banks street (shari' al Massarif), was located on a strategic area within downtown Beirut, and close to Tal'at al Amrican (American Hill), near Bab Yaacub (Jacob's Gate). In his book "Taqwim al Ikbal" Sheik Abdel Basit al Unsi describes that hill as being well situated, west of the city, away from the population and overseeing the sea and Beirut. Thus because of its situation, it allows the contingent to control the city and its suburbs. While the Egyptians were on that hill, the people customarily referred to it as the "Al Thakanat" (the barracks) because it was the lodging place that was selected by Ibrahim Pasha for his troops.
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Greece
Greecei/ˈɡriːs/ (Greek: Ελλάδα, Ellada, IPA: [eˈlaða] ( listen) historically in Katharevousa and Ancient Greek: Ἑλλάς, Hellas, IPA: [eˈlas] and [helːás] respectively), officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία, Elliniki Dimokratia, IPA: [eliniˈci ðimokraˈtia]), is a country in Southern Europe, politically considered part of Western Europe.Athens is the capital and the largest city in the country (its urban area also including Piraeus). The population of the country is around 11 million.
Greece has land borders with Albania, the Republic of Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to the east. The Aegean Sea lies to the east of mainland Greece, the Ionian Sea to the west, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. Greece has the 11th longest coastline in the world at 13,676 km (8,498 mi) in length, featuring a vast number of islands (approximately 1,400, of which 227 are inhabited), including Crete, the Dodecanese, the Cyclades, and the Ionian Islands among others. Eighty percent of Greece consists of mountains, of which Mount Olympus is the highest at 2,917 m (9,570 ft).
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Guardamar del Segura
Guardamar del Segura (Valencian pronunciation: [ˌɡwaɾðaˈmaɾ ðeɫ seˈɣuɾa]) or briefly Guardamar is a municipality of the province of Alicante located at the mouth of the river Segura in southern Valencia (autonomous community), Spain. It is a Mediterranean resort, with a large pine forest abutting an 11-km-long white sand beach.
Historically an area of fishermen and farmers, Guardamar del Segura is the southernmost point where Valenciano (a dialect of Catalan) is spoken.
A Phoenician colony, called Herna by Roman geographer Avienus in his book Ora Maritima was the first settlement near the mouth of Segura river, and later Arabs called the place وادالرمل "Guald-al-ramal" (River of the Sand), likely the basis for its name today. In Spanish, "guardar" means "safekeeping" and "mar" means "sea", and this is another possible basis for its current name.
Guardamar hosts local festivals like Moros i Cristians, L'Encantà, and Fogueres de Sant Joan, which commemorate its history (Iberian, Arab, and Christian). The local spirit is called Aigua de València (champagne, fresh orange, cointreau).
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Guelma
Guelma (Arabic: قالمة) is the capital of Guelma Province and Guelma District, located in northeastern Algeria, about 65 kilometers from the Mediterranean coast. It is home to the titular see of Calama.
Though Guelma was settled from early prehistory, it was first established as a town under the Phoenicians, who called it Malaca, probably a Phoenician word meaning "salt" (sharing a common etymology with Málaga in Spain). Later, the Romans settled the area and renamed it Calama, part of the Roman province of Numidia. Calama prospered during the rise of Christianity; Saint Possidius was bishop of Guelma during the 5th century. Later, the Vandal invasion devastated the area until the coming of the Byzantines, who settled the area and built city walls to protect it from further invasions. It was located in the Byzantine Exarchate of Africa. However, after the successful Islamic conquest of Algeria, the area was abandoned as a formal settlement, even later, during Ottoman rule.
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Hadeth south
Hadeth south is a Heavy Neolithic archaeological site approximately 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) south southeast of Beirut, on the road to Sidon in Lebanon. It was discovered and a collection made by Auguste Bergy from a spur near a ravine south of the last houses in the village. Heavy Neolithic material of the Qaraoun culture was found of an atypical variety with large, rough flakes including picks, choppers and cores. Some examples showed evidence of burin impacts and twisted forms. The area is now built up.
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Hadrumetum
Hadrume(n)tum (sometimes called Adrametum or Adrametus) was a Phoenician colony that pre-dated Carthage and stood on the site of modern-day Sousse, Tunisia.
In the 9th century BC, the Phoenicians, astute Levantine maritime traders who would later be supplanted in Northern Africa by their major colony Carthage, sensed the possibilities of a port city south of present-day Tunis and founded Hadrumetum on what is now the Gulf of Hammamet in the Mediterranean Sea.
Hadrumetum was one of the most important communities within the Roman territory in northern Africa because of its strategic location on the sea in the heart of the fertile Sahel region. The city allied itself with Rome during the Punic Wars, thereby escaping damage or ruin and entered a relatively peaceful 700-year stint under Pax Romana, although Hannibal made use of it as a military base in his campaign against Scipio Africanus at the close of the Second Punic War. Many records have been found that say the Romans sent a garrison of 5000 soldiers to protect it. They were led by General Septus Loriinus. At some point during this period its name was slightly altered (by the addition of an N) to become Hadrumentum.
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Haret ech Cheikh
Haret ech Cheikh (also Haret-Ech-Cheikh), is a municipality in the Matn District in the Mount Lebanon Governorate near Bouchriyeh.
The archaeological site at Haret Ech Cheikh is east of the road between Dekwaneh and Jdeideh about 50 metres (160 ft) above sea level on the top of a wooded hill. It was discovered by Paul Bovier-Lapierre and Raoul Describes who suggested it may be a high place. The hilltop has several outcrops of sandstone slabs suggested to be megalithic building foundation or enclosure. The suggested foundations have big stones at the corners that may were not securely determined to be prehistoric. Materials collected from the site were Neolithic or Chalcolithic in form and was possibly mixed with that of the adjacent site of Ain Cheikh. Lorraine Copeland and Peter Wescombe collected some fresh, unpatinated flint tools from a position west of the hilltop enclosure where a large amount of factory waste was also found. All material is in the Museum of Lebanese Prehistory, marked with the label "Ain Cheikh". An grandiose villa dominates land covering part of the hill.
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Haret Hreik
Haret Hreik (Arabic: حارة حريك) is a mixed Shia and Maronite Christian town, in the Dahieh suburbs, south of Beirut, Lebanon. Once an agricultural village, Haret Hreik lost its rural identity due to the wave of refugees from Southern Lebanon who settled in the town and made it another urban neighborhood of Dahieh. Haret Hreik is located northeast of the Rafik Hariri International Airport and north of the towns of Laylake and Bourj Al Brajneh, west of Hadath and south of Chiah. The town is the headquarters of the Shi'ite group Hezbollah. Israeli warplanes destroyed the headquarters and civilian homes on July 2006.
The area was largely destroyed during the 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict. It was estimated that close to 200 buildings were destroyed in the town during the first week of Israel's attack on Lebanon in 2006, with a total of more than 700 structures destroyed or damaged by the end of the war. The town has since undergone significant reconstruction, replacing destroyed and damaged buildings. Construction is still under way as of 2010.
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Hashbai
Hashbai or Tell Hashbai is an archaeological site on the west of the Beqaa Valley in Lebanon.
The area is watered by the Mount Lebanon reservoirs and sits besite the Wadi Hashbai, close to the Ain Hashbai springs. The site is located on the side of the valley as older sites in the central valley have been deeply covered in soil.
It was first surveyed and studied in 1965-6 by Lorraine Copeland, Peter Wescombe and Henri de Contenson. Materials found included burnished, red-washed shards of pottery (some with incision decoration), arrowheads, sickle blades with coarse denticulation, obsidian, basalt rubber and a limestone pestle. suggested PPNB or Neolithic dating similar to Tell Ramad, Byblos or Amuq with occupation as late as the Bronze Age. A dark brown and black flint group of later appearance was also detected. It was suggested that if this flint group were to belong with the production period for Dark Faced Burnished Ware or red washed pottery, then it may carry an even earlier PPNB date. Along with evidence from White Ware in the area, this has suggested that the Beqaa sites are of a sub-group suggested to date earlier chronologically than finds from Byblos.
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Hippo Regius
Coordinates: 36°54′N 7°46′E / 36.9°N 7.767°E / 36.9; 7.767
Hippo Regius (Hippone) is the ancient name of the modern city of Annaba, in Algeria. Under this name, it was a major city in Roman Africa, hosting several early Christian councils, and was the home of the philosopher and theologian Augustine of Hippo. In even earlier days, the city was a royal residence for Numidian kings.
Hippo was a Tyrian colony on the west coast of the bay to which it gave its name: Hipponensis Sinus, first settled by the Phoenicians probably in the 12th century BC; the surname Regius 'of the King' was bestowed on it as one of the places where the Numidian kings resided.
A maritime city near the mouth of the river Ubus, it became a Roman colonia which prospered and became a major city in Roman Africa. It is perhaps most famous as the bishopric of Saint Augustine of Hippo in his later years. In the summer of 430 the Vandals put the city of Hippo under siege as the aged bishop lay on his death bed; he died 28 August 430. Following a 14-month siege, the city fell to the Vandals and King Geiseric made it the capital of the Vandal kingdom until the capture of Carthage in 439.
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Honaine
Honaine is a town and commune in Tlemcen Province in northwestern Algeria.
Coordinates: 35°11′N 1°39′W / 35.183°N 1.65°W / 35.183; -1.65
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Huelva
Huelva (Spanish pronunciation: [ˈwelβa]) is a city in southwestern Spain, the capital of the province of Huelva in the autonomous region of Andalusia. It is located along the Gulf of Cadiz coast, at the confluence of the Odiel and Tinto rivers. According to the 2010 census, the city has a population of 149,410 inhabitants. The city has been inhabited since 3000 BC. The town is home to Recreativo de Huelva, the oldest football club in Spain.
A maritime town between the rivers Anas (modern Guadiana) and Baetis (modern Guadalquivir), it was seated on the estuary of the River Luxia (modern Odiel), and on the road from the mouth of the Anas to Augusta Emerita (modern Mérida).
The city may be the site of Tartessus; by the Phoenicians it was called Onoba. The Greeks kept the name and rendered it Ὄνοβα. It was in the hands of the Turdetani at the time of conquest by Rome, and before the conquest it issued silver coins with Iberian legends. It was called both Onoba Aestuaria or Onuba (used on coinage) during Roman times, or, simply, Onoba. The city was incorporated into the Roman province of Hispania Baetica. The Arabs then called it Walbah and ruled between 712-1250. It suffered substantial damage in the 1755 Lisbon earthquake.
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Iaat
Coordinates: 34°3′58.36″N 36°9′15.52″E / 34.0662111°N 36.1543111°E / 34.0662111; 36.1543111
Iaat (Arabic: إيعات also transliterated as Ya'ad, Yaad, Yaat, or Iaad) is a town located in the Beqaa Valley of Lebanon mostly famous for its Corinthian column. The column stands at 251 meters (59.1 feet) it is installed on a 4 step base. The location of the Pillar is 4 miles (6 km) northwest of the Baalbek ruins, between the towns of Baalbek and Chlifa. At one point a plaque was installed on the northern side of the monument, however it has been removed and no other history is known of the column, which is believed to be a funerary monument. The column is also widely believed in local legend to be related to St. Helena.
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Iran
Coordinates: 32°N 53°E / 32°N 53°E / 32; 53
Iran (i/ɪˈrɑːn/ or /aɪˈræn/;Persian: ایران [ʔiˈɾɒn] ( listen)), officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (Persian: جمهوری اسلامی ایران Jomhuri-ye Eslāmi-ye Irān), is a country in Southern and Western Asia. The name "Iran", which in Persian means "Land of the Aryans", has been in use natively since the Sassanian era. It came into use internationally in 1935, before which the country was known to the Western world as Persia ( /ˈpɜrʒə/ or /ˈpɜrʃə/). Both "Persia" and "Iran" are used interchangeably in cultural contexts; however, "Iran" is the name used officially in political contexts.
The 18th-largest country in the world in terms of area at 1,648,195 km2 (636,372 sq mi), Iran has a population of around 79 million. It is a country of particular geopolitical significance owing to its location in the Middle East and central Eurasia. Iran is bordered on the north by Armenia, Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan. As Iran is a littoral state of the Caspian Sea, which is an inland sea, Kazakhstan and Russia are also Iran's direct neighbors to the north. Iran is bordered on the east by Afghanistan and Pakistan, on the south by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman, on the west by Iraq and on the northwest by Turkey. Tehran is the capital, the country's largest city and the political, cultural, commercial and industrial center of the nation. Iran is a regional power, and holds an important position in international energy security and world economy as a result of its large reserves of petroleum and natural gas. Iran has the second largest proven natural gas reserves in the world and the fourth largest proven petroleum reserves.
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Iraq
Iraq (/ɪˈræk/ or
i/ɪˈrɑːk/; Arabic: العراق al-‘Irāq); officially the Republic of Iraq (Arabic: جمهورية العراق (help·info) Jumhūriyyat al-‘Irāq), is a country in Western Asia spanning most of the northwestern end of the Zagros mountain range, the eastern part of the Syrian Desert and the northern part of the Arabian Desert.
Iraq borders Syria to the northwest, Turkey to the north, Iran to the east, Jordan to the southwest and Kuwait and Saudi Arabia to the south. Iraq has a narrow section of coastline measuring 58 km (36 mi) on the northern Persian Gulf. The capital city, Baghdad is in the center-east of the country.
Two major rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates, run through the center of Iraq, flowing from northwest to southeast. These provide Iraq with agriculturally capable land and contrast with the steppe and desert landscape that covers most of Western Asia.
Historically, Iraq was the center of the Abbasid Arabic Islamic Empire. Iraq has been known to the west by the Greek toponym 'Mesopotamia' (Land between the rivers) and has been home to continuous successive civilizations since the 6th millennium BC. The region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers is often referred to as the cradle of civilization and the birthplace of writing, law and the wheel. At different periods in its history, Iraq was the center of the indigenous Akkadian, Sumerian, Assyrian, Babylonian, and Abbasid empires. It was also part of the Achaemenid, Hellenistic, Parthian, Sassanid, Roman, Rashidun, Umayyad, Mongol, Safavid, Afsharid, and Ottoman empires, and under British control as a League of Nations mandate.
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Isfahan
Isfahan (Persian: اصفهان Esfahān), historically also rendered in English as Ispahan, Sepahan or Hispahan, is the capital of Isfahan Province in Iran, located about 340 km south of Tehran. It has a population of 1,583,609 and is Iran's third largest city after Tehran and Mashhad. The Isfahan metropolitan area had a population of 3,430,353 in the 2006 Census, the second most populous metropolitan area in Iran after Tehran.
The cities of Zarrinshahr, Fooladshahr and Najafabad, Se-deh , Shahin-shahr, Mobarakeh, Falavarjan and chiarmahin all constitute the metropolitan city of Isfahan.
Isfahan is located on the main north-south and east-west routes crossing Iran, and was once one of the largest cities in the world. It flourished from 1050 to 1722, particularly in the 16th century under the Safavid dynasty, when it became the capital of Persia for the second time in its history. Even today, the city retains much of its past glory. It is famous for its Islamic architecture, with many beautiful boulevards, covered bridges, palaces, mosques, and minarets. This led to the Persian proverb "'Esfahān nesf-e jahān ast" (Isfahan is half of the world).
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Israel
Coordinates: 31°N 35°E / 31°N 35°E / 31; 35
Israel, officially the State of Israel ( /ˈɪzriːəl/ or /ˈɪzreɪəl/; Hebrew: מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל, Medīnat Yisrā'el, IPA: [me̞diˈnät jisʁäˈʔe̞l] ( listen); Arabic: دَوْلَة إِسْرَائِيل, Dawlat Isrāʼīl, IPA: [dawlat ʔisraːˈʔiːl]), is a parliamentary republic in the Middle East, along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea. It borders Lebanon in the north, Syria in the northeast, Jordan and the West Bank in the east, Egypt and the Gaza Strip on the southwest, and the Gulf of Aqaba in the Red Sea to the south, and it contains geographically diverse features within its relatively small area. Israel is defined as a Jewish and Democratic State in its Basic Laws and is the world's only Jewish-majority state.
Following the adoption of a resolution by the General Assembly of the United Nations on 29 November 1947 recommending the adoption and implementation of the United Nations plan to partition Palestine, on 14 May 1948 David Ben-Gurion, the Executive Head of the World Zionist Organization and president of the Jewish Agency for Palestine, declared the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel, to be known as the State of Israel, a state independent from the British Mandate for Palestine. Neighboring Arab states invaded the next day in support of the Palestinian Arabs. Israel has since fought several wars with neighboring Arab states, in the course of which it has occupied the West Bank, Sinai Peninsula, Gaza Strip and the Golan Heights. Portions of these territories, including east Jerusalem, have been annexed by Israel, but the border with the neighboring West Bank has not yet been permanently defined.[neutrality is disputed] Israel has signed peace treaties with Egypt and Jordan, but efforts to resolve the Israeli–Palestinian conflict have so far not resulted in peace.
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Istanbul
Istanbul (Turkish: İstanbul) is the largest city in Turkey, forming the country's economic, cultural, and historical heart. With a population of 13.4 million, the city is at the center of the second-largest urban area in Europe after Moscow, and among the world's largest cities by population within city limits. Istanbul's vast area of 5,343 square kilometers (2,063 sq mi) is coterminous with Istanbul Province, of which the city is considered capital. Straddling the Bosphorus—one of the world's busiest waterways—in northwestern Turkey, between the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea, Istanbul is a transcontinental city, with one third of its population living in Asia but its commercial and historical center in Europe.
Founded around 660 BC as Byzantium on the Seraglio Point, the city now known as Istanbul developed to become one of the most significant cities in history. For nearly sixteen centuries following its reestablishment as Constantinople in 330 AD, it served as the capital of four empires — the late classical Roman Empire (330–395), the Eastern Roman ("Byzantine") Empire (395–1204 and 1261–1453), the Latin Empire (1204–1261), and the Ottoman Empire (1453–1922). It was instrumental in the advancement of Christianity during Roman and Byzantine times, before the Ottomans conquered the city in 1453 and transformed it into an Islamic stronghold from which the last caliphate ruled. Although the Republic of Turkey established its capital elsewhere, in Ankara, remnants of Istanbul's previous central role still remain highly visible across the city, with palaces and imperial mosques lining its hills.
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Italy
Italyi/ˈɪtəli/ (Italian: Italia [iˈtaːlja]), officially the Italian Republic or the Republic of Italy (Italian: Repubblica italiana), is a unitary parliamentary republic in south-central Europe. To the north, it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and Slovenia along the Alps. To the south, it consists of the entirety of the Italian Peninsula, Sicily, Sardinia–the two largest islands in the Mediterranean Sea–and many other smaller islands. The independent states of San Marino and the Vatican City are enclaves within Italy, while Campione d'Italia is an Italian exclave in Switzerland. The territory of Italy covers some 301,338 km2 (116,347 sq mi) and is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. With 60.6 million inhabitants, it is the fifth most populous country in Europe, and the 23rd most populous in the world.
Rome, the capital of Italy, was for centuries a political and religious centre of Western civilisation as the capital of the Roman Empire and site of the Holy See. After the decline of the Roman Empire, Italy endured numerous invasions by foreign peoples, from Germanic tribes such as the Lombards and Ostrogoths, to the Byzantines and later, the Normans, among others. Centuries later, Italy became the birthplace of Maritime republics and the Renaissance, an immensely fruitful intellectual movement that would prove to be integral in shaping the subsequent course of European thought.
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Jabal es Saaïdé
Jabal es Saaïdé (Arabic: جبل سعيدة), Jabal es Saaide, Jabal as Sa`idah, Jabal as Sa`īdah, Jebal Saaidé, Jebel Saaidé or Jabal Saaidé is a Mountain in Lebanon near the inhabited village of Saaïdé, approximately 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) northeast of Baalbek, Lebanon.
Saaidé I & Saaidé II are archaeological sites of note in this area. In the summer of 1966, the Lebanese Army dug a trench at Saaidé I, and recovered a large number of tools and lithics including sickles, grinders, scrapers, chisels, awls and blades suggested to date to the PPNB or PPNA. Jacques Besançon & Francis Hours later discovered a Palaeolithic layer below the Neolithic level, recovering knives, arrowheads, scrapers and retouched blades along with a fragment of a small, flat, cutting axe.
Saaidé II, almost 0.25 hectares (27,000 sq ft) in size, was first excavated in 1969 by Bruce Schroeder from the University of Toronto who found the site badly damaged by modern agriculture. Investigations have recovered a wide range of mortars and pestles, scrapers, chisels, borers, retouched microliths, geometric and non-geometric microliths. One grave was found with some tiny skull fragments from an adult aged 45–50 years. Local fauna consisted of turtles, birds (duck, goose, eagle) and mammals (badger, lynx, deer, ox, gazelle, sheep and goat). Jebal Saaidé is the only pre-agricultural village found in Lebanon to date. Inhabitants seem to have hunted different animals including lynx, red deer, gazelle, and some aquatic and migratory birds.
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Jbaa
Jbaa, (in Arabic: جباع), is a town in the Nabatieh Governorate, or Nabatiye southern Lebanon.
Jbaa Falls in the hands of the great Safi Mountain, and rises over 770 metres (2,530 ft) (in the town center) from the sea level and then begins to rise to 900 metres (3,000 ft) in the district "Ein-Elsataoun" Water flowed between the folds, the most gorgeous greenery trees diverse, especially the walnut trees spread around most of the town houses.
Jbaa is the capital of Iqlim al-Tuffah, and was the Directorate of independent during the French mandate over Lebanon and was known in the 20th century as an important resort for the people's of Nabatieh and Sidon and the rest of the Jabal Amel area, Jbaa has fancy restaurants and hotels because of its dozens beautiful and famous natural springs: Ein-elteen, Marjah, Kabiy, Ein-Arkez, Hoelh-spring, spring-Abboud, Spring-Valley and Albsis.
Also referred to the town of Jbaa by its summer professional cultural parties (mahra-janat), which was held in the summer and where people gathered from all over the world, Jbaa nights used to be like ongoing wedding during the lasting peace in the 1960s and 1970s, then became a home and a haven for the people of Nabatieh caza beginnings of the first Israeli war during the 1977/1982 period before it got it own Israeli war in which people of the village moved to Sidon and Beirut as of the year 1985.
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Jdeideh
Jdeideh (Arabic: جديدة المتن translit. al-Judaydat), (also Jdayde, Jdaideh and Jdeidet el-Matn), is a coastal municipality and the administrative capital of the Matn District in the Mount Lebanon Governorate.
Jdeideh has an area of approximately 6 km². It is located in the northern suburbs of Beirut city. The municipality is formed of three villages of Jdeidet el-Matn, Bauchrieh and Sed el Bauchrieh, with a population of nearly 160,000 inhabitants.
Jdeideh is an important industrial zone and a significant location for commercial and banking activity.
Three archaeological sites were found in the Jdeideh area by jesuit fathers. Two of which featured finds of Heavy Neolithic flints of the Qaraoun culture.
Jdeideh I is 750 metres (2,460 ft) northeast of the town on the left bank of the Nahr Moute, in fields on a 15 metres (49 ft) contour. It was discovered by Raoul Describes who retrieved knapped tools from several periods including Acheulean, Middle Paleolithic, Upper Paleolithic and Heavy Neolithic. This material is in the Saint Joseph University, Museum of Lebanese Prehistory.
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Jebel Aabeby
Jebel Aabeby is an archaeological site approximately 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) southeast of Sidon, to the west of the road north to Qraye in Lebanon. The site is on a hill where a number of Cedar trees surround the Mar Elias monastery on the western side of the summit. A Heavy Neolithic assemblage of flint tools made by the Qaraoun culture was collected from some Olive terraces bordering on the road and from an area above them that was disturbed in the construction of a trackway. The flint was of a brown, Nummulitic, Eocene type, some having been patinated to white while others were found fresh. Several broad blades were found along with heavy scrapers on flakes, massive cores, rabots, racloirs and a few smaller scrapers. The material now stored in the Museum of Lebanese Prehistory was studied by Henri Fleisch, who concluded that the site was likely used as a prehistoric factory.
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Jeddah
Jeddah (Arabic: جدّة Jidda), sometimes spelled Jiddah or Jedda, is a city located on the coast of the Red Sea and is the major urban center of western Saudi Arabia. It is the largest city in Makkah Province, the largest sea port on the Red Sea, and the second largest city in Saudi Arabia after the capital city, Riyadh. The population of the city currently stands at 3.2 million. It is an important commercial hub in Saudi Arabia.
Jeddah is the principal gateway to Mecca, Islam's holiest city, which able-bodied Muslims are required to visit at least once in their lifetime. It is also a gateway to Medina, the second holiest place in Islam.
Jeddah is one of the most cosmopolitan, diverse, and tolerant of all Saudi Arabian cities, hosting expatriates from all over the world who have made Jeddah their home.[citation needed] Economically, Jeddah is focusing on further developing capital investment in scientific and engineering leadership within Saudi Arabia, and the Middle East. Jeddah was independently ranked 4th in the Africa / Mid-East region in terms of innovation in 2009 in the Innovation Cities Index.
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Jerusalem
Jerusalem ( /dʒəˈruːsələm/; Hebrew: יְרוּשָׁלַיִם Yerushaláyim ; Arabic: القُدس al-Quds and/or أورشليم Ûrshalîm) is the capital of Israel, though not internationally recognized as such, and one of the oldest cities in the world. It is located in the Judean Mountains, between the Mediterranean Sea and the northern edge of the Dead Sea. If the area and population of East Jerusalem is included, it is Israel's largest city in both population and area, with a population of 801,000 residents over an area of 125.1 km2 (48.3 sq mi). Jerusalem is also a holy city to the three major Abrahamic religions—Judaism, Christianity and Islam.
During its long history, Jerusalem has been destroyed twice, besieged 23 times, attacked 52 times, and captured and recaptured 44 times. The oldest part of the city was settled in the 4th millennium BCE. In 1538, walls were built around Jerusalem under Suleiman the Magnificent. Today those walls define the Old City, which has been traditionally divided into four quarters—known since the early 19th century as the Armenian, Christian, Jewish, and Muslim Quarters. The Old City became a World Heritage site in 1981, and is on the List of World Heritage in Danger. Modern Jerusalem has grown far beyond its boundaries.
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Jieh
Jieh (or Jiyé, Jiyeh, الجية) is a seaside town in Lebanon with an estimated population of 5000, 23 km south of Beirut, in the Chouf district via a 20 minute drive along the Beirut to Sidon highway south of the capital. In Phoenician times it was known as Porphyreon and was a thriving natural seaport, which still functions today. The town is also known for its seven kilometre sandy beach, a rarity along Lebanon's mainly rocky coastline.
The Hebrew prophet Jonah was said to have landed on its shores when he was spat out of the giant fish described in the Old Testament, and a temple was built which stands until today. Many invaders passed through Porphyreon such as Tohomtmos the Egyptian who landed his soldiers on its natural seaport in order to fight the North. Alexander the Great relaxed on its shore preparing for the attack on Tyre. St Peter and St Paul also walked through Jieh several times.
In modern times Jieh took some of the harshest blows of the Lebanese Civil War that raged from 1975-1990. Being a coastal town made it vulnerable to the countless numbers of Palestine Liberation Organization raids on the area, as well as Israeli army invasions during the 1980s, but the worst being on January 20, 1976. Jieh is being rebuilt, albeit at a slower pace than the nearby capital city of Beirut.
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Johannesburg
Johannesburg (/dʒoʊˈhænɪsbɜrɡ/; Afrikaans: [joˈhɑnəsbʏrx]) also known as Jozi, Jo'burg or eGoli, is the largest city in South Africa, by population. Johannesburg is the provincial capital of Gauteng, the wealthiest province in South Africa, having the largest economy of any metropolitan region in Sub-Saharan Africa. The city is one of the 50 largest metropolitan areas in the world, and is also the world's largest city not situated on a river, lake, or coastline. It claims to be the lightning capital of the world, though this title is also claimed by others.
While Johannesburg is not one of South Africa's three capital cities, it is the seat of the Constitutional Court, which has the final word on interpretation of South Africa's new post-Apartheid constitution. The city is the source of a large-scale gold and diamond trade, due to its location on the mineral-rich Witwatersrand range of hills. Johannesburg is served by O.R. Tambo International Airport, the largest and busiest airport in Africa and a gateway for international air travel to and from the rest of Southern Africa. More recently Lanseria International Airport has started international flights, and is situated conveniently on the opposite side of the metropolis.
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Jordan
Jordan ( /ˈdʒɔr.dən/;Arabic: اَلأُرْدُنّ, Al-'Urdunn), officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan (Arabic: اَلمَمْلَكَة اَلأُرْدُنِيَّة اَلهَاشِمِيَّة), Al-Mamlakah Al-Urdaniyyah Al-Hashimiyyah) is a kingdom on the East Bank of the River Jordan. The country borders Saudi Arabia to the east and south-east, Iraq to the north-east, Syria to the north and the West Bank and Israel to the west, sharing control of the Dead Sea with the latter. Jordan's only port is at its south-western tip, at the Gulf of Aqaba, which is shared with Israel, Egypt, and Saudi Arabia. Over half of Jordan is covered by the Arabian Desert. However, the western part of Jordan is arable land and forests. Jordan is part of the Fertile Crescent. The capital city is Amman. According to the CIA World Factbook, Jordan has the second highest life expectancy in the Middle East, after Israel. The average life expectancy is one position behind the United Kingdom, although the age remains exactly the same (80.05 years).
The precursor to modern Jordan was founded in 1921 as the Hashemite Emirate, and it was recognized by the League of Nations as a state under the British mandate in 1922 known as The Emirate of Transjordan. In 1946, Jordan became an independent sovereign state officially known as the Hashemite Kingdom of Transjordan. After capturing the West Bank area of Cisjordan during the 1948–49 war with Israel, Abdullah I took the title King of Jordan and Palestine, and he officially changed the country's name to the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan in April 1949.
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Joub Jannine
Joub Jannine (Arabic: جب جنين / ALA-LC: Jub Jannīn) is located in the Beqaa Valley valley in Lebanon.
Joub Jannine is the center of the Western Beqaa District, hosting the Serail, which is a main governmental building serving the area. Joub Jannine is surrounded by a number of villages. To the south there is the village of Lala, Ghazze to the north, Kamid al lawz to the east, and Kefraya, known for its wine grape vineyards, to the west.
Joub Jannine I is a small surface site brought to the surface through erosional activity of a stream. It is 8 km northeast of Qaraoun in a range of foothills, 1 km north of a small village called Jebel Gharbi, between two tracks, west of cote 878 by about 200 m. The site was found by Dubertret with a collection made by Henri Fleisch and Maurice Tallon that is now in the Museum of Lebanese Prehistory at the Saint Joseph University. Flint tools found on the site included bifaces and rough pieces that were suggested to date to the Acheulean.
Joub Jannine II was first discovered by M. Billaux in 1957. It was described by Henri Fleisch as Neolithic in 1960. It is located on the right bank of the Litani River northwest of the village, 100 m from the river and 100 m east of cote 861. An abundant amount of flint was collected including nine hundred and forty four tools and one hundred and fifty two cores. This was first reported to be a paleolithic industry by Lorraine Copeland and Peter Wescombe. A highly specialized archaeological industry of striking spheroid and trihedral flint tools was found at the site and published by Fleisch in 1960, termed by Copeland and Wescombe as the Trihedral Neolithic. Little has been said about this industry or the ancient people that would have used these huge rock mauls in this area, at the dawn of agriculture, or what they would have been using them for.
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Kamid al lawz
Kamid al lawz (or Kamid el-Loz) is located in West Bekaa, Lebanon. Its population is from the Sunni Muslim sect.
This town was the site of major German archaeological excavations between 1963 and 1981. One of the most important sites in Lebanon where archaeologists found and recorded many spectacular buildings, which are very important to the history of the region. Paleolithic material was found alongside Heavy Neolithic on through to the late Neolithic period, becoming a seat of state in the Bronze Age and continuing until the Byzantine era, a German team from the University of Freiburg has conducted more recent excavations and studies.
Numerous urban structures such as defense systems, temples, palaces, private dwellings, workshops and cemeteries were uncovered. Archaeologists also found everyday objects such as pottery, as well as jewelry and other luxury items. Probably the most important finds were documents written in cuneiform on clay tablets. on clay tablets dated to the 14th century BC. The village of Kamed el-Loz lies on top of settlements built in the Persian, Hellenistic and Roman periods. The site has been determined to be the city of Kumidi in the Amarna letters. It was used as a residence to Egyptian officials to oversee the southern Levantine kings for the pharaoh.
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Kaukaba
Kaukaba, Kaukabet El-Arab or Kaukaba Station is a Neolithic archaeological site East of Majdel Balhis near Rashaya in the Beqaa Valley, Lebanon. It was first found by P. Billaux in 1957 who alerted Jesuit Archaeologists, Fathers Henri Fleisch and Tallon. Open air site excavations by L. and F. Skeels were also carried out in 1964.
The rock shelter site lies amongst fields covered with basalt boulders from ancient lava flows. It is in a low pass from the Karaoun Dam to Rashaya. This area is close to the 4 heads of the Jordan River and is drained by feeders such as the Dan, Banias, Hasbani and Upper Jordan rivers, North of Hasbaya.
Artefacts found on the surface included flint axes, sickles, obsidian, basalt vessels and arrowheads. Prominent artefacts found included a series of flint picks with heavily worn points due to extremely heavy usage. Fragments of agricultural tools such as basalt hoes have been found with very slight dating suggesting the 6th millennium or earlier. Flints were not knapped on site and the centre of the hoe production has not yet been found.
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Kefraya
Kefraya (Arabic: كفريا / ALA-LC: Kifrayā) is a village in the Western Beqaa District of the Beqaa Governorate in the Republic of Lebanon, approximately 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) northwest of Joub Jannine.
It is known for its vineyards and Château Kefraya wines. Château Kefraya is the second biggest winery in the Beqaa Valley with land that extends up to 300 acres (1.2 km2) amongst the foothills of Mount Barouk, 20 kilometres (12 mi) south of the town of Chtaura. The majority of the shares of the winery were bought by Druze politician Walid Jumblat from the De Bustros family in the late 1980s.
Kefraya was also once home to the Qaraoun culture with a Heavy Neolithic archaeological industry prior to the Neolithic Revolution. A very large archaeological site was discovered in the area running along both sides of the road. Good quality flint nodules were found amongst Eocene conglomerates where a Heavy Neolithic factory site was detected with a massive abundance of Levallois cores, debitage and waste littering the surface of the site. Large numbers of flint tools were collected by workers that included a variety of scrapers on flakes, kinves, axes, adzes and a segmented sickle blade. The type of flint found in the area was termed Kefraya flint.
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Kelibia
Kelibia (Kélibia) (Arabic: قليبية / ALA-LC: Qilībiyah) is a coastal town on the Cap Bon peninsula, Nabeul Governorate in the far northeastern part of Tunisia. Its sand beaches are considered one the finest of the Mediterranean sea. Kelibia was founded by the Carthaginians as the fortified town of Aspis in the 5th century BC.
The main landmark of Kelibia is the recently-restored Kelibia Fort overlooking the harbor. Kelibia is a fishing port and is home to Tunisia's National Fishing School. The town has a population of 43,209 (2004 census).
The 'Muscat de Kélibia', a fruity regional white wine is widely recognized as one of the bests of the country.
Kelibia is home of the Tunisian volley-ball with Club olympique de Kélibia active since 1959 and winner of 2 national championships in 1977 and 2003; also 8 Cup titles: 1972, 1974, 1975, 1976, 1978, 1989, 2004 and 2011.
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Kerkouane
Kerkouane (Arabic: كركوان; occasionally Kerkuane) is a Punic city in northeastern Tunisia, near Cape Bon. This Phoenician city was probably abandoned during the First Punic War (c. 250 B.C.), and as a result was not rebuilt by the Romans. It had existed for almost 400 years.
Excavations of the town have revealed ruins from the 4th and 3rd Centuries BC. Around the site where the layout is clearly visible, many houses still show their walls, and the coloured clay on the facades is often still visible. The houses were built to a standard plan, in accordance with a sophisticated notion of town planning.
A sanctuary has some columns preserved, and in a small atrium parts of mosaics are found. Curbstones, doorsteps, thresholds, and floors of simple mosaic layers are found all over the ruins. Still archaeologists work on the Kerkouane site, but it is believed that the best parts have already been discovered.
Kerkouane was one of the most important Punic cities, with Carthage, Hadrumetum (modern Sousse) and Utica.
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Kfar Qouq
Kfar Qouq (and variations of spelling) is a village in Lebanon, situated in the Rashaya District and south of the Beqaa Governorate. It is located in an intermontane basin near Mount Hermon near the Syrian border, approximately halfway between Jezzine and Damascus.
The population of the hillside village is predominantly Druze. It contains two Roman temple sites in the Western section of the town dating to around 111 BC and another less preserved temple near the church. Fragments such as columns and an inscribed block have been re-used in the village and surrounding area. The surrounding area also has many stone basins, tombs, caves, rock cut niches and other remnants from Greek and Roman times. Dr. Edward Robinson, visited in the Summer of 1852 and noted a Greek inscription on a doorway, the public fountain and a large reservoir which he noted "exhibits traces of antiquity". The name of the village means "the pottery place" in Aramaic and has also been known as Kfar Quq Al-Debs in relation to molasses and grape production in the area. Kfar Qouq also been associated with King Qouq, a ruler in ancient times. The local highway was targeted in the 2006 Lebanon War between Hezbollah and Israel.
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Kfarhata
Kfarhata ( known also as Kfar Hata, Kafrhata, Arabic: كفرحاتا ) is a Greek Orthodox village located in the Koura District in the North Governorate of Lebanon. It is one of the 52 towns of El-Koura, situated at the southern region of this district, at the other side of Al-Kateh(The cutter); a shallow but wide valley, separating a group of 6 towns from the gigantic El-Koura olive plains.
Although the mountainous profile of this town, the olive trees cultivation is equally successful and popular, with high quality of olive oil, extracted with the traditional Koranian cold technique.
Poster El-koura "Cutter". Western view
Poster El-koura "Cutter". Eastern view
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Khallet Michte
Khallet Michte is a Heavy Neolithic archaeological site of the Qaraoun culture located in the Caza of Bint Jbeil in the Nabatiye Governorate in Lebanon. The two sites Khallet Michte I and Khallet Michte II are located in adjacent wadis on south facing slopes between a track and the main road between Bint Jbeil and Ain Ebel. They were found by Henri Fleisch and noted to contain both Heavy Neolithic and Acheulean flint tools which are now in the collection of the Museum of Lebanese Prehistory at the Saint Joseph University.
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Khartoum
Khartoum (Arabic: الخرطوم al Ḫarṭūm) is the capital and second largest city of Sudan and of Khartoum State. It is located at the confluence of the White Nile flowing north from Lake Victoria and the Blue Nile flowing west from Ethiopia. The location where the two Niles meet is known as "al-Mogran", meaning the Confluence. The main Nile continues to flow north towards Egypt and the Mediterranean Sea.
Divided by the Niles, Khartoum is a tripartite metropolis with an estimated overall population of over five million people consisting of Khartoum proper[clarification needed], and linked by bridges to Khartoum North called (al-Khartūm Bahrī) and Omdurman (Umm Durmān) to the west.
The origin of the word is uncertain. One tradition is that khartoum derives from Arabic kartūm الخرطوم meaning 'end of an elephant’s trunk', probably referring to the narrow strip of land extending between the Blue and White Niles. Captain J. A. Grant, who reached Khartoum in 1863 with Captain Speke’s expedition, thought that the derivation was most probably from the Arabic qurtum, safflower (Carthamus tinctorius), which was cultivated extensively in Egypt for its oil, used in burning.[citation needed]
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Kouachra
Kouachra is a megalithic archaeological site approximately 28 kilometres (17 mi) northeast of Halba in Lebanon. The village of Kouachra is 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) north of the road between Qubiyate and Halba. The archaeological site was discovered by Maurice Tallon and is a megalith field with one monument (K.I) approximately 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) east of the buildings that form the hamlet of Dawe el Baghdadi. There are two other megalithic structures (K.2 and K.3) around 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) further along the road to Menjez at a place called el Derke where the road intersects just before Amirie on the riverbanks of the Nahr Menjez. K.I is a circular dolmen that has lost its tumulus, placed on a thick, solid floor. K.2 and K.3 are stone rectangles of megaliths, K.3 is corbelled in shape.
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Ksar Akil
Ksar Akil is an archeological site 10 km northeast of Beirut in Lebanon. It is located about 800 metres (2,600 ft) west of Antelias spring on the north bank of the northern tributary of the Wadi Antelias. It is a large rock shelter below a steep limestone cliff.
It was first noticed by Godefroy Zumoffen in 1900 and first studied by A. E. Day in 1926 then first systematically excavated by J.G. Doherty and F. Ewing in 1937-1938 and again in 1947-1948, then later by Jacques Tixier in 1969-1975 before research was interrupted by the Lebanese Civil War.
Excavations showed occupational deposits reaching down to a depth of 23.6 metres (77 ft) with one of the longest sequences of Paleolithic flint industries ever found in the Middle East. The first level of 8 metres (26 ft) contained Upper Levalloiso-Mousterian remains with long and triangular Lithic flakes. The level above this showed industries accounting for all six stages of the Upper Paleolithic. An Emireh point was found at the first stage of this level (XXIV), at around 15.2 metres (50 ft) below datum with a complete skeleton of an eight year old Homo Sapiens (called Egbert, now in the National Museum of Beirut after being studied in America) was discovered at 11.6 metres (38 ft), cemented into breccia. A fragment of a Neanderthal maxilla was also discovered in material from level XXVI or XXV, at around 15 metres (49 ft). Studies by Hooijer showed Capra and Dama were dominant in the fauna along with Stephanorhinus in later Levalloiso-Mousterian levels.
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Kuwait
Kuwait, officially the State of Kuwaiti/kuːˈweɪt/ (Arabic: دولة الكويت, Dawlat al-Kuwayt) is a sovereign Arab state situated in the north-east of the Arabian Peninsula in Western Asia. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south at Khafji, and Iraq to the north at Basra. It lies on the north-western shore of the Persian Gulf. The name Kuwait is derived from the Arabic أكوات ākwāt, the plural of كوت kūt, meaning a fortress built near water. The country covers an area of 17,820 square kilometers (6,880 sq mi) and has a population of about 3.5 million.
Historically, the region was the site of Characene, a major Parthian port for trade between Mesopotamia and India. The Bani Utbah tribe were the first permanent Arab settlers in the region, and laid the foundation of the modern emirate. By the 19th century, Kuwait came under the influence of the Ottoman Empire, and after World War I, it emerged as an independent sheikhdom under the protection of the British Empire. Kuwait's large oil fields were discovered in the late 1930s.
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Kuwait City
Kuwait City (Arabic: مدينة الكويت, transliteration: Madīnat al-Kuwayt), is the capital of Kuwait. It has a population of 2.38 million in the metropolitan area. Located at the heart of the country on the shore of the Persian Gulf, and containing Kuwait's parliament (Majlis Al-Umma), most governmental offices, the headquarters of most Kuwaiti corporations and banks, it is the political, cultural and economic center of the emirate.
Kuwait City’s trade and transportation needs are served by Kuwait International Airport, Mina Al-Shuwaik (Shuwaik Port) and Mina Al Ahmadi (Ahmadi Port) 50 kilometers to the south, on the Persian Gulf coast.
Kuwait City was first settled in the early 18th century by the Al-Sabāh clan, later the ruling family of Kuwait and a branch of the Al-Utūb tribe (that also included the Al-Khalīfah clan, the ruling family of Bahrain), and their leader, Sheikh Sabāh I. Its name may have derived from an earlier abandoned fort located there, called "Kūt" (كوت) – Arabic for a fortress by the sea.
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Labweh
Labweh (Arabic: اللبوة), Laboue, Labwe or Al-Labweh is a village at an altitude of 950 metres (3,120 ft) on a foothill of the Anti-Lebanon mountains in the Baalbek District of Lebanon.
The Neolithic settlements represented at Labweh have been found dating to at least the 7th millennium BC. It has been suggested that it was known to the Egyptians as Lab'u, to the Assyrians as Laba'u and as Lebo-hamath to the Hebrews. This has been associated with the Hamath mentioned in the Book of Kings and the Book of Ezekiel noted as the Northern border of King Solomon's territory. Labweh in the original Syraic tongue means "heart" or "center", it also has been suggested to come from the Arabic for "lion" or "lioness". The village has several archaeological sites of interest including three old caves with Roman-Byzantine sarcophagi and the remains of a temple. There are also remains of a Byzantine bastion and a Roman dam suggested to date to the reign of Queen Zenobia. Legend suggests that channels were carved through the rock to send water to her lands in Palmyra, Syria.
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Larnaca
Larnaca, (Greek: Λάρνακα, Lárnaka; Turkish: Larnaka/İskelel Phoenician: כתיון, Kityon) is the third largest city on the southern coast of Cyprus after Nicosia and Limassol. It has a population of 72,000 (2010) and is the island's second largest commercial port and an important tourist resort. The island's largest airport, Larnaca International Airport is located on the outskirts of the city.
To the north of the city lies the island's former oil refinery, which was reduced to a storage facility after the refinery was sold in 2008 to a Hollywood film studio for the filming of Waterworld 2. To the south is the Larnaca International Airport. The city of Larnaka is well known for its picturesque seafront, which includes rows of palm trees (or φοινικούδες finikoudes, in the Cypriot dialect). Larnaca Marina is one of the four official entry points, by sea, to Cyprus.
Larnaca was founded by Greeks (Mycenaean-Achaeans) in the 14th century B.C. and was known as Kition, or (in Latin) Citium. The biblical name Kittim, though derived from Citium, was generally used for Cyprus as a whole and occasionally by the Jews for the Greeks and Romans. Larnaca is colloquially known as "Skala" (Greek: Σκάλα) meaning "ladder" or "landing stage", referring to the town's status in history as an important port.
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Lebanese University
The Lebanese University (Arabic: الجامعة اللبنانية, French: Université Libanaise) is the only public institution for higher learning in Lebanon. Founded in 1951, it has 17 faculties as of 2006 and serves various cultural, religious, and social groups of students and teachers.
The independent university enjoys administrative, academic, and financial freedom. Among its educational goals are creating a unique mix of cultures and providing the basic and necessary education to allow students to enter various professions.
The Lebanese University was established in 1951 to serve the diverse social groups that make up Lebanese society, and to provide a high-level institution in which students can acquire university degrees. It was launched amid a growth in the number of students in grades 10-12.
The first departments were The High House of Teachers and The Statistics Center. On December 3, 1951, the first class of 68 students entered the university. On February 26, 1953, official decree No. 25 founded a center for financial and administrative at the university, called The Institution of Finance and Administration. The High House of Teachers was renamed to The High Teachers Institution .
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Lebanon
Lebanon (i/ˈlɛbənɒn/ or /ˈlɛbənən/; Arabic: لبنان Libnān or Lubnān, Lebanese Arabic: [lɪbˈneːn]), officially the Lebanese Republic (Arabic: الجمهورية اللبنانية al-Jumhūrīyah al-Libnānīyah, Lebanese Arabic: [elˈʒʊmhuːɾɪjje l.ˈlɪbneːnɪjje]), is a country in the East Mediterranean. It is bordered by Syria to the north and east, and Israel to the south. Lebanon's location at the crossroads of the Mediterranean Basin and the Arabian hinterland has dictated its rich history, and shaped a cultural identity of religious and ethnic diversity.
The earliest evidence of civilization in Lebanon dates back more than 7,000 years—predating recorded history. Lebanon was the home of the Phoenicians, a maritime culture that flourished for nearly 2,500 years (3000–539 BC). Following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire after World War I, the five provinces that comprise modern Lebanon were mandated to France. The French expanded the borders of Mount Lebanon, which was mostly populated by Maronite Catholics and Druze, to include more Muslims. Lebanon gained independence in 1943, and established a unique political system, known as confessionalism, a power-sharing mechanism based on religious communities – Bechara El Khoury who became independent Lebanon's first President and Riad El-Solh, who became Lebanon's first prime minister, are considered the founders of the modern Republic of Lebanon and are national heroes for having led the country's independence. French troops withdrew from Lebanon in 1946.
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Leptis Magna
Leptis Magna (Arabic: لَبْدَة) also known as Lectis Magna (or Lepcis Magna as it is sometimes spelled), also called Lpqy, Neapolis, Lebida or Lebda to modern-day residents of Libya, was a prominent city of the Roman Empire. Its ruins are located in Khoms, Libya, 130 km (81 mi) east of Tripoli, on the coast where the Wadi Lebda meets the sea. The site is one of the most spectacular and unspoiled Roman ruins in the Mediterranean.
The city appears to have been founded by Phoenician colonists sometime around 1100 BC, who gave it the Lybico-Berber name Lpqy. The town did not achieve prominence until Carthage became a major power in the Mediterranean Sea in the 4th century BC. It nominally remained part of Carthage's dominions until the end of the Third Punic War in 146 BC and then became part of the Roman Republic, although from about 200 BC onward, it was for all intents and purposes an independent city.
Leptis Magna remained as such until the reign of the Roman emperor Tiberius, when the city and the surrounding area were formally incorporated into the empire as part of the province of Africa. It soon became one of the leading cities of Roman Africa and a major trading post.
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Leptis Parva
Leptis Parva (also[citation needed]Leptis Minor, Lesser Leptis or Little Leptis; not to be confused with Leptis Magna in Tripolitania) was an ancient city on the eastern coast of Tunisia by the Gulf of Hammamet in proximity to the modern city of Monastir. It was founded as a Phoenician colony in the 8th century BCE, around the time Carthage was founded, and was a commercial city. It was a prominent city during the Phoenician period, but became a less important city during the Punic rule of the region, c. 600BCE to 146BCE. It was incorporated into the Roman Republic with the destruction of Carthage in 146BCE, but gained more autonomy than it had during Punic Era. Julius Caesar used it as his base of operations in 46BCE during his winter campaign against supporters for Pompey led by Titus Labienus. It remained an important city even during the Byzantine Period and was one of the most important cities in North Africa. It suffered the same fate that the other great cities, including Leptis Magna and Carthage, suffered at the hands of invading Arabs, who virtually destroyed the city in the 7th century CE. It was abandoned, never to be settled again.
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Libya
Libya (Arabic: ليبيا Lībyā), Berber: ⵍⵉⴱⵢⴰ) is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Egypt to the east, Sudan to the southeast, Chad and Niger to the south, and Algeria and Tunisia to the west.
With an area of almost 1.8 million square kilometres (700,000 sq mi), Libya is the third largest country in Africa by area, and the 17th largest in the world. The largest city, Tripoli, is home to 1.7 million of Libya's 6.4 million people. The three traditional parts of the country are Tripolitania, Fezzan and Cyrenaica.
In 2009 Libya had the highest HDI in Africa and the fourth highest GDP (PPP) per capita in Africa, behind Seychelles, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon. Libya has the 10th-largest proven oil reserves of any country in the world and the 17th-highest petroleum production.
As a result of the Libyan civil war, the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, which had at that time been in existence for 34 years, collapsed and Libya entered a period of governance by a transitional administration called the National Transitional Council. The NTC has stated its intention to oversee the first phase of a transition to constitutional democracy, after which it claims it will dissolve in favor of a representative legislature.
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Ljubljana
Ljubljana (locally: [lʲubˈlʲana] (
listen); German: Laibach, Italian: Lubiana, Latin: Labacum or Aemona) is the capital of Slovenia and its only centre of international importance. It is located in the centre of the country in the Ljubljana Basin, and is the centre of the City Municipality of Ljubljana. With approximately 272,000 inhabitants, it classifies as the only Slovenian large town. Throughout its history, it has been influenced by its geographic position at the crossroads of the Slavic world with the Germanic and Latin cultures.
For centuries, Ljubljana was the capital of the historical region of Carniola. Now it is the cultural, educational, economic, political and administrative centre of Slovenia, independent since 1991. Its transport connections, concentration of industry, scientific and research institutions and cultural tradition are contributing factors to its leading position.
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Los Angeles
Los Angeles (i/lɒs ˈændʒələs/ loss-AN-jə-ləs; Spanish: [los ˈaŋxeles], which is written Los Ángeles; British pronounciation /lɒs ˈændʒəliːz/ loss-AN-jə-leez) with a population at the 2010 United States Census of 3,792,621, is the most populous city in the state of California, and the second most populous in the United States, after New York City. It has an area of 468.67 square miles (1,213.8 km2), and is located in Southern California. Often known by its initials L.A., the city is the focal point of the larger Los Angeles-Long Beach-Santa Ana metropolitan statistical area and Greater Los Angeles Area region, which contain 12,828,837 and nearly 18 million people respectively as of 2010, making it one of the most populous metropolitan areas in the world and the second largest in the United States. Los Angeles is also the seat of Los Angeles County, the most populated and one of the most ethnically diverse counties in the United States, while the entire Los Angeles area itself has been recognized as the most diverse of the nation's largest cities. The city's inhabitants are referred to as "Angelenos".
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Lyon
Coordinates: 45°45′35″N 4°50′32″E / 45.7597°N 4.8422°E / 45.7597; 4.8422
Lyon (French pronunciation: [ljɔ̃] ( listen), locally: [lijɔ̃]; Occitan: Lion [liˈu]; Arpitan: Liyon [ʎjɔ̃]; English: /liːˈɒn/), traditionally spelt Lyons in English, is a city in east-central France in the Rhône-Alpes region, situated between Paris and Marseille. Lyon is located approximately 470 km (292 mi) from Paris, 320 km (199 mi) from Marseille, 420 km (261 mi) from Strasbourg, 160 km (99 mi) from Geneva, 280 km (174 mi) from Turin. The residents of the city are called Lyonnais.
The city of Lyon has 483,181 inhabitants. Together with its suburbs and satellite towns, Lyon forms the largest conurbation in France outside Paris with a population estimated to be 1,422,331; its overall metropolitan area was estimated to have a population of 2,118,132. Its urban region represents half of the Rhône-Alpes region population with 2.9 million inhabitants. Lyon is the capital of this region, as well as the capital of the smaller Rhône département.
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Madrid
Madrid (English /məˈdrɪd/, Spanish: [ma'ðrid]) is the capital and largest city of Spain. The population of the city is roughly 3.3 million and the entire population of the Madrid metropolitan area is calculated to be 6.271 million. It is the third largest city in the European Union, after London and Berlin, and its metropolitan area is the third largest in the European Union after London and Paris. The city spans a total of 604.3 km2 (233.3 sq mi).
The city is located on the Manzanares river in the centre of both the country and the Community of Madrid (which comprises the city of Madrid, its conurbation and extended suburbs and villages); this community is bordered by the autonomous communities of Castile and León and Castile-La Mancha. As the capital city of Spain, seat of government, and residence of the Spanish monarch, Madrid is also the political centre of Spain. The current mayor is Ana Botella from the People's Party (PP).
Madrid urban agglomeration has the 3rd largest GDP in the European Union and its influences in politics, education, entertainment, environment, media, fashion, science, culture, and the arts all contribute to its status as one of the world's major global cities. Due to its economic output, high standard of living, and market size, Madrid is considered the major financial centre of Southern Europe and the Iberian Peninsula; it hosts the head offices of the vast majority of the major Spanish companies, such as Telefónica, Iberia or Repsol. Madrid is the most touristic city of Spain, the fourth-most touristic of the continent, and is the 10th most livable city in the world according to Monocle magazine, in its 2010 index. Madrid also ranks among the 12 greenest European cities in 2010. Madrid is currently a Candidate City for the 2020 Summer Olympics.
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Majdal Anjar
Majdal Anjar (Arabic: مجدل عنجر; also transliterated Majdel Anjar or Majdal 3njar) is a village of Beqaa Governorate, Lebanon. Majdal Anjar is an overwhelmingly Sunni town.
Majdal Anjar is one of the Bekaa Valley towns of the East. It is located on the international road linking Beirut and Damascus. It is exactly located at the borders of Lebanon and Syria which is referred to the "Masnaa". About 55 km from the Capital of Lebanon and 57 kilometers from Damascus. Rise of 970 m above sea level. An area of 25642775 square meters. A population of about 25000 people. It borders Sawiri from east and south, Anjar from north and Dakwi and Rawda from west Each year this village grows more expand towards the north side.
The most important crops are cereals, including: wheat, barley, lentil, grapes, potatoes, beets, nuts, peaches apricots, cherrypomegranate, almonds, olives, raspberry, apples, onions, tomato, zucchini, cabbage, cauliflower, watermelon, lettuce, radishes, parsley, Mint, garlic, beans, kidney bean and etc.
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Malta
Maltai/ˈmɒltə/, officially known as the Republic of Malta (Maltese: Repubblika ta' Malta), is a Southern European country consisting of an archipelago situated in the centre of the Mediterranean, 80 km (50 mi) south of Sicily, 284 km (176 mi) east of Tunisia and 333 km (207 mi) north of Libya, with Gibraltar 1,755 km (1,091 mi) to the west and Alexandria 1,508 km (937 mi) to the east. Malta covers just over 316 km2 (122 sq mi) in land area, making it one of the world's smallest states. It is also one of the most densely populated countries worldwide. The de facto capital city of Malta is Valletta; the largest town, Birkirkara. The main island comprises many towns, which together form one Larger Urban Zone (LUZ) with a population of 368,250 according to Eurostat. The country has two official languages, Maltese (constitutionally the national language) and English.
Throughout history, Malta's location has given it great strategic importance, and a succession of powers including the Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans, Arabs, Normans, Aragonese, Habsburg Spain, Knights of St John, French and the British ruled the islands. Malta gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1964 and became a republic in 1974, whilst retaining membership in the Commonwealth of Nations. Malta was admitted to the United Nations in 1964 and to the European Union in 2004. Malta is also party to the Schengen Agreement and in 2008 it became part of the eurozone.
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Manama
Manama (Arabic: المنامة Al Manāma) is the capital and largest city of Bahrain, with an approximate population of 155,000 people. Long an important trading center in the Persian Gulf, Manama is home to a very diverse population. After periods of Portuguese and Persian control and invasions from the Al Sauds and Oman, Bahrain established itself as an independent nation during the 19th century period of British hegemony. In the 20th century, Bahrain's oil wealth helped spur fast growth and in the 1990s a concerted diversification effort led to expansion in other industries and helped transform Manama into an important financial hub in the Middle East.
Manama was mentioned in Islamic chronicles at least as far back as 1345. It was conquered by Portugal in 1521 and then by the Persians in 1602. Since 1783 it has been under the control of the Al-Khalifa dynasty. Manama was declared a free port in 1958, and in 1971 it became the capital of independent Bahrain.
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Mansourieh
Mansourieh, (Arabic: المنصورية translit. al-Manṣūriyat) (also el-Mansourieh, Mansouriyeh, Mansouriyet el-Matn) is a village in the Matn District of the Mount Lebanon Governorate, Lebanon.
About 10 km east of Beirut, on a hilltop overseeing the capital, lies Mansourieh the gateway to Northern Matn.
The name originates from the Arabic: منصور (translit. Manṣūr) meaning victorious, presumably dating back to a battle between the Crusaders and the Arabs in which the latter emerged victorious.
Mansourieh consists of the village, seated on top of a ridge, bordered to the south and southwest by a river, the Beirut River and to the north by the Mar Roukouz (St. Roches) ravine. Upwards to the east Mansourieh merges with Ain Saadeh and Monte Verde, and slopes downhill westwards to Mkalles and Sin el-Fil. Across the river to the southwest lies the Hazmieh town, part of the Baabda district. Daychounieh covers the southeastern side, facing Baabda and Louaize .
Mansourieh is 16 km to the Capital (Beirut), 16 km to the Province Administrative Center (Baabda) and 12 km to the Caza Administrative Center (Jdeideh). Mansourieh slopes upwards from an elevation of approx. 200m to reach its highest at around 350m.
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Marsala
Marsala is a seaport city located in the Province of Trapani on the island of Sicily in Italy. The low coast on which it is situated is the westernmost point of the island. It is best known as the source of Marsala wine.
Marsala occupies the site of Lilybaeum, the principal stronghold of the Carthaginians in Sicily, founded by Himilco in 396 BC after the abandonment of Motya. Neither Pyrrhus nor the Romans were able to reduce it by siege, but it was surrendered to the latter in 241 BC at the end of the First Punic War as a condition of the peace treaty. In the later wars it was a starting point for the Roman expeditions against Carthage, and under Roman rule it enjoyed considerable prosperity. It obtained municipal rights from Augustus and became a colony under either Pertinax or Septimius Severus.
The Arabs gave it its present name "Marsala," which perhaps is derived from the Arab "Marsa Allah" (port of Allah) or, more probably, from "Marsa ‘Alī" ("port of Ali", or "Marsa ‘āliyy", "great port"). The huge ancient harbor that lay on the northeast was destroyed by Charles V in the 16th century, to prevent its occupation by pirates. The modern harbor lies to the southeast.
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Marseille
Coordinates: 43°17′47″N 5°22′12″E / 43.2964°N 5.37°E / 43.2964; 5.37
Marseille ( /mɑrˈseɪ/; also Marseilles in English; French: [maʁsɛj], locally: [mɑχˈsɛjə]; Occitan: Marselha [maʀˈsejɔ, maʀˈsijɔ]), known in antiquity as Massilia or Massalia (from Greek: Μασσαλία), is the second largest city in France, after Paris, with a population of 852,395 within its administrative limits on a land area of 240.62 km2 (93 sq mi). The urban area of Marseille extends beyond the city limits with a population of over 1,420,000 on an area of 1,204 km2 (465 sq mi). 1,530,000 or 1,601,095 people live in the Marseille metropolitan area, ranking it third among French metropolitan areas after Paris and Lyon. Located on the southeast coast of France, Marseille is France's largest city on the Mediterranean coast and largest commercial port. Marseille is the capital of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region, as well as the capital of the Bouches-du-Rhône department. Its inhabitants are called Marseillais.
Marseille is the second largest city in France after Paris and the centre of the third largest metropolitan area in France after Paris and Lyon. To the east, starting in the small fishing village of Callelongue on the outskirts of Marseille and stretching as far as Cassis, are the Calanques, a rugged coastal area interspersed with small fjords. Further east still are the Sainte-Baume, a 1,147 m (3,763 ft) mountain ridge rising from a forest of deciduous trees, the town of Toulon and the French Riviera. To the north of Marseille, beyond the low Garlaban and Etoile mountain ranges, is the 1,011 m (3,317 ft) Mont Sainte Victoire. To the west of Marseille is the former artists' colony of l'Estaque; further west are the Côte Bleue, the Gulf of Lion and the Camargue region in the Rhône delta. The airport lies to the north west of the city at Marignane on the Étang de Berre.
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Mauritania
Mauritaniai/mɔrɪˈteɪniə/ (Arabic: موريتانيا Mūrītānyā; Berber: Muritanya / Agawej; Wolof: Gànnaar; Soninke: Murutaane; Pulaar: Moritani; French: Mauritanie), officially the Islamic Republic of Mauritania, is a country in West Africa and in the Maghreb. It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean in the west, by Western Sahara (controlled by Morocco) in the north, by Algeria in the northeast, by Mali in the east and southeast, and by Senegal in the southwest. It is named after the ancient Berber Kingdom of Mauretania, which later became a province of the Roman Empire, even though the modern Mauritania covers a territory far to the south of the old Berber kingdom that had no relation with it. The capital and largest city is Nouakchott, located on the Atlantic coast.
The government of Mauritania was overthrown on 6 August 2008, in a military coup d'état led by General Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz. On 16 April 2009, General Aziz resigned from the military to run for president in the 19 July elections, which he won. In Mauritania about 20% of the population live on less than US$1.25 per day.
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Mayrouba
Mayrouba (Arabic: ميروبا) is a village in Keserwan District, Mount Lebanon Governorate, Lebanon. It sits at an altitude of 1,300 metres (4,300 ft). The population of Mayrouba is almost exclusively Maronite Catholic, part of the Eastern Catholic Churches. There are several Stone age archaeological sites in the vicinity that have defined the location as the type site of the Mayroubian culture.
Mayrouba I is 14 kilometres (8.7 mi) east northeast of Junie by the way to Faraya. It is a large site on top of a plateau to the north of the village situated in sandstone at an altitude of approximately 1,400 metres (4,600 ft). It was discovered by Paulist Fathers from Harissa. Collections were made from the site by P.R. Gigues and various Jesuits including Maurice Tallon, Auguste Bergy, Francis Hours and Henri Fleisch. Fleisch admitted that it was not the best choice for a type site due to the possibility of mixed industries however he published it as a transitional site with successive occupations between peoples of the Middle Paleolithic and Upper Paleolithic.
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Melilla
Melilla (Spanish pronunciation: [meˈliʎa]) is an autonomous city of Spain and an exclave on the north coast of Morocco, with an area of 12.3 square kilometres (4.7 sq mi). Melilla, along with the Spanish exclave Ceuta, is one of the two Spanish territories located in mainland Africa. It was regarded as a part of Málaga province prior to 14 March 1995, when the city's Statute of Autonomy was passed.
Melilla (like Ceuta) was a free port before Spain joined the European Union. As of 2008 it has a population of 73,460. Its population consists of Christians, Muslims (chiefly Riffians), and small minorities of Jews. Both Spanish and Tarifit are widely spoken. Spanish is the only official language, while there have been calls to recognise Tamazight, a standardized version of all Berber languages official in Morocco, as well.
Morocco had previously called for negotiations on the future of Melilla, Ceuta and a number of Mediterranean islands which border it. The majority of the city's population are ethnic Spanish who are opposed to the idea of being a part of Morocco. A poll conducted by Instituto Opina found that 87.9% of people from mainland Spain consider the two cities to be Spanish.
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Mexico
Mexico (i/ˈmɛksɨkoʊ/; Spanish: México, IPA: [ˈmexiko] ( listen)), officially the United Mexican States (Spanish: Estados Unidos Mexicanos (help·info)), is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States of America; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of Mexico. Covering almost two million square kilometres (over 760,000 sq mi), Mexico is the fifth largest country in the Americas by total area and the thirteenth largest independent nation in the world. With an estimated population of over 113 million, it is the eleventh most populous country and the most populous Spanish-speaking country. Mexico is a federation comprising thirty-one states and a Federal District, the capital city.
In Pre-Columbian Mexico many cultures matured into advanced civilizations such as the Olmec, the Toltec, the Teotihuacan, the Zapotec, the Maya and the Aztec before the first contact with Europeans. In 1521, Spain conquered and colonized the territory from its base in México-Tenochtitlan, which was administered as the Viceroyalty of New Spain. This territory would eventually become Mexico as the colony's independence was recognized in 1821. The post-independence period was characterized by economic instability, the Mexican-American War and territorial cession to the United States, a civil war, two empires and a domestic dictatorship. The latter led to the Mexican Revolution in 1910, which culminated with the promulgation of the 1917 Constitution and the emergence of the country's current political system. Elections held in July 2000 marked the first time that an opposition party won the presidency from the Institutional Revolutionary Party.
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Mexico City
Mexico City ( /ˈmɛksɨkoʊ ˈsɪti/; Spanish: Ciudad de México [sjuˈðað ðe ˈmexiko], also known as México D.F., or simply D.F.) is the Federal District (Distrito Federal), capital of Mexico and seat of the federal powers of the Mexican Union. It is a federal entity within Mexico which is not part of any one of the 31 Mexican states but belongs to the federation as a whole. Mexico City is the country's largest city as well as its most important political, cultural, educational and financial center.
As an "alpha" global city Mexico City is one of the most important financial centers in North America. It is located in the Valley of Mexico (Valle de México), a large valley in the high plateaus at the center of Mexico, at an altitude of 2,240 metres (7,350 ft). The city consists of sixteen boroughs.
The 2009 estimated population for the city proper was around 8.84 million people, and has a land area of 1,485 square kilometres (573 sq mi). According to the most recent definition agreed upon by the federal and state governments, the Mexico City metropolitan area population is 21.2 million people, making it the largest metropolitan area in the western hemisphere and the fifth largest agglomeration in the world.
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Mogadishu
Mogadishu ( /ˌmɒɡəˈdɪʃuː/; Somali: Muqdisho; Arabic: مقديشو Maqadīshū; Italian: Mogadiscio, literally "The Seat of the Shah"), popularly known as Xamar, is the largest city in Somalia and the nation's capital. Located in the coastal Benadir region on the Indian Ocean, the city has served as an important port for centuries.
Tradition and old records assert that southern Somalia, including the Mogadishu area, was historically inhabited by hunter-gatherers of Bushman physical stock. These were later joined by Cushitic agro-pastoralists, who would go on to establish local aristocracies. Starting in the late 9th or 10th centuries, Arab and Persian traders also began to settle in the region.
During its medieval Golden Age, Mogadishu was ruled by the Somali-Arab Muzaffar dynasty, a vassal of the Ajuuraan State. It subsequently fell under the control of an assortment of local Sultanates and polities, most notably the Gobroon Dynasty. The city later became the capital of Italian Somaliland in the colonial period.
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Montreal
Montreal (i/ˌmʌntriːˈɒl/;French: Montréal; pronounced [mɔ̃ʁeal] ( listen)) is a city in Canada. It is the largest city in the province of Quebec, the second-largest city in Canada and the fifteenth largest in North America. Originally called Ville-Marie, or "City of Mary", the city takes its present name from Mount Royal, the triple-peaked hill located in the heart of the city, or Mont Réal as it was spelled in Middle French (Mont Royal in present French). The city is located on the Island of Montreal, which took its name from the same source as the city, and a few much smaller peripheral islands, the largest of which is Île Bizard.
As of May 10, 2011, Statistics Canada identifies Montreal's Census Metropolitan Area (CMA) (land area 4,259 square kilometres (1,644 sq mi)) as Canada's second most populous with an estimated metropolitan area population of 3,824,221 and a population of 1,886,481 in the urban agglomeration of Montreal, which includes all of the municipalities on the Island of Montreal. The city of Montreal proper had a population of 1,649,519.
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Morocco
Morocco (Arabic: المغرب al-Maghrib ; Berber: ⵍⵎⴻⵖⵔⵉⴱ / ⴰⵎⴻⵔⵔⵓⴽElmeɣrib / Amerruk), officially the Kingdom of Morocco, is a country located in North Africa. It has a population of about 32 million and an area of 710,850 km², including the disputed region of the Western Sahara, seen by and mostly administered by Morocco as the Southern Provinces. Morocco is part of the Maghreb region, in addition to Tunisia, Algeria, Mauritania, and Libya, with which it shares cultural, historical and linguistic ties.
Morocco is a constitutional monarchy with an elected parliament. The King of Morocco holds vast executive powers, including the power to dissolve the parliament. Executive power is exercised by the government but more importantly by the king himself. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of parliament, the Assembly of Representatives and the Assembly of Councillors. The king can also issue decrees called dahirs which have the force of law. The latest Parliamentary elections were held in November 25, 2011, and were considered by some neutral observers to be mostly free and fair. Voter turnout in these elections was estimated to be 43% of registered voters, but only about 25% of Moroccan adult citizens actually voted. The rest either chose not to vote or they were not registered as voters. The political capital is Rabat, but the largest city is Casablanca; other main cities include Marrakesh, Tetouan, Tangier, Salé, Fes, Agadir, Meknes, Oujda, Kenitra, and Nador.
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Moscow
Moscow ( /ˈmɒskaʊ/ or /ˈmɒskoʊ/; Russian: Москва́, tr. Moskva; IPA: [mɐˈskva] ( listen)) is the capital and the most populous federal subject of Russia. The city is a major political, economic, cultural and scientific center of Russia and the continent. Moscow is the northernmost megacity on Earth, the most populous city in Europe, and the 6th largest city proper in the world. Its population, according to the results of the 2010 Census, is 11,503,501. Based on Forbes 2011, Moscow has the largest community of billionaires in the world.
Moscow is situated on the Moskva River in the Central Federal District of European Russia. In the course of its history the city has served as the capital of a progression of states, from the medieval Grand Duchy of Moscow and the subsequent Tsardom of Russia to the Soviet Union. Moscow is the site of the Moscow Kremlin, an ancient fortress that is today the residence of the Russian President and of the executive branch of the Government of Russia. The Kremlin is also one of several World Heritage Sites in the city. Both chambers of the Russian parliament (the State Duma and the Federation Council) also sit in Moscow.
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Motya
Motya (Greek: Μοτύη, Μοτύα; Italian: Mozia ot Mothia; Sicilian: Mozzia), was an ancient and powerful city on an island off the west coast of Sicily, between Drepanum (modern Trapani) and Lilybaeum (modern Marsala). The eponymous (in ancient times) island renamed San Pantaleo in the 11th century by Basilian monks is situated in a lagoon on the most western part of Sicily (nearly 850 metres long and 750 metres wide) about one km (six stadia) from the mainland of Sicily, to which it was joined by an artificial causeway (paved road), by which chariots with large wheels could reach the town.
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Moukhtara
Moukhtara is a small town in the Chouf District of the Mount Lebanon Governorate of Lebanon. It is the hometown of Walid Jumblatt, the leader of Lebanon's Progressive Socialist Party.
It is also an ancient archaeological site, excavated in 1963 by Jacques Cauvin who found an abundance of flint tools. Examinations were conducted on 378 artifacts with finds including daggers, arrowheads, sickles, axes, chisels, picks and awls traced to the Neolithic horizon.James Mellaart suggested that Heavy Neolithic tools and weapons found at the site were "not associated with pottery, and possibly earlier than the Pottery Neolithic of Byblos."
Coordinates: 33°39′32″N 35°36′50″E / 33.658863°N 35.613877°E / 33.658863; 35.613877
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Mount Sannine
Mount Sannine (Arabic: جبل صنين) is a mountain in the Mount Lebanon range. Its highest point is 2,628 m (8,622 feet) above sea level in Lebanon. Mount Sannine, which has a base of limestone, is the source of many mountain springs.
Coordinates: 33°57′N 35°53′E / 33.95°N 35.88°E / 33.95; 35.88
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Mtaileb
Mtaileb or Mtayleb is a suburb north of Beirut in the Matn District of Mount Lebanon Governorate in Lebanon.
Mtaileb I or Rabiya is an archaeological site located 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) east northeast of Antelias in a wooded ravine next to a road that zig-zags upwards to the Rabiya Club. The site was discovered by Auguste Bergy in 1941 and a Heavy Neolithic assemblage of the Qaraoun culture consisting of enormous flint tools was collected and now held in the Museum of Lebanese Prehistory marked "1,500 m - 1,800m E.N.E. Antelias". The tools were studied by Jacques Cauvin and said to be made of impure Upper Jurassic flint. The area is now well built up with widely spaced villas and contains flint outcrops under the soil.
Mtaileb II is located 900 metres (3,000 ft) west northwest of Mtaileb on the north facing, wooded, sandstone slopes, in a junction of two ravines beneath the main Bikfaya road. A small Neolithic assemblage of tools was collected in beige and grey flint with small axes and picks. One slightly polished trapezoidal axe was found. The material is stored in the Museum of Lebanese Prehistory marked "1500 m S.W. Mazraat-ech-Chaar".
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Myriandrus
Myriandrus (or Myriandros) was an ancient Phoenician town and seaport located near the modern city of İskenderun, Turkey.
In 333 BC Alexander the Great intended to lay an ambush at Myriandrus of Darius III of Persia but in the end the battle took place near Issus.
Coordinates: 36°35′N 36°10′E / 36.583°N 36.167°E / 36.583; 36.167
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Málaga
Málaga (Spanish pronunciation: [ˈmalaɣa]; Phoenician: מַלַחַה, Malaḥa) is a city and a municipality in the Autonomous Community of Andalusia, Spain. With a population of 568,507 in 2010, it is the second most populous city of Andalusia and the fifth largest in Spain. This is the southernmost large city in Europe. It lies on the Costa del Sol (Coast of the Sun) of the Mediterranean, about 100 km (62.14 mi) east of the Strait of Gibraltar and about 130 km (80.78 mi) north of Africa.
Málaga enjoys a subtropical–mediterranean climate. It has one of the warmest winters in Europe, with average temperatures of 17 °C (62.6 °F) during the day and 7–8 °C (45–46 °F) at night in the period from December through February. The summer season lasts about eight months, from April through November, although in the remaining four months temperatures sometimes reach around 20 °C (68.0 °F).
Málaga's history spans about 2,800 years, making it one of the oldest cities in the world. It was founded by the Phoenicians as Malaka about 770 BC, and from the 6th century BC was under the hegemony of Ancient Carthage. Then from 218 BC it was ruled by the Roman Republic and later the Roman Empire as Malaca (Latin). After the fall of the empire it was under Islamic Arab domination as Mālaqah (مالقة) for 800 years, but in 1487 it came under the dominion of the Spaniards in the Reconquista. The archaeological remains and monuments from the Phoenician, Roman, Arabic and Christian eras make the historic center of the city an "open museum", displaying its rich history of more than 3,000 years.
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Nabatieh Governorate
Coordinates: 33°22′N 35°28′E / 33.367°N 35.467°E / 33.367; 35.467
Nabatieh Governorate (Arabic: محافظة النبطية, Muḥāfaẓat an Nabaṭīya) is one of the six governorates of Lebanon. The area of this governorate is 1,058 km². The capital is Nabatieh.
The governorate is divided into four districts (Aqdiya, singular qadaa) containing 115 municipalities. The capitals are in brackets:
Shia makes the majority with 68.69%; Christians makes the second most with 16.35%; Sunni makes the third with 11.21%; Druze are the last with 3.75%.
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Nabi Zair
Nabi Zair is a Heavy Neolithic archaeological site of the Qaraoun culture approximately 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) northwest of Anjar, Lebanon. The site was discovered by Auguste Bergy who found an abundance of flints spread across a wide area around the road between Beirut and Damascus.
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Nachcharini
Nachcharini is a medium-sized cave and Neolithic settlement located on the high (2100 m), central plateau of the Anti-Lebanon mountains near the Syrian border. It is one of the highest PPNA occupations found to date.
It is an important site for the early Neolithic in Lebanon and was excavated in in 1972 and 1974 by Bruce Schroeder as part of the University of Toronto's investigation of Neolithic occupation in the Beqaa, Lebanon. Research was disrupted by the Lebanese Civil War. The one radiocarbon date for the Neolithic period from this site has a high deviation, it therefore falls between 8500 BC and 7700 BC. Further investigations into the prehistoric land use of this site were carried out in 2001 directed by Alex Wasse of CBRL. They found the site badly looted, but were able to recoved numerous tools and flints for further study.
Chipped stone analysis revealed similarities to Jericho's Sultanian style, suggesting more advanced activities than carried out at other PPNA sites. Recent evidence from Wadi Faynan suggests a variety of non-hunting purposes for these type of tools.
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New Delhi
New Delhii/ˈnjuː dɛli/ is the capital city of India. As the national capital, New Delhi is the seat of executive, legislative, and judiciary branches of the Government of India. It also serves as the centre of the Government of the National Capital Territory of Delhi. New Delhi is situated within the metropolis of Delhi and is one of the nine districts of Delhi Union Territory.
The definition of New Delhi is unclear and the differentiation between Delhi and New Delhi is blurry. Even administratively, the demarcation between Delhi and New Delhi is not clear. Government of India and Government of Delhi have not clearly defined the area and boundaries of New Delhi. The boundaries of areas of New Delhi Municipal Council (NDMC) and New Delhi district of Delhi do not completely overlap. In 1920s, when British constructed New Delhi, there were only two Delhis' – the old walled city called Old Delhi and the new city designed by Edwin Lutyens to serve as capital of British India, which was called 'New Delhi'. The rest of Delhi was rural. But after independence as more and more areas around New Delhi urbanized they also became a part of New Delhi as they were also a part of Delhi which was 'new'. Now, almost all of National Capital Territory of Delhi, with exceptions of the old city called Old Delhi, Civil Lines area, Trans-Yamuna region, some rural areas and some underdeveloped parts of Delhi (e.g. Ashok Vihar, Timarpur, Nangloi, Sultanpuri, Mangolpuri, Badarpur etc.), is designated as 'New Delhi' in postal addresses. Especially, almost all the places in South, South-west, Central and West districts of Delhi are designated as New Delhi. Most of the time, the terms Delhi and New Delhi are used interchangeably.
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Nicosia
Nicosia (/ˌnɪkəˈsiːə/ NIK-ə-SEE-ə), known locally as Lefkosia (Greek: Λευκωσία, Turkish: Lefkoşa), is the capital and largest city in Cyprus, as well as its main business center. After the collapse of the Berlin Wall, Nicosia remained the only divided capital in the world, with the southern and the northern portions divided by a Green Line. It is located near the center of the island, on the banks of the Pedieos River.
Nicosia is the capital and seat of government of the Republic of Cyprus. The northern part of the city functions as the capital of the self-proclaimed Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, a disputed breakaway region whose independence is recognized only by Turkey, and which the rest of the international community considers as occupied territory of the Republic of Cyprus since the Turkish Invasion in 1974.
Despite the division Nicosia has managed to become a sophisticated and cosmopolitan city, rich in history and culture that combines its historic past with the amenities of a modern city.
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Niha Bekaa
Niha (Arabic: نيحا [ˈniħa]) is a village in the Bekaa Valley about 8 km (5.0 mi) North of Zahlé. It is famous for its Roman archeological ruins, and in particular two lower Roman temples that date back to the 1st century AD.
The name Niha is used by four Lebanese towns or villages: Niha, Zahlé in the Bekaa; Niha, Batroun; Niha, Tyre and Niha, Chouf. The word neeha is Syriac and denotes to the place the character of calm, peaceful
The village is located about 65 km East of the Lebanese capital Beirut off the main road that leads to Baalbeck. It is 8 km North of Zahlé and nearly 2 km North-East of the town of Ablah. The village sits in a small canyon at an average altitude of 1,100 m (3,600 ft). It is surrounded by fast rising hills with vertical drops of 150 m (500 ft). The canyon narrows and rises to the back country of Niha also known as the "Hosn" (in Arabic, hosn means fortress) at an approximate elevation of 1,350 m (4,400 ft). The mountains continue to rise over some ten kilometers to reach the top of Mount Sannine at 2,628 m (8,622 ft).
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North Governorate
Coordinates: 34°26′N 35°51′E / 34.433°N 35.85°E / 34.433; 35.85
North Governorate (Arabic: الشمال, Aš Šamāl) is one of the governorates of Lebanon. Its capital is Tripoli.
The North Governorate is divided into districts, or aqdya. The districts are listed below (capitals in parentheses):
Sunni makes the majority with 53.04%; Christians makes the second most with 44.68%; Shia makes the third with 2.27%; Druze are the last with 0.01%.
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Nouakchott
Nouakchott (Arabic: نواكشوط or انواكشوط (believed translation from Berber "The place of the winds", Nawākšūṭ) is the capital and by far the largest city of Mauritania. It is one of the largest cities in the Sahara. The city is the administrative and economic centre of Mauritania.
A tiny fishing town until 1958, Nouakchott was little mentioned during pre-colonial and colonial history. It is possible that the Berber Muslim Almoravids were originally from the area. Despite its name, based on a Berber expression meaning "place of the winds", the city was selected as the capital city for its moderate climate and central location within the country. It did, however, sit on one of the most valuable trade routes to West Africa.
Mauritania was part of the larger French colony of French West Africa, and as such had no capital during the colonial period: Saint-Louis, in Senegal, held that position. In 1957, this small port town was chosen to be the capital of the new country, and an ambitious building program was begun to increase its population to 15,000, starting a year later. In 1958, Mauritania was formed as an autonomous republic in the French Community, and in 1960 it became an independent country, with Nouakchott as its capital.
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Olbia
Olbia (Italian: [ˈɔlbja] ( listen), or locally [ˈolbja]; Gallurese Tarranòa, Sardinian: Terranòa) is a town and comune of 56,231 inhabitants (2010) in northeastern Sardinia (Italy), in the Gallura sub-region. Called Olbia in the Roman age, Civita in the Middle Ages (Giudicati period) and Terranova Pausania before the 1940s, Olbia was again the official name of the town after the period of Fascism.
It is the economic centre of this part of the island (commercial centres, food industry) and is very close to the famous Costa Smeralda tourist area. It is an administrative capital (together with Tempio Pausania) of the province of Olbia-Tempio, operative since 2005. A dynamic city, which presents itself as a tourist destination, for the beauty sea and beaches and also for the large number of places of cultural interest to visit.
Olbia (the name is of Greek origin) is very ancient and was possibly founded by the Punics, according to the archaeological findings. It contains ruins from Phoenician and Carthaginian settlement to the Roman Era, when it was an important port, and the Middle Ages, when it was the capital of the Giudicato of Gallura, one of the four independent states of Sardinia.
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Oman
Oman (i/oʊˈmɑːn/ oh-MAAN; Arabic: عمان ʻUmān), officially called the Sultanate of Oman (Arabic: سلطنة عُمان Salṭanat ʻUmān), is an Arab state in southwest Asia on the southeast coast of the Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by the United Arab Emirates (UAE) to the northwest, Saudi Arabia to the west, and Yemen to the southwest. The coast is formed by the Arabian Sea on the southeast and the Gulf of Oman on the northeast. The Madha and Musandam enclaves are surrounded by the UAE on their land borders, with the Strait of Hormuz and Gulf of Oman forming Musandam's coastal boundaries.
For a period, Oman was a moderate regional power, formerly having a sultanate extending across the Strait of Hormuz to Iran, and modern day Pakistan, and far south to Zanzibar on the coat of south-east Africa. Over time, as its power declined, the sultanate came under heavy influence from the United Kingdom, though Oman was never formally part of the British Empire, or a British protectorate. The Omani royal family claim that Oman has been ruled by the Al Said dynasty since 1744, although without substantial proof. Oman has long-standing military and political ties with the United Kingdom and the United States, although it maintains an independent foreign policy.
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Palermo
Palermo (Italian: [paˈlɛrmo] ( listen), Sicilian: Palermu, Latin: Panormus, from Greek: Πάνορμος, Panormos, Arabic: بَلَرْم, Balarm; Phoenician: זִיז, Ziz) is a city in Southern Italy, the capital of both the autonomous region of Sicily and the Province of Palermo. The city is noted for its history, culture, architecture and gastronomy, playing an important role throughout much of its existence; it is over 2,700 years old. Palermo is located in the northwest of the island of Sicily, right by the Gulf of Palermo in the Tyrrhenian Sea.
The city was founded by the Phoenicians, but named by the Ancient Greeks as Panormus meaning 'always fit for landing in.' Palermo became part of the Roman Republic, the Roman Empire and eventually part of the Byzantine Empire, for over a thousand years. From 827 to 1071 it was under Arab rule during the Emirate of Sicily when it first became a capital. Following the Norman reconquest, Palermo became capital of a new kingdom (from 1130 to 1816), the Kingdom of Sicily. Eventually it would be united with the Kingdom of Naples to form the Two Sicilies until the Italian unification of 1860.
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Persian Gulf
The Persian Gulf is located in Western Asia between Iran (Persia) and the Arabian Peninsula. It is an extension of the Indian Ocean.
The Persian Gulf was the focus of the 1980–1988 Iran-Iraq War, in which each side attacked the other's oil tankers. In 1991, the Persian Gulf again was the background for what was called the "Persian Gulf War" or the "Gulf War" when Iraq invaded Kuwait and was subsequently pushed back, despite the fact that this conflict was primarily a land conflict.
The Persian Gulf has many good fishing grounds, extensive coral reefs, and abundant pearl oysters, but its ecology has come under pressure from industrialization, and in particular, oil and petroleum spillages during wars in the region.
Historically and internationally known as the Persian Gulf, this body of water is sometimes controversially referred to as the Arabian Gulf or simply The Gulf by most Arab states, although neither of the latter two terms are recognized internationally. The name Gulf of Iran (Persian Gulf) is used by the International Hydrographic Organization.
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Phoenicia
Phoenicia (UK /fɨˈnɪʃə/, US /fəˈniːʃə/; from the Greek: Φοινίκη: Phoiníkē), was an ancient Semitic Canaanite civilization situated on the western, coastal part of the Fertile Crescent. The major Phoenician cities were on the coastline of the Mediterranean. It was an enterprising maritime trading culture that spread across the Mediterranean from 1550 BC to 300 BC. The Phoenicians used the galley, a man-powered sailing vessel, and are credited with the invention of the bireme. They were famed in Classical Greece and Rome as 'traders in purple', referring to their monopoly on the precious purple dye of the Murex snail, used, among other things, for royal clothing, and for their spread of the alphabet (or abjad), upon which all major modern phonetic alphabets are derived.
In the Amarna tablets of the 14th century BC, people from the region called themselves Kenaani or Kinaani (Canaanites), although these letters predate the invasion of the Sea Peoples by over a century. Much later, in the 6th century BC, Hecataeus of Miletus writes that Phoenicia was formerly called χνα, a name Philo of Byblos later adopted into his mythology as his eponym for the Phoenicians: "Khna who was afterwards called Phoinix". Egyptian seafaring expeditions had already been made to Byblos to bring back "cedars of Lebanon" as early as the third millennium BC.
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Plain of Zgharta
The Plain of Zgharta (or Plain of Zghorta) is a Heavy Neolithic archaeological site approximately 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) east and southeast of Tripoli in Lebanon. It has historically been a region known for growing sumptuous olives owing to early Quaternary, cemented fluvatile deposits that cover the land beneath the topsoil (known as the Conglomerates of Zgharta or the Conglomerates of Zghorta). The site was documented by R. Wetzel and J. Haller in 1945 who discuss surface finds of several large flakes and atypical bifaces from this area and ended up giving them a very improabable label of Mousterian.Lorraine Copeland deduced the likelihood that these pieces were in fact Gigantolithic tools, once used by the Qaraoun culture to chop down Cedars of Lebanon to start the Neolithic Revolution.
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Port Mahon
Mahon (Catalan: Maó [məˈo], Spanish: Mahón [maˈon]), conventionally known as Port Mahon in English, is a municipality and the capital of Minorca, located in the eastern part of the autonomous community of the Balearic Islands, Spain. Mahon has the second deepest natural harbour in the world: 5 km long and up to 900 metres wide. The water is deep but it remains mostly clear due to it being slightly enclosed.
Its population in 2009 was estimated to be 29,495 inhabitants.
The name's origin is attributed to the Carthaginian general Mago Barca, brother to Hannibal, who is thought to have taken refuge there in 205 BC. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, it was part of the Byzantine Empire; it suffered raids from Viking and Arabs, until the Islamic Caliphate of Córdoba conquered it in 903.
Mahon was captured in 1287 from the Moors by Alfonso III of Aragon and incorporated into the Kingdom of Majorca, a vassal kingdom of the Kingdom of Aragon. Its harbour, one of the most strategically important in the western Mediterranean, was re-fortified.
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Portugal
Portugali/ˈpɔrtʃʉɡəl/ (Portuguese: Portugal, IPA: [puɾtuˈɣaɫ]), officially the Portuguese Republic (Portuguese: República Portuguesa) is a country situated in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula . Portugal is the westernmost country of mainland Europe, and is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the West and South and by Spain to the North and East. The Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira are part of Portugal. The country is named after its second largest city, Porto, whose Latin name was Portus Cale.
The land within the borders of the current Portuguese Republic has been continuously settled since prehistoric times: occupied by Celts like the Gallaeci and the Lusitanians, integrated into the Roman Republic and later settled by Germanic peoples such as the Suebi, Swabians, Vandals and the Visigoths. In the 8th century most of the Iberian Peninsula was conquered by Moorish invaders professing Islam, which were later expelled by the Knights Templar under the Order of Christ. During the Christian Reconquista, Portugal established itself as an independent kingdom from León in 1139, claiming to be the oldest European nation state.
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Qaraoun
Qaraoun is a Lebanese village, 85 km from Beirut, known for its Lake Qaraoun in the Beqaa Valley formed by the El Wauroun Dam built in 1959. It is an ecologically fragile zone in the Rashaya District south of the Beqaa Governorate. The village lies about 2600 feet above sea level. The dam is located nearby on the Litani River.
The village is delimited by Majdel Balhis on the east, Aitanite on the west, Baaloul on the north and Sohmor on the south. The ecoregion of the village has now a land area of 1460 ha, with 1100 ha of it under agriculture including 400 ha under irrigation and the balance agricultural area is rainfed. When the El Qauroun Dam was built on the Litani River (the longest river in Lebanon) in 1959, Qaraoun village, lying on its left bank transferred an area of 740 ha for the development of the project. The ecoregions habitat composition is a delicate interface of dry lands with the riverine and lacustrine zones.
The population of the village is around 7,000.
The development activity near the village, consequent to land area the Qaraoun village transferred for building of the El Qaraoun Dam in the middle reaches of the Litani River, which created an artificial lake (33°34′11.63″N 35°41′51.18″E / 33.5698972°N 35.69755°E / 33.5698972; 35.69755) with water spread area of 1190 ha (the largest body of freshwater in Lebanon). The dam, which created the artificial lake or reservoir, is the largest dam built in Lebanon for multipurpose uses of hydropower generation (190 MW), irrigation (28,500 ha) and drinking water supply. It is a concrete-faced rockfill dam (CFRD) of 61 m height built with crest level at EL 801 m with a dam length of 1090 m, over karstic limestone formations. The reservoir has a storage capacity of 220 million cubic metres at maximum pond elevation of 858 m.
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Qatar
Qatar (i/ˈkɑːtɑr/ or i/kəˈtɑr/;Arabic: قطر [ˈqɑtˤɑr]; local vernacular pronunciation: [ɡɪtˤɑr]), also known as the country or State of Qatar or locally Dawlat Qaṭar, is a sovereign Arab state, located in Western Asia, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeasterly coast of the much larger Arabian Peninsula. Its sole land border is with Saudi Arabia to the south, with the rest of its territory surrounded by the Persian Gulf. A strait of the Persian Gulf separates Qatar from the nearby island state of Bahrain.
Qatar has been ruled as an absolute monarchy by Al Thani family since the mid-19th century. Formerly a British protectorate noted mainly for pearling, it became independent in 1971, and has become one of the region's wealthiest states due to its enormous oil and natural gas revenues. In 1995, Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani became Emir when he seized power from his father, Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani, in a peaceful coup d'état. The most important positions in Qatar are held by the members of the Al Thani family, or close confidants of the al-Thani family. Beginning in 1992, Qatar has built intimate military ties with the United States, and is now the location of U.S. Central Command’s Forward Headquarters and the Combined Air Operations Center.
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Quebec City
Quebec ( /kwəˈbɛk/ or /kəˈbɛk/; French: Québec [kebɛk] ( listen)), also Québec, Quebec City or Québec City (French: Ville de Québec) is the capital of the Canadian province of Quebec. As of 2011, the city has a population of 516,622, and the metropolitan area has a population of 765,706, making it the second most populous city in Quebec after Montreal, which is about 233 kilometres (145 mi) to the southwest.
The narrowing of the Saint Lawrence River proximate to the city's promontory, Cap-Diamant (Cape Diamond), and Lévis, on the opposite bank, provided the name given to the city, Kébec, an Algonquin word meaning "where the river narrows". Founded in 1608 by Samuel de Champlain, Quebec City is one of the oldest cities in North America. The ramparts surrounding Old Quebec (Vieux-Québec) are the only remaining fortified city walls that still exist in the Americas north of Mexico, and were declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1985 as the 'Historic District of Old Québec'.
According to the federal and provincial governments, Québec is the city's official name in both French and English, although Quebec City (or its French equivalent, Ville de Québec) is commonly used, particularly to distinguish the city from the province. The city's most famous landmark is the Château Frontenac, a hotel which dominates the skyline. The National Assembly of Quebec, the Musée national des beaux-arts du Québec (National Gallery of Quebec), and the Musée de la civilisation (Museum of Civilization) are found within or near Vieux-Québec.
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Rabat
Rabat (Arabic الرباط; Amazigh ⵕⴱⴰⵟ, transliterated ar-Rabāṭ or ar-Ribāṭ or Rbat, literally "Fortified Place"; French Ville de Rabat; Spanish Ciudad de Rabat), is the capital and third largest city of the Kingdom of Morocco with a population of approximately 650,000 (2010). It is also the capital of the Rabat-Salé-Zemmour-Zaer region.
The city is located on the Atlantic Ocean at the mouth of the river Bou Regreg. On the facing shore of the river lies Salé, the city's main commuter town. Together with Temara the cities account for a combined metropolitan population of 1.8 million. Silting problems have diminished the Rabat's role as a port; however, Rabat and Salé still maintain important textile, food processing and construction industries. In addition, tourism and the presence of all foreign embassies in Morocco serve to make Rabat one of the most important cities in the country. Controversy surrounds sweatshop labour by major multinational corporations in the area (see Salé).
Rabat is accessible by train through the ONCF system and by plane through the nearby Rabat-Salé Airport.
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Ramallah
Ramallah (Arabic: رام الله (help·info) Rāmallāh) (literally "Height of God") is a Palestinian city in the central West Bank located 10 kilometers (6 miles) north of Jerusalem, adjacent to al-Bireh. It currently serves as the de facto administrative capital of the Palestinian National Authority. With a population of nearly 25,500, Ramallah was historically a Christian town, but today Muslims form the majority of the population, with a strong Christian minority.
Modern Ramallah was founded in the mid-16th century by the Haddadins, a Jordanian tribe of brothers descended from Ghassanid Christian Arabs. The Haddadins, led by Rashid Haddadin, arrived from east of the Jordan River near the Jordanian town of Shoubak. The Haddadin migration is attributed to fighting and unrest among clans in that area. According to modern living descendents of original Haddadin family members, Rashid's brother Sabra Haddadin was hosting Emir Ibn Kaysoom, head of a powerful Muslim clan in the region, when Sabra's wife gave birth to a baby girl. According to custom, the Emir proposed a betrothal to his own young son when they came of age. Sabra believed the proposal was in jest, as Muslim-Christian marriages were not customary, and gave his word. When the Emir later came to the Haddadins and demanded that they fulfill their promise, they refused. This set off bloody conflict between the two families. The Haddadins fled west and settled on the hilltops of Ramallah, where only a few Muslim families lived at the time. Today, a large community of people descended directly from the Haddadins live in the United States. The town is now predominately Muslim.
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Raouché
Raouché (arabic: الروشة، ar-rawʂe) is a residential and commercial neighborhood in Beirut, Lebanon. It is known for its upscale apartment buildings, numerous restaurants, and cliff-side cafés that line Avenue de Paris, which forms part of the Corniche Beirut. The corniche or the wide, seaside sidewalk of Avenue de Paris is popular on weekends and evenings where strollers and joggers crowd the pavements.
Off the coast of Raouché, there is a natural landmark called the Pigeons' Rock (also known as the Rock of Raouché). Located at Beirut's western-most tip, the two huge rock formations, which stand like gigantic sentinels, are a popular destination for locals and visitors alike.
Raouche's Pigeons' Rock has recently been featured on the front page of Microsoft's Bing.
Some historians believe that the word "raouché" derives from the Aramaic word rosh, meaning head. Other historians argue that it is a corruption of the French word roche (rocher), meaning rock.
The shores near Raouché have yielded the area's oldest evidence of human existence, flints and basic stone tools, which are displayed in the AUB Archaeological Museum.
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Ras Baalbek I
Ras Baalbek I (Arabic: ورأس بعلبك) is a rock shelter 500 metres (1,600 ft) east of Ras Baalbek in the northern Beqaa Valley in Lebanon. It sits north of the Wadi Teniyet er-Râs valley at a height of 1,000 metres (3,300 ft). It was first discovered by Lorraine Copeland and Peter Wescombe in 1965-1966. It was later excavated by Jacques Besançon in 1970. Retouched blades along with a pressure-flaked arrowhead and a burin were found dated to the Neolithic period.
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Ras El Kelb
Ras El Kelb is a truncated, seaside cave and Paleolithic settlement located on the low lying (5 m) coast of Lebanon, 5 miles North of Beirut. It is one of the oldest inhabitations found in the country.
Rescue excavations were carried out in 1959 by Dorothy Garrod and G. Henri-Martin. They dug 2 trenches named the 'Rail' and 'Tunnel' trenches, from which they recovered over 30,000 flint artefacts of a wide variety for statistical analysis from 22 geological layers. It was concluded that the sea had passed the level of the cave 3 times since its first dated inhabitation around 50,000 BC (52,000 B.P.).
They also discovered a tooth suggested to belong to a Neanderthal. It was suggested that the inhabitants were expert at hunting gazelle using the flints recovered.
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Rio de Janeiro
Rio de Janeiro ( /ˈriːoʊ deɪ ʒəˈnɛəroʊ/ or /ˈriːoʊ deɪ dʒəˈnɛəroʊ/; Brazilian Portuguese: [ˈʁi.u dʒi ʒaˈnejɾu],River of January), commonly referred to simply as Rio, is the capital city of the State of Rio de Janeiro, the second largest city of Brazil, and the third largest metropolitan area and agglomeration in South America, boasting approximately 6.3 million people within the city proper, making it the 6th largest in the Americas, and 26th in the world.
The city was the capital of Brazil for nearly two centuries, from 1763 to 1815 during the Portuguese colonial era, 1815 to 1821 as the capital of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and Algarves, and 1822 to 1960 as an independent nation. Rio is nicknamed the Cidade Maravilhosa or "Marvelous City."
Rio de Janeiro represents the second largest GDP in the country (and 30th largest in the world in 2008), estimated at about R$ 343 billion (IBGE/2008) (nearly US$ 201 billion), and is the headquarters of two major Brazilian companies – Petrobras and Vale, and major oil companies and telephony in Brazil, besides the largest conglomerate of media and communications companies in Latin America, the Globo Organizations. The home of many universities and institutes, it is the second largest center of research and development in Brazil, accounting for 17% of national scientific production – according to 2005 data.
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Riyadh
Riyadh (/rɨˈjɑːd/; Arabic: الرياض transliterated Ar Riyāḍ pronounced [ʔɑrːiˈjɑːdˤ], English: The Gardens) is the capital and largest city of Saudi Arabia. It is also the capital of Riyadh Province, and belongs to the historical regions of Najd and Al-Yamama. It is situated in the center of the Arabian Peninsula on a large plateau, and is home to 5,254,560 people, and the urban center of a region with a population of close to 7 million people. The city is divided into 15 municipal districts, managed by Riyadh Municipality headed by the mayor of Riyadh, and the Riyadh Development Authority, chaired by the Governor of Riyadh Province, Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz. The current mayor of Riyadh is Abdul Aziz ibn Ayyaf Al-Miqrin, appointed in 1998. Riyadh has the largest female university in the world, the Princess Nora bint Abdulrahman University.. It has been designated as Beta World City.
During the Pre-Islamic era, the settlement at the site was called Hajr (Arabic: حجر), and was reportedly founded by the tribe of Banu Hanifa. Hajr served as the capital of the province of Al Yamamah, whose governors were responsible for most of central and eastern Arabia during the Umayyad and Abbasid eras. Al-Yamamah broke away from the Abbasid Empire in 866 and the area fell under the rule of the Ukhaydhirites, who moved the capital from Hajr to nearby Al Kharj. The city then went into a long period of decline. In the 14th century North African traveller Ibn Battuta wrote of his visit to Hajr, describing it as "the main city of Al-Yamamah, and its name is Hajr". Ibn Battuta goes on to describe it as a city of canals and trees with most of its inhabitants belonging to Bani Hanifa, and reports that he continued on with their leader to Mecca to perform the Hajj.
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Russia
Russiai/ˈrʌʃə/ or /ˈrʊʃə/ (Russian: Россия, tr. Rossiya; IPA: [rɐˈsʲijə] ( listen)), also officially known as the Russian Federation (Russian: Российская Федерация, tr. Rossiyskaya Federatsiya; IPA: [rɐˈsʲijskəjə fʲɪdʲɪˈratsɨjə] ( listen)), is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects. From northwest to southeast, Russia shares borders with Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland (both via Kaliningrad Oblast), Belarus, Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia, and North Korea. It also has maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, and the US state of Alaska by the Bering Strait. At 17,075,400 square kilometres (6,592,800 sq mi), Russia is the largest country in the world, covering more than one eighth of the Earth's inhabited land area. Russia is also the eighth most populous nation with 143 million people. It extends across the whole of northern Asia and 40% of Europe, spanning nine time zones and incorporating a wide range of environments and landforms. Russia has the world's largest reserves of mineral and energy resources and is the largest producer of oil and natural gas globally. Russia has the world's largest forest reserves and its lakes contain approximately one-quarter of the world's fresh water.
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Sabratha
Sabratha, Sabratah or Siburata (Arabic: صبراتة), in the Zawiya District in the northwestern corner of modern Libya, was the westernmost of the "three cities" of Tripolis. From 2001 to 2007 it was the capital of the former Sabratha wa Sorman District. It lies on the Mediterranean coast about 66 km (41 mi) west of Tripoli. The extant archaeological site was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1982.
Sabratha's port was established, perhaps about 500 BC, as a Phoenician trading-post that served as a coastal outlet for the products of the African hinterland.The Phoenicians gave it the Lybico-Berber name 'Sbrt'n', which suggests that there may have been a native town built there prior to the Phoenicians' arrival. Sabratha became part of the short-lived Numidian Kingdom of Massinissa before being Romanized and rebuilt in the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD. The Emperor Septimius Severus was born nearby in Leptis Magna, and Sabratha reached its monumental peak during the rule of the Severans. The city was badly damaged by earthquakes during the 4th century, particularly the quake of AD 365. It was rebuilt on a more modest scale by Byzantine governors. Within a hundred years of the Arab conquest of the maghreb, trade had shifted to other ports and Sabratha dwindled to a village.
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Safita
Safita (Arabic: صا فيتا Ṣāfītā) is a city in northwestern Syria, located to the southeast of Tartous and to the northwest of Krak des Chevaliers. The city has a population of 33,000. It's situated atop three hills and the valleys between them, in the Syrian Coastal Mountain Range. Safita grew prominent during the Crusades, and was inhabited by the Knights Templar of the castle Chastel Blanc, while a part of the County of Tripoli.
The city has been inhabited since the times of the Phoenicians, and several archaeological discoveries have been made, including Phoenician and Canaanite settlements. In 1102, Raymond IV of Toulouse began to take the land of the Banu Ammars Emirs of Tripoli. A four-year siege on Tripoli resulted in full control of the city and many lands surrounding it, including Safita. Mamluk Sultan Baibars captured the castle in 1271.
Coordinates: 34°49′N 36°07′E / 34.817°N 36.117°E / 34.817; 36.117
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Saint George Bay
Coordinates: 34°54′09.74″N 35°29′42.94″E / 34.9027056°N 35.4952611°E / 34.9027056; 35.4952611
The Saint George Bay (known in Lebanon as Golfe de Saint-Georges) is located on the northern coast of the city of Beirut in Lebanon. The Saint George Bay is believed to be the place where Saint George slew the dragon. Today the bay houses Beirut's western marina and extends to the north until the marina of Dbayeh. Upscale apartment buildings and highrise hotels overlook the western part of the bay and its palm-lined promenade, the Corniche. The Port of Beirut occupies the eastern part of the bay. The Beirut River empties in the bay.
The bay was the scene of an annual international water ski championship, from 1955 until the beginning of the war.
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Sands of Beirut
The Sands of Beirut were a series of archaeological sites located on the coastline south of Beirut in Lebanon.
The Sands were a complex of nearly 20 prehistoric sites that were destroyed due to building operations using the soft sandstone in constructing the city of Beirut and Beirut Airport. The large number of open air sites provided a wealth of flint relics from various periods including Natufian remains, unstratified but suggested to date between c. 10000 BC to c 8000 BC. Finds included sickles used for harvesting wild cereals as just prior to the agricultural revolution. The transition into the neolithic is well documented with Khiamian sites also being represented in the Sands. Evidence of pre-Natufian Kebaran occupation was also found.
The materials recovered are now held by the Museum of Lebanese Prehistory part of the Saint Joseph University. It is one of the few sites showing signs of real village occupation in the late pleistocene. The first flints were found by J. Chester and further studies by J.W. Dawson were published in 1874. This was followed by extensive research by Father G. Zumoffen who published in 1893.Henri Fleisch also catalogued and recovered materials from the sites in the 1960s, the destruction of the Sands of Beirut was recently exhibited through Father Fleisch's photography in June 2010 at the Museum of Lebanese Prehistory.
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Sarepta
Coordinates: 33°27′27″N 35°17′45″E / 33.4575°N 35.29583°E / 33.4575; 35.29583
Sarepta (modern Sarafand, Lebanon) was a Phoenician city on the Mediterranean coast between Sidon and Tyre. Most of the objects by which we characterise Phoenician culture are those that have been recovered scattered among Phoenician colonies and trading posts; such carefully excavated colonial sites are in Spain, Sicily, Sardinia and Tunisia. The sites of many Phoenician cities, like Sidon and Tyre, by contrast, are still occupied, unavailable to archaeology except in highly restricted chance sites, usually much disturbed. Sarepta is the exception, the one Phoenician city in the heartland of the culture that has been unearthed and thoroughly studied.
Sarepta is mentioned for the first time in the voyage of an Egyptian in the fourteenth century BCE (Chabas, Voyage d'un Egyptien, 1866, pp 20, 161, 163). Obadiah says it was the northern boundary of Canaan (Obadiah 1:20). Originally Sidonian, the town passed to the Tyrians after the invasion of Shalmaneser IV, 722 BCE. It fell to Sennacherib in 701.
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Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia (i/ˌsaʊdi əˈreɪbi.ə/ or i/ˌsɔːdiː əˈreɪbi.ə/; Arabic: السعودية as-Su‘ūdīyah[citation needed] or incorrectly as-Sa‘ūdīyah, officially known as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (Arabic: المملكة العربية السعودية al-Mamlakah al-‘Arabīyah as-Su‘ūdīyah Arabic pronunciation (help·info)), is the largest state in Western Asia by land area, constituting the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula, and the second-largest in the Arab world, after Algeria. It is bordered by Jordan, and Iraq on the north and northeast, Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain and the United Arab Emirates on the east, Oman on the southeast, and Yemen on the south. The Red Sea lies to its west, and the Persian Gulf lies to the east. Saudi Arabia has an area of approximately 2,250,000 km2 (870,000 sq mi), and it has an estimated population of 27 million, of which 9 million are registered foreign expatriates and an estimated 2 million are illegal immigrants. Saudi nationals comprise an estimated 16 million people.
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was founded by Abdul-Aziz bin Saud (known for most of his career as Ibn Saud) in 1932, although the conquests which eventually led to the creation of the Kingdom began in 1902 when he captured Riyadh, the ancestral home of his family, the House of Saud, referred to in Arabic as the Al Saud. The Saudi Arabian government, which has been an absolute monarchy since its inception, refers to its system of government as being Islamic, though this is contested by many due to its strong basis in Salafism, a minority school of thought in Islam. The kingdom is sometimes called "The Land of the Two Holy Mosques" in reference to Al-Masjid al-Haram (in Mecca), and Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (in Medina), the two holiest places in Islam.
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Shatila refugee camp
Coordinates: 33°51′46.26″N 35°29′54.17″E / 33.86285°N 35.4983806°E / 33.86285; 35.4983806
The Shatila refugee camp (Arabic: مخيم شاتيلا) (also Chatila refugee camp) is a long-term refugee camp for Palestinian refugees, set up by UNRWA in 1949. The camp is located within the Lebanese capital Beirut. As of December 2003, it housed 12,235 registered refugees.[1] It is most widely known as the site of the Sabra and Shatila massacre in September 1982, but also played a significant role in the 1982 Lebanon war and the 1985 to 1987 war of the camps.
The Shatila camp is located in southern Beirut. Originally hosting hundreds of refugees, it has grown to more than 12,000 registered Palestinian refugees. Many of these refugees may live outside the camp, while non-Palestinians also live in the camp. The entire camp comprises approximately one square kilometer and thus has an exceptionally high population density.[2]
UNRWA operates one health center and two primary schools within the camp. NGOs active in the camp include Al-Najda, Beit Atfal Al-Soumoud, Norwegian Peoples' Aid, the Palestinian Red Crescent Society and the Association Najdeh.[3] [4]
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Sidon
Coordinates: 33°33′38″N 35°23′53″E / 33.56056°N 35.39806°E / 33.56056; 35.39806
Sidon or Saïda (Arabic: صيدا, Ṣaydā; Phoenician:
, Ṣydwn; Greek: Σιδών; Latin: Sidon; Hebrew: צידון, Ṣīḏōn, Turkish: Sayda) is the third-largest city in Lebanon. It is located in the South Governorate of Lebanon, on the Mediterranean coast, about 40 km (25 mi) north of Tyre and 40 km (25 mi) south of the capital Beirut. In Genesis, Sidon is the son of Canaan the grandson of Noah. Its name coincides with the modern Arabic word for fishery.
Sidon is a city of 200,000 inhabitants who are overwhelmingly Muslims.
Sidon has been inhabited since very early in prehistory. The archaeological site of Sidon II shows a lithic assemblage dating to the Acheulean, whilst finds at Sidon III include a Heavy Neolithic assemblage suggested to date just prior to the invention of pottery. It was one of the most important Phoenician cities, and may have been the oldest. From here, and other ports, a great Mediterranean commercial empire was founded. Homer praised the skill of its craftsmen in producing glass, purple dyes, and its women's skill at the art of embroidery. It was also from here that a colonizing party went to found the city of Tyre. Tyre also grew into a great city, and in subsequent years there was competition between the two, each claiming to be the metropolis ('Mother City') of Phoenicia. Glass manufacturing, Sidon's most important enterprise in the Phoenician era, was conducted on a vast scale, and the production of purple dye was almost as important. The small shell of the Murex trunculus was broken in order to extract the pigment that was so rare it became the mark of royalty.
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Sin el Fil
Sin el-Fil (Arabic: سن الفيل / ALA-LC: Sin al-Fīl) is a suburb east of Beirut in the Matn District of the Mount Lebanon Governorate, Lebanon.
The name literally translates "tooth" (sin) of "the elephant" (el fil). Being geographically closer to the ancient city of Antioch and far remote from natural elephant habitat, it is believed that the town name may have been a derogation of Saint Theophilus of Antioch.
With a rich red soil and moderate precipitation (but available ground water irrigation) the agricultural land of Sin el Fil in the early 20th century sprawled into a densely populated suburb. The natural landscape of the late century was dominated by stone pine. The Beirut River runs west of Sin el Fil and separates the town from the capital, Beirut.
Collections of archaeological material from this limestone "hogsback" were made from the gullies to the south of the main road on the slopes of forested hills. The recovery areas were described as "ravines sinueuses" by Raoul Describes after making a collection in 1921. Other Jesuits who made collections from the area included Godefroy Zumoffen in 1908, Paul Bovier-Lapierre and Auguste Bergy as well as Mouterde, Gigues, Lorraine Copeland and Peter Wescombe. E. Passemard suggested that two of the trihedral pieces collected by Paul Bovier-Lapierre were Chalossian. Describes published some of the material as Acheulean but the bulk of the material was very mixed including lots of indeterminate Neolithic pieces including Trihedral Neolithic and Heavy Neolithic forms. There was also a Roman occupation on the flat fields above the slopes. Some archaeological material from Sin el Fil is in the National Museum of Beirut and the Museum of Lebanese Prehistory.
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Soluntum
Soluntum or Solus (Greek: Σολόεις, Thuc.; Σολοῦς, Diod.: Eth. Σολουντῖνος, Diod., but coins have Σολοντῖνος; Italian Solunto) was an ancient city of Sicily, one of the three chief Phoenician settlements in the island, situated on the north coast, about 16 kilometres (10 mi) east of Panormus (modern Palermo), and immediately to the east of the bold promontory called Capo Zafferano. It lay 183 metres (600 ft) above sea level, on the southeast side of Monte Catalfano 373 metres (1,225 ft), in a naturally strong situation, and commanding a fine view. Some scholars contend that Soluntum and Solus were two different cities at close quarters, Soluntum, higher upon the hillside, being a later habitation displacing the earlier settlement of Solus, at a lower elevation. Its current site is at the località of Solanto in the comune of Santa Flavia.
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Somalia
Somalia ( /soʊˈmɑːliə/ soh-MAH-lee-ə; Somali: Soomaaliya; Arabic: الصومال aṣ-Ṣūmāl), officially the Somali Republic (Somali: Jamhuuriyadda Soomaaliya, Arabic: جمهورية الصومال Jumhūriyyat aṣ-Ṣūmāl) and formerly known as the Somali Democratic Republic under Socialist rule, is a country located in the Horn of Africa. Since the outbreak of the Somali Civil War in 1991 there has been no central government control over most of the country's territory. The internationally recognized Transitional Federal Government controls only a small part of the country. Somalia has been characterized as a failed state and is one of the poorest and most violent states in the world.
Somalia lies in the easternmost part of Africa. It is bordered by Djibouti to the northwest, Kenya to the southwest, the Gulf of Aden with Yemen to the north, the Indian Ocean to the east, and Ethiopia to the west. It has the longest coastline on the continent, and its terrain consists mainly of plateaus, plains and highlands. Hot conditions prevail year-round, along with periodic monsoon winds and irregular rainfall.
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South Governorate
Coordinates: 33°33′N 35°23′E / 33.55°N 35.383°E / 33.55; 35.383
South Governorate (Arabic: الجنوب; transliterated: al-Janub) is one of the governorates of Lebanon. South Lebanon has a population of 500,000 inhabitants and an area of 2,000 km². The capital is Sidon. The lowest elevation is sea-level; the highest is 1,000 meters. The inhabitants are a mixture of Shiites, Sunnis, Orthodox, Catholics, and Protestants. Temperatures can drop to 4 °C during winter with a lot of rain and snow on the higher ground. In the humid summer, temperatures can rise to 30 °C in the coastal areas. The governorate has several rivers: the Litani, Zahrani, Naqura, Awali, Qasmiye, and Hasbani. The area is famous for its citrus and banana farms. Its main cities are Sidon, Tyre and Jezzine
The area offers a great number of attractions, including pristine white sandy beaches south of Tyre, and the opportunity to snorkel or dive among submerged Phoenician and Roman ruins near the ancient cities of Sidon and Tyre. Culture-lovers will enjoy the bustling Ottoman-era Pazars, and one can relax after a long day at a seafood restaurant overlooking the Mediterranean. Southern Lebanon also hosts the Tyre festival, which attracts thousands of tourists each year.
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Spain
Spain (i/ˈspeɪn/ SPAYN; Spanish: España, pronounced: [esˈpaɲa] ( listen)), officially the Kingdom of Spain (Spanish: Reino de España), is a sovereign state and a member of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Its mainland is bordered to the south and east by the Mediterranean Sea except for a small land boundary with the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar; to the north and north east by France, Andorra, and the Bay of Biscay; and to the northwest and west by the Atlantic Ocean and Portugal.
Spanish territory also includes the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean, the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean off the African coast, and two autonomous cities in North Africa, Ceuta and Melilla, that border Morocco. Furthermore, the town of Llívia is a Spanish exclave situated inside French territory. With an area of 504,030 square kilometres (194,610 sq mi), it is the second largest country in Western Europe and the European Union after France, and the fourth largest country in Europe after Russia, Ukraine and France.
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Strasbourg
Strasbourg (French pronunciation: [stʁazbuʁ]; Lower Alsatian: Strossburi, [ˈʃd̥rɔːsb̥uri]; German: Straßburg, [ˈʃtʁaːsbʊɐ̯k]) is the capital and principal city of the Alsace region in eastern France and is the official seat of the European Parliament. Located close to the border with Germany, it is the capital of the Bas-Rhin département. The city and the region of Alsace are historically German-speaking, explaining the city's Germanic name. In 2006, the city proper had 272,975 inhabitants and its urban community 467,375 inhabitants. With 638,670 inhabitants in 2006, Strasbourg's metropolitan area (aire urbaine) (only the part of the metropolitan area on French territory) is the ninth largest in France. The transnational Eurodistrict Strasbourg-Ortenau had a population of 884,988 inhabitants in 2008.
Strasbourg is the seat of several European institutions, such as the Council of Europe (with its European Court of Human Rights, its European Directorate for the Quality of Medicines and its European Audiovisual Observatory) and the Eurocorps, as well as the European Parliament and the European Ombudsman of the European Union. The city is the seat of the Central Commission for Navigation on the Rhine.
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Sudan
Sudan (i/suːˈdæn/ or /suːˈdɑːn/;Arabic: السودان, as-Sūdān), officially the Republic of the Sudan (Arabic: جمهورية السودان, Jumhūrīyat as-Sūdān), sometimes called North Sudan, is an Arab state in North Africa (sometimes also considered to be part of the Middle East). It is bordered by Egypt to the north, the Red Sea to the northeast, Eritrea and Ethiopia to the east, South Sudan to the south, the Central African Republic to the southwest, Chad to the west, and Libya to the northwest. The population of Sudan is a combination of indigenous inhabitants of Nile Valley, and descendants of migrants from the Arabian Peninsula. Due to the process of Arabisation common throughout the rest of the Arab World, today Arab culture predominates in Sudan. The majority of the population of Sudan adheres to Islam. The Nile divides the country between east and west sides.
The people of Sudan have a long history extending from antiquity which is intertwined with the history of Egypt. Sudan suffered seventeen years of civil war during the First Sudanese Civil War (1955–1972) followed by ethnic, religious and economic conflicts between the Muslim Arab northern Sudanese and the mostly animist and Christian Nilotes of Southern Sudan. This led to the Second Sudanese Civil War in 1983. Because of continuing political and military struggles, Sudan was seized in a bloodless coup d'état by colonel Omar al-Bashir in 1989, who thereafter proclaimed himself President of Sudan. The civil war ended with the signing of a Comprehensive Peace Agreement which granted autonomy to what was then the southern region of the country. Following a referendum held in January 2011, South Sudan seceded on 9 July 2011 with the consent of Sudan's President al-Bashir.
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Sursock Museum
Coordinates: 33°53′34.59″N 35°30′58.42″E / 33.8929417°N 35.5162278°E / 33.8929417; 35.5162278
Sursock Museum, which is officially known as Nicolas Sursock Museum, is a modern art museum in Beirut, Lebanon. It is located in the historic street known as Rue Sursock in the Achrafieh district of Beirut. The street is home to other mansions that were built in the 18th century by Beirut's most prominent families such as the Sursocks and the Bustroses. The museum was ranked #7 of 112 things to do in Beirut by Lonely Planet travelers.
The Sursock Museum is a great example of Lebanese architecture, which has Italianate, specifically Venetian, and Ottoman architectural influences. The wealthy Nicolas Sursock, a member of one of Beirut's most prominent aristocratic families, built the museum as a private villa at the end of the 19th century. Nicolas Sursock who died in 1961 bequeathed his villa to the city of Beirut. According to his will, the villa was transformed into a museum.
The Museum opened its doors in 1961 with an exhibit of works of contemporary Lebanese artists, setting a precedent for cultural events in Beirut. Since then, more than a hundred exhibitions have been held, displaying the works of both Lebanese and international artists. In addition to modern art, the museum's permanent collection includes Japanese engravings and Islamic art.
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Syria
Syria (/ˈsɪriə/ ( listen) SIRR-ee-ə; Arabic: سورية Sūriyya or سوريا Sūryā; Syriac: ܣܘܪܝܐ; Kurdish: Sûrî), officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic: الجمهورية العربية السورية al-Jumhūriyyah al-‘Arabīyah as-Sūriyyah Arabic pronunciation (help·info)), is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the West, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south, and Israel to the southwest.
In English, the name Syria was formerly synonymous with the Levant, known in Arabic as Sham, while the modern state encompasses the sites of several ancient kingdoms and empires, including the Eblan civilization of the third millennium BC. In the Islamic era, its capital city, Damascus, the oldest continuously inhabited city in the world, was the seat of the Umayyad Caliphate, and a provincial capital of the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt.
The population of Syria is 74% Sunni, 12% Alawi, 10% Christian, and 3% Druze. Combined, 87% of the Syrian population is Muslim, while the other 10% is Christian, which includes mainly Arab Christians but also Assyrians and Armenians. Major ethnic minorities in Syria include Kurds (9%), Assyrians, Armenians, Turkmens and Circassians. The majority of the population is Arab (90%).
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Tahun ben Aissa
Tahun ben Aissa is an archaeological site 3 and a half kilometres southwest of Joub Jannine in the Beqaa Valley in Lebanon.
This archaeological site, located on the left bank of the Litani was studied in 1965-6 by Lorraine Copeland and Peter Wescombe. Materials found included flints used for heavy chopping including trapezoidal, oval and rectangular shaped axes. A few sickle blades with fine denticulation along with some scrapers and an oval shaped arrowhead were found. Analysis of the recovered materials enabled Jacques Cauvin and Marie-Claire Cauvin to suggest that the site was contemporary with the earliest neolithic levels at Byblos.
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Taire
Taire or Taireh or Et Taireh is a village located in the Caza of Bint Jbeil in the Nabatiye Governorate in Lebanon. It is also the location of two pre-historic archaeological sites.
Taire I (referred to as Et Taireh I) is located 3.5 km north of Ain Ebel to the west of the village. The exact location of the site is unknown and the assemblage found was small and of indeterminable date. It was only mentioned in passing by Paul Bovier-Lapierre in 1908 and Karge in 1918.
Taire II (referred to as Et Taireh II and Bassatine el Khawabi) is a Heavy Neolithic archaeological site of the Qaraoun culture. It is located 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) northeast of the village on a small track leading to Kounine that crosses the road between Bent Jbeil and Tibnine. A collection was made south of the track at 690 m above sea level by Jesuit archaeologist Henri Fleisch, who did not publish it but confirmed that the Qaraoun culture was present this far south via personal communication to Lorraine Copeland. The collection is held by the Museum of Lebanese Prehistory at the Saint Joseph University.
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Tangier
Tangier, also Tangiers (Berber: Tanja, ⵜⴰⵏⵊⴰ, archaic Berber name: Tingi, Arabic: طنجة Ṭanjah, Spanish: Tánger, French: Tanger), is a city in northern Morocco with a population of about 700,000 (2012 estimates). It lies on the North African coast at the western entrance to the Strait of Gibraltar where the Mediterranean meets the Atlantic Ocean off Cape Spartel. It is the capital of the Tangier-Tetouan Region and of the Tangier-Asilah prefecture of Morocco.
The history of Tangier is very rich due to the historical presence of many civilizations and cultures starting from the 5th century BC. Between the period of being a Berber settlement and then a Phoenician town to the independence era around the 1950s, Tangier was a refuge for many cultures. In 1923, Tangier was considered as an international status by foreign colonial powers, and became a destination for many European and American diplomats, spies, writers and businessmen.
The city is currently undergoing rapid development and modernization. Projects include new 5-star hotels along the bay, a modern business district called Tangier City Center, a new airport terminal and a new football stadium. Tangier's economy is also set to benefit greatly from the new Tanger-Med port.
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Tel Aviv
Tel Aviv, officially Tel Aviv-Yafo (Hebrew: תֵּל־אָבִיב-יָפוֹ; Arabic: تل أبيب), is the second most populous city in Israel. It has a population of 404,400 within city limits, on a land area of 52 km2 (20 sq mi). The city is located on the Israeli Mediterranean coastline in central-west Israel. In 2010, it was the largest and most populous city in the Tel Aviv Metropolitan Area of 3,325,700 residents, known as Gush Dan. The city is governed by the Tel Aviv-Yafo municipality, headed by Ron Huldai. Residents of Tel Aviv are referred to as Tel Avivim.
Tel Aviv was founded in 1909 by the Jewish Community of Jaffa (Hebrew: יָפוֹ Yafo; Arabic: يافا Yāfā), on the outskirts of the ancient port city. The growth of Tel Aviv soon outpaced Jaffa, which had a majority Arab population at the time. Tel Aviv and Jaffa were merged into a single municipality in 1950, two years after the establishment of the State of Israel. Tel Aviv's White City, designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2003, comprises the world's largest concentration of Bauhaus buildings.
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Tell Ain Nfaikh
Tell Ain Nfaikh or Ain Nfaikh is an archaeological site in an area c. 100 square metres (1,100 sq ft) of a ploughed field 300 metres (980 ft) east of the Litani, north of Rayak on the west of the Beqaa Valley in Lebanon.
It was first studied by Lorraine Copeland and Peter Wescombe in 1965–1966. A wide variety of materials were recovered from the site and its immediate area that are now held in the Saint Joseph University in Beirut. Stone tools from the surface included numerous short, wide, sickle blades with fine denticulation or nibbling along with tanged arrowheads, scrapers, chisels, axes, burins, obsidian and a small green stone axe. Pottery resembled middle periods at Byblos and coloured similar to at Ard Tlaili with red or black washes. Both fine and coarse shards were found of jars with a variety of collared and flared necks and flat bases along with bow rims such as those found at Jericho. Vessels were decorated with stabbed and incised designs, finger pressed around the rim and smoothed by hand or with straw. A painted lattice pattern was detected on at least one piece. Comparisons were made with middle and late Neolithic periods at Byblos showing inhabitation from several phases. The site was also used in Bronze Age and Classical times and material from these phases has been found over a wide area around the site.
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Tell Ain Saouda
Tell Ain Saouda is a small neolithic, archaeological tell, approximately 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) south of Tell Neba'a Litani, Lebanon.
It is a grey soiled site next to two springs and the Litani River. Materials recovered include flints such as tanged arrowheads, sickle blades, scrapers, and an axe. Pottery included flat bottomed jars, globe shaped jars and bowls. These were burnished, painted and red washed with some incised decorations. These finds were similar to those from Tell Ain Nfaikh and other Beqaa Valley sites with a later neolithic dating and settlements extending into the Bronze Age and classical periods.
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Tell Deir
Tell Deir is an archaeological site approximately halfway between Joub Jannine and Chtaura.
A large amount of neolithic material was recovered from the site and it was studied by Lorraine Copeland and Peter Wescombe. The most plentiful types were large axes, adzes, picks, knives and scrapers. Some smaller burins were found along with sickles showing denticulation and segmentation. A few pottery sherds were found with burnishing and red washing. Finds resembled later neolithic material found nearby and was also suggested to have been occupied in the bronze age.
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Tell Jisr
Tell Jisr, Tell el-Jisr or Tell ej-Jisr is a hill and archaeological site 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) northwest of Joub Jannine in the Beqaa Valley in Lebanon.
It was discovered in 1965-1966 by Lorraine Copeland and Peter Wescombe but the perimeter and extent of the find was not fully determined. It is suggested to have been surrounded by fertile arable land suitable for crop cultivation and was likely a river crossing, situated on the east bank of the Litani. A large amount of material was collected by Henri Fleisch and M. Tallon which is now kept by the Museum of Lebanese Prehistory, part of Saint Joseph University.Flint tools were of the heavy type suggested to have been used for deforestation, they included trapezoidal axes, choppers, a variety of scrapers including advanced fan scrapers, segmented sickle blades with fine denticulation and some obsidian. The range of pottery found included stone and basalt bowls and vessels ranging from coarse White Ware to fine, burnished and decorated sherds. A spectrum of jar designs were found with some having red or cream washes. The materials show an established neolithic settlement with many similarities to Byblos and lower Jordan Valley sites that flourished until the Bronze Age. The tell is also notable as the location of the discovery of a fragment of pottery called the McClelland Sherd, Tell Jisr Sherd or El-Jisr Sherd that shows incisions suggested to be the oldest alphabetic writing yet discovered.
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Tell Khardane
Tell Khardane is a Heavy Neolithic archaeological site of the Qaraoun culture north northeast of Amuq (Lebanon), Lebanon on the road to Chtaura. Several Heavy Neolithic flints including picks, scrapers, blades and flakes were found in fields that surround the tell mound. Many had been produced using the Levallois technique.
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Tell Mureibit
Tell Mureibit is a Heavy Neolithic archaeological site approximately 8 kilometres (5 mi) north of Tyre, Lebanon. It is located in a wadi near Kasimiyeh on the north bank of the Litani river. Material was collected by E. Passemard which is kept in the National Museum of Beirut. It consists of heavy, rough and usually bifacial tools of indeterminate date that has been likened to other Heavy Neolithic material of the Qaraoun culture.
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Tell Zeitoun
Tell Zeitoun also called Tell Dnaibe, is an arcaheological site 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) southwest of Rashaya in Lebanon at an altitude of 900 metres (3,000 ft).
It is situated in the valley of the Upper Hasbani (Wadi el-Fatir) on the right bank, north-east of the village of Dnaibe, east of the road. It was first recorded by A. Kuschke in 1954 followed by Lorraine Copeland and J. King in 1966 and lastly by Jacques Besançon and Francis Hours in 1968. Besançon recovered a fragment from an arrowhead a pick or hammer and a serrated sickle blade. These gave a very slight dating suggesting Ubaid occupation equivalent to early neolithic Byblos.
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Tell Zenoub
Tell Zenoub is an archaeological site of the Qaraoun culture that is located 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) north northeast of Joub Jannine, Lebanon. Although later occupation was detected, numerous Heavy Neolithic flints were found in fields south of the tell.
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Temple of Eshmun
The Temple of Eshmun (Arabic: معبد اشمون) is an ancient place of worship dedicated to Eshmun, the Phoenician god of healing. It is located near the Awali river, 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) northeast of Sidon in southwestern Lebanon. The site was occupied from the 7th century BC to the 8th century AD, suggesting an integrated relationship with the nearby city of Sidon. Although originally constructed by Sidonian king Eshmunazar II in the Achaemenid era (c. 529–333 BC) to celebrate the city's recovered wealth and stature, the temple complex was greatly expanded by Bodashtart, Yatan-milk and later monarchs. Because the continued expansion spanned many centuries of alternating independence and foreign hegemony, the sanctuary features a wealth of different architectural and decorative styles and influences.
The sanctuary consists of an esplanade and a grand court limited by a huge limestone terrace wall that supports a monumental podium which was once topped by Eshmun's Graeco-Persian style marble temple. The sanctuary features a series of ritual ablution basins fed by canals channeling water from the Asclepius river (modern Awali) and from the sacred "Ydll" spring; these installations were used for therapeutic and purificatory purposes that characterize the cult of Eshmun. The sanctuary site has yielded many artifacts of value, especially those inscribed with Phoenician texts, providing valuable insight into the site's history and that of ancient Sidon.
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Thapsus
Thapsus (less commonly, Tapsus) was an ancient city in what is modern day Tunisia. Its ruins exist at Ras Dimas near Bekalta, approximately 200 km southeast of Carthage. Originally founded by Phoenicians, it served as a marketplace on the coast of the province Byzacena in Africa Propria. Thapsus was established near a salt lake on a point of land eighty stadia (14.8 km) from the island of Lampedusa.
In 46 BC, Julius Caesar defeated Metellus Scipio and the Numidian King Juba with a tremendous loss of men near Thapsus (see Battle of Thapsus). Caesar exacted a payment of 50,000 sesterces from the vanquished. Their defeat marked the end of opposition to Caesar in Africa. Thapsus then became a Roman colony.
Coordinates: 35°37′33″N 11°02′42″E / 35.62583°N 11.045°E / 35.62583; 11.045
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Tharros
Coordinates: 39°52′24″N 8°26′23″E / 39.8733°N 8.43972°E / 39.8733; 8.43972
Tharros (also spelled Tharras, Greek: Θάρρας, Ptol., Tarrae or Tarras) was an ancient city on the west coast of Sardinia, Italy, and is currently an archaeological site near the village of San Giovanni di Sinis, municipality of Cabras, in the Province of Oristano. It is located on the southern shores of the Sinis peninsula, that forms the northern cape of the Bay of Oristano, the cape of San Marco. Tharros, mentioned by Ptolemy and in the Itineraries, seems to have been one of the most important places on the island.
Archaeological research done in the area of Tharros has established that in the eighth century BCE the town was founded by Phoenicians. On the remains of a former village built by the nuragic peoples (1900-730 BCE) on top of the hill called Su Muru Mannu they founded a tophet, an open air sacred place common for several installations of Phoenicians in the western Mediterranean, and seen as a first sign of colonization and urbanization. Excavations have shown that from the eighth century BCE until the abandonment of Tharros in the 10th century the place was inhabited, first by Phoenicians, then by the Punics and then under Roman domination. The town was the capital of the medieval Guidicato of Arborea, a Roman/Byzantine relict state from the 9th century until 1070 when Orzocorre I relocated to Oristano under pressure of Saracen raiders. The town was effectively abandoned at this time or shortly thereafter. The site was used for centuries after that as a quarry for building materials for the surrounding villages and towns. Certainly there has always been a strong Sardic element during the whole time of its existence. An inscription records the repair of the road from Tharras to Cornus as late as the reign of the emperor Philip. The Antonine Itinerary correctly places it 18 miles from Cornus and 12 from Othoca (modern Santa Giusta near Oristano).
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Thyna
Thyna is a town and commune in the Sfax Governorate, Tunisia. As of 2004 it had a population of 26,635.
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Timgad
Coordinates: 35°29′03″N 6°28′07″E / 35.484237°N 6.468666°E / 35.484237; 6.468666 Timgad (called Thamugas or Tamugadi in old Berber) was a Roman colonial town in the Aures mountain- numidia Algeria founded by the Emperor Trajan around AD 100. The full name of the town was Colonia Marciana Ulpia Traiana Thamugadi. Trajan commemorated the city after his mother Marcia, father Marcus Ulpius Traianus and his eldest sister Ulpia Marciana.
Located in modern-day Algeria, about 35 km east of the town of Batna, the ruins are noteworthy for representing one of the best extant examples of the grid plan as used in Roman city planning.
The city was founded ex nihilo as a military colony by the Emperor Trajan around AD 100. It was intended to serve, primarily, as a bastion against the Berbers in the nearby Aures Mountains. It was originally populated largely by Parthian veterans of the Roman army who were granted lands in return for years in service.
The city enjoyed a peaceful existence for the first several hundred years and became a center of Christian activity starting in the 3rd century, and a Donatist center in the 4th century.
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Tipaza
Tipaza (formerly Tefessedt, Chenoua:
Bazar, Arabic: تيپاازة) is a Berber-speaking town on the coast of Algeria, capital of the Tipaza province. The modern town, founded in 1857, is remarkable chiefly for its sandy beach, and ancient ruins.
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Tlail
Tlail is a megalithic archaeological site approximately 20 kilometres (12 mi) northeast of Halba in Lebanon that was first discussed in a publication by Maurice Tallon in 1959. The village of Tlail is north of a lake formed behind a dam on a track leading of the main road to Menjez. Tlail I is a group of archaeological sites 100 metres (330 ft) west of Tlail and is composed of five megalithic structures. "T.1" is a stone circle of megaliths that protrude from a tumulus. "T.2" is a stone square, "T.3" is a rounded chamber that is surrounded by a stone circle which are detached from their tumuli and slightly elevated on top of a platform. "T.4" is a stone semi-circle of upright stones that has been disturbed by looters. "T.5" is of an unrecorded shape and faces "T.1". Tlail II is composed of "T.6" and "T.7", which are groups of megalithic stones 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) north of the village that have remained unstudied.
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Toron
Toron, now Tibnin or Tebnine in southern Lebanon, was a major Crusader castle, built in the Lebanon mountains on the road from Tyre to Damascus.
It was the centre of the Lordship of Toron, a seigneury within the Kingdom of Jerusalem, actually a rear-vassalage of the Principality of Galilee. The castle was built by Hugh of Falkenberg, second prince of Galilee, in 1105 to help capture Tyre. After Hugh's death it was made an independent seigneury, given to Humphrey I before 1109.
After Humphrey I of Toron, the castle and lordship of Toron successively passed to his descendants Humphrey II and Humphrey IV. Banias, which had been given to Baldwin II by the Assassins in 1128, was inherited by Toron around 1148 when Humphrey II married the daughter of Renier Brus, lord of Banias and Assebebe. Humphrey II sold parts of Banias and Chastel Neuf to the Knights Hospitaller in 1157. Banias was merged with Toron until it fell to Nur ad-Din Zangi on 18 November 1164, and when it was recovered it became part of the Seigneury of Joscelin III of Edessa (see below).
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Tripoli
Tripoli is the capital and largest city in Libya. It is also known as Tripoli-of-the-West (Arabic: طرابلس الغرب Ṭarābulus al-Gharb), to distinguish it from Tripoli, Lebanon. It is affectionately called The Mermaid of the Mediterranean (Arabic: عروسة البحر ʼarūsat el-baḥr; lit: "bride of the sea"), describing its turquoise waters and its whitewashed buildings. Tripoli (English pronunciation: /ˈtrɪpɵli/) is a Greek name that means "Three Cities", introduced in Western European languages through the Italian Tripoli. In Arabic: طرابلس it is called Ṭarābulus ( pronunciation (help·info), Libyan Arabic: Ṭrābləs pronunciation (help·info), Berber: Ṭrables, from Ancient Greek: Τρίπολις Trípolis). As of 2011, the Tripoli metropolitan area (district area) had a population of 2.2 million. The city is located in the northwest part of the country on the edge of the desert, on a point of rocky land projecting into the Mediterranean and forming a bay.
The city includes the Port of Tripoli and the country's largest commercial and manufacturing centre. It is also the site of the University of Tripoli. The vast Bab al-Azizia barracks, which includes the former family compound of Muammar Gaddafi, is also located in the city; Gaddafi largely ruled the country from his residence in this barracks.
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Tunis
Tunis (Arabic: تونس Tūnis) is the capital of both the Tunisian Republic and the Tunis Governorate. It is Tunisia's largest city, with a population of 728,453 as of 2004; the greater metropolitan area holds some 2,412,500 inhabitants.
Situated on a large Mediterranean Sea gulf (the Gulf of Tunis), behind the Lake of Tunis and the port of La Goulette (Halq al Wadi), the city extends along the coastal plain and the hills that surround it. At the centre of more modern development (from the colonial era and later) lies the old medina. Beyond this district lie the suburbs of Carthage, La Marsa, and Sidi Bou Said.
The medina is found at the centre of the city: a dense agglomeration of alleys and covered passages, full of intense scents and colours, boisterous and active trade, and a surfeit of goods on offer ranging from leather to plastic, tin to the finest filigree, tourist souvenirs to the works of tiny crafts shops.
Just through the Sea Gate (also known as the Bab el Bahr and the Porte de France) begins the modern city, or Ville Nouvelle, transversed by the grand Avenue Habib Bourguiba (often referred to by popular press and travel guides as "the Tunisian Champs-Élysées"), where the colonial-era buildings provide a clear contrast to smaller, older structures. As the capital city of the country, Tunis is the focus of Tunisian political and administrative life; it is also the centre of the country's commercial activity. The expansion of the Tunisian economy in recent decades is reflected in the booming development of the outer city where one can see clearly the social challenges brought about by rapid modernization in Tunisia.
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Tunisia
Tunisia (USi/tuːˈniːʒə/ two-NEE-zhə or UK /tjuːˈnɪziə/ tew-NIZ-iə; Arabic: تونس Tūnis pronounced [ˈtuːnɪs]), officially the Republic of Tunisia (Arabic: الجمهورية التونسية al-Jumhūriyyah at-Tūnisiyyah), is the northernmost country in Africa. It is an Arab Maghreb country and is bordered by Algeria to the west, Libya to the southeast, and the Mediterranean Sea to the north and east. Its area is almost 165,000 square kilometres (64,000 sq mi), with an estimated population of just under 10.7 million. Its name is derived from the capital Tunis located in the northeast.
Tunisia is the smallest country in North Africa. The south of the country is composed of the Sahara desert, with much of the remainder consisting of particularly fertile soil and 1,300 kilometres (810 mi) of coastline.
Tunisia has relations with both the European Union—with whom it has an association agreement—and the Arab world. Tunisia is also a member of the Arab Maghreb Union, the Arab League, and the African Union. Tunisia has established close relations with France in particular, through economic cooperation, industrial modernization, and privatisation programs.
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Turin
Turin (Italian: Torino, pronounced [toˈriːno] ( listen); Piedmontese: Turin, pronounced [tyˈɾiŋ]; Latin: Augusta Taurinorum) is a city and major business and cultural centre in northern Italy, capital of the Piedmont region, located mainly on the left bank of the Po River and surrounded by the Alpine arch. The population of the city proper is 909,193 (November 2008) while the population of the urban area is estimated by Eurostat to be 1.7 million inhabitants. The Turin metropolitan area is estimated by the OECD to have a population of 2.2 million.
The city has a rich culture and history, and is known for its numerous art galleries, restaurants, churches, palaces, opera houses, piazzas, parks, gardens, theatres, libraries, museums and other venues. Turin is well known for its baroque, rococo, neo-classical, and Art Nouveau architecture. Much of the city's public squares, castles, gardens and elegant palazzi such as Palazzo Madama, were built in the 16th and 18th century, after the capital of the Duchy of Savoy (later Kingdom of Sardinia) was moved to Turin from Chambery( nowadays France) as part of the urban expansion.
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Turkey
Turkey (Turkish: Türkiye), known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( Türkiye Cumhuriyeti (help·info)), is a Eurasian country located in Western Asia (mostly in the Anatolian peninsula) and in East Thrace in Southeastern Europe. Turkey is bordered by eight countries: Bulgaria to the northwest; Greece to the west; Georgia to the northeast; Armenia, Azerbaijan (the exclave of Nakhchivan) and Iran to the east; and Iraq and Syria to the southeast. The Mediterranean Sea and Cyprus are to the south; the Aegean Sea is to the west; and the Black Sea is to the north. The Sea of Marmara, the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles (which together form the Turkish Straits) demarcate the boundary between East Thrace and Anatolia; they also separate Europe and Asia.
Turkey is one of the six independent Turkic states. The vast majority of the population are Muslims. The country's official language is Turkish, whereas Kurdish and Zazaki languages are spoken by Kurds and Zazas, who constitute 18% of the population.
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Ugarit
Ugarit (Ugaritic: 𐎜𐎂𐎗𐎚, ʼUgrt; Arabic: أوغاريت) was an ancient port city on the eastern Mediterranean at the Ras Shamra headland some 11 kilometres (7 mi) north of Latakia in northern Syria. Ugarit sent tribute to Egypt and maintained trade and diplomatic connections with Cyprus (then called Alashiya), documented in the archives recovered from the site and corroborated by Mycenaean and Cypriot pottery found there. The polity was at its height from ca. 1450 BC until 1200 BC.
Though the site is thought to have been inhabited earlier, Neolithic Ugarit was already important enough to be fortified with a wall early on, perhaps by 6000 BC. Ugarit was important perhaps because it was both a port and at the entrance of the inland trade route to the Euphrates and Tigris lands.[citation needed]
The first written evidence mentioning the city comes from the nearby city of Ebla, ca. 1800 BC. Ugarit passed into the sphere of influence of Egypt, which deeply influenced its art. The earliest Ugaritic contact with Egypt (and the first exact dating of Ugaritic civilization) comes from a carnelian bead identified with the Middle Kingdom pharaoh Senusret I, 1971 BC – 1926 BC. A stela and a statuette from the Egyptian pharaohs Senusret III and Amenemhet III have also been found. However, it is unclear at what time these monuments got to Ugarit. Amarna letters from Ugarit ca. 1350 BC record one letter each from Ammittamru I, Niqmaddu II, and his queen.[citation needed]
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United Arab Emirates
The United Arab Emiratesi/juːˌnaɪtɨd ˌærəb ˈɛmɪrɨts/ (Arabic: دولة الإمارات العربية المتحدة, Al Imārāt al ‘Arabīyah al Muttaḥidah), sometimes simply called the Emirates or the UAE, is a country situated in the southeast of the Arabian Peninsula in Western Asia on the Persian Gulf, bordering Oman to the east and Saudi Arabia to the south, as well as sharing sea borders with Qatar to the west and Iran to the north.
The UAE is a federation of seven emirates (equivalent to principalities), each governed by a hereditary emir, with a single national president. The constituent emirates are Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Dubai, Fujairah, Ras al-Khaimah, Sharjah, and Umm al-Quwain. The capital is Abu Dhabi, which is also the state's center of political, industrial, and cultural activities.
Prior to independence in 1971, the UAE was known as the Trucial States or Trucial Oman, in reference to a 19th-century truce between the local sheikhs, hereditary rulers of the territories, and the United Kingdom. The term Pirate Coast was also used by some to refer to the emirates from the 18th to the early 20th century, owing to the preponderance of pirates operating from Emirati ports.
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United States
The United States of America (commonly abbreviated to the United States, the U.S., the USA, America, and the States) is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district. The country is situated mostly in central North America, where its forty-eight contiguous states and Washington, D.C., the capital district, lie between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, bordered by Canada to the north and Mexico to the south. The state of Alaska is in the northwest of the continent, with Canada to the east and Russia to the west, across the Bering Strait. The state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific. The country also possesses several territories in the Pacific and Caribbean.
At 3.79 million square miles (9.83 million km2) and with over 312 million people, the United States is the third or fourth largest country by total area, and the third largest by both land area and population. It is one of the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many countries. The U.S. economy is the world's largest national economy, with an estimated 2011 GDP of $15.1 trillion (22% of nominal global GDP and over 19% of global GDP at purchasing-power parity). Per capita income is the world's sixth-highest.
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Venice
Venice (Italian: Venezia [veˈnɛttsja] ( listen), Venetian: Venexia [veˈnɛsja]; (Latin: Venetia) is a city in northeast Italy sited on a group of 118 small islands separated by canals and linked by bridges. It is located in the marshy Venetian Lagoon which stretches along the shoreline between the mouths of the Po and the Piave Rivers. Venice is renowned for the beauty of its setting, its architecture and its artworks. The city in its entirety is listed as World Heritage Site, along with its lagoon.
Venice is the capital of the Veneto region. In 2009, there were 270,098 people residing in Venice's comune (the population estimate of 272,000 inhabitants includes the population of the whole Comune of Venezia; around 60,000 in the historic city of Venice (Centro storico); 176,000 in Terraferma (the Mainland), mostly in the large frazioni of Mestre and Marghera; 31,000 live on other islands in the lagoon). Together with Padua and Treviso, the city is included in the Padua-Treviso-Venice Metropolitan Area (PATREVE) (population 1,600,000).
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Volubilis
Volubilis, or Walili, is an archaeological site in Morocco situated near Meknes between Fez and Rabat along the N13 road. The nearest town is Moulay Idriss. Walili features the best preserved Roman ruins in this part of northern Africa. In 1997 the site was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage site.
Volubilis was an important Roman town situated near the westernmost border of Roman conquests. It was built on the site of the previous Punic settlement, but that settlement overlies an earlier neolithic habitation.
During the reign of the Berber King Juba II and his son Ptolemy of Mauretania between the year 32 BC and 40 AD Walili was a powerful ancient capital of Mauritania kingdom, The fertile lands of the province produced many commodities such as grain and olive oil, contributing to the province's wealth and prosperity.
The city became the administrative center of the province in Roman Africa called Mauretania Tingitana. Archaeology has documented the presence of a Jewish community in the Roman period.
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Wadi Boura
Wadi Boura or Wadi Riyane contains two archaeological sites approximately 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) south of Tewfikiyeh in Lebanon.Wadi Boura I is 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) before the village, on the side of the road between Rasm el Hadeth and Labweh. It was discovered by Henri Fleisch, who published details of the Shepherd Neolithic material he found on the surface there in 1966.Wadi Boura II was found 800 metres (2,600 ft) to the south and was discovered by P. Billaux and discussed in an article by Maurice Tallon in 1959. A series of megalithic stone circles and rectangles were found on either side of the road which were suggested to have been habitations instead of tombs or burials.
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Yemen
The Republic of Yemen (Arabic: الجمهورية اليمنية al-Jumhūrīyah al-Yamanīyah), commonly known as Yemeni/ˈjɛmən/ (Arabic: اليَمَن al-Yaman), is a country located in Western Asia, occupying the southwestern to southern end of the Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the north, the Red Sea to the west, and Oman to the east. Yemen is considered one of the poorest countries in the Arab world. Its capital and largest city is Sana'a. Yemen's territory includes over 200 islands, the largest of which is Socotra, about 415 km (258 mi) to the south of mainland Yemen, off the coast of Somalia. It is the only state in the Arabian Peninsula to have a purely republican form of government. Approximately 53% of Yemenis are Sunnis, while 45% are Zaydi Shias.
One etymology derives Yemen from yamin, meaning "on the right side", as the south is on the right when facing the sunrise. Another derives Yemen from yumn, meaning "felicity", as the region is fertile. The Romans called it Arabia Felix (Happy Arabia) as opposed to Arabia Deserta (Deserted Arabia), which was their term for northern Arabia.
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Yerevan
Coordinates: 40°11′00″N 44°31′00″E / 40.183333°N 44.516667°E / 40.183333; 44.516667
Yerevan (Armenian: Երևան, Armenian pronunciation: [jɛɾɛˈvɑn]) is the capital and largest city of Armenia and one of the world's oldest continuously-inhabited cities. Situated along the Hrazdan River, Yerevan is the administrative, cultural, and industrial center of the country. It has been the capital since 1918, the thirteenth in the history of Armenia.
The history of Yerevan dates back to the 8th century BC, with the founding of the fortress of Erebuni in 782 BC by king Argishti I at the western extreme of the Ararat plain. After World War I, Yerevan became the capital of the Democratic Republic of Armenia as thousands of survivors of the Armenian Genocide settled in the area. The city expanded rapidly during the 20th century as Armenia became one of the fifteen republics in the Soviet Union. In fifty years, Yerevan was transformed from a town of a few thousand residents within the Russian Empire, to Armenia's principal cultural, artistic, and industrial center, as well as becoming the seat of national government.
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Zahlé
Zahlé (Arabic: زحلة / ALA-LC: Zaḥlah; also transliterated Zahleh) is the capital and largest city of Beqaa Governorate, Lebanon. With around 320,000 inhabitants, it is the third largest city in Lebanon, after Beirut, Tripoli. It is situated 55 km (34 mi) east of the capital Beirut, close to the Beirut-Damascus road, and lies at the junction of the Lebanon mountains and the Beqaa plateau, at a mean elevation of 1000m. Zahlé is known as the "Bride of the Beqaa" and "the Neighbor of the Gorge" due to its geographical location and attractiveness, but also as "the City of Wine and Poetry" It is famous throughout Lebanon and the region for its pleasant climate, numerous riverside restaurants and quality arak. Its population is predominantly Catholic and known as Zahlawis.
The name Zahlé is derived from the Arabic verb زحل zahhala, which means to slide, to displace. The occasional landslides which take place on the deforested hills around the town are probably at the origin of this name.
Zahlé was founded in the early 18th century, in an area whose past reaches back some five millennia. It enjoyed a brief period as the region’s first independent state in the 19th century, when it had its own flag and anthem.
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Abdullah Pasha
Abdullah Pasha or Abdullah Kölemen (1846–1937) was an Ottoman general in the First Balkan War, notable as the Ottoman commander in the Battle of Kirk Kilisse in 1912, the Battle of Lule Burgas, and the Battle of Adrianople (1913) in which the Ottoman forces were defeated by the Bulgarians.
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Abed Mahfouz
Labels Abed Mahfouz Haute Couture and
Abed Mahfouz (born 1956) is a renowned Lebanese fashion designer.
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Aemilius Papinianus
Aemilius Papinianus (142–212), also known as Papinian, was a celebrated Roman jurist, magister libellorum and, after the death of Gaius Fulvius Plautianus in 205, praetorian prefect.
Little is known about Papinianus. He was perhaps of Syrian birth and a native of Emesa, for he is said to have been a kinsman of Septimius Severus' second wife, Julia Domna.
One source shows him as a follower of the casuistry of Quintus Cervidius Scaevola, another shows him to have been his pupil. A concurring (but dubious) passage in the Augustan History claims that he studied law with Severus under Scaevola.
Papinianus was an intimate friend of the emperor Severus and accompanied him to Britain during 207,where he served in "the forum of York" in response to an uprising by Scottish Highlanders. He was at some time made a master of petitions (requests), magister libellorum, by Severus. He also served as Treasurer and Captain of the Guard for the Emperor. Before the emperors' death, he commended his two sons Caracalla and Geta into the lawyers' charge. Sharing in the governship of the Roman Empire with Geta proved unsatisfactory for Caracalla, who decided at sometime to usurp his brother. Papinian trying to keep peace between the brothers, only proved to encourage the hatred of Caracalla, consequently passing an order to have the lawyer beheaded (Spart. Caracall. 4), and his body dragged through the streets of Rome. His death was following the 212 fratricide of Geta, amongst the general slaughter of his friends and those perceived associated with him, according to one source estimated as 20,000 persons.
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Aldus Manutius
Aldus Pius Manutius (Bassiano, 1449 – Venice, February 6, 1515), the Latinised name of Aldo Manuzio —sometimes called Aldus Manutius, the Elder to distinguish him from his grandson, Aldus Manutius, the Younger—was an Italian humanist who became a printer and publisher when he founded the Aldine Press at Venice.
His publishing legacy includes the distinctions of inventing italic type, establishing the modern use of the semicolon, inventing the comma and introducing inexpensive books in small formats bound in vellum that were read much like modern paperbacks.
Manutius was born in Bassiano, in the Papal States, in what is now the province of Latina, some 100 km south of Rome, during the Italian Renaissance period.
His family was well off and Manutius was educated as a humanistic scholar, studying Latin in Rome under Gasparino da Verona, and Greek at Ferrara under Guarino da Verona.
In 1482, he went to reside at Mirandola with his old friend and fellow student, the illustrious Giovanni Pico. There he stayed two years, pursuing his studies in Greek literature. Before Pico moved to Florence, he procured for Manutius the post of tutor to his nephews Alberto and Lionello Pio, princes of Carpi. Alberto Pio supplied Manutius with funds for starting his printing press, and gave him lands at Carpi.
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Ammunira
Ammunira was the king of Beirut in the mid-fourteenth century BCE. He is mentioned in several of the Amarna letters, and authored letters EA 141-43 (EA for 'el Amarna').
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Arab people
Arab people, also known as Arabs (Arabic: عرب, ʿarab), are a panethnicity primarily living in the Arab world, which is located in Western Asia and North Africa. They are identified as such on one or more of genealogical, linguistic, or cultural grounds, with tribal affiliations, and intra-tribal relationships playing an important part of Arab identity.
The word "Arab" has had several different, but overlapping, meanings over the centuries (and sometimes even today). In addition to including all Arabized people of the world (with language tending to be the acid test), it has also at times been used exclusively for bedouin (Arab nomads [although a related word, "`a-RAB," with the Arabic letter "alif" in the second syllable, once was sometimes used when this specific meaning was intended] and their now almost entirely settled descendants). It is sometimes used that way colloquially even today in some places. Townspeople once were sometimes called "sons of the Arabs." As in the case of other ethnicities or nations, people identify themselves (or are identified by others) as "Arabs" to varying degrees. This may not be one's primary identity (it tends to compete with country, religion, sect, etc.), and whether it is emphasized may depend upon one's audience.
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Auguste Bergy
Reverend Father Auguste Bergy, (1873 - 31 August 1955) was a French Jesuit archaeologist known for his work on prehistory in Lebanon.
He is known particularly for excavations and studies at the Sands of Beirut and at Ras Beirut. In 1930 he discovered Tell Arslan, the oldest known neolithic village settlement in the Beirut area.
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Batroumine
Batroumine (or Beitroumine بترومين ) is a small Greek Orthodox village located in north Lebanon. The village is known too for Olives, Oil, Soap, Grapes, Wine, Arak, Figs and Blueberries production.
Batroumine is a Lebanese Village Located in the northern part of the country. It's located over the El-Koura district hills south east of Tripoli and lies at an altitude of 324 meters from sea level.
Although Batroumine is located over hills, it would only take 10 minutes to reach the seashore; where you can enjoy the beautiful beaches and Resorts like Las Salinas which is a fine example of how good a vacation anyone can enjoy on the beautiful Mediterranean coast.
Batroumine is a Lebanese village with a long history. This history is seen through the fine examples of traditional Lebanese houses located in the village center. Observation of the preserved architecture shows that the village has roots in the Byzantine period, such roots are strongly noted in the architecture of the church in the village center.
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Daniel Bliss
Daniel Bliss (August 17, 1823 in Georgia, USA – July 27, 1916 in Beirut, Lebanon) was the founder of the American University of Beirut.
Born in the town of Georgia, Vermont, Daniel was one of seven children in his household. His parents were Loomis and Susanna Bliss. His mother died when Daniel was only nine years old. Bliss spent much of his youth in the state of Ohio. He began to support himself at the age of sixteen mainly by farming, tanning, and tree grafting. He graduated from Kingsville Academy in 1848 and went on to attend Amherst College. Once he graduated from Amherst in 1852, Bliss went on to attend Andover Theological Seminary to prepare for foreign and overseas missions. By October 1855, he was ordained at Amherst and in November of the same year he was married to Abby Maria Wood.
After being assigned to Syria by the American Board, he and his wife sailed from Boston, Massachusetts, on December 1855. By April 1856, they arrived at their destination in Aley, Lebanon. Bliss and his wife worked there for roughly one and a half years in a small school which had opened in 1843. Under his direction, the school rose into prominence in the area. From October 1858 until 1862, Bliss was in charge of a boarding school in a town just north of Aley called Souk-al-Gharb. He also studied Arabic during this time. His success there led the Syrian mission to open a new college in Lebanon. Bliss got the project chartered in 1864 by the New York State and raised funds in both the United States and the United Kingdom.
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Diana Kirkbride
Diana Victoria Warcup Kirkbride-Halbaek (22 October 1915 – 13 August 1997) was a British archaeologist who specialised in the prehistory of the Near East.
She attended Wycombe Abbey School in High Wycombe and served in the Women's Royal Naval Service during the Second World War. She completed a postgraduate diploma at University College London in 1950 studying Mesopotamian and Palestinian archaeology under Sir Max Mallowan and Dame Kathleen Kenyon. Kirkbride went to work on the excavations of Jericho from 1952 to 1955. In 1953, she began fieldwork in Jordan, including the restoration of the Jerash Theatre and excavations at Petra in 1956. During her studies of the paleolithic and Neolithic of the area, she excavated a small rock shelter called Wadi Madamagh and made excavations at Ard Tlaili in Lebanon. She also discovered a major Neolithic site at Beidha where she led the excavations for the British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem from 1958 until 1967.
It was during this work that she met Danish paleobotanist Hans Helbaek whom she married at the end of the 1960s. She continued work in Iraq in the 1970s where she made another discovery of another Neolithic site called Umm Dabaghiyah. After her husband died of a stroke in the late 1970s she returned to Beidha for a season of excavations in 1983. She also finished work compiling the results from Beidha and Umm Dabaghiyah and started planning a new excavation of a Nabataean temple at Wadi Rum which was not completed before her death in August 1997 at Arrhus, Denmark.
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Diodotus Tryphon
Diodotus Tryphon (Greek: Διόδοτος Τρύφων) was king of the Hellenistic Seleucid kingdom. As a general of the army, he promoted the claims of Antiochus VI Dionysus, the infant son of Alexander Balas, in Antioch after Alexander's death, but then in 142 deposed the child and himself seized power in Coele-Syria where Demetrius II Nicator was unpopular for his oppressive treatment of the Jews.
The internal situation in the Seleucid domains was so convoluted, and Diodotus was so eager to gain allies, that in 143 BC Hasmonean rule was reinstated in Judea in exchange for aid. True to their word, several Jewish armies marched against Diodotus' rival Demetrius and opposing cities. However, the Jewish forces under the High Priest Jonathan behaved too boldly, leading to his capture and murder by ruse when Diodotus marched into Judea. Despite his preparations and intentions to cow the Jews, Diodotus was entirely unsuccessful, and left the region under the rule of Jonathan's brother Simon, with little gain beyond a minor tribute of 100 talents. Finally, in 138 Diodotus was attacked and defeated in Antioch by Antiochus VII of Side. Diodotus committed suicide after his defeat.
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Elie Saab
Elie Saab (Arabic: إيلي صعب) (born July 4, 1964), sometimes known simply as 'ES', is a Lebanese fashion designer.
In 1982, Saab launched his Beirut-based fashion label when he was 18 years old. His main workshop is in Lebanon. He also has workshops in Milan and Paris.
Born to Maronite Catholic parents in Beirut, Saab is self-trained. He started sewing as a child and knew that one day he would make a living out of it. In 1981 he moved to Paris to study fashion, but ended up returning and opening his workshop in 1982. In 1997 Saab was the first non-Italian designer to become a member of the Italian Camera Nazionale della Moda, and in 1997, showed his first collection outside Lebanon in Rome. In 1998, he started ready-to-wear in Milan, and in the same year, he held a fashion show in Monaco which was attended by Princess Stéphanie of Monaco.
He became an overnight success after he became the first Lebanese designer to dress an Oscar winner, Halle Berry, in 2002. Berry wore a burgundy gown by Saab to the 2002 Academy Awards when she won for Best Actress. Berry later wore another dress by Saab, this time a gold dress, to the 2003 Oscars.
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Georges Chakra
Georges Chakra is a Beirut-based Lebanese haute couture fashion designer. Since 2001, he has presented collections at Paris Fashion Week.
Chakra first established his brand in 1985. What started as a customized workshop for local and regional clientele has grown into an international haute couture fashion house, having dressed the likes of Rihanna,Beyonce,Tyra Banks,Jennifer Lopez,Helen Mirren and more.
Chakra regularly features and receives editorial coverage in major fashion magazines such as InStyle, Harper's Bazaar, Vanity Fair, Elle, Madame Figaro, Gala and Genlux.
Chakra's fashions appeared in the 2006 movie The Devil Wears Prada featuring Meryl Streep.
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Godefroy Zumoffen
Reverend Father Godefroy Zumoffen, born 1848 in France and died in 1928 was a French Jesuit archaeologist and geologist notable for his work on prehistory in Lebanon.
He is known particularly for pioneering Lebanese archaeology, and for discovering several sites including the Antelias cave. He produced the first geological map of Lebanon and authored a book about its prehistory, La Phénicie avant les phéniciens: l'âge de la pierre.
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Henri Fleisch
Reverend Father Henri Fleisch, born January 1 1904 in Jonvelle (Haute-Saône), France and died 10 February 1985 in Lebanon where he was buried. He was a French archaeologist, missionary and Orientalist, known for his work on classical Arabic language and Lebanese dialect and prehistory in Lebanon.
He entered the Society of Jesus in Lyon Fourvière in September 1921 and was ordained a Catholic priest on 24 August 1933, he celebrated his first mass at Jonvelle on August 27. Fleisch was largely self-taught, specialising in oriental studies, for which he earned a doctorate at the Sorbonne in May 1943 with a thesis published on "Work and Memoirs of the Institute of Ethnology in Paris". He made many trips abroad and settled in Lebanon, where he discovered in Bikfaya in 1923-1926. He did his military service in Syria and was injured during a confrontation. Mobilized in 1939, he was taken prisoner June 19, 1940 and held at Stalag XII, from where he was released in February 1941. From August 1945 he taught at the "Institut des Lettres Orientales" of Saint Joseph University in Beirut. It was here that many of his archaeological finds were stored and in 2000 they formed The Museum of Lebanese Prehistory where many of his finds are stored and displayed. The museum celebrated their tenth anniversary with a potshumous exhibition of Fleisch's photography and work entitled "Prehistory vs. Urbanization".
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Herod the Great
Herod (Hebrew: הוֹרְדוֹס, Hordos, Greek: Ἡρῴδης, Hērōdēs), also known as Herod the Great (born 73 or 74 BCE, died 4 BCE in Jericho), was a Roman client king of Judea. His epithet of "the Great" is widely disputed as he is described as "a madman who murdered his own family and a great many rabbis." He is also known for his colossal building projects in Jerusalem and elsewhere, including his expansion of the Second Temple in Jerusalem (sometimes referred to as Herod's Temple) and the construction of the port at Caesarea Maritima. Important details of his biography are gleaned from the works of the 1st century CE Roman-Jewish historian Josephus Flavius.
The Romans made Herod's son Herod Archelaus ethnarch of Judea, Samaria, and Idumea (biblical Edom) from 4 BCE to 6 CE, referred to as the tetrarchy of Judea. Archelaus was judged incompetent by the Roman emperor Augustus who then combined Samaria, Judea proper and Idumea into Iudaea province under rule of a prefect until 41. Herod's other son Herod Antipas was tetrarch of Galilee from 4 BCE – 39 CE.
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Jezzar Pasha
Ahmed al-Jazzar (Arabic أحمد الجزار, Turkish " Cezzar Ahmet Paşa" born 1720 (or in 1708) in Stolac in Bosnia, died 1804 in Acre, Damascus Wiliyah) was the Ottoman ruler of Acre and the Galilee from 1775 until his death.
Jazzar Pasha was a Christian slave boy from Bosnia who, escaping after committing a murder, sold himself to the slave-markets of Istanbul. There he was bought by an Egyptian ruler who converted him to Islam and used him as his chief executioner and hit-man. He began his rise as governor of Cairo but made his name defending Beirut against Catherine the Great´s navy. Beirut was honorably surrendered to the Russians after a long siege and the sultan rewarded al-Jazzar with promotion to Governor of Sidon, and sometimes also that of Damascus. He set up his capital in Acre after the fall of Dhaher al-Omar. He earned the nickname "the Butcher" for his cruelty and extortion of his subjects. He is reputed to have walked around with a mobile gallows in case anyone displeased him.
He led a ruthless 'holy war' (jihad) campaign against non-Muslims. Under his torture, Christians were forced to "accept" Islam. He oppressed Christians (who were massacred) and Jews, A.K.A. (Dhimmi)s. Minorities in Palestine fell victims.
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Justinian I
Justinian I ( /dʒʌˈstɪniən/) (Latin: Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Iustinianus Augustus, Ancient Greek: Φλάβιος Πέτρος Σαββάτιος Ἰουστινιανός) (c. 482 – 14 November 565), commonly known as Justinian the Great, was Byzantine Emperor from 527 to 565. During his reign, Justinian sought to revive the Empire's greatness and reconquer the lost western half of the classical Roman Empire.
One of the most important figures of Late Antiquity and the last Roman Emperor to speak Latin as a first language, Justinian's rule constitutes a distinct epoch in the history of the Eastern Roman Empire. The impact of his administration extended far beyond the boundaries of his time and domain. Justinian's reign is marked by the ambitious but only partly realized renovatio imperii, or "restoration of the Empire". This ambition was expressed by the partial recovery of the territories of the defunct Western Roman Empire. His general Belisarius swiftly conquered the Vandal Kingdom in North Africa, extending Roman control to the Atlantic Ocean. Subsequently Belisarius, Narses, and other generals conquered the Ostrogothic Kingdom, restoring Dalmatia, Sicily, Italy, and Rome to the Empire after more than half a century of barbarian control.
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Laodice of Macedonia
Laodice (in Greek Λαοδίκη) was a Greek noblewoman and wife of Antiochus (fl. 4th century BC), a general of distinction in the service of Philip II of Macedon. She was the mother of Seleucus, the founder of the Seleucid Empire and Seleucus' sister Didymeia. It was pretended, in consequence of a dream which she had, that Apollo was the real father of her child. No less than five cities were founded by Seleucus in different parts of his dominions, which bore in her honour the name of Laodicea.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1867). "article name needed". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.
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Lebanese Civil War
The Lebanese Civil War (Arabic: الحرب الأهلية اللبنانية) was a multifaceted civil war in Lebanon. The war lasted from 1975 to 1990 and resulted in an estimated 150,000 to 230,000[citation needed] fatalities. Another one million people (a quarter of the population) were wounded,[citation needed] and today approximately 350,000 people remain displaced within Lebanon.[citation needed] There was also a mass exodus of almost one million people from Lebanon.
It has been argued that the antecedents of the war can be traced back to the conflicts and political compromises reached after the end of Lebanon's administration by the Ottoman Empire. The Cold War had a powerful disintegrative effect on Lebanon, which was closely linked to the polarization that preceded the 1958 political crisis. The establishment of the state of Israel and the displacement of a hundred thousand Palestinian refugees to Lebanon (around 10% of the total population of the country) changed the demographics of Lebanon and provided a foundation for the long-term involvement of Lebanon in regional conflicts. By 1975, the presence of a foreign armed force in the form of the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) guerrillas, who exercised a veto on Lebanese politics, had a serious effect on Lebanon. The militarization of the Palestinian refugee population, with the arrival of the PLO guerrilla forces, sparked an arms race amongst the different Lebanese political factions.
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Lorraine Copeland
Lorraine Copeland (born Elizabeth Lorraine Adie, 1916) is an archaeologist specialising in the Palaeolithic period of the Near East, who was a secret agent with the Special Operations Executive during World War II.
Born Elizabeth Lorraine Aide in Scotland, she was the daughter of a prominent Harley Street neurosurgeon. She was privately educated at Wycombe Abbey in Buckinghamshire.
Aide worked for British Intelligence during the Second World War, in the Special Operations Executive. She met her American husband, Miles Copeland, Jr., during this period, when he was based in the U.K. during the war, undertaking counter-intelligence for the OSS (Office of Strategic Services). They married on 25 September 1942 and soon afterwards Miles' work took them to the Near East, particularly Syria, Lebanon and Egypt, and it was whilst in this area that Lorraine first developed her interest in archaeology.
Copeland has worked in the field of Palaeolithic archaeology for over fifty years, and is associated with the University College London Institute of Archaeology. An adviser to the Stone Age Institute, she has had a festschrift published in her honour.
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Maronite mummies
The Maronite mummies are eight well preserved natural mummies of Maronite villagers dating back to around 1283 AD. They were uncovered by a team of speleologists in the Qadisha Valley in 1991.
The mummies were found in the 'Asi-al Hadath cave located in the Kadisha Valley in Lebanon, on July 13, 1990 by a group of speleologists working with the Groupe d'Etudes et de Recherches Souterraines du Liban (GERSL). The find was the result of two years of excavation. Initially, the discovery consisted of a single four month old infant mummy.
The infant was named Yasmine by her discoverers. The infant was clothed and fully interred only 40 cm below ground, she was laid on her back alone in the grave, her head resting on a smooth stone. Yasmine was carefully wrapped in gauze by the team and transported from the grotto to the laboratory.
Multiple other remains were found following the discovering, include seven bodies (four infants and three adults) as well as skeletal remains of several others.
'Asi-al-Hadath Grotto is in the vicinity of Hadath-El-Gibbet. The high altitude of the grotto makes access or regular use of it as living quarters difficult. Yet, there is evidence of organized communal arrangements, a man-made water reservoir (3.5m x 1.4 m surface, 1.5 m depth, and 8 cubic meters volume); a stone basin for grinding grain by hand; and two well-like openings, probably used for retrieval and storage of water. The grotto contains two main rooms: a large living quarter and the grave-yard room .
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Pharaoh
Pharaoh ( /ˈfeɪ.roʊ/ or /fɛ.roʊ/) is a title used in many modern discussions of the ancient Egyptian rulers of all periods. The title originates in the term "pr-aa" which means "great house" and describes the royal palace. The title of Pharaoh started being used for the king during the New Kingdom, specifically during the middle of the eighteenth dynasty.
Pharaoh, meaning "Great House", originally referred to the king's palace, but by the reign of Thutmose III (ca. 1479-1425 BC) in the New Kingdom, had become a form of address for the person of the king.
The term pharaoh ultimately was derived from a compound word represented as pr-`3, written with the two biliteral hieroglyphs pr "house" and `3 "column". It was used only in larger phrases such as smr pr-`3 'Courtier of the High House', with specific reference to the buildings of the court or palace itself. From the twelfth dynasty onward the word appears in a wish formula 'Great House, may it live, prosper, and be in health', but again only with reference to the royal palace and not the person.
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Phoenicia
Phoenicia (UK /fɨˈnɪʃə/, US /fəˈniːʃə/; from the Greek: Φοινίκη: Phoiníkē), was an ancient Semitic Canaanite civilization situated on the western, coastal part of the Fertile Crescent. The major Phoenician cities were on the coastline of the Mediterranean. It was an enterprising maritime trading culture that spread across the Mediterranean from 1550 BC to 300 BC. The Phoenicians used the galley, a man-powered sailing vessel, and are credited with the invention of the bireme. They were famed in Classical Greece and Rome as 'traders in purple', referring to their monopoly on the precious purple dye of the Murex snail, used, among other things, for royal clothing, and for their spread of the alphabet (or abjad), upon which all major modern phonetic alphabets are derived.
In the Amarna tablets of the 14th century BC, people from the region called themselves Kenaani or Kinaani (Canaanites), although these letters predate the invasion of the Sea Peoples by over a century. Much later, in the 6th century BC, Hecataeus of Miletus writes that Phoenicia was formerly called χνα, a name Philo of Byblos later adopted into his mythology as his eponym for the Phoenicians: "Khna who was afterwards called Phoinix". Egyptian seafaring expeditions had already been made to Byblos to bring back "cedars of Lebanon" as early as the third millennium BC.
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Rabih Alameddine
Rabih Alameddine (Arabic: ربيع علم الدين) (born 1959) is a Lebanese-American painter and writer. He was born in Amman, Jordan to Lebanese Druze parents (Alameddine himself is an atheist). He grew up in Kuwait and Lebanon, which he left at age 17 to live first in England and then in California. A lover of mathematics, he earned a degree in engineering from the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA) and a Master of Business in San Francisco. He began his career as an engineer, then moved to writing and painting. He is the author of three novels—Koolaids, I, the Divine and The Hakawati—as well as The Perv, a collection of short stories, and is the recipient of a Guggenheim Fellowship. The Hakawati (The Storyteller in Arabic) is the result of eight years of intensive work, has received critical acclaim and has been translated into ten languages. He lives in San Francisco and Beirut.
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Rabih Kayrouz
Rabih Kayrouz is a Lebanese fashion designer, creator and founder of the fashion house Maison Rabih Kayrouz, established in Paris in 2008.
Rabih Kayrouz was born in Lebanon in 1973. Kayrouz migrated to Paris at the age of 16 to study at the Chambre Syndicale de la Couture Parisienne.
In 1995, after training for several months in the workshops of design houses Dior and Chanel, Kayrouz returned to Beirut. In Beirut, Kayrouz developed a highly acclaimed reputation for designing evening gowns and wedding dresses.
In 2008, Kayrouz returned to Paris to open his own design house at 38, Boulevard Raspail. Since 2009, Kayrouz has been a guest designer for the Chambre Syndicale de la Haute Couture, with his seasonal collections included in the bi-annual Paris haute-couture fashion shows.
Kayrouz's design signature has been described as pragmatic, but daring in its use of haute-couture style codes. He has been praised for his use of style "know-how" in creating ambitious, yet comfortable, ready-to-wear collections which compliment the urban lifestyle.
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Rafic Hariri
Rafic Baha El Deen Al-Hariri (November 1, 1944 – February 14, 2005, Arabic: رفيق بهاء الدين الحريري), was a business tycoon and the Prime Minister of Lebanon from 1992 to 1998 and again from 2000 until his resignation, 20 October 2004.
He headed five cabinets during his tenure. Hariri dominated the country's post-war political and business life and is widely credited with reconstructing Beirut after the 15-year civil war.
Hariri was assassinated on 14 February 2005 when explosives equivalent to around 1000 kg of TNT were detonated as his motorcade drove past the St. George Hotel in the Lebanese capital, Beirut. The investigation, by the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, into his assassination is still ongoing and currently led by the independent investigator Daniel Bellemare. In its first two reports, UNIIIC indicated that the Syrian government may be linked to the assassination. Hariri's killing led to massive political change in Lebanon, including the Cedar Revolution and the withdrawal of Syrian troops from Lebanon.
wn.com/Rafic_Hariri -
Reem Acra
Reem Acra is an internationally known Lebanese fashion designer. She studied in Paris, as well as New York. She is known for her bridal designs. Her designs are sold in famous clothing boutiques such as Saks Fifth Avenue and Neiman Marcus. She has been on several popular magazines including In Style, Town & Country, Vogue, Women's Wear Daily, Sayidaty [English] and W. Her fine evening gowns are also sold all over the world.
The Reem Acra flagship store is located at 730 Fifth Avenue in New York City.
Born in Lebanon, Reem was introduced to the intricate world of art by her grandmother, who had a skilled hand for creating handmade silk flowers. According to her biography, Reem Acra studied design in both Paris and New York at the Esmod Ecole de Mode of Design and the Fashion Institute of Technology.[citation needed]
After her studies and practical design experience, she returned to New York where her atelier quickly gained international recognition. Her collections are carried in more than 100 of the most exclusive retailers in the world including Bergdorf Goodman, Neiman Marcus, and Saks Fifth Avenue as well as her flagship Manhattan boutique.
wn.com/Reem_Acra -
Richard Talbert
Richard John Alexander Talbert (born 1947) is a contemporary British-American ancient historian and classicist on the faculty of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, where he is William Rand Kenan, Jr., Professor of Ancient History and Classics. Talbert is a leading scholar of ancient geography and the idea of space in the ancient Mediterranean world. Connected to this spatial research is a major project on the Tabula Peutingeriana (Peutinger table), a copy of an ancient Roman map preserved in a Medieval version. He is the head of the advisory board of the Ancient World Mapping Center based at the University of North Carolina.
Talbert received his education at The King's School Canterbury and Corpus Christi College, Cambridge University, where he gained Double First Class Honours in Classics (1968), followed by a Ph. D. (1972). Cambridge granted him a Litt. D. in 2003. He is also a Corresponding Member of the German Archaeological Institute. Talbert has been on the faculties of the Queen's University, Belfast and McMaster University in Ontario, Canada. He was Herodotus Fellow at the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, New Jersey (1978-79). His study The Senate of Imperial Rome (Princeton University Press, 1984) won the American Philological Association's Goodwin Award of Merit in 1985.
wn.com/Richard_Talbert -
Saladin
Ṣalāḥ ad-Dīn Yūsuf ibn Ayyūb (Arabic: صلاح الدين يوسف بن أيوب, Ṣalāḥ ad-Dīn Yūsuf ibn Ayyūb, Kurdish: سهلاحهدین ئهیوبی, Selah'edînê Eyubî) (ca. 1138 – March 4, 1193), better known in the Western world as Saladin, was a KurdishMuslim, who became the first Sultan of Egypt and Syria, and founded the Ayyubid dynasty. He led Muslim opposition to the Franks and other European Crusaders in the Levant. At the height of his power, his sultanate included Egypt, Syria, Mesopotamia, Hejaz, Yemen, and parts of North Africa.
Under his personal leadership, his forces defeated the Crusaders at the Battle of Hattin, leading the way to his re-capture of Palestine, which had been seized from the Fatimid Egyptians by the Crusaders 88 years earlier. Though the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem would continue to exist for a period, its defeat at Hattin marked a turning point in its conflict with the Muslims and Arabs. As such, Saladin is a prominent figure in Kurdish, Arab, and Muslim culture. Saladin was a strict adherent of Sunni Islam. His noble and chivalrous behavior was noted by Christian chroniclers, especially in the accounts of the Siege of Kerak, and despite being the nemesis of the Crusaders, he won the respect of many of them, including Richard the Lionheart; rather than becoming a hated figure in Europe, he became a celebrated example of the principles of chivalry.
wn.com/Saladin -
Samir Kassir
Samir Kassir (سمير قصير in Arabic) (May 5, 1960 – June 2, 2005) was a Lebanese professor of history at Saint-Joseph University and journalist. Born to a Palestinian father and a Syrian mother, Kassir received his degree in philosophy and political philosophy in 1984, in 1990, Kassir earned his PhD in Modern History also from the University of Sorbonne. He held both Lebanese and French nationality. A prominent left-wing activist, he was a strong advocate of freedom for the Palestinians, democracy in Lebanon and Syria and a vocal critic of the Syrian presence in Lebanon. He was assassinated on 2 June 2005 and his murderers remain unknown. A French investigation is currently underway but its results have yet to be released. Kassir was a keen advocate of secular democracy in the Middle East.
" ... What [Arab-American] reconciliation needs, if the United States were really willing to reach such reconciliation, is first [America's] revision of its understanding of Arab democracy, which has been restricted until now, to the American convention that mandates Arabs give up their pan-Arab ties... and the issues that steer their feelings most, on top of them the Palestinian issue ..."
wn.com/Samir_Kassir -
Ulpian
Gnaeus Domitius Annius Ulpianus (c. 170 – 228), anglicized as Ulpian[pronunciation?], was a Roman jurist of Tyrian ancestry.
The exact time and place of his birth are unknown, but the period of his literary activity was between AD 211 and 222. He made his first appearance in public life as assessor in the auditorium of Papinian and member of the council of Septimius Severus; under Caracalla he was master of the requests (magister libellorum). Elagabalus (also known as Heliogabalus) banished him from Rome, but on the accession of Alexander (222) he was reinstated, and finally became the emperor's chief adviser and praefectus praetorio. His curtailment of the privileges granted to the Praetorian Guard by Elagabalus provoked their enmity, and he narrowly escaped their vengeance; ultimately he was murdered in the palace, in the course of a riot between the soldiers and the mob.
His works include: Ad Sabinum, a commentary on the jus civile, in over 50 books; Ad edictum, a commentary on the Edict, in 83 books; collections of opinions, responses and disputations; books of rules and institutions; treatises on the functions of the different magistrates — one of them, the De officio proconsulis libri x., being a comprehensive exposition of the criminal law; monographs on various statutes, on testamentary trusts, and a variety of other works. His writings altogether have supplied to Justinian's Digest about a third of its contents, and his commentary on the Edict alone about a fifth. As an author he is characterized by doctrinal exposition of a high order, judiciousness of criticism, and lucidity of arrangement, style and language. He is also credited with the first life table ever.
wn.com/Ulpian -
Zuhair Murad
Zuhair Murad (Arabic: زهير مراد) (born Beirut, 1971) is a Beirut-based Lebanese fashion designer.
In 1995, Zuhair Murad opened his first atelier in Beirut. His extensive lines encompass haute couture, ready-to-wear, accessories and eyewear. Plans to expand the fashion line are underway to include beauty products, perfumes, swimwear and lingerie as well as furnishings.
Two boutiques (including showrooms) have been opened. The first in Beirut on Charles Helou Avenue and the second on rue Francois I in Paris. He also has a showroom in Milan on rue Borgogna.
He has dressed the likes of Najwa Karam, in her video clips, "Lashhad Hobbak" and "MaFi Noum." Taylor Swift,Carrie Underwood,Ivana Trump, Beyonce Knowles, Jennifer Lopez,Kellie Pickler, Shakira, Katy Perry, Christina Applegate,Vanessa Williams,Ana Ortiz and many more. Miley Cyrus was seen wearing one of his creations at the Academy Awards, and most recently Christina Aguilera and Jennifer Lopez wore his creations at the 2011 Golden Globe Awards. He also designed Miss France's dress Chloé Mortaud for Miss Universe 2009 and 5 dresses for the final of Miss France 2010. Florence Welch was last seen wearing one of his creations during the Brits awards. His dress was silver silk with gold and silver beaded designs. Nina Dobrev, Christina Aguilera, Wanda Sykes and singer Jewel were seen wearing Zuhair Murad dresses at the 2010 Emmy Awards.Kerry Washington wore one of his gowns at the 2011 Emmy Awards.Cheryl Cole wore one of his designs on X Factor.Fergie has aмичиаlso worn his designs. Princess al-Taweel of Saudi Arabia wore his creation when she attended the wedding of Prince William and Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge.
wn.com/Zuhair_Murad
RELEASE
ALBUMS
- Intro (Pumpgun & ne Line)
- Hooligan
- Nackenklatscher
- Tz tz tz Fake
- Ist das wahre Liebe?
- Salutier
- Warum ich rap
- Freiheit
- Back to the Streetz
- 1000 lila Scheine
- Berlin ist am Zug
- Ich frage
- Ich bin da!
- Die Wolkenkratzer brennen
- Scheiss auf Hip-Hop
- A Candle's Fire
- Santa Fe
- East Harlem
- Goshen
- Payne's Bay
- The Rip Tide
- Vagabond
- The Peacock
- Port of Call
- East Harlem
- The Shrew
- The Concubine
- Mimizan
- La Javanaise
- The Akara
- Cozak
- My Night With the Prostitute From Marseille
- Gulag Orkestar
- Forks and Knives (La Fête)
- Brazil
- A Call to Arms
- Nantes
- A Sunday Smile
- Guyamas Sonora
- La Banlieue
- Cliquot
- The Penalty
- Forks and Knives (La Fête)
- In the Mausoleum
- Un dernier verre (Pour la route)
- Cherbourg
- St. Apollonia
- The Flying Club Cup
- The Gulag Orkestar
- Prenzlauerberg
- Brandenburg
- Postcards From Italy
- Mount Wroclai (Idle Days)
- Rhineland (Heartland)
- Scenic World
- Bratislava
- The Bunker
- The Canals of Our City
- After the Curtain
- [introduction]
- Nantes
- [talking]
- A Sunday Smile
- Cocek
- Knives and Forks (La Fete)
- [talking]
- Cherbourg
- [talking]
- The Penalty
- [outro]
- Nantes
- Mount Wroclai
- Scenic World
- Forks and Knives
- A Sunday Smile
- Cherbourg
- Elephant Gun
- Cliquot
- In the Mausoleum
- Carousels
- Cocek
- After the Curtain
- Brandenburg
- [encore break]
- Closing Song
- Postcards From Italy
- Gulag Orkestar
- [encore break]
- The Penalty
- Cocek
- Brandenburg
- Cherbourg
- A Sunday Smile
- Forks and Knives (La Fête)
- Scenic World
- Elephant Gun
- Nantes
- Mount Wroclai (Idle Days)
- Carousels
- In the Mausoleum
- After the Curtain
- Le Moribond
- The Flying Club Cup
- The Gulag Orkestar
- Postcards From Italy
- Closing Song
- The Penalty
- Siki Siki Baba
- [intro]
- Nantes
- Brandenburg
- A Sunday Smile
- Scenic World
- Mount Wroclai (Idle Days)
- In the Mausoleum
- Forks and Knives (La Fête)
- Elephant Gun
- The Penalty
- After the Curtain
- Le Moribond / My Family's Role in the World Revolution
- Postcards From Italy
- Cherbourg
- The Gulag Orkestar
- Siki, Siki Baba
- Hallelujah
- The Penalty
- Brandenburg
- Nantes
- La Fête
- Scenic World
- A Sunday Smile
- Elephant Gun
- Banter & False Start
- Cherbourg
- Mount Wroclai
- In the Masoleum
- Cocek
- Closing Song
- After the Curtain
- Postcards From Italy
- The Gulag Orkestar
- Siki Siki Baba
- The Penalty
- Carousels
- After the Curtain
- Le Moribond / My Family's Role in the World Revolution
- Elephant Gun
- A Sunday Smile
- Closing Song
- Mount Wroclai (Idle Days)
- Gulag Orkestar
- Postcards From Italy
- Brazil
- Scenic World
- The Canals of Our City
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Car bomb rocks Beirut, at least 8 dead, 78 injured
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:45
- Updated: 19 Dec 2012
UPDATES AND PHOTOS on.rt.com At least eight are dead and 78 wounded after a car bomb rocked the Lebanese capital of Beirut, MTV quotes civil defense sources as saying. The attack targeted a majority Christian neighborhood in the ethnically divided city. RT discusses the developments with Middle East expert Mark Almond. RT LIVE rt.com Subscribe to RT! www.youtube.com Like us on Facebook www.facebook.com Follow us on Twitter twitter.com Follow us on Google+ plus.google.com RT (Russia Today) is a global news network broadcasting from Moscow and Washington studios. RT is the first news channel to break the 500 million YouTube views benchmark.
http://wn.com/Car_bomb_rocks_Beirut,_at_least_8_dead,_78_injured
UPDATES AND PHOTOS on.rt.com At least eight are dead and 78 wounded after a car bomb rocked the Lebanese capital of Beirut, MTV quotes civil defense sources as saying. The attack targeted a majority Christian neighborhood in the ethnically divided city. RT discusses the developments with Middle East expert Mark Almond. RT LIVE rt.com Subscribe to RT! www.youtube.com Like us on Facebook www.facebook.com Follow us on Twitter twitter.com Follow us on Google+ plus.google.com RT (Russia Today) is a global news network broadcasting from Moscow and Washington studios. RT is the first news channel to break the 500 million YouTube views benchmark.
Syria News 20.10.2012, Beirut Terrorist Bombing, Brahimi Reviews in Damascus UN Efforts.
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:19
- Updated: 24 Dec 2012
* Foreign and Expatriates Minister Reviews with Brahimi UN Efforts and Facilitations Provided by Syria * Information Minister Denounces Beirut Terrorist Bombing * Syrian Arab Army Discovers more terrorists hide-out * Eight Killed, More Than 90 Injured in Beirut Blast, Wisam al-Hasan Killed in Blast Recorded from Syrian Official Tv Channel and brought to you by www.syrianfreepress.net, https
http://wn.com/Syria_News_20102012,_Beirut_Terrorist_Bombing,_Brahimi_Reviews_in_Damascus_UN_Efforts
* Foreign and Expatriates Minister Reviews with Brahimi UN Efforts and Facilitations Provided by Syria * Information Minister Denounces Beirut Terrorist Bombing * Syrian Arab Army Discovers more terrorists hide-out * Eight Killed, More Than 90 Injured in Beirut Blast, Wisam al-Hasan Killed in Blast Recorded from Syrian Official Tv Channel and brought to you by www.syrianfreepress.net, https
- published: 20 Oct 2012
- views: 3414
- author: SiriaNews
Beirut Al Yawm - Saleh Mashnouk 27 Oct 2012
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 61:55
- Updated: 23 Dec 2012
mtv.com.lb Beirut Al-Yawm is an all encompassing detailed news and political program featuring an innovative format.
http://wn.com/Beirut_Al_Yawm_Saleh_Mashnouk_27_Oct_2012
mtv.com.lb Beirut Al-Yawm is an all encompassing detailed news and political program featuring an innovative format.
- published: 27 Oct 2012
- views: 9176
- author: mtvlebanon
Syrian Christians Face Bleak Christmas
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:35
- Updated: 25 Dec 2012
As Christmas approaches, Syria's 2 million Christians are not celebrating. They are worrying. If an Islamist government replaces the secular government of Bashar al-Assad, they wonder what the future will be for Syria's religious minorities. James Brooke reports from Beirut.
http://wn.com/Syrian_Christians_Face_Bleak_Christmas
As Christmas approaches, Syria's 2 million Christians are not celebrating. They are worrying. If an Islamist government replaces the secular government of Bashar al-Assad, they wonder what the future will be for Syria's religious minorities. James Brooke reports from Beirut.
- published: 22 Dec 2012
- views: 312
- author: VOAvideo
Beirut Al Yawm - Alexander Zasypkin 24 Dec 2012
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 57:39
- Updated: 24 Dec 2012
mtv.com.lb Beirut Al-Yawm is an all encompassing detailed news and political program featuring an innovative format.
http://wn.com/Beirut_Al_Yawm_Alexander_Zasypkin_24_Dec_2012
mtv.com.lb Beirut Al-Yawm is an all encompassing detailed news and political program featuring an innovative format.
- published: 24 Dec 2012
- views: 670
- author: mtvlebanon
Witness - Beirut Photographer
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 47:38
- Updated: 19 Dec 2012
In 1981, George Azar, a Lebanese-American, crossed the Syrian border into Lebanon. He carried a cheap camera and less than $100 and a desire to change the way the Arab world was portrayed by the US media. He began taking photographs. But within a few months Israel attacked Lebanon and war broke out.
http://wn.com/Witness_Beirut_Photographer
In 1981, George Azar, a Lebanese-American, crossed the Syrian border into Lebanon. He carried a cheap camera and less than $100 and a desire to change the way the Arab world was portrayed by the US media. He began taking photographs. But within a few months Israel attacked Lebanon and war broke out.
- published: 06 Dec 2012
- views: 2370
- author: AlJazeeraEnglish
Lebanon : Car Bomb rocks Christian area of Beirut killing top Government Official (Oct 19, 2012)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:14
- Updated: 19 Dec 2012
News Articles: Top security official among 8 killed in Lebanon car bombing www.cbsnews.com Lebanon blast: Car bombing in Beirut kills eight www.bbc.co.uk Bomb in Beirut Kills a Security Chief, Reviving Old Fears www.nytimes.com A car bomb in Beirut: Photos of Lebanon in shock www.washingtonpost.com FAIR USE NOTICE: This video may contain copyrighted material. Such material is made available for educational purposes only. This constitutes a 'fair use' of any such copyrighted material as provided for in Title 17 USC section 106A-117 of the US Copyright Law.
http://wn.com/Lebanon_Car_Bomb_rocks_Christian_area_of_Beirut_killing_top_Government_Official_Oct_19,_2012
News Articles: Top security official among 8 killed in Lebanon car bombing www.cbsnews.com Lebanon blast: Car bombing in Beirut kills eight www.bbc.co.uk Bomb in Beirut Kills a Security Chief, Reviving Old Fears www.nytimes.com A car bomb in Beirut: Photos of Lebanon in shock www.washingtonpost.com FAIR USE NOTICE: This video may contain copyrighted material. Such material is made available for educational purposes only. This constitutes a 'fair use' of any such copyrighted material as provided for in Title 17 USC section 106A-117 of the US Copyright Law.
- published: 19 Oct 2012
- views: 2241
- author: SignsofThyComing
Beirut Car Bombing - LIVE VIDEO FOOTAGE - October 2012 Lebanon
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:27
- Updated: 20 Oct 2012
Beirut Car Bombing - LIVE VIDEO FOOTAGE - October 2012 Lebanon A car bomb ripped through eastern Beirut on Friday, killing at least eight people, shearing the balconies off apartment buildings and sending bloodied residents staggering into the streets in the most serious blast the Lebanese capital has seen in more than four years. Dozens of people were wounded in the attack. While the motive was not immediately known, many Lebanese quickly raised the possibility it was connected to the civil war in neighboring Syria. Tensions have already been rising in Lebanon over the war, and clashes have erupted between supporters of Syrian President Bashar Assad and backers of the rebellion against his regime. The office of an anti-Syrian Christian political party is located near the site of Friday's bombing, though it was not immediately clear if it was the intended target. The blast ripped through a narrow street at mid-afternoon in Beirut's mainly Christian Achrafieh neighborhood, an area packed with cafes and shops. The street was transformed into a swath of rubble, twisted metal and charred vehicles. Bloodied residents fled their homes while others tried to help the seriously wounded. One little girl, apparently unconscious and bleeding from her head, was carried to an ambulance in the arms of rescue workers, her white sneakers stained with blood. "I was standing nearby in Sassine Square and I heard a big explosion and I ran straight to it," resident Elie Khalil told The ...
http://wn.com/Beirut_Car_Bombing_LIVE_VIDEO_FOOTAGE_October_2012_Lebanon
Beirut Car Bombing - LIVE VIDEO FOOTAGE - October 2012 Lebanon A car bomb ripped through eastern Beirut on Friday, killing at least eight people, shearing the balconies off apartment buildings and sending bloodied residents staggering into the streets in the most serious blast the Lebanese capital has seen in more than four years. Dozens of people were wounded in the attack. While the motive was not immediately known, many Lebanese quickly raised the possibility it was connected to the civil war in neighboring Syria. Tensions have already been rising in Lebanon over the war, and clashes have erupted between supporters of Syrian President Bashar Assad and backers of the rebellion against his regime. The office of an anti-Syrian Christian political party is located near the site of Friday's bombing, though it was not immediately clear if it was the intended target. The blast ripped through a narrow street at mid-afternoon in Beirut's mainly Christian Achrafieh neighborhood, an area packed with cafes and shops. The street was transformed into a swath of rubble, twisted metal and charred vehicles. Bloodied residents fled their homes while others tried to help the seriously wounded. One little girl, apparently unconscious and bleeding from her head, was carried to an ambulance in the arms of rescue workers, her white sneakers stained with blood. "I was standing nearby in Sassine Square and I heard a big explosion and I ran straight to it," resident Elie Khalil told The ...
- published: 19 Oct 2012
- views: 8490
- author: MrViralNews
Pope Benedict XVI in Beirut Lebanon's capital
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 37:02
- Updated: 23 Dec 2012
Pope Benedict XVI in Lebanon's capital Beirut
http://wn.com/Pope_Benedict_XVI_in_Beirut_Lebanon's_capital
Al Jazeera speaks to experts and eye-witnesses on the bombing in Beirut
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:50
- Updated: 31 Oct 2012
Al Jazeera interviews Omar Nashabe, the head of the justice and legal affairs department of Al Akhbar newspaper, and Nadim Badran, a resident of Achrafieh.
http://wn.com/Al_Jazeera_speaks_to_experts_and_eye-witnesses_on_the_bombing_in_Beirut
Al Jazeera interviews Omar Nashabe, the head of the justice and legal affairs department of Al Akhbar newspaper, and Nadim Badran, a resident of Achrafieh.
- published: 19 Oct 2012
- views: 4086
- author: AlJazeeraEnglish
Pope Benedict XVI in Lebanon's capital Beirut
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 28:42
- Updated: 24 Nov 2012
Pope Benedict XVI arrives in Lebanon's capital Beirut, in the third-ever visit by a Roman Catholic prelate A prelateis a high-ranking member of the clergy who is an ordinaryor who ranks in precedence with ordinaries. The word derives from the Latin prælatus, the past participle of præferre, which means "carry before", "be set above or over" or "prefer"; hence, a prelate is one set over others A prelature is the office of a prelate or the entire juridical entity which the prelate governs. Prelacyis the body of prelates as a whole or a system of government, administration or ministry by prelates. The archetypal prelate is a bishop, whose prelature is his particular church. All other prelates, including the regular prelates such as abbotsand major superiors, are based upon this original model of prelacy. Sometimes the clergy of a state church with a formal hierarchyare called prelates without having ordinary jurisdiction. Higher-ranking monsignors are given the title of honorary Prelate of HH In some countries such as Germany; they are addressed as Mr. Prelate while regular prelates are addressed with their other titles and respective courteous forms, such as Mr. Bishop, Your Lordship etc.
http://wn.com/Pope_Benedict_XVI_in_Lebanon's_capital_Beirut
Pope Benedict XVI arrives in Lebanon's capital Beirut, in the third-ever visit by a Roman Catholic prelate A prelateis a high-ranking member of the clergy who is an ordinaryor who ranks in precedence with ordinaries. The word derives from the Latin prælatus, the past participle of præferre, which means "carry before", "be set above or over" or "prefer"; hence, a prelate is one set over others A prelature is the office of a prelate or the entire juridical entity which the prelate governs. Prelacyis the body of prelates as a whole or a system of government, administration or ministry by prelates. The archetypal prelate is a bishop, whose prelature is his particular church. All other prelates, including the regular prelates such as abbotsand major superiors, are based upon this original model of prelacy. Sometimes the clergy of a state church with a formal hierarchyare called prelates without having ordinary jurisdiction. Higher-ranking monsignors are given the title of honorary Prelate of HH In some countries such as Germany; they are addressed as Mr. Prelate while regular prelates are addressed with their other titles and respective courteous forms, such as Mr. Bishop, Your Lordship etc.
- published: 14 Sep 2012
- views: 2461
- author: BYCODE2222
Beirut River mysteriously runs blood red - "MTV News (Canada)"
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:28
- Updated: 15 Sep 2012
"MTV News (Canada)"
http://wn.com/Beirut_River_mysteriously_runs_blood_red_MTV_News_Canada
Beirut shoppers surprised by RA Flash Mob
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:17
- Updated: 21 Dec 2012
100 talented dancers joined in a flash mob to increase awareness about RA in Lebanon. If you didn't get the chance to see it live, watch it now! visit : facebook.com/RALebanon Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA), one of the most common and serious forms of arthritis, is a chronic disease, mainly characterized by inflammation of the lining, or synovium, of the joints. It can lead to long-term joint damage, resulting in chronic pain, loss of function, irreversible joint destruction and disability. RA affects 1% of the Lebanese population according to the Lebanese Society of Rheumatology. The 2012 awareness campaign will highlight the importance of early diagnosis by detecting signs and symptoms of the disease. As part of the awareness campaign activities and to ensure that the campaign reaches all segments of the society, the flash mob comes as a visual message highlighting the importance of early diagnosis for people with RA so as to keep on dancing and enjoying life. Not only did it surprise and delight the mall shoppers who witnessed the 'live' version, the video has also gone viral via social media. This footage was filmed in ABC Mall Achrafiyeh. Credits: This project is organized by IRADA, a non-profit patient support group that focuses on Rheumatoid Arthritis awareness in Lebanon. It was held at the ABC Mall, Achrafieh, and was performed by 100 talented dancers from the 'Moves Dance Studio'. Special thanks to: ABC Mall, Moves Dance Studio, MEMAC Ogilvy PR, Martin Solveig ...
http://wn.com/Beirut_shoppers_surprised_by_RA_Flash_Mob
100 talented dancers joined in a flash mob to increase awareness about RA in Lebanon. If you didn't get the chance to see it live, watch it now! visit : facebook.com/RALebanon Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA), one of the most common and serious forms of arthritis, is a chronic disease, mainly characterized by inflammation of the lining, or synovium, of the joints. It can lead to long-term joint damage, resulting in chronic pain, loss of function, irreversible joint destruction and disability. RA affects 1% of the Lebanese population according to the Lebanese Society of Rheumatology. The 2012 awareness campaign will highlight the importance of early diagnosis by detecting signs and symptoms of the disease. As part of the awareness campaign activities and to ensure that the campaign reaches all segments of the society, the flash mob comes as a visual message highlighting the importance of early diagnosis for people with RA so as to keep on dancing and enjoying life. Not only did it surprise and delight the mall shoppers who witnessed the 'live' version, the video has also gone viral via social media. This footage was filmed in ABC Mall Achrafiyeh. Credits: This project is organized by IRADA, a non-profit patient support group that focuses on Rheumatoid Arthritis awareness in Lebanon. It was held at the ABC Mall, Achrafieh, and was performed by 100 talented dancers from the 'Moves Dance Studio'. Special thanks to: ABC Mall, Moves Dance Studio, MEMAC Ogilvy PR, Martin Solveig ...
- published: 09 Jul 2012
- views: 26598
- author: RA Lebanon
BEIRUT TO BOSNIA: MUSLIMS AND THE WEST - Documentary
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 151:49
- Updated: 25 Dec 2012
An example of how advertising and lobbying groups censor American news, this three part documentary by the famous middle east war correspondent Robert Fisk was banned by the Discovery channel in 1993. The films seek to explain the rise of anti-Western sentiment throughout the 'Muslim world' (from the Middle East to the Balkans, the range of the former Ottoman Empire) by highlighting the oppressiveness of Western-supported governments (Israel and Egypt, in particular) and the West's broader anti-Muslim racism. The Discovery channel pulled the films in response to a letter campaign by pro-Israel groups.
http://wn.com/BEIRUT_TO_BOSNIA_MUSLIMS_AND_THE_WEST_Documentary
An example of how advertising and lobbying groups censor American news, this three part documentary by the famous middle east war correspondent Robert Fisk was banned by the Discovery channel in 1993. The films seek to explain the rise of anti-Western sentiment throughout the 'Muslim world' (from the Middle East to the Balkans, the range of the former Ottoman Empire) by highlighting the oppressiveness of Western-supported governments (Israel and Egypt, in particular) and the West's broader anti-Muslim racism. The Discovery channel pulled the films in response to a letter campaign by pro-Israel groups.
- published: 11 Aug 2012
- views: 2402
- author: punishmentofallah
BBC Arabic interview discussing the racism case involving MEA ground staff at Beirut Airport
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 11:15
- Updated: 19 Nov 2012
BBC Arabic interview discussing the racism case involving MEA ground staff at Beirut Airport
http://wn.com/BBC_Arabic_interview_discussing_the_racism_case_involving_MEA_ground_staff_at_Beirut_Airport
BBC Arabic interview discussing the racism case involving MEA ground staff at Beirut Airport
- published: 08 Oct 2012
- views: 4758
- author: Abed Shaheen
Violent clashes across Lebanon as Syria's war spills over - Rough Cuts
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:55
- Updated: 06 Dec 2012
Lebanon is besieged by sectarian clashes and protests following Friday's massive bomb blast in Beirut that killed a top intelligence chief. Angus MacSwan, Reuters' chief desk editor for the Middle East, says the fighting in Beirut and Tripoli confirms a longstanding fear: Syria's war has come to Lebanon. (October 22, 2012)
http://wn.com/Violent_clashes_across_Lebanon_as_Syria's_war_spills_over_Rough_Cuts
Lebanon is besieged by sectarian clashes and protests following Friday's massive bomb blast in Beirut that killed a top intelligence chief. Angus MacSwan, Reuters' chief desk editor for the Middle East, says the fighting in Beirut and Tripoli confirms a longstanding fear: Syria's war has come to Lebanon. (October 22, 2012)
- published: 22 Oct 2012
- views: 5443
- author: ReutersTV
Beirut hosts conference on Bahrain human rights
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:27
- Updated: 28 Dec 2012
www.youtube.com Latest World News Net Please Subscribe LatestWorldNewsNet An international conference on Bahrain wrapped up in Beirut following two days of deliberations. Participants highlighted the necessity of the Bahraini government engaging in dialogue with the opposition to fulfill the demands of the people regarding political and social reform. Raising awareness and revealing the reality on the ground appeared to be a key objective as human rights violations against peaceful protesters in Bahrain continue. Follow our Facebook on: www.facebook.com Follow our Twitter on: twitter.com
http://wn.com/Beirut_hosts_conference_on_Bahrain_human_rights
www.youtube.com Latest World News Net Please Subscribe LatestWorldNewsNet An international conference on Bahrain wrapped up in Beirut following two days of deliberations. Participants highlighted the necessity of the Bahraini government engaging in dialogue with the opposition to fulfill the demands of the people regarding political and social reform. Raising awareness and revealing the reality on the ground appeared to be a key objective as human rights violations against peaceful protesters in Bahrain continue. Follow our Facebook on: www.facebook.com Follow our Twitter on: twitter.com
- published: 28 Dec 2012
- author: LatestWorldNewsNet
1983 American Embassy in Beirut Bombing
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:55
- Updated: 05 Nov 2012
http://wn.com/1983_American_Embassy_in_Beirut_Bombing
Beirut Al Yawm - Boulos Sayyah 27 Dec 2012
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 45:25
- Updated: 27 Dec 2012
mtv.com.lb Beirut Al-Yawm is an all encompassing detailed news and political program featuring an innovative format.
http://wn.com/Beirut_Al_Yawm_Boulos_Sayyah_27_Dec_2012
mtv.com.lb Beirut Al-Yawm is an all encompassing detailed news and political program featuring an innovative format.
- published: 27 Dec 2012
- author: mtvlebanon
Beirut debuts glitzy seaside promenade
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:42
- Updated: 04 Dec 2012
Beirut's hottest waterfront promenade, Zaitouneh Bay provides new, but risky opportunities. CNN's Arwa Damon reports.
http://wn.com/Beirut_debuts_glitzy_seaside_promenade
Beirut's hottest waterfront promenade, Zaitouneh Bay provides new, but risky opportunities. CNN's Arwa Damon reports.
- published: 31 May 2012
- views: 4573
- author: CNN
Lebanese Intel Chief Assassinated - Who did it? - Lebanese Girl
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:20
- Updated: 08 Nov 2012
The man assassinated is associated with so many sides and controversies. He busted an Israeli spy ring - worked for the side trained by the Americans - was a bodyguard to the assassinated Hariri - but didnt go to work on the day of his assassination. Today 11 people were killed and 80 wounded in his assassination. ... Added Oct 21: www.presstv.ir Iran's Ambassador to Beirut Ghazanfar Roknabadi says the country's Foreign Minister Ali Akbar Salehi has no plans to visit the Lebanese capital, Beirut. "Salehi currently has no plans for traveling to Lebanon," Roknabadi said on Saturday. Some Lebanese news outlets reported on Friday that the Iranian foreign minister might pay an hours-long visit to Lebanon on Saturday. Roknabadi said Arab media probably thought Salehi intended to travel to Lebanon because of the Iranian foreign minister's conversation with his Lebanese counterpart Adnan Mansour on Friday following the terrorist attack in Beirut. At least eight people were killed and more than 78 others injured in a bomb explosion in the Lebanese capital. The intelligence chief of Lebanon's Internal Security Forces, General Wissam al-Hassan, was also among those killed in the blast. The explosion occurred in Beirut's eastern Ashrafiya district, which is a predominantly Christian district, and near the headquarters of the Phalange, a Maronite Christian party, during the rush hour as parents were picking up their children from school. Several buildings were damaged and many cars ...
http://wn.com/Lebanese_Intel_Chief_Assassinated_Who_did_it?_Lebanese_Girl
The man assassinated is associated with so many sides and controversies. He busted an Israeli spy ring - worked for the side trained by the Americans - was a bodyguard to the assassinated Hariri - but didnt go to work on the day of his assassination. Today 11 people were killed and 80 wounded in his assassination. ... Added Oct 21: www.presstv.ir Iran's Ambassador to Beirut Ghazanfar Roknabadi says the country's Foreign Minister Ali Akbar Salehi has no plans to visit the Lebanese capital, Beirut. "Salehi currently has no plans for traveling to Lebanon," Roknabadi said on Saturday. Some Lebanese news outlets reported on Friday that the Iranian foreign minister might pay an hours-long visit to Lebanon on Saturday. Roknabadi said Arab media probably thought Salehi intended to travel to Lebanon because of the Iranian foreign minister's conversation with his Lebanese counterpart Adnan Mansour on Friday following the terrorist attack in Beirut. At least eight people were killed and more than 78 others injured in a bomb explosion in the Lebanese capital. The intelligence chief of Lebanon's Internal Security Forces, General Wissam al-Hassan, was also among those killed in the blast. The explosion occurred in Beirut's eastern Ashrafiya district, which is a predominantly Christian district, and near the headquarters of the Phalange, a Maronite Christian party, during the rush hour as parents were picking up their children from school. Several buildings were damaged and many cars ...
- published: 20 Oct 2012
- views: 3740
- author: 108morris108
LEBANON'S BEIRUT RIVER MYSTERIOUSLY TURNS BLOOD RED! (BIBLE PROPHECY/FEB 16, 2012)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:15
- Updated: 27 Dec 2012
See also- www.naharnet.com The environment ministry was on Thursday investigating the mysterious blood red color that tainted the Beirut River a day earlier, urging the Hazmiyeh and Baabda municipalities to cooperate with it. Beirut police went in vain up and down the stream on Wednesday to locate the source of the red liquid. As Safir daily said that the ministry's team of experts headed by Bassam Sabbagh made an initial finding that the pollutant has no odor and that the red color could come from blood, a chemical, or a dye. "The source of the pollution hasn't been identified yet because it comes from a closed sewage," Environment Minister Nazem al-Khoury said. "But it could probably be from the Hazmiyeh or Baabda municipalities. "He urged the municipalities to cooperate as soon as possible to determine the source and type of pollution. "There is a possibility that a factory threw pollutants or a slaughterhouse" threw the remains of animals, al-Khoury said.An unlicensed farm could also be behind the pollution, he added. The same thing happened here in the states back on Mon, Aug 1, 2011 when a Texas lake turned blood-red this past summer as well. Here is that link for that news story. news.yahoo.com
http://wn.com/LEBANON'S_BEIRUT_RIVER_MYSTERIOUSLY_TURNS_BLOOD_RED!_BIBLE_PROPHECY_FEB_16,_2012
See also- www.naharnet.com The environment ministry was on Thursday investigating the mysterious blood red color that tainted the Beirut River a day earlier, urging the Hazmiyeh and Baabda municipalities to cooperate with it. Beirut police went in vain up and down the stream on Wednesday to locate the source of the red liquid. As Safir daily said that the ministry's team of experts headed by Bassam Sabbagh made an initial finding that the pollutant has no odor and that the red color could come from blood, a chemical, or a dye. "The source of the pollution hasn't been identified yet because it comes from a closed sewage," Environment Minister Nazem al-Khoury said. "But it could probably be from the Hazmiyeh or Baabda municipalities. "He urged the municipalities to cooperate as soon as possible to determine the source and type of pollution. "There is a possibility that a factory threw pollutants or a slaughterhouse" threw the remains of animals, al-Khoury said.An unlicensed farm could also be behind the pollution, he added. The same thing happened here in the states back on Mon, Aug 1, 2011 when a Texas lake turned blood-red this past summer as well. Here is that link for that news story. news.yahoo.com
- published: 16 Feb 2012
- views: 69145
- author: ADRENALINEJUNKY -Jason Hendricks
From Beirut to Bosnia - PART 1 - The Martyr's Smile - by Robert Fisk
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 50:36
- Updated: 19 Dec 2012
Why have so many Muslims come to hate the West? In this controversial three-part series filmed in Lebanon, Gaza, Israel, Egypt, and Bosnia, Robert Fisk—award-winning Middle East and Balkans correspondent for the London Independent—reports on Muslim unrest as ideology, religion, history, and geography come into conflict. This Films for the Humanities production focuses its capable eye on Lebanon's guerilla war that aims to liberate southern Lebanon from Israeli control. The scope of this tragic conflict is brought into sharp focus in this documentary through the use of extensive interviews with participants from the Hezbollah and Islamic Jihad movements, views of civilian casualties caused by Israeli air attacks, and photographic evidence of the ongoing destruction of life and property in the region. The viewer should be advised that this video contains some disturbing scenes of this conflict. Nuhairi.Net Director: Robert Fisk
http://wn.com/From_Beirut_to_Bosnia_PART_1_The_Martyr's_Smile_by_Robert_Fisk
Why have so many Muslims come to hate the West? In this controversial three-part series filmed in Lebanon, Gaza, Israel, Egypt, and Bosnia, Robert Fisk—award-winning Middle East and Balkans correspondent for the London Independent—reports on Muslim unrest as ideology, religion, history, and geography come into conflict. This Films for the Humanities production focuses its capable eye on Lebanon's guerilla war that aims to liberate southern Lebanon from Israeli control. The scope of this tragic conflict is brought into sharp focus in this documentary through the use of extensive interviews with participants from the Hezbollah and Islamic Jihad movements, views of civilian casualties caused by Israeli air attacks, and photographic evidence of the ongoing destruction of life and property in the region. The viewer should be advised that this video contains some disturbing scenes of this conflict. Nuhairi.Net Director: Robert Fisk
- published: 17 May 2012
- views: 6077
- author: nuhairinet
photo: US Navy / HMC Josh Ives
27 Dec 2012
Imperial adventures are nothing new in the Middle East. Neither is their glorification, as Peter O’Toole’s pained Lawrence of Arabia eternally reminds us. But for a decade or so now, things have been heating up, as if to coincide with climate change and fears of declining petroleum reserves ... The Belly for Belligerence? ... The question loomed over beltway intelligentsia like an ephemeral Gordian knot ... We’re All Hawks Now ... While George W ... ....(size: 9.3Kb)
photo: WN / Janice Sabnal
27 Dec 2012
Washington. Six people, including two young children, were left dead in weather-related accidents, as winter snowstorms complicated travel for many Americans in the Midwest and Northeast on Wednesday. Snow totals in parts of Indiana ranged from 6 to 12 inches, CNN reported. About 350 snowploughs were clearing roads throughout the city. New York Gov. Andrew Cuomo told residents they should avoid nonessential travel ... IANS ... ....(size: 2.2Kb)
photo: AP / Khalil Hamra, File
26 Dec 2012
Cairo • The official approval of Egypt’s disputed, Islamist-backed constitution Tuesday held out little hope of stabilizing the country after two years of turmoil and Islamist President Mohammed Morsi may now face a more immediate crisis with the economy falling deeper into distress ... Join the Discussion. The battle over the constitution left Egypt deeply polarized at a time when the government is increasingly cash-strapped ... The U.S ... " ... ....(size: 5.7Kb)
photo: AP / K.M.Chaudary
27 Dec 2012
Large crowds of Pakistan People's Party (PPP) supporters are gathering to mark the fifth anniversary of the murder of ex-Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto. Ms Bhutto died in a gun and bomb attack during her 2007 election campaign. Hundreds of thousands of people have set up camp near the Bhutto family's ancestral home in Sindh province ... He cannot contest an election until his 25th birthday. Show of strength ... ....(size: 2.4Kb)
Tempo Interactive
28 Dec 2012
, Damascus ... The embassy is also seeking to return Indonesians living in Syria ... Indonesian Ambassador to Lebanon, Dimas Samodra Rum, explained that most of the rooms in the Embassy in Beirut are used to accommodate them before their return to the homeland. Dimas said 156 citizens arrived in Beirut last weekend, of which 70 had returned to Indonesia on Wednesday. According to plan, 198 more are scheduled to arrive in Beirut today ... REUTERS ....(size: 2.2Kb)
North Jersey
28 Dec 2012
(c) 2012, The Washington Post.. BEIRUT — The diplomatic push to end the fighting in Syria gained new momentum Thursday as a top U.N ... The outlines of any possible breakthrough remain vague, but recent statements by diplomats in Beirut, in Moscow and at the United Nations underline a sense that substantive negotiations could still take place ... Brahimi is scheduled to travel to Moscow on Saturday for talks with Russian officials ... team. ... ....(size: 11.4Kb)
Philadelphia Daily News
28 Dec 2012
THE WASHINGTON POST. Posted. Friday, December 28, 2012, 3.01 AM. BEIRUT - The diplomatic push to end the fighting in Syria gained new momentum Thursday as a top U.N ... The outlines of any possible breakthrough remain vague, but recent statements by diplomats in Beirut, in Moscow and at the United Nations underline a sense that substantive negotiations could still take place ... THE WASHINGTON POST. 0. comments. Tweet. email. You May Also Like ... Apps....(size: 12.4Kb)
The Los Angeles Times
28 Dec 2012
BEIRUT — Peace envoy Lakhdar Brahimi made a new push Thursday to draw Syrian officials and rebels into negotiations, aiming to revive a plan for a transitional government and elections that faltered because of disagreements over the future of President Bashar Assad ... Maj. Gen ... In Washington, U.S ... ". Times staff writer Shashank Bengali in Washington and special correspondent Lava Selo in Beirut contributed to this report. ... 0. ... ... ....(size: 34.3Kb)
Richmond Times Dispatch
28 Dec 2012
San Francisco Chronicle
28 Dec 2012
Beirut --. Lakhdar Brahimi, the international envoy on a mission to Damascus seeking an end to the escalating conflict in Syria, said Thursday that a transitional government with full executive authority should be established, perhaps within months, and should rule the country until new elections could be held ... ....(size: 1.6Kb)
my SA
28 Dec 2012
BEIRUT — Lakhdar Brahimi, the international envoy on a mission to Damascus seeking an end to the civil conflict in Syria, said Thursday a transitional government with full executive authority should be established and should rule the country until new elections could be held ... But his comments suggested that if Assad did remain in the country, he would retain none of his authority ... ....(size: 1.9Kb)
Detroit Free Press
28 Dec 2012
BEIRUT -- Russia and the United Nations called Thursday to revive a Syria peace initiative that never got off the ground when it was proposed months ago because both parties to the conflict rejected it ... The plan was a nonstarter for the opposition because it did not explicitly ban authoritarian President Bashar Assad and other members of his regime from taking part in the transitional leadership ... ....(size: 1.9Kb)
Star Tribune
28 Dec 2012
BEIRUT - Peace envoy Lakhdar Brahimi made a new push Thursday to draw Syrian officials and rebels into negotiations, aiming to revive a plan for a transitional government and elections that faltered because of disagreements over the future of President Bashar Assad. The effort by the Algerian diplomat came after weeks in which both sides in Syria have been focused more on fighting ... Washington has demanded that Assad go ... ....(size: 3.0Kb)
Al Jazeera
28 Dec 2012
In 2011, we ended the year with a special programme on the Arab revolutions. We looked at the coverage of those stories and the implications for other countries in the Middle East and beyond ... "The authenticity of these images cannot be verified." ... That has given birth to new television channels such as Al Mayadeen TV out of Beirut launched by journalists disgruntled by the way the war has been covered by channels like Al Jazeera ... 0430 ... ....(size: 7.1Kb)
Tulsa World
28 Dec 2012
Russian President Vladimir Putin said Thursday he will sign a controversial bill barring Americans from adopting Russian children, while the Kremlin's children's rights advocate recommended extending the ban to the rest of the world. The bill is part of the country's increasingly confrontational stance with the West and has angered some Russians who argue it victimizes children to make a political point ... The U.S ... Beirut ... Tehran, Iran ... ....(size: 5.2Kb)
Pittsburgh Post-Gazette
28 Dec 2012
BEIRUT -- United Nations envoy Lakhdar Brahimi made a new push Thursday to draw Syrian officials and rebels into negotiations, aiming to revive a plan for a transitional government and elections that faltered because of disagreements over the future of President Bashar Assad. In a boost for Mr ... However, any effort to find a peaceful solution could founder on disagreement over the role of Mr. Assad in a transitional government ... Assad go ... ....(size: 4.4Kb)
Reuters
28 Dec 2012
BEIRUT (Reuters) - The international envoy seeking a negotiated solution to Syria's 21-month-old conflict said on Thursday political change was needed to end the violence which has killed 44,000 people ... Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov added to the envoy's call for a peaceful solution when he told a senior Syrian diplomat that only a "broad inter-Syria dialogue and political process" could end the crisis....(size: 6.5Kb)
This article is about the Lebanese city. For other uses, see Beirut (disambiguation).
Coordinates: 33°53′13″N 35°30′47″E / 33.88694°N 35.51306°E / 33.88694; 35.51306
| Beirut بيروت Beyrouth |
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 Beirut
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| Coordinates: 33°53′13″N 35°30′47″E / 33.88694°N 35.51306°E / 33.88694; 35.51306 | |||
| Country | Lebanon | ||
| Governorate | Beirut, Capital City | ||
| Government | |||
| • Mayor | Bilal Hamad | ||
| Area | |||
| • City | 20 km2 (8 sq mi) | ||
| • Urban | 100 km2 (40 sq mi) | ||
| • Metro | 200 km2 (80 sq mi) | ||
| Population | |||
| • City | 361,366 (UN)[1] | ||
| • Urban | 1,900,000 | ||
| • Metro | 2,250,000 ~ 3,000,000 | ||
| Time zone | +2 | ||
| • Summer (DST) | +3 (UTC) | ||
| Website | City of Beirut | ||
Beirut (Arabic: بيروت Bayrūt, Greek: Βηρυττός, Latin: Berytus, French: Beyrouth, Hebrew: ביירות Beyrut) is the capital and largest city of Lebanon. As there has been no recent population census, the exact population is unknown; estimates in 2007 ranged from slightly less than 1 million to slightly more than 2 million. Located on a peninsula at the midpoint of Lebanon's Mediterranean coast, it serves as the country's largest and main seaport. The Beirut metropolitan area consists of the city and its suburbs. The first mention of this metropolis is found in the ancient Egyptian Tell el Amarna letters, dating from the 15th century BC. The city has been inhabited continuously since then.
Beirut is Lebanon's seat of government and plays a central role in the Lebanese economy, with many banks and corporations based in its city centre, Hamra Street, Rue Verdun and Ashrafieh. The city is the focal point of the region's cultural life, renowned for its press, theatres, cultural activities and nightlife. After the destructive Lebanese Civil War, Beirut underwent major reconstruction,[2][3][4] and the redesigned historic city centre, marina, pubs and nightlife districts have once again made it a tourist attraction. Beirut was named the top place to visit by The New York Times in 2009,[5] and as one of the ten liveliest cities in the world by Lonely Planet in the same year.[6]
In 2011 MasterCard Index revealed that Beirut had the second-highest visitor spending levels in the Middle East and Africa. Dubai came in first with $7.8 billion, followed by Beirut with $6.5 billion, Tel Aviv with $3.8 billion, Cairo with $3.7 billion and Johannesburg with $3.3 billion.[7]
Contents |
Archaeology and Prehistory[link]
Several prehistoric archaeological sites were discovered within the urban area of Beirut, revealing flint tools of sequential periods dating from the Middle Paleolithic and Upper Paleolithic, and through the Neolithic to the Bronze Age.
Beirut I, or Minet el Hosn, was listed as "Beyrouth ville" by L. Burkhalter and said to be on the beach near the Orent and Bassoul Hotels on the Avenue des Français in central Beirut.[8][9] The site was discovered by Lortet in 1894 and discussed by Godefroy Zumoffen in 1900.[10] The flint industry from the site was described as Mousterian and is held by the Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon.[11]
Beirut II, or Umm el Khatib, was suggested by L. Burkhalter to have been north of Tarik el Jedideh, where P.E. Gigues discovered a Copper Age flint industry at around one hundred meters above sea level. The site was built on and destroyed by 1948.[11]
Beirut III, Furn esh Shebbak or Plateau Tabet, was suggested to have been located on the left bank of the Beirut River. L. Burkhalter suggested that it was west of the Damascus road, although this determination has been criticized by Lorraine Copeland.[11] P. E. Gigues discovered a series of Neolithic flint tools on the surface along with the remains of a structure suggested to be a hut circle. Auguste Bergy discussed polished axes that were also found at this site, which has now completely disappeared as a result of construction and urbanization of the area.[12]
Beirut IV, or Furn esh Shebbak, river banks, was also on the left bank of the river and on either side of the road leading eastwards from the Furn esh Shebbak police station towards the river that marked the city limits. The area was covered in red sand that represented Quaternary river terraces. The site was found by Jesuit Father Dillenseger and published by fellow Jesuits Godefroy Zumoffen,[10] Raoul Describes[13] and Auguste Bergy.[12] Collections from the site were made by Bergy, Describes and another Jesuit, Paul Bovier-Lapierre. A large number of Middle Paleolithic flint tools were found on the surface and in side gullies that drain into the river. They included around 50 varied bifaces accredited to the Acheulean period, some with a lustrous sheen, now held at the Museum of Lebanese Prehistory. Henri Fleisch also found an Emireh point amongst material from the site, which has now disappeared beneath buildings.
Beirut V, or Nahr Beirut (Beirut River), was discovered by Dillenseger and said to be in an orchard of Mulberry trees on the left bank of the river, near the river mouth, and to be close to the railway station and bridge to Tripoli. Levallois flints and bones and similar surface material were found amongst brecciated deposits.[14] The area has now been built on.[15]
Beirut VI, or Patriarchate, was a site discovered while building on the property of the Lebanese Evangelical School for Girls in the Patriarchate area of Beirut. It was notable for the discovery of a finely styled Canaanean blade javelin suggested to date to the Néolithique Ancien or Néolithique Moyen periods of Byblos and held in the school library.[11]
Beirut VII, or Rivoli Cinema and Byblos Cinema sites near the Bourj in the Rue el Arz area, are two sites discovered by Lorraine Copeland and Peter Wescombe in 1964 and examined by Diana Kirkbride and Roger Saidah. One site was behind the parking lot of the Byblos Cinema and showed collapsed walls, pits, floors, charcoal, pottery and flints. The other, overlooking a cliff west of the Rivoli Cinema, was composed of three layers resting on limestone bedrock. Fragments of blades and broad flakes were recovered from the first layer of black soil, above which some Bronze Age pottery was recovered in a layer of grey soil. Pieces of Roman pottery and mosaics were found in the upper layer.[11] Middle Bronze Age tombs were found in this area, and the ancient tell of Beirut is thought to be in the Bourj area.[16]
History[link]
Beirut's history goes back more than 5000 years.[17] According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, its antiquity is indicated by its name, derived from the Canaanite be'erot ("wells"), referring to the underground water table that is still tapped by the local inhabitants for general use.[18][19] Excavations in the downtown area have unearthed layers of Phoenician, Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine, Arab, Crusader and Ottoman remains.[20] The first historical reference to Beirut dates from the 14th century BC, when it is mentioned in the cuneiform[19] tablets of the Amarna letters, three letters that Ammunira of Biruta[21] (Beirut) sent to the pharaoh of Egypt.[22] Biruta is also referenced in the letters from Rib-Hadda, king of Byblos. The oldest settlement was on an island in the river that progressively silted up. The city was known in antiquity as Berytus. This name was taken in 1934 for the archaeological journal published by the Faculty of Arts and Sciences at the American University of Beirut.[23]
Hellenistic/Roman period[link]
In 140 BC the city was destroyed by Diodotus Tryphon in his contest with Antiochus VII Sidetes for the throne of the Macedonian Seleucid monarchy. Beirut was soon rebuilt on a more conventional Hellenistic plan and renamed Laodicea in Phoenicia (Greek: Λαοδικεια ή του Φοινίκη) or Laodicea in Canaan in honor of a Seleucid Laodice. The modern city overlies the ancient one and little archaeology was carried out until after the end of the civil war in 1991. Large sites in the devastated city center have now been opened to archaeological exploration. A dig in 1994 established that one of Beirut's modern streets, Souk Tawile, still follows the lines of an ancient Greek and Roman one.
Mid first century coins from Berytus bear the head of Tyche, goddess of fortune; on the reverse, the city's symbol appears: a dolphin entwines an anchor. This symbol was taken up by the early printer Aldus Manutius in 15th century Venice. Beirut was conquered by Agrippa in 64 BC. The city was assimilated into the Roman empire, veteran soldiers were sent there, and large building projects were undertaken.[24][25][26] Beirut was considered the most Roman city in the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire.[27]
In 14 BC, during the reign of Herod the Great, Berytus became a colonia and was named Colonia Iulia Augusta Felix Berytus. Its law school was widely known;[28] two of Rome's most famous jurists, Papinian and Ulpian, both natives of Phoenicia, taught there under the Severan emperors. When Justinian assembled his Pandects in the 6th century, a large part of the corpus of laws was derived from these two jurists, and in 533 Justinian recognized the school as one of the three official law schools of the empire. After the 551 Beirut earthquake[19][24][29] the students were transferred to Sidon.[30]
Middle Ages[link]
Beirut passed into Arab control in 635[25][31] and was ruled by the Arslan Family, Arabs from Yemen descended from the Lakhmids,[citation needed] from 635 to 1110.[citation needed] Prince Arslan bin al-Mundhir founded the Principality of Sin-el-Fil in Beirut in 759 AD. From this Principality developed the later Principality of Mount Lebanon, which was the basis for the establishment of Greater Lebanon, today's Lebanon.[citation needed] As a trading centre of the eastern Mediterranean, Beirut was overshadowed by Acre during the Middle Ages. From 1110 to 1291 it was in the hands of the Crusaders' Kingdom of Jerusalem. John of Ibelin, the Old Lord of Beirut (1179–1236) rebuilt the city after the battles with Saladin and also built the Ibelin family palace in Beirut.[31]
Ottoman rule[link]
Beirut was controlled by local Druze emirs throughout the Ottoman period.[32] One of them, Fakhr-al-Din II, fortified it early in the 17th century,[33] but the Ottomans reclaimed it in 1763.[33] With the help of Damascus, Beirut successfully broke Acre's monopoly on Syrian maritime trade and for a few years supplanted it as the main trading centre in the region. During the succeeding epoch of rebellion against Ottoman hegemony in Acre under Jezzar Pasha and Abdullah Pasha, Beirut declined to a small town with a population of about 10,000 and was an object of contention between the Ottomans, the local Druze, and the Mamluks. After Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt captured Acre in 1832,[34] Beirut began its revival.
File:Grand serail solidere 6.jpg
View of Beirut's Grand Serail- circa 1930
By the second half of the nineteenth century, Beirut was developing close commercial and political ties with European imperial powers, particularly France. European interests in Lebanese silk and other export products transformed the city into a major port and commercial centre. Meanwhile, Ottoman power in the region continued to decline. Sectarian and religious conflicts, power vacuums, and changes in the political dynamics of the region culminated in the 1860 Lebanon conflict. Beirut became a destination for Maronite Christian refugees fleeing from the worst areas of the fighting on Mount Lebanon and in Damascus.[35] This in turn altered the ethnic composition of Beirut itself, sowing the seeds of future ethnic and religious troubles there and in greater Lebanon. However, Beirut was able to prosper in the meantime. This was again a product of European intervention, and also a general realization amongst the city's residents that commerce, trade, and prosperity depended on domestic stability.[36]
In 1888, Beirut was made capital of a vilayet (governorate) in Syria,[37] including the sanjaks (prefectures) Latakia, Tripoli, Beirut, Acre and Bekaa.[38] By this time, Beirut had grown into a very cosmopolitan city and had close links with Europe and the United States. It also became a centre of missionary activity that spawned impressive educational institutions, such as the American University of Beirut. Provided with water from a British company and gas from a French one, silk exports to Europe came to dominate the local economy. After French engineers established a modern harbor in 1894 and a rail link across Lebanon to Damascus and Aleppo in 1907, much of the trade was carried by French ships to Marseille. French influence in the area soon exceeded that of any other European power. The 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica reported a population consisting of 36,000 Muslims, 77,000 Christians, 2500 Jews, 400 Druze and 4100 foreigners.
Modern era[link]
After the collapse of the Ottoman Empire following World War I, Beirut, along with the rest of Lebanon, was placed under the French Mandate. Lebanon achieved independence in 1943, and Beirut became its capital city. The city remained a regional intellectual capital, becoming a major tourist destination and a banking haven, especially for the Persian Gulf oil boom. This era of relative prosperity ended in 1975 when the Lebanese Civil War broke out throughout the country.[39][40] During most of the war, Beirut was divided between the Muslim west part and the Christian east.[41] The downtown area, previously the home of much of the city's commercial and cultural activity, became a no man's land known as the Green Line. Many inhabitants fled to other countries. About 60,000 people died in the first two years of the war (1975–1976), and much of the city was devastated. A particularly destructive period was the 1978 Syrian siege of Achrafiyeh, the main Christian district of Beirut. Syrian troops relentlessly bombed the eastern quarter of the city, but Christian militias defeated multiple attempts by Syria's elite forces to capture the strategic area in a three-month campaign later known as the Hundred Days' War. Another destructive chapter was the 1982 Lebanon War, during which most of West Beirut was under siege by Israeli troops. In 1983, French and US barracks were bombed, killing 241 American servicemen, 58 French servicemen, 6 civilians and the 2 suicide bombers.[42][43][44]
Since the end of the war in 1990, the people of Lebanon have been rebuilding Beirut, and by the start of the 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict the city had somewhat regained its status as a tourist, cultural and intellectual center in the Middle East and as a centre for commerce, fashion, and media. The reconstruction of downtown Beirut has been largely driven by Solidere, a development company established in 1994 by Lebanese Prime Minister Rafic Hariri. The city has been host to the Asian Club Basketball Championship and the Asian Football Cup and has hosted the Miss Europe pageant eight times, 1960–1964, 1999, 2001–2002.
Former Lebanese Prime Minister Rafic Hariri was assassinated in 2005 near the Saint George Bay in Beirut.[45][46] A month later about one million people gathered for an opposition rally in Beirut.[47][48] The Cedar Revolution was the largest rally in Lebanon's history at that time.[49] The last Syrian troops withdrew from Beirut on 26 April 2005,[50] and the two countries established diplomatic relations on 15 October 2008.[51]
During the 2006 Lebanon War, Israeli bombardments seeking Hezbollah targets caused damage in many parts of Beirut, especially the poorer and largely Shiite South Beirut, which is controlled by Hezbollah. In May 2008, after the government decided to disband Hezbollah's communications network (a decision it later rescinded), violent clashes broke out briefly between government allies and opposition forces, before control of the city was handed over to the Lebanese Army. After this a national dialogue conference was held in Doha at the invitation of the Prince of Qatar. The conference agreed to appoint a new president of Lebanon and to establish a new national government involving all the political adversaries. As a result of the Doha Agreement, the opposition's camp in the capital was removed.[clarification needed][citation needed]
Geography[link]
Beirut sits on a peninsula extending westward into the Mediterranean Sea[52] about 94 km (58 mi) north of the Lebanon-Israel border.[53] It is flanked by the Lebanon Mountains and has taken on a triangular shape, largely influenced by its situation between and atop two hills: Al-Ashrafieh and Al-Musaytibah. The Beirut Governorate occupies 18 square kilometres (6.9 sq mi), and the city's metropolitan area 67 square kilometres (26 sq mi).[52] The coast is rather diverse, with rocky beaches, sandy shores and cliffs situated beside one another.
Climate[link]
Beirut has a Mediterranean climate characterized by a hot, humid yet rainless summer, a pleasant autumn and spring, and a cool, rainy winter. August is the hottest month, with a monthly average high temperature of 32 °C (90 °F), and January and February are the coldest months, with a monthly average low temperature of 10 °C (50 °F). The prevailing wind during the afternoon and evening is from the west (onshore, blowing in from the Mediterranean); at night it reverses to offshore, blowing from the land out to sea.
The average annual rainfall is 890 millimetres (35 in), with the majority falling in winter, autumn and spring. Much of the autumn and spring rain falls in heavy downpours on a limited number of days, but in winter it is spread more evenly over a large number of days. Summer receives very little rainfall, if any. Snow is rare and does not usually settle, but hail and sleet can occur quite often in winter. Large snowstorms, however, occurred in 1920, 1942 and 1950.
| Climate data for Beirut | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °C (°F) | 25 (77) |
31 (88) |
36 (97) |
37 (99) |
42 (108) |
40 (104) |
37 (99) |
37 (99) |
37 (99) |
38 (100) |
33 (91) |
29 (84) |
42 (108) |
| Average high °C (°F) | 17 (63) |
17 (63) |
19 (66) |
22 (72) |
26 (79) |
28 (82) |
31 (88) |
32 (90) |
30 (86) |
27 (81) |
23 (73) |
18 (64) |
24.2 (75.5) |
| Average low °C (°F) | 11 (52) |
11 (52) |
12 (54) |
14 (57) |
18 (64) |
21 (70) |
23 (73) |
23 (73) |
23 (73) |
21 (70) |
16 (61) |
13 (55) |
17.2 (62.9) |
| Record low °C (°F) | −1 (30) |
−1 (30) |
2 (36) |
6 (43) |
10 (50) |
13 (55) |
18 (64) |
17 (63) |
16 (61) |
11 (52) |
5 (41) |
−1 (30) |
−1 (30) |
| Precipitation mm (inches) | 191 (7.52) |
158 (6.22) |
94 (3.7) |
56 (2.2) |
18 (0.71) |
3 (0.12) |
0 (0) |
0 (0) |
5 (0.2) |
51 (2.01) |
132 (5.2) |
185 (7.28) |
893 (35.16) |
| Avg. rainy days (≥ 0.25 mm) | 15 | 12 | 9 | 5 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 4 | 8 | 12 | 68 |
| Mean monthly sunshine hours | 155 | 140 | 186 | 240 | 310 | 360 | 372 | 341 | 270 | 248 | 210 | 155 | 2,987 |
| Source: BBC News [54] | |||||||||||||
Quarters and sectors[link]
File:Beirut Districts.png
Map of the 12 quarters of Beirut
Beirut is divided into 12 quarters (quartiers):[55]
- Achrafieh
- Dar El Mreisse
- Bachoura
- Mazraa
- Medawar
- Minet El Hosn
- Moussaitbeh
- Port Beirut
- Ras Beirut
- Rmeil
- Saifi
- Zouqaq El Blatt
These quarters are divided into sectors (secteurs).[56]
Two of the twelve official Palestinian refugee camps in Lebanon are located in the southern suburbs of Beirut: Burj al-Barajneh, Shatila, and one within its municipal boundaries: Mar Elias camp.[57] Of the fifteen unregistered or unofficial refugee camps, Sabra, which lies adjacent to Shatila, is also located in southern Beirut.[58]
Demographics[link]
See also: History of the Jews in Lebanon
No population census has been taken in Lebanon since 1932,[59] and estimates of Beirut's population range from as low as 938,940 [60] through 1,303,129[61] to as high as 2,012,000.[62]
Beirut is one of the most cosmopolitan and religiously diverse cities of Lebanon and all of the Middle East.[63] The city boasts significant Christian and Muslim communities. There are nine major religious groups in Beirut: Maronite Catholic, Greek Orthodox, Greek Catholic, Armenian Apostolic, Armenian Catholic, Protestant, Sunni Muslim, Shia Muslim and Druze. Family matters such as marriage, divorce and inheritance are still handled by the religious authorities representing a person's faith (the Ottoman "millet" system). Calls for civil marriage are unanimously rejected by the religious authorities, but civil marriages held in another country are recognized by Lebanese civil authorities. Until the mid-20th century, Beirut was also home to a Jewish community in the Bab Idriss sector of Zokak el-Blat. In the 2009 Lebanese general elections, 435,462 people voted in Beirut: 192,910 (45%) were Sunni Muslims, 60,202 (14%) Shia Muslims, 46,744 (11%) Armenian Orthodox, 42,728 (10%) Greek Orthodox, 24,800 (6%) Maronite Catholics, 18,923 (4%) Greek Catholics, 9,623 (2%) Armenian Catholics, 6,883 (1%) Protestants, 5,374 (1%) Jews, 5,251 (1%) Druze, 218 Alawis, and 21,806 other Christians.
Before the civil war the neighborhoods of Beirut were fairly heterogeneous, however became largely segregated by religion since the conflict. East Beirut has a mainly Christian population with a small Muslim minority, while West Beirut has a Sunni majority with small minorities of Christians, Druze and Shi'aas. Since the end of the civil war, East and West Beirut have begun to see an increase in Sunni Muslims and Christians moving into each half. The southern suburbs are populated largely by Shia Muslims, while the eastern and northern suburbs are largely Christian. Northern Beirut has also had a large Lebanese Protestant community since the 19th century.
Economy[link]
![[icon]](http://web.archive.org./web/20121228092721/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg){kind=small} |
This section requires expansion. |
The economy of Beirut is diverse, including publishing, banking, trade and various industries.
From the 1950s to the start of the conflict in 1975, Beirut was the region's financial services center. At the onset of the oil boom starting in the 1960s, Lebanon-based banks were the main recipients of the region's petrodollars.[64] Middle East Airlines has its head office in Beirut,[65] and the Banque du Liban, Lebanon's central bank, is headquartered there. The governor of the Central Bank of Lebanon is Riad Salameh.[66]
Government[link]
Beirut is the capital of Lebanon and its seat of government.[67] The Lebanese Parliament,[68] all the Ministries and most of the public administrations, embassies and consulates are there.[69] The Beirut Governorate is one of six mohafazat (plural of mohafazah, a state governorate). The others are Beqaa, North Lebanon, South Lebanon, Mount Lebanon and Nabatiye.[70]
|
| Name | Took office | Left office | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Kamel Abbas Hamieh | 1936 | 1941 |
| 2 | Nicolas Rizk | 1946 | 1952 |
| 3 | George Assi | 1952 | 1956 |
| 4 | Bachour Haddad | 1956 | 1958 |
| 5 | Philip Boulos | 1959 | 1960 |
| 6 | Emile Yanni | 1960 | 1967 |
| 7 | Chafik Abou Haydar | 1967 | 1977 |
| 8 | Mitri El Nammar | 1977 | 1987 |
| 9 | George Smaha | 1987 | 1991 |
| 10 | Nayef Al Maaloof | 1992 | 1995 |
| 11 | Nicolas Saba | 1995 | 1999 |
| 12 | Yaacoub Sarraf | 1999 | 2005 |
| 13 | Nassif Kaloosh | 2005 |
International organizations[link]
The city is home to numerous international organizations. The United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA) is headquartered in downtown Beirut,[72][73] The Arab Air Carriers Organization (AACO),[74] the Union of Arab Banks[75] and the Union of Arab Stock Exchanges[76] are also headquartered in the city. The International Labour Organization (ILO)[77] and UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization)[78] both have regional offices in Beirut covering the Arab world.
Education[link]
Higher education throughout Lebanon is provided by technical and vocational institutes, university colleges, university institutes and universities. The Lebanese University is the only public institution for higher education in Beirut.[79] The Directorate General of Higher Education is responsible for managing the university colleges, university Institutes and universities in Beirut and nationwide.[79]
Among the private schools in Beirut are the American Community School, the City International School, the Collège Notre-Dame de Jamhour, International College, the Carmel Saint-Joseph, the Collège Louise Wegmann, Rawdah High School, Saint Mary's Orthodox College,[80] the Collège Protestant Français, the Lycée Franco-Libanais Verdun, the Collège du Sacré-Coeur Gemmayzé, the Grand Lycée Franco-Libanais, the Collège Notre Dame de Nazareth, the Armenian Evangelical Central High School and the German School of Beirut.
The higher education system is based on the Lebanese Baccalaureate, but the French Baccalaureate is accepted as equivalent. Before being admitted to any higher education institution, one must pass the Baccalaureate examinations. Baccalaureate technique is an alternative to credentials.[79][Full citation needed][clarification needed]
Foreign students who wish to study in Lebanese higher education institutions must also meet Lebanese qualifications. Their examinations must be equivalent to the Baccalaureate system before they are granted admission. They are not subject to any special quota system, and scholarships are granted within the framework of bilateral agreements concluded with other countries.[79] Degrees obtained outside Lebanon must be certified by the Lebanese embassy abroad and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Lebanon. Candidates must then go in person to the Secretariat of the Equivalence Committee with required documents.[81]
The American University of Beirut is the oldest university in the country and the region. Conceived by American missionaries in 1862, it opened in 1866 as the Syrian Protestant College, with Dr. Daniel Bliss as its first president, and 16 students. It was renamed the American University of Beirut in 1920. The university and several of its programs and faculties are accredited by US bodies, and its degrees are recognized by the Lebanese government through the equivalence committees of the Ministry of Education and Higher Education.
Beirut is also home to the Lebanese American University (LAU), which is also, together with many of its programs, accredited by US bodies.[82][83][84][85][86] LAU also offers an architecture degree equivalent to the French DEA, allowing graduates to practice in the European Union.
Other universities in Beirut include the University of Balamand (Faculty of Health Sciences), Université Saint-Joseph, and École Supérieure des Affaires (business school).
Transportation[link]
The city's renovated airport is the Rafic Hariri International Airport, located in the southern suburbs. It can be reached by any means of transport, whether buses or taxis. The service taxis are cheaper than normal taxis, but to avoid misunderstandings, the price should be agreed before setting off on a journey.[87] The Port of Beirut, one of the largest and most commercial in the eastern Mediterranean, is another port of entry. As a final destination, Lebanon can be reached by ferry from Cyprus via the city of Jounieh or by road from Damascus via the Beqaa valley in the east.[87]
Beirut has frequent bus connections to other cities in Lebanon and major cities in Syria such as Homs and its capital Damascus. There are a handful brands of public transport in Lebanon. The publicly owned buses are managed by Office des Chemins de Fer et des Transports en Commun (OCFTC – "Railway and Public Transportation Authority"). Buses for northern destinations and Syria leave from Charles Helou Station.[88]
The ministry of transport and public works purchased an extra 250 intra and inter-buses in 2012 to better serve regions outside the capital as well as congested-chocked Beirut, hoping to lessen the use of private cars. Beirut is the most city in the world where vehicles enter and exit it on a daily basis, in ratio to its size and population.
Culture[link]
The culture of Beirut has evolved under the influence of many different peoples and civilizations, such as Greeks, Romans, Arabs, Ottoman Turks and French. The law school in downtown Beirut was one of the world's earliest and was considered to be a leading center of legal studies in the Eastern Roman Empire. The ruins of downtown Beirut have been found to contain seven layers of civilization.[citation needed]
Beirut hosted the Francophonie and Arab League summits in 2002, and in 2007 it hosted the ceremony for the Prix Albert Londres,[89][90] which rewards outstanding francophone journalists every year. The city also hosted the Jeux de la Francophonie in 2009.[91][92] In the same year it was proclaimed World Book Capital by UNESCO.[93]
Beirut has also been called the "party capital of the Arab world".[94] Rue Monnot has an international reputation among clubbers,[95] and Rue Gouraud in districts such as Gemmayze and Mar Mikhael have emerged as new hotspots for bar patrons and clubbers.
Museums[link]
The National Museum of Beirut is the principal museum of archaeology in Lebanon. It has about 1,300 exhibits ranging in date from prehistoric times to the medieval Mamluk period.[96] The Archaeological Museum of the American University of Beirut is the third oldest museum in the Middle East, exhibiting a wide range of artifacts from Lebanon and neighboring countries.[97] Sursock Museum was built by the Sursock family at the end of the 19th century as a private villa and then donated to the Lebanese state. It now houses Beirut's most influential and popular art museum. The permanent collection shows a set of Japanese engravings and numerous works of Islamic art, and temporary exhibitions are shown throughout the year. The Robert Mouawad Private Museum near Beirut's Grand Serail exhibits Henri Pharaon's private collection of archaeology and antiques.[98] Planet Discovery is a children’s science museum with interactive experiments, exhibitions, performances, workshops and awareness competitions.[99] The Saint Joseph University opened the Museum of Lebanese Prehistory in 2000, the first prehistory museum in the Arabic Middle East, displaying bones, stone tools and neolithic pottery collected by Jesuits.[100]
Media[link]
Beirut is the main center in Lebanon for the television, newspaper, and book publishing industries. The television stations include Télé Liban, LBC, ÓTV (Orange TV), MTV Lebanon, New TV, Al-Manar, NBN, ANB and Future TV. Newspapers include An-Nahar, As-Safir, Al Mustaqbal, Al Akhbar, Al-Balad, Ad-Diyar, Al Anwar, Al Sharq, French language L'Orient Le Jour and the English language Daily Star. Together with Cairo and Dubai, Beirut is one of the main media hubs in the Arab world.
Sports[link]
Beirut, with Sidon and Tripoli, hosted the 2000 AFC Asian Cup.[101][102] There are two stadiums in the city, Camille Chamoun Sports City Stadium and Beirut Municipal Stadium.
Basketball is the most popular sport in Lebanon. Currently,[when?] four Beirut teams play in Lebanese Basketball League Division 1: Hekmeh, Sporting Al Riyadi Beirut, Hoops Club and Antranik SC.
Other sports events in Beirut include the annual Beirut Marathon, hip ball, weekly horse racing at the Beirut Hippodrome, and golf and tennis tournaments that take place at Golf Club of Lebanon. Three out of the five teams in the Lebanese rugby league championship are based in Beirut.
Arts and fashion[link]
There are hundreds of art galleries in Beirut and its suburbs. There are more than 5000 active artists[citation needed] and equal numbers are producing music, design, architecture, theatre, film, photography and other forms of art in Lebanon. Every year hundreds of fine art students graduate from universities and institutions. Artist workshops exist all over Lebanon. Recently,[when?] the inauguration of the Beirut Art Center in the Mkalles suburb of Beirut added to the number of exhibition spaces available in the city, with a screening and performance room, mediatheque, bookstore, cafe and terrace. Adjacent to the latter is the Ashkal Alwan Home Workspace, a venue hosting cultural events and educational programs.
A number of international fashion designers[who?] have displayed their work in big fashion shows.[103] Most major fashion labels have shops in Beirut's shopping districts, and the city is home to a number of local fashion designers, some of whom like Elie Saab, Reem Acra, Zuhair Murad, Georges Chakra, Georges Hobeika, Jean Faris, Nicolas Jebran, Rabih Kayrouz and Abed Mahfouz have achieved international fame.[103]
Tourism[link]
Beirut is a destination for tourists from both the Arab world and West.[104] In Travel + Leisure magazine's World Best Awards 2006, it was ranked 9th best city in the world.[105] That list was voted upon shortly before the 2006 Lebanon War broke out, but in 2008 The Guardian listed Beirut as one of its top ten cities in the world.[106] The New York Times ranked it at number one on its "44 places to go" list of 2009.[5] Many of the tourists are returning Lebanese expatriates, but many are from Western countries. Approximately 3 million visitors visited in 2010; the previous record was 1.4 million in 1974.[107] In 2012, San Diego television channel WealthTV will feature Beirut, its culture and its people as a part of the travel series Uncover.[108]
The ministry of tourism began an initiative in early 2012 to publicize Lebanon outside of the Middle East for the first time with the aim of attracting more tourists to the country. The "Only Lebanon" campaign, an enlargement of the original government-owned tourism publicity, has grown popularity among foreigners who knew little or nothing about Lebanon. The main tourist seasons in the country are the beach seasons in Summer and the skiing season in Winter. Beirut witnesses the largest number of tourists in the country with its luxurious hotels, refurbished central district and sea promenade, and its glitzy nightlife and shopping areas.
International relations[link]
Twin towns – Sister cities[link]
Beirut is twinned with:
See also[link]
References[link]
Notes[link]
- ^ http://data.un.org/Data.aspx?q=city+population&d=POP&f=tableCode%3a240
- ^ Reconstruction of Beirut, Macalester College
- ^ Lebanon's Reconstruction: A Work in Progress, VOA News
- ^ Beirut: Between Memory and Desire, Worldview
- ^ a b Wise, Zach; Meek/, Miki (2009-01-11). "The 44 Places to Go in 2009 – Interactive Graphic". The New York Times (Beirut (Lebanon);Washington (DC);Galapagos Islands;Berlin (Germany);Las Vegas (Nev);Hawaii;Vienna (Austria);Doha (Qatar);Dakar (Senegal);Phuket (Thailand);Chicago (Ill);Dallas (Tex);Bhutan;Florida Keys;Rome (Italy);Cuba;Penang (Malaysia);Seychelles Islands;Florianopolis (Brazil);Copenhagen (Denmark);Monument Valley;Great Britain;Cologne (Germany);Reykjavik (Iceland);Red Sea;Egypt;Deauville (France);South Africa;India;Kazakhstan;Buffalo (NY);Madagascar;Tasmania (Australia);Stockholm (Sweden);Alaska;Pennsylvania;Zambia). http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2009/01/11/travel/20090111_DESTINATIONS.html. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
- ^ "Beirut Travel Information and Travel Guide — Lebanon". Lonely Planet. 2009-03-24. http://www.lonelyplanet.com/lebanon/beirut. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
- ^ http://www.dailystar.com.lb/Business/Lebanon/2011/Jun-20/Beirut-ranks-second-for-visitor-spending-in-region.ashx#axzz1qrXPMv2b
- ^ Burkhalter, L., Bibliographie préhistorique (à suivre) (List of prehistoric sites, continuation and end), Bulletin du Musée de Beyrouth. Tome VIII, 1946–1948, Beyrouth, in-4° br., 173 pages.
- ^ Burkhalter L., Bibliographie préhistorique (suite et fin) (List of prehistoric sites, continuation and end), Bulletin du Musée de Beyrouth. Tome IX, 1949–1950, Beyrouth, in-4° br., 117 pages.
- ^ a b Godefroy Zumoffen (1900). La Phénicie avant les phéniciens: l'âge de la pierre. Impr. catholique. http://books.google.com/books?id=0noLAQAAIAAJ. Retrieved 7 August 2011.
- ^ a b c d e Lorraine Copeland; P. Wescombe (1965). Inventory of Stone-Age sites in Lebanon, p. 73-75 and see fig. XVII on p. 163 for drawing by Peter. J. Wescombe of the javelin found at Beirut VI. Imprimerie Catholique. http://books.google.com/books?id=6YsRRwAACAAJ. Retrieved 21 July 2011.
- ^ a b Bergy, Auguste. "La paléolithique ancien stratifié à Ras Beyrouth". Mélanges de l'Université Saint Joseph, Volume 16, 5–6, 1932.
- ^ Describes, Raoul. "Quelques ateliers paléolithiques des environs de Beyrouth", Mélanges de l'Université Saint-Joseph, Volume VII, 1921.
- ^ Karge, P., Rephaim : Die Vorgeschichtliche Kultur Palästinas und Phöniziens, Paderborn (First edition), 1917–1918
- ^ Zumoffen, Godefroy., L'âge de la Pierre en Phénicie, L'Anthropologie, Volume 8, page 272, 1898.
- ^ Lauffray, J., Forums et monuments de Béryte, BULLETIN DU MUSEE DE BEYROUTH. Tome VII, 1944–1945, Beyrouth, in-4° br., 124 pages dont 4 de texte arabe, 29 planches hors-texte.
- ^ Under Beirut's Rubble, Remnants of 5,000 Years of Civilization– NYTimes February 23, 1997
- ^ The New Encyclopædia Britannica (1993) volume 14, macropaedia, 15th edition, Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.
- ^ a b c Profile of Lebanon: History Lebanese Embassy of the U.S.
- ^ Research Projects – History and Archeology, American University of Beirut (AUB)
- ^ Phoenicia in Encyclopaedia Biblica, Case Western Reserve University
- ^ Phoenicia, Jrank.org
- ^ Berytus Archeological Studies, American University of Beirut (AUB)
- ^ a b About Beirut and Downtown Beirut, DownTownBeirut.com. Retrieved November 17, 2007.
- ^ a b Beirut Travel Information[dead link], Lonely Planet
- ^ Czech excavations in Beirut, Martyrs' Square, Institute for Classical Archaeology>
- ^ Morgan, James F. The Prodigal Empire: The Fall of the Western Roman Empire, page 87
- ^ Beirut, Britannica.com
- ^ History of Phoenicia, fullbooks.com. Retrieved November 17, 2007.
- ^ "Saida (Sidon)". Ikamalebanon.com. http://www.ikamalebanon.com/national_heritage/south_nh/sth_cities_nh/saida.htm. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
- ^ a b Beirut, Britannica.com
- ^ Druze History, DHF Druze Heritage Foundation
- ^ a b Beirut, Jrank.org
- ^ Corpus Inscriptionum Arabicarum Palaestinae, by Moshe Sharon
- ^ Fawaz, Leila. "The City and the Mountain", 'International Journal of Middle East Studies' 16 no. 4 (Nov. 1984), 493.
- ^ Fawaz, Leila. "The City and the Mountain", 'International Journal of Middle East Studies' 16 no. 4 (Nov. 1984), 490.
- ^ Modern Beirut, Macalester College
- ^ History of Beirut, Lebanon Links
- ^ An Alternate Alternative History, Foreign Policy
- ^ Dancing in the street, The Independent
- ^ Lebanon (Civil War 1975–1992, Global Security
- ^ Terrorism – Terrorist Attacks Chronology, CDI Terrorism Project
- ^ Frontline: Target America: Terrorist Attacks on Americans, 1979–1988, PBS.org
- ^ Historical Fact: Bombing of marine barracks, October 23, 1983, lebaneseforces.com
- ^ History of Lebanon (The Cedar Revolution), LGIC. Retrieved November 19, 2007.
- ^ Watch – The Cedar Revolution, The Winds of Change. Retrieved November 19, 2007.
- ^ 'Record' protest held in Beirut, BBC News
- ^ From Hopeful To Helpless At a Protest In Lebanon, Washingtonpost.com
- ^ Hariri sister calls for justice, CNN International
- ^ On This Day – 26 April, BBC.co.uk
- ^ "Syria, Lebanon Formally Launch Diplomatic Relations". Voanews.com. http://www.voanews.com/english/2008-10-15-voa44.cfm. Retrieved 2009-05-05. [dead link]
- ^ a b Beirut – The Pearl of the Middle East[dead link]
- ^ "Howstuffworks "Geography of Beirut"". Geography.howstuffworks.com. http://geography.howstuffworks.com/middle-east/geography-of-beirut.htm. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
- ^ BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/weather/forecast/248?&search=beirut&itemsPerPage=10®ion=world.
- ^ "Beirut's Official Webcite". http://www.beirut.gov.lb/www.beirut.gov.lb/MCMSAR/%D8%AD%D8%B6%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A9+%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AA/. Retrieved 2008-04-23.
- ^ "Beirut's Official Website". Beirut.gov.lb. http://www.beirut.gov.lb/www.beirut.gov.lb/MCMSEN/Maps+of+Beirut/. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
- ^ Southern suburban districts include: Chiyah, Ghobeiry (Bir Hassan, Jnah and Ouzai are part of the Ghobeiry municiplaity), Haret Hreik, Burj al Barajneh, Laylake-Mreijeh, Hay al Sillum and Hadath. Eastern suburbs include: Burj Hammoud, Sin el Fil, Dekwane and Mkalles. Hazmiyeh is also considered as an eastern suburb with its close proximity to the capital. "Lebanon refugee camp profiles". UNRWA. 31 December 2006. http://www.un.org/unrwa/refugees/lebanon.html. Retrieved 2008-04-18.
- ^ Sherifa Shafie. "Palestinian Refugees in Lebanon" (PDF). Force Migration. http://www.forcedmigration.org/guides/fmo018/fmo018.pdf. Retrieved 2008-04-18.
- ^ Lebanese Ministry of Environment: "Lebanon State of the Environment Report", Chapter 1, page 9, 2001.[dead link]
- ^ "United Nations: "Demographic Yearbook 2003", page 53, 2003" (PDF). http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/DYB2003/Table08.pdf. Retrieved 2010-01-17.
- ^ Lebanese Ministry of Environment: "Lebanon State of the Environment Report", Chapter 1, page 11, 2001.[dead link]
- ^ "Encyclopedia of the Nations". Nationsencyclopedia.com. http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Asia-and-Oceania/Lebanon-POPULATION.html. Retrieved 2010-01-17.
- ^ At Beirut Protest, a Reminder of Religious Diversity, The New York Times. Retrieved November 17, 2007.
- ^ " It slowly however eventually regained its title as one of the region's largest economical hubs after massive reconstruction in its central district and infrastructure. [1].retrieved on 27 November 2010.
- ^ "Contact Us." Middle East Airlines. Retrieved on 19 October 2009.
- ^ Lebanon's financial sector has proven its resiliency and its ability to remain stable amid the global financial crisis which brought heavy negative impact on Europe, North America and some countries of the Persian Gulf. The World Bank lists Lebanon as an international standard banking nation. "Banque du Liban: Offices in Lebanon". retrieved on 2 september 2010.
- ^ Monday, Jun. 07, 1926 (1926-06-07). "Great Lebanon — TIME". TIME. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,722011,00.html. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
- ^ "Beirut from the sky, Parliament Square, Ryad el Solh square". Lebanonpanorama.com. http://www.lebanonpanorama.com/frame_src/english/beirut.html. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
- ^ "Links". Web.archive.org. 2007-10-12. Archived from the original on 2007-10-12. http://web.archive.org/web/20071012050110/http://www.presidency.gov.lb/presidency/links/links.htm. Retrieved 2009-07-25.
- ^ Beirut – The Pearl of the Middle East[dead link]
- ^ "Beirut's official website". Beirut.gov.lb. http://www.beirut.gov.lb/www.beirut.gov.lb/MCMSARdir1/%D9%85%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%B8%D8%A9+%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AA/. Retrieved 2010-01-17.
- ^ ICPD+5 NEWS BULLETIN, United Nations General Assembly. Retrieved November 15, 2007.
- ^ "United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia". Escwa.org.lb. http://www.escwa.org.lb/. Retrieved 2010-01-17.
- ^ "Arab Air Carriers Organization". Aaco.org. http://www.aaco.org/contact.asp. Retrieved 2010-01-17.
- ^ "Union of Arab Banks". uabonline.org. http://www.uabonline.org/contact.php. Retrieved 2011-01-29.
- ^ "Union of Arab Stock Exchanges". arabstockexchanges.org. http://www.arabstockexchanges.org/uaseportal/portal/contactus.html?pageParam=contactus&menu=8. Retrieved 2011-02-12.
- ^ "International Labour Organization (Lebanon)". Ilo.org.lb. http://www.ilo.org.lb/. Retrieved 2010-01-17.
- ^ "UNESCO Beirut". Web.archive.org. Archived from the original on 2007-09-10. http://web.archive.org/web/20070910202147/http://portal.unesco.org/beirut. Retrieved 2010-01-17.
- ^ a b c d Lebanon – Education system
RTF (26.5 KiB), Unesco.org - ^ "Educalys website". Educalys.edu.lb. http://www.educalys.edu.lb. Retrieved 2011-09-05.
- ^ Education FAQs[dead link], informs.gov.lb
- ^ "NCUSAR Study Abroad Opportunity". Ncusar.org. http://www.ncusar.org/programs/lau-sinarc.html. Retrieved 2010-06-14.
- ^ "International Served By Pappas Consulting". Pappas-consulting.com. http://www.pappas-consulting.com/international.html. Retrieved 2010-06-14.
- ^ "Blog Archive » About LAU". Universities of Lebanon. 2010-03-15. http://www.universitiesoflebanon.com/2010/03/15/about-lau/. Retrieved 2010-06-14.
- ^ "International Colleagues, International Accreditation Activities, Canada, PDF, ACPE – Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education". Acpe-accredit.org. 2004-06-30. http://www.acpe-accredit.org/international/accredit.asp. Retrieved 2010-06-14.
- ^ "About LAU | Charter and Accreditation". LAU. http://www.lau.edu.lb/about/charter_acc/index.php. Retrieved 2010-06-14.
- ^ a b "Transportation & Communication". Ikamalebanon.com. http://www.ikamalebanon.com/info/transportation.htm. Retrieved 2010-01-17.
- ^ Beirut Transport[dead link]
- ^ Albert Londres Prizes, France Diplomatie
- ^ Daily Press Briefing, Embassy of France in the U.S.
- ^ (French) Les Jeux de la Francophonie au Liban Beyrouth 2009, Libanvision
- ^ (French) Les Jeux de la Francophonie, Moldavie.fr
- ^ 2009 World Book Capital, un.org
- ^ Butters, Andrew Lee (2009-03-17). "Drugs in the Middle East". Times/CNN. http://mideast.blogs.time.com/2009/03/17/drugs-in-the-middle-east/. Retrieved 2010-03-02.
- ^ Sergeant, Mike (2008-02-13). "Is party over for Beirut's clubbers?". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7241147.stm. Retrieved 2010-03-02.
- ^ History, National Museum of Beirut
- ^ "AUB Museum". Ddc.aub.edu.lb. http://ddc.aub.edu.lb/projects/museum/. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
- ^ "Welcome to Robert Mouawad Private museum". Rmpm.info. http://www.rmpm.info/. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
- ^ "Beirut City Center Culture — Planet Discovery". Solidere. http://www.solidere.com/history/planet.html. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
- ^ "UMAC Worldwide Database of University Museums & Collections". Publicus.culture.hu-berlin.de. http://publicus.culture.hu-berlin.de/collections/detail.php?dsn=549. Retrieved 2011-09-05.
- ^ China Ready to Face Tough Task in Asian Cup Bidding, People's Daily
- ^ Lebanese Football need to make their mark in Asia[dead link], Maxell
- ^ a b Reuters (2011 [last update]). "Lebanese fashion designers reign supreme | Reuters". reuters.com. http://www.reuters.com/article/2010/10/13/us-lebanon-fashion-idUSTRE69C3JP20101013. Retrieved 5 July 2011.
- ^ "Born-again Beirut". Fairfax Media. 2005-01-08. http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2005/01/28/1106850092882.html. Retrieved 2010-03-02.
- ^ Travel and Leisure: Top 10 Cities Overall
- ^ Carrell, Severin (2008-10-15). "Lonely Planet guide rates Glasgow as one of the world's top 10 cities". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/travel/2008/oct/15/glasgow-scotland. Retrieved 2011-08-23.
- ^ Lutz, Meris (2009-09-26). "Lebanon tourism is back from a holiday". Los Angeles Times. http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-lebanon-tourism26-2009sep26,0,746311.story. Retrieved 2010-01-17.
- ^ [wealthtv.com "WealthTV"]. WealthTV Online. Herring Broadcasting. wealthtv.com. Retrieved 7 February 2012.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l "Twinning the Cities". City of Beirut. http://www.beirut.gov.lb/MCMSTest/Menu-Pages/SisterCitiesEN.aspx?NRMODE=Published&NRORIGINALURL=%2fwww%2ebeirut%2egov%2elb%2fMCMSEN%2fTwinning%2bthe%2bCities%2f&NRNODEGUID=%7b18839037-0140-436E-A1AF-7F8F3693C3E6%7d&NRCACHEHINT=NoModifyGuest#. Retrieved 2008-01-13.
- ^ "Isfahan, Beirut named sister cities". MNA. http://www.mehrnews.com/en/NewsDetail.aspx?NewsID=392389. Retrieved 2007-05-02.
- ^ "Sister Cities of Istanbul". http://www.greatistanbul.com/sister_cities.htm. Retrieved 2007-09-08.
- ^ "Beirut, Lebanon". Lacity.org. http://www.lacity.org/SisterCities/html/23.htm. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
- ^ "Yerevan Municipality – Sister Cities". © 2005–2009 www.yerevan.am. http://yerevan.am/main.php?lang=3&page_id=194. Retrieved 2009-06-22.
Bibliography[link]
- Kassir, Samir. Beirut (University of California Press; 2010) a scholarly history
- Linda Jones Hall, Roman Berytus: Beirut in Late Antiquity, 2004.
- Samir Kassir, Histoire de Beyrouth, Fayard 2003.
- Richard Talbert, Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World, (ISBN 0-691-03169-X), p. 69.
- Rabih Alameddine, "Koolaids: The Art of War", Abacus 1998, a novel
- Philip Mansel, Levant: Splendour and Catastrophe on the Mediterranean, London, John Murray, 11 November 2010, hardback, 480 pages, ISBN 978-0-7195-6707-0, New Haven, Yale University Press, 24 May 2011, hardback, 470 pages, ISBN 978-0-300-17264-5
External links[link]
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- Official website of Beirut
- Beirut City Guide
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| Benedict XVI | |
|---|---|
_4.jpg) Pope Benedict XVI in St. Peter's Square, Rome. 2010. |
|
| Papacy began | 19 April 2005 |
| Predecessor | John Paul II |
| Orders | |
| Ordination | 29 June 1951 by Michael von Faulhaber |
| Consecration | 28 May 1977 by Josef Stangl |
| Created Cardinal | 27 June 1977 |
| Personal details | |
| Birth name | Joseph Aloisius Ratzinger |
| Born | (1927-04-16) 16 April 1927 (age 85) Marktl, Bavaria, Germany |
| Nationality | German (along with Vatican citizenship) |
| Denomination | Roman Catholic |
| Parents | Joseph Ratzinger, Sr., Maria Ratzinger |
| Previous post |
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| Motto | cooperatores veritatis (cooperators of the truth)[1] |
| Signature |  |
| Coat of arms |  |
| Other Popes named Benedict | |
| Part of a series on |
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 Catholicism portal |
Benedict XVI (Latin: Benedictus PP. XVI; Italian: Benedetto XVI; German: Benedikt XVI.; born Joseph Aloisius Ratzinger on 16 April 1927) is the 265th Pope,[2] a position in which he serves dual roles as Sovereign of the Vatican City State and leader of the Catholic Church. As pope he is regarded as the successor of Saint Peter. Benedict XVI was elected on 19 April 2005 in a papal conclave, celebrated his Papal Inauguration Mass on 24 April 2005, and took possession of his cathedral, the Archbasilica of St. John Lateran, on 7 May 2005. A native of Bavaria, Pope Benedict XVI has both German and Vatican citizenship.
After a long career as an academic, serving as a professor of theology at various German universities—the last being the University of Regensburg—he was appointed Archbishop of Munich and Freising and cardinal by Pope Paul VI in 1977. In 1981, he settled in Rome when he became Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, one of the most important dicasteries of the Roman Curia. From 2002 until his election as Pope, he was also Dean of the College of Cardinals, and as such the primus inter pares among the cardinals. Prior to becoming Pope, he was "a major figure on the Vatican stage for a quarter of a century" as "one of the most respected, influential and controversial members of the College of Cardinals"; he had an influence "second to none when it came to setting church priorities and directions" as one of Pope John Paul II's closest confidants.[3]
Like his predecessor, Benedict XVI is theologically conservative and his teaching and prolific[4] writings defend traditional Catholic doctrine and values. During his papacy, Benedict XVI has advocated a return to fundamental Christian values to counter the increased secularisation of many developed countries. He views relativism's denial of objective truth, and the denial of moral truths in particular, as the central problem of the 21st century. He teaches the importance of both the Catholic Church and an understanding of God's redemptive love. He has reaffirmed the "importance of prayer in the face of the activism and the growing secularism of many Christians engaged in charitable work."[5] Pope Benedict has also revived a number of traditions including elevating the Tridentine Mass to a more prominent position.[6]
Contents
|
Overview[link]
_mod.jpg)
Benedict XVI was elected Pope at the age of 78. He is the oldest person to have been elected Pope since Pope Clement XII (1730–40). He had served longer as a cardinal than any Pope since Benedict XIII (1724–30). He is the ninth German Pope, the eighth having been the Dutch-German Pope Adrian VI (1522–23) from Utrecht. The last Pope named Benedict was Benedict XV, an Italian who reigned from 1914 to 1922, during World War I (1914–18).
Born in 1927 in Marktl, Bavaria, Germany, Ratzinger had a distinguished career as a university theologian before being appointed Archbishop of Munich and Freising by Pope Paul VI (1963–78). Shortly afterwards, he was made a cardinal in the consistory of 27 June 1977. He was appointed Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith by Pope John Paul II in 1981 and was also assigned the honorific title of the cardinal bishop of Velletri-Segni on 5 April 1993. In 1998, he was elected sub-dean of the College of Cardinals. On 30 November 2002, he was elected dean, taking, as is customary, the title of cardinal bishop of the suburbicarian diocese of Ostia. He was the first Dean of the College elected Pope since Paul IV (1555–59) and the first cardinal bishop elected Pope since Pius VIII (1829–30).
Even before becoming Pope, Ratzinger was one of the most influential men in the Roman Curia, and was a close associate of John Paul II. As Dean of the College of Cardinals, he presided over the funeral of John Paul II and over the Mass immediately preceding the 2005 conclave in which he was elected. During the service, he called on the assembled cardinals to hold fast to the doctrine of the faith. He was the public face of the church in the sede vacante period, although, technically, he ranked below the Camerlengo in administrative authority during that time. Like his predecessor, Benedict XVI affirms traditional Catholic doctrine.
In addition to his native German, Benedict speaks French and Italian fluently. He also has a very good command of Latin and speaks English and Spanish adequately. Furthermore, he has some knowledge of Portuguese. He can read Ancient Greek and biblical Hebrew.[7] He has stated that his first foreign language is French. He is a member of several scientific academies, such as the French Académie des sciences morales et politiques. He plays the piano and has a preference for Mozart and Bach.[8]
Early life: 1927–51[link]
Main article: Early life of Pope Benedict XVI
Joseph Aloisius Ratzinger was born on 16 April, Holy Saturday, 1927, at Schulstraße 11, at 8:30 in the morning in his parents' home in Marktl, Bavaria, Germany. He was baptised the same day. He was the third and youngest child of Joseph Ratzinger, Sr., a police officer, and Maria Ratzinger (née Peintner). His mother's family was originally from South Tyrol (now in Italy).[citation needed] Pope Benedict XVI's brother, Georg Ratzinger, a priest and former director of the Regensburger Domspatzen choir, is still alive. His sister, Maria Ratzinger, who never married, managed Cardinal Ratzinger's household until her death in 1991. Their grand-uncle was the German politician Georg Ratzinger.
At the age of five, Ratzinger was in a group of children who welcomed the visiting Cardinal Archbishop of Munich with flowers. Struck by the cardinal's distinctive garb, he later announced the very same day that he wanted to be a cardinal.
Ratzinger attended the elementary school in Aschau am Inn, which was renamed in his honour in 2009.[9]
Following his 14th birthday in 1941, Ratzinger was conscripted into the Hitler Youth—as membership was required by law for all 14-year-old German boys after December 1939[10]—but was an unenthusiastic member who refused to attend meetings, according to his brother.[11] In 1941, one of Ratzinger's cousins, a 14-year-old boy with Down syndrome, was taken away by the Nazi regime and killed during the Action T4 campaign of Nazi eugenics.[12] In 1943, while still in seminary, he was drafted into the German anti-aircraft corps as Luftwaffenhelfer (air force child soldier).[11] Ratzinger then trained in the German infantry.[13] As the Allied front drew closer to his post in 1945, he deserted back to his family's home in Traunstein after his unit had ceased to exist, just as American troops established their headquarters in the Ratzinger household.[14] As a German soldier, he was put in a POW camp but was released a few months later at the end of the war in the summer of 1945.[14] He reentered the seminary, along with his brother Georg, in November of that year.
Thus, following repatriation in 1945, the two brothers entered Saint Michael Seminary in Traunstein, later studying at the Ducal Georgianum (Herzogliches Georgianum) of the Ludwig-Maximilian University in Munich. They were both ordained in Freising on 29 June 1951 by Cardinal Michael von Faulhaber of Munich. Ratzinger recalled:
...at the moment the elderly Archbishop laid his hands on me, a little bird – perhaps a lark – flew up from the altar in the high cathedral and trilled a little joyful song.[15]
Ratzinger's 1953 dissertation was on St. Augustine and was titled The People and the House of God in Augustine's Doctrine of the Church. His Habilitation (which qualified him for a professorship) was on Bonaventure. It was completed in 1957 and he became a professor of Freising College in 1958.
Pre-papal career[link]
Academic career: 1951–77[link]
Ratzinger became a professor at the University of Bonn in 1959; his inaugural lecture was on "The God of Faith and the God of Philosophy". In 1963, he moved to the University of Münster.
During this period, Ratzinger participated in the Second Vatican Council (1962–65). Ratzinger served as a peritus (theological consultant) to Cardinal Frings of Cologne. He was viewed during the time of the Council as a reformer, cooperating with theologians like Hans Küng and Edward Schillebeeckx. Ratzinger became an admirer of Karl Rahner, a well-known academic theologian of the Nouvelle Théologie and a proponent of church reform.
In 1966, Ratzinger was appointed to a chair in dogmatic theology at the University of Tübingen, where he was a colleague of Hans Küng. In his 1968 book Introduction to Christianity, he wrote that the pope has a duty to hear differing voices within the Church before making a decision, and he downplayed the centrality of the papacy. During this time, he distanced himself from the atmosphere of Tübingen and the Marxist leanings of the student movement of the 1960s that quickly radicalised, in the years 1967 and 1968, culminating in a series of disturbances and riots in April and May 1968. Ratzinger came increasingly to see these and associated developments (such as decreasing respect for authority among his students) as connected to a departure from traditional Catholic teachings.[16] Despite his reformist bent, his views increasingly came to contrast with the liberal ideas gaining currency in theological circles.[17]
Some voices, among them Hans Küng, deem this a turn towards conservatism, while Ratzinger himself said in a 1993 interview, "I see no break in my views as a theologian [over the years]".[18] Ratzinger has continued to defend the work of the Second Vatican Council, including Nostra Aetate, the document on respect of other religions, ecumenism and the declaration of the right to freedom of religion. Later, as the Prefect for the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, Ratzinger most clearly spelled out the Catholic Church's position on other religions in the 2000 document Dominus Iesus which also talks about the Roman Catholic way to engage in "ecumenical dialogue".
During his years at Tübingen University, Ratzinger published articles in the reformist theological journal Concilium, though he increasingly chose less reformist themes than other contributors to the magazine such as Hans Küng and Edward Schillebeeckx.
In 1969, he returned to Bavaria, to the University of Regensburg. He founded the theological journal Communio, with Hans Urs von Balthasar, Henri de Lubac, Walter Kasper and others, in 1972. Communio, now published in seventeen languages, including German, English and Spanish, has become a prominent journal of contemporary Catholic theological thought. Until his election as Pope, he remained one of the journal's most prolific contributors. In 1976, he suggested that the Augsburg Confession might possibly be recognised as a Catholic statement of faith.[19][20]
Archbishop of Munich and Freising: 1977–82[link]
On 24 March 1977, Ratzinger was appointed Archbishop of Munich and Freising. He took as his episcopal motto Cooperatores Veritatis (Co-workers of the Truth) from 3 John 8, a choice he comments upon in his autobiographical work, Milestones. In the consistory of the following 27 June, he was named Cardinal-Priest of Santa Maria Consolatrice al Tiburtino by Pope Paul VI. By the time of the 2005 Conclave, he was one of only 14 remaining cardinals appointed by Paul VI, and one of only three of those under the age of 80. Of these, only he and William Wakefield Baum took part in the conclave.[21]
Prefect of the Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith: 1981–2005[link]
On 25 November 1981, Pope John Paul II named Ratzinger as the Prefect of the Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, formerly known as the "Sacred Congregation of the Holy Office", the historical Inquisition. Consequently, he resigned his post at Munich in early 1982. He was promoted within the College of Cardinals to become Cardinal Bishop of Velletri-Segni in 1993 and was made the college's vice-dean in 1998 and dean in 2002.
Ratzinger defended and reaffirmed Catholic doctrine, including teaching on topics such as birth control, homosexuality, and inter-religious dialogue. The theologian Leonardo Boff, for example, was suspended, while others were censured. Other issues also prompted condemnations or revocations of rights to teach: for instance, some posthumous writings of Jesuit priest Anthony de Mello were the subject of a "notification". Ratzinger and the congregation viewed many of them, particularly the later works, as having an element of religious indifferentism (i.e., Christ was "one master alongside others"). In particular, Dominus Iesus, published by the congregation in the jubilee year 2000, reaffirmed many recently "unpopular" ideas, including the Catholic Church's position that "Salvation is found in no one else, for there is no other name under heaven given to men by which we must be saved." The document angered many Protestant churches by claiming that they are not actually churches, but "ecclesial communities".[22]
Ratzinger's 2001 letter De delictis gravioribus clarified the confidentiality of internal church investigations, as defined in the 1962 document Crimen Sollicitationis, into accusations made against priests of certain crimes, including sexual abuse. This became a target of controversy during the sex abuse scandal.[23] As a Cardinal, Raztinger had been for twenty years the man in charge of enforcing the document.[24] While bishops hold the secrecy pertained only internally, and did not preclude investigation by civil law enforcement, the letter was often seen as promoting a coverup.[25] Later, as Pope, he was accused in a lawsuit of conspiring to cover up the molestation of three boys in Texas, but sought and obtained diplomatic immunity from prosecution.[26]
On 12 March 1983, Ratzinger, as prefect, notified the lay faithful and the clergy that archbishop Pierre Martin Ngo Dinh Thuc had incurred excommunication latae sententiae for illicit episcopal consecrations without the apostolic mandate.
In 1997, when he turned 70, Ratzinger asked Pope John Paul II for permission to leave the Congregation of the Doctrine of Faith and to become an archivist in the Vatican Secret Archives and a librarian in the Vatican Library, but the pope refused such permission.[27][28]
Medjugorje[link]
A number of quotes about the apparitions of Medjugorje have been attributed to Benedict XVI.[29] In 1998, when a certain German gathered various statements which were supposedly made by Pope John Paul II and Cardinal Ratzinger, and then forwarded them to the Vatican in the form of a memorandum, Ratzinger responded in writing on 22 July 1998: “The only thing I can say regarding statements on Medjugorje ascribed to the Holy Father and myself is that they are complete invention”[30]
Papacy[link]
Election to the papacy[link]
Main article: Papal conclave, 2005
Prediction[link]
On 2 January 2005, Time magazine quoted unnamed Vatican sources as saying that Ratzinger was a front runner to succeed John Paul II should the pope die or become too ill to continue as pope. On the death of John Paul II, the Financial Times gave the odds of Ratzinger becoming pope as 7–1, the lead position, but close to his rivals on the liberal wing of the church. In April 2005, before his election as pope, he was identified as one of the 100 most influential people in the world by Time. While Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, Ratzinger repeatedly stated he would like to retire to his house in the Bavarian village of Pentling near Regensburg and dedicate himself to writing books.
Though Ratzinger was increasingly considered the front runner by much of the international media, others maintained that his election was far from certain, since very few papal predictions in modern history had come true. The elections of both John Paul II and his predecessor, John Paul I had been rather unexpected. Despite being the favorite (or perhaps because he was the favorite), it was a surprise to many that he was actually elected, as traditionally the frontrunners are passed over by the conclave for someone else.
Election[link]
On 19 April 2005, Ratzinger was elected as the successor to Pope John Paul II on the second day of the papal conclave after four ballots. Ratzinger had hoped to retire peacefully and said that "At a certain point, I prayed to God 'please don't do this to me'...Evidently, this time He didn't listen to me."[31] Coincidentally, 19 April is the feast of St. Leo IX, the most important German pope of the Middle Ages, known for instituting major reforms during his pontificate.
Before his first appearance at the balcony of Saint Peter's Basilica after becoming pope, he was announced by Jorge Medina Estévez, Cardinal Protodeacon of the Holy Roman Church. Cardinal Medina Estévez first addressed the massive crowd as "dear(est) brothers and sisters" in Italian, Spanish, French, German and English, with each language receiving cheers from the international crowd, before continuing with the traditional Habemus Papam announcement in Latin.
At the balcony, Benedict's first words to the crowd, given in Italian before he gave the traditional Urbi et Orbi blessing in Latin, were:
| “ | Dear brothers and sisters, after the great Pope John Paul II, the Cardinals have elected me, a simple, humble labourer in the vineyard of the Lord. The fact that the Lord knows how to work and to act even with insufficient instruments comforts me, and above all I entrust myself to your prayers. In the joy of the Risen Lord, confident of his unfailing help, let us move forward. The Lord will help us, and Mary, His Most Holy Mother, will be on our side. Thank you.[32] | ” |
On 24 April, he celebrated the Papal Inauguration Mass in St. Peter's Square, during which he was invested with the Pallium and the Ring of the Fisherman. Then, on 7 May, he took possession of his cathedral church, the Archbasilica of St. John Lateran.
Choice of name[link]
Ratzinger chose the pontifical name Benedict, which comes from the Latin word meaning "the blessed", in honour of both Pope Benedict XV and Saint Benedict of Nursia. Pope Benedict XV was Pope during the First World War, during which time he passionately pursued peace between the warring nations. St. Benedict of Nursia was the founder of the Benedictine monasteries (most monasteries of the Middle Ages were of the Benedictine order) and the author of the Rule of Saint Benedict, which is still the most influential writing regarding the monastic life of Western Christianity.
The pope explained his choice of name during his first General Audience in St. Peter's Square, on 27 April 2005:
| “ | Filled with sentiments of awe and thanksgiving, I wish to speak of why I chose the name Benedict. Firstly, I remember Pope Benedict XV, that courageous prophet of peace, who guided the Church through turbulent times of war. In his footsteps I place my ministry in the service of reconciliation and harmony between peoples. Additionally, I recall Saint Benedict of Nursia, co-patron of Europe, whose life evokes the Christian roots of Europe. I ask him to help us all to hold firm to the centrality of Christ in our Christian life: May Christ always take first place in our thoughts and actions![33] | ” |
Tone of papacy[link]
During his inaugural Mass, the previous custom of every cardinal submitting to the Pope was replaced by having twelve people, including cardinals, clergy, religious, a married couple and their child, and newly confirmed people, greet him. (The cardinals had formally sworn their obedience upon his election.) He began using an open-topped papal car, saying that he wanted to be closer to the people. Pope Benedict has continued the tradition of his predecessor John Paul II and baptises several infants in the Sistine Chapel at the beginning of each year, in his pastoral role as Bishop of Rome.
Beatifications[link]
On 9 May 2005, Benedict XVI began the beatification process for his predecessor, Pope John Paul II. Normally, five years must pass after a person's death before the beatification process can begin. However, in an audience with Pope Benedict, Camillo Ruini, Vicar General of the Diocese of Rome and the official responsible for promoting the cause for canonization of any person who dies within that diocese, cited "exceptional circumstances" which suggested that the waiting period could be waived. This happened before, when Pope Paul VI waived the five year rule and announced beatification processes for his predecessors, Pope Pius XII and Pope John XXIII. Benedict XVI followed this precedent when he waived the five year rule for John Paul II.[34] The decision was announced on 13 May 2005, the Feast of Our Lady of Fátima and the 24th anniversary of the attempt on John Paul II's life.[35] John Paul II often credited Our Lady of Fátima for preserving him on that day. Cardinal Ruini inaugurated the diocesan phase of the cause for beatification in the Lateran Basilica on 28 June 2005.[36]
The first beatification under the new Pope was celebrated on 14 May 2005, by José Cardinal Saraiva Martins, Cardinal Prefect of the Congregation for the Causes of Saints. The new Blesseds were Mother Marianne Cope and Mother Ascensión Nicol Goñi. Cardinal Clemens August Graf von Galen was beatified on 9 October 2005. Mariano de la Mata was beatified in November 2006 and Rosa Eluvathingal was beatified 3 December of that year, and Fr. Basil Moreau was beatified September 2007.[37] In October 2008 the following beatifications took place: Celestine of the Mother of God, Giuseppina Nicoli, Hendrina Stenmanns, Maria Rosa Flesch, Marta Anna Wiecka, Michael Sopocko, Petrus Kibe Kasui and 187 Companions, Susana Paz-Castillo Ramirez, Maria Isbael Salvat Romero, and John Henry Newman.
Unlike his predecessor, Benedict XVI delegated the beatification liturgical service to a Cardinal. On 29 September 2005, the Congregation for the Causes of Saints issued a communiqué announcing that henceforth beatifications would be celebrated by a representative of the Pope, usually the Prefect of that Congregation.[38]
Canonizations[link]
Pope Benedict XVI celebrated his first canonizations on 23 October 2005 in St. Peter's Square when he canonized Josef Bilczewski, Alberto Hurtado SJ, Zygmunt Gorazdowski, Gaetano Catanoso, and Felice da Nicosia. The canonizations were part of a Mass that marked the conclusion of the General Assembly of the Synod of Bishops and the Year of the Eucharist.[39] Pope Benedict XVI canonized Bishop Rafael Guizar y Valencia, Mother Theodore Guerin, Filippo Smaldone, and Rosa Venerini on 15 October 2006.
During his visit to Brazil in 2007, Pope Benedict XVI presided over the canonization of Frei Galvão on 11 May, while George Preca, founder of the Malta based M.U.S.E.U.M., Szymon of Lipnica, Charles of Mount Argus, and Marie-Eugénie de Jésus were canonized in a ceremony held at the Vatican on 3 June 2007.[40] Preca is the first Maltese saint since the country's conversion to Christianity in 60 A.D. when St. Paul converted the inhabitants.[41] In October 2008 the following canonizations took place: Saint Alphonsa of India,[42] Gaetano Errico, Narcisa de Jesus Martillo Moran, Maria Bernarda Bütler. In April 2009 he canonized Arcangelo Tadini, Bernardo Tolomei, Nuno Álvares Pereira, Geltrude Comensoli, Caterina Volpicelli.[43] In October of the same year he canonized Jeanne Jugan, Jozef Damian de Veuster, Zygmunt Szczęsny Feliński, Francisco Coll Guitart and Rafael Arnáiz Barón.[44][45]
On 17 October 2010, Pope Benedict XVI formally declared sainthood for Saint André Bessette, a French-Canadian; Stanislaw Soltys, a 15th-century Polish priest; Italian nuns Giulia Salzano and Camilla Battista da Varano; Spanish nun Candida Maria de Jesus Cipitria y Barriola and an Australian nun, Mother Mary MacKillop.[46]
On 23 October 2011, Pope Benedict XVI canonized three saints: a Spanish nun Bonifacia Rodriguez y Castro, Italian archbishop Guido Maria Conforti, and Italian priest Luigi Guanella.[47]
In December 2011, Pope Benedict formally recognized the validity of the miracles necessary to proceed with the canonizations of Kateri Tekakwitha, who will be the first Native American saint, Marianne Cope, a nun working with lepers in what is now the state of Hawaii, Giovanni Battista Piamarta, an Italian priest, Jacques Berthieu a French Jesuit priest and African martyr, Carmen Salles y Barangueras, a Spanish nun and founder of the Sisters of the Immaculate Conception, Peter Calungsod, a lay catechist and martyr from the Philippines, and Anna Schaffer whose desire to be a missionary was unfulfilled on account of her illness.[48] They will be canonized on 21 October 2012.[49]
Curia reform[link]
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Pope Benedict began downsizing the Roman Curia when he merged four existing pontifical councils into two in March 2006. The Pontifical Council for Migrants was merged with the Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace headed by Cardinal Martino. Likewise, Cardinal Poupard, who headed the Pontifical Council for Culture, now also oversees the operations of what had been the Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue, though both Councils maintained separate officials and staffs while their status and competencies continued unchanged. In May 2007 it was decided that Interreligious Dialogue would again become a separate body under a different President. In June 2010 Benedict created the Pontifical Council for the Promotion of the New Evangelisation. He appointed Archbishop Salvatore Fisichella as its first president.
Teachings[link]
See also: Theology of Pope Benedict XVI
As Pope, one of Benedict XVI's main roles is to teach about the Catholic faith and the solutions to the problems of discerning and living the faith,[50] a role that he can play well as a former head of the Church's Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith. The main points of emphasis of his teachings are stated in more detail in Theology of Pope Benedict XVI.
"Friendship with Jesus Christ"[link]
At the conclusion of his first homily as Pope, Benedict referred to both Jesus Christ and John Paul II. Citing John Paul II's well-known words, "Do not be afraid! Open wide the doors for Christ!", Benedict XVI said:
| “ | Are we not perhaps all afraid in some way? If we let Christ enter fully into our lives, if we open ourselves totally to Him, are we not afraid that He might take something away from us?...And once again the Pope said: No! If we let Christ into our lives, we lose nothing, nothing, absolutely nothing of what makes life free, beautiful and great. No! Only in this friendship do we experience beauty and liberation....When we give ourselves to Him, we receive a hundredfold in return. Yes, open, open wide the doors to Christ – and you will find true life.[51] | ” |
"Friendship with Jesus Christ" is a frequent theme of his preaching.[52][53] He stressed that on this intimate friendship, "everything depends."[54] He has also said: "We are all called to open ourselves to this friendship with God... speaking to him as to a friend, the only One who can make the world both good and happy... That is all we have to do is put ourselves at his disposal...is an extremely important message. It is a message that helps to overcome what can be considered the great temptation of our time: the claim, that after the Big Bang, God withdrew from history."[55] Thus, in his book Jesus of Nazareth, his main purpose was "to help foster [in the reader] the growth of a living relationship" with Jesus Christ.[54]
He took up this theme in his first encyclical Deus Caritas Est. In his personal explanation and summary of the encyclical, he stated: "If friendship with God becomes for us something ever more important and decisive, then we will begin to love those whom God loves and who are in need of us. God wants us to be friends of his friends and we can be so, if we are interiorly close to them."[56] Thus, he said that prayer is "urgently needed...It is time to reaffirm the importance of prayer in the face of the activism and the growing secularism of many Christians engaged in charitable work."
"Dictatorship of Relativism"[link]
Continuing what he said in the pre-conclave Mass about what he has often referred to as the "central problem of our faith today",[57] on 6 June 2005 Pope Benedict also said:
| “ | Today, a particularly insidious obstacle to the task of education is the massive presence in our society and culture of that relativism which, recognising nothing as definitive, leaves as the ultimate criterion only the self with its desires. And under the semblance of freedom it becomes a prison for each one, for it separates people from one another, locking each person into his or her own ego.[58] | ” |
He said that "a dictatorship of relativism"[59] was the core challenge facing the church and humanity. At the root of this problem, he said, is Kant's "self-limitation of reason". This, he said, is contradictory to the modern acclamation of science whose excellence is based on the power of reason to know the truth. He said that this self-amputation of reason leads to pathologies of religion such as terrorism and pathologies of science such as ecological disasters.[60] Benedict traced the failed revolutions and violent ideologies of the 20th century to a conversion of partial points of view into absolute guides. He said "Absolutizing what is not absolute but relative is called totalitarianism."[61]
In an address to a conference of the Diocese of Rome held at the basilica of St. John Lateran 6 June 2005, Benedict remarked on the issues of same sex marriage and abortion:
- The various forms of the dissolution of matrimony today, like free unions, trial marriages and going up to pseudo-matrimonies by people of the same sex, are rather expressions of an anarchic freedom that wrongly passes for true freedom of man...from here it becomes all the more clear how contrary it is to human love, to the profound vocation of man and woman, to systematically close their union to the gift of life, and even worse to suppress or tamper with the life that is born.[62]
Christianity as religion according to reason[link]
In the discussion with secularism and rationalism, one of Benedict's basic ideas can be found in his address on the "Crisis of Culture" in the West, a day before Pope John Paul II died, when he referred to Christianity as the Religion of the Logos (the Greek for "word", "reason", "meaning", or "intelligence"). He said:
| “ | From the beginning, Christianity has understood itself as the religion of the Logos, as the religion according to reason...It has always defined men, all men without distinction, as creatures and images of God, proclaiming for them...the same dignity. In this connection, the Enlightenment is of Christian origin and it is no accident that it was born precisely and exclusively in the realm of the Christian faith....It was and is the merit of the Enlightenment to have again proposed these original values of Christianity and of having given back to reason its own voice... Today, this should be precisely [Christianity's] philosophical strength, in so far as the problem is whether the world comes from the irrational, and reason is not other than a 'sub-product,' on occasion even harmful of its development—or whether the world comes from reason, and is, as a consequence, its criterion and goal...In the so necessary dialogue between secularists and Catholics, we Christians must be very careful to remain faithful to this fundamental line: to live a faith that comes from the Logos, from creative reason, and that, because of this, is also open to all that is truly rational.[63] | ” |
Benedict also emphasised that "Only creative reason, which in the crucified God is manifested as love, can really show us the way."
Encyclicals[link]
Pope Benedict has to date written three encyclicals: Deus Caritas Est (Latin for "God is Love"), Spe Salvi ("Saved by Hope"), and Caritas in Veritate ("Love in Truth").
In his first encyclical, Deus Caritas Est, he said that a human being, created in the image of God who is love, is able to practice love: to give himself to God and others (agape), by receiving and experiencing God's love in contemplation. This life of love, according to him, is the life of the saints such as Teresa of Calcutta and the Blessed Virgin Mary, and is the direction Christians take when they believe that God loves them in Jesus Christ.[64]
The encyclical contains almost 16,000 words in 42 paragraphs. The first half is said to have been written by Benedict in German, his mother tongue, in the summer of 2005; the second half is derived from uncompleted writings left by his predecessor, Pope John Paul II.[65] The document was signed by Pope Benedict on Christmas Day, 25 December 2005.[66] The encyclical was promulgated a month later in Latin and was translated into English, French, German, Italian, Polish, Portuguese and Spanish. It is the first encyclical to be published since the Vatican decided to assert copyright in the official writings of the Pope.[67]
Pope Benedict's second encyclical titled Spe Salvi ("Saved by Hope"), about the virtue of hope, was released on 30 November 2007.[68][69]
Benedict's third encyclical titled Caritas in Veritate ("Love in Truth" or "Charity in Truth"), was signed on 29 June 2009 (the Feast of Sts. Peter and Paul) and released on 7 July 2009.[70] In it, the Pope continued the Church's teachings on social justice. He condemned the prevalent economic system "where the pernicious effects of sin are evident," and called on people to rediscover ethics in business and economic relations.[70]
Post-synodal apostolic exhortation[link]
Sacramentum Caritatis (The Sacrament of Charity) signed 22 February 2007, released in Latin, Italian, English, French, German, Portuguese, Spanish, and Polish. It was made available in various languages 13 March 2007 in Rome. The English edition from Libera Editrice Vaticana is 158 pages. This apostolic exhortation "seeks to take up the richness and variety of the reflections and proposals which emerged from the recent Ordinary General Assembly of the Synod of Bishops..." which was held in 2006.[71]
Motu proprio on Tridentine Mass[link]
See also: Summorum Pontificum
The high altar of a church was usually preceded by three steps, below which were said the Prayers at the Foot of the Altar. Side altars usually had only one step.
On 7 July 2007, Benedict XVI issued the motu proprio Summorum Pontificum, declaring that upon "the request of the faithful", celebration of Mass according to the Missal of 1962 (commonly known as the Tridentine Mass), was to be more easily permitted. Stable groups who previously had to petition their bishop to have a Tridentine Mass may now merely request permission from their local priest.[72] While Summorum Pontificum directs that pastors should provide the Tridentine Mass upon the requests of the faithful, it also allows for any qualified priest to offer private celebrations of the Tridentine Mass, to which the faithful may be admitted if they wish.[73] For regularly scheduled public celebrations of the Tridentine Mass, the permission of the priest in charge of the church is required.[74]
In an accompanying letter, the Pope outlined his position concerning questions about the new guidelines.[73] As there were fears that the move would entail a reversal of the Second Vatican Council,[75] Benedict emphasised that the Tridentine Mass would not detract from the Council, and that the Mass of Paul VI would still be the norm and priests were not permitted to refuse to say the Mass in that form. He pointed out that use of Tridentine Mass "was never juridically abrogated and, consequently, in principle, was always permitted."[73] The letter also decried "deformations of the liturgy ... because in many places celebrations were not faithful to the prescriptions of the new Missal" as the Second Vatican Council was wrongly seen "as authorising or even requiring creativity", mentioning his own experience.[73]
The Pope considered that allowing the Tridentine Mass to those who request it was a means to prevent or heal schism, stating that, on occasions in history, "not enough was done by the Church’s leaders to maintain or regain reconciliation and unity" and that this "imposes an obligation on us today: to make every effort to enable for all those who truly desire unity to remain in that unity or to attain it anew."[73] Many feel the decree aimed at ending the schism between the Holy See and traditionalist groups such as the Society of St. Pius X (SSPX). Cardinal Darío Castrillón Hoyos, the president of the Pontifical Commission established for the purpose of facilitating full ecclesial communion of those associated with that Society,[76] stated that the decree "opened the door for their return". Bishop Bernard Fellay, superior general of the SSPX, expressed "deep gratitude to the Sovereign Pontiff for this great spiritual benefit".[72]
Unicity and Salvific Universality of the Church[link]
Near the end of June 2007, the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith issued a document approved by Benedict XVI "because some contemporary theological interpretations of Vatican II's ecumenical intent had been 'erroneous or ambiguous' and had prompted confusion and doubt."[77] The document has been seen as restating "key sections of a 2000 text the pope wrote when he was prefect of the congregation, Dominus Iesus."[77]
Consumerism[link]
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Benedict XVI has condemned excessive consumerism, especially among youth. He stated in December 2007 that "[A]dolescents, youths and even children are easy victims of the corruption of love, deceived by unscrupulous adults who, lying to themselves and to them, draw them into the dead-end streets of consumerism."[78]
In June 2009, he blamed outsourcing for greater availability of consumer goods which lead to downsizing of social security systems.[79]
Ecumenical efforts[link]
Main article: Pope Benedict XVI and Ecumenism
Speaking at his weekly audience in St Peter's Square on 7 June 2006, Pope Benedict asserted that Jesus himself had entrusted the leadership of the Church to his apostle Peter. "Peter's responsibility thus consists of guaranteeing the communion with Christ," said Pope Benedict. "Let us pray so that the primacy of Peter, entrusted to poor human beings, may always be exercised in this original sense desired by the Lord, so that it will be increasingly recognised in its true meaning by brothers who are still not in communion with us."
Dialogue with other religions[link]
Pope Benedict is open to dialogue with other religious groups, and has sought to improve relations with them throughout his pontificate.[80][81] He has, however, generated certain controversies in doing so.
Judaism[link]
Main article: Pope Benedict XVI and Judaism
When Benedict ascended to the Papacy his election was welcomed by the Anti-Defamation League who noted "his great sensitivity to Jewish history and the Holocaust".[82] However, his election received a more reserved response from the United Kingdom's Chief Rabbi Jonathan Sacks, who hoped that Benedict would "continue along the path of Pope John XXIII and Pope John Paul II in working to enhance relations with the Jewish people and the State of Israel."[83] The Foreign Minister of Israel also offered more tentative praise, though the Minister believed that "this Pope, considering his historical experience, will be especially committed to an uncompromising fight against anti-Semitism."[83]
Critics have accused Benedict's papacy of insensitivity towards Judaism. The two most prominent instances were the expansion of the use of the Tridentine Mass and the lifting of the excommunication on four bishops from the Society of St. Pius X (SSPX). In the Good Friday service, the traditional Mass rubrics include a prayer that asks God to lift the veil so they [Jews] may be delivered from their darkness. This prayer has historically been contentious in Judaic-Catholic relations and several groups saw the restoration of the Tridentine Mass as problematic.[84][85][86][87][88] Among those whose excommunications were lifted was Bishop Richard Williamson, an outspoken historical revisionist misinterpreted as a Holocaust denier.[89][90][91][92] The lifting of his excommunication led critics to charge that the Pope was condoning his historical revisionist views.[93]
Islam[link]
Main article: Pope Benedict XVI and Islam
Pope Benedict's relations with Islam have been strained at times. On 12 September 2006 Pope Benedict XVI delivered a lecture which touched on Islam at the University of Regensburg in Germany. The pope had previously served as professor of theology at the university, and his lecture was entitled "Faith, Reason and the University—Memories and Reflections". The lecture received much attention from political and religious authorities. Many Islamic politicians and religious leaders registered their protest against what they said was an insulting mischaracterisation of Islam, although his focus was aimed towards the rationality of religious violence, and its effect on the religion.[94][95] Muslims were particularly offended by the following quotation from the Pope's speech:
| “ | Show me just what Muhammad brought that was new and there you will find things only evil and inhuman, such as his command to spread by the sword the faith he preached.[95] | ” |
The passage originally appeared in the "Dialogue Held With A Certain Persian, the Worthy Mouterizes, in Anakara of Galatia[96][97] written in 1391 as an expression of the views of the Byzantine emperor Manuel II Paleologus, one of the last Christian rulers before the Fall of Constantinople to the Muslim Ottoman Empire, on such issues as forced conversion, holy war, and the relationship between faith and reason. According to the German text, the Pope's original comment was that the emperor "addresses his interlocutor in an astoundingly harsh—to us surprisingly harsh—way" (wendet er sich in erstaunlich schroffer, uns überraschend schroffer Form).[98] Pope Benedict apologised for any offence he had caused and made a point of visiting Turkey, a predominantly Muslim country, and praying in its Blue Mosque.
Pope Benedict XVI planned on 5 March 2008, to meet with Muslim scholars and religious leaders autumn 2008 at a Catholic-Muslim seminar in Rome.[99] That meeting, the "First Meeting of the Catholic-Muslim Forum," was held from 4–6 November 2008.[100]
On 9 May 2009 H.H. Pope Benedict XVI visited the King Hussein Mosque, Amman, Jordan where he was addressed by H.R.H. Prince Ghazi bin Muhammad bin Talal.[80]
Tibetan Buddhism[link]
The Dalai Lama congratulated Pope Benedict XVI upon his election,[101] and visited him in October 2006 in the Vatican City. In 2007 China was accused of using its political influence to stop a meeting between the Pope and the Dalai Lama.[102]
Indigenous American beliefs[link]
While visiting Brazil in May 2007, "the pope sparked controversy by saying that native populations had been 'silently longing' for the Christian faith brought to South America by colonizers."[103] The Pope continued, stating that "the proclamation of Jesus and of his Gospel did not at any point involve an alienation of the pre-Columbus cultures, nor was it the imposition of a foreign culture."[103] President of Venezuela Hugo Chávez demanded an apology, and an indigenous organisation in Ecuador issued a response which stated that "representatives of the Catholic Church of those times, with honourable exceptions, were accomplices, deceivers and beneficiaries of one of the most horrific genocides of all humanity."[103] Later, the pope, speaking Italian, said at a weekly audience that it was:
"not possible to forget the suffering and the injustices inflicted by colonizers against the indigenous population, whose fundamental human rights were often trampled."[104]
International Society for Krishna Consciousness[link]
While visiting the United States on 17 April 2008, Benedict met with International Society for Krishna Consciousness representative Radhika Ramana Dasa;[105] a notable Hindu scholar[106] and disciple of Hanumatpreshaka Swami.[107] On behalf of the Hindu American community, Radhika Ramana Dasa presented a gift of an Om symbol to Benedict.[108][109]
Apostolic ministry[link]
Main article: List of journeys of Pope Benedict XVI
As Pontiff, Benedict XVI carries out numerous Apostolic activities including journeys across the world and in the Vatican.
Benedict travelled extensively during the first three years of his papacy. In addition to his travels within Italy, Pope Benedict XVI has made two visits to his homeland, Germany, one for World Youth Day and another to visit the towns of his childhood. He has also visited Poland and Spain, where he was enthusiastically received.[110] His visit to Turkey, an overwhelmingly Muslim nation, was initially overshadowed by the controversy about a lecture he had given at Regensburg. His visit was met by nationalist and Islamic protesters[111] and was placed under unprecedented security measures.[112] However, the trip went ahead and Benedict made a joint declaration with Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew I in an attempt to begin to heal the rift between the Catholic and Orthodox churches.
In 2007, Pope Benedict visited Brazil in order to address the Bishops' Conference there and canonize Friar Antônio Galvão, an 18th century Franciscan. In June 2007, Benedict made a personal pilgrimage and pastoral visit to Assisi, the birthplace of St. Francis. In September, Benedict undertook a three day visit to Austria,[113] during which he joined Vienna's Chief Rabbi, Paul Chaim Eisenberg, in a memorial to the 65,000 Viennese Jews who perished in Nazi death camps.[114] During his stay in Austria, he also celebrated Mass at the Marian shrine Mariazell and visited Heiligenkreuz Abbey.[115]
In April 2008, Pope Benedict XVI made his first visit to the United States since becoming pope.[116] He arrived in Washington, DC where he was formally received at the White House and met privately with U.S. President George W. Bush.[117] While in Washington, the pope addressed representatives of US Catholic universities, met with leaders of other world religions, and celebrated Mass at the Washington Nationals' baseball stadium with 47,000 people.[118] The Pope also met privately with victims of sexual abuse by priests. The pope travelled to New York where he addressed the United Nations General Assembly.[119] Also while in New York, the pope celebrated Mass at St. Patrick's Cathedral, met with disabled children and their families, and attended an event for Catholic youth, where he addressed some 25,000 young people in attendance.[120] On the final day of the pope's visit, he visited the World Trade Center site and later celebrated Mass at Yankee Stadium.[121]
In July 2008, the Pope travelled to Australia to attend World Youth Day 2008 in Sydney. On 19 July, in St. Mary's Cathedral, he made an apology for child sex abuse perpetrated by the clergy in Australia.[122][123] On 13 September 2008, at an outdoor Paris Mass attended by 250,000 people, Pope Benedict XVI condemned the modern materialism – the world's love of power, possessions and money as a modern-day plague, comparing it to paganism.[124][125]
In 2009, he visited Africa (Cameroon and Angola) for the first time as a Pope. During his visit, he suggested that altering sexual behavior was the answer to Africa's AIDS crisis, and urged Catholics to reach out and convert believers in sorcery.
He visited the Middle East (Jordan, Israel and Palestine) in May 2009.
Pope Benedict's main arena for pastoral activity is the Vatican itself, his Christmas and Easter homilies and Urbi et Orbi are delivered from St Peter's Basilica. The Vatican is also the only regular place where the Pope travels via motor without the protective bulletproof case common to most popemobiles. Despite the more secure setting Pope Benedict has been victim to security risks several times inside Vatican City. On Wednesday, 6 June 2007 during his General Audience a man lept across a barrier, evaded guards and nearly mounted the Pope's vehicle, although he was stopped and Benedict seemed to be unaware of the event. On Thursday, 24 December 2009, while Pope Benedict was proceeding to the altar to celebrate Christmas Eve Mass at St Peter's Basilica, a woman later identified as 25-year-old Susanna Maiolo, who holds Italian and Swiss citizenships, jumped the barrier and grabbed the pope by his vestments and pulled him to the ground. The 82-year-old fell but was assisted to his feet and he continued to proceed towards the altar to celebrate Mass. Roger Etchegaray, 87, the vice-dean of the College of Cardinals, fell also and suffered a hip fracture. Italian police revealed that the woman had previously attempted to accost the Pope at the previous Christmas Eve Mass, but was prevented from doing so.[126][127]
In his homily, Pope Benedict forgave Susanna Maiolo[128] and urged the world to "wake up" from selfishness and petty affairs, and find time for God and spiritual matters.[126]
Between 17 and 18 April, Pope Benedict made an Apostolic Journey to the Republic of Malta. Following meetings with various dignitaries on his first day on the island, 50,000 people gathered in a drizzle for Papal Mass on the granaries in Floriana. The Pope also met with the Maltese youth at the Valletta Waterfront, where an estimated 10,000 young people turned up to greet him.[129] During his visit the Pope was moved to tears while expressing his shame at cases of abuse on the island during a 20 minute meeting with victims.[130]
Sexual abuse in the Catholic Church[link]
See also: Catholic sex abuse cases
Prior to 2001, the primary responsibility for investigating allegations of sexual abuse and disciplining perpetrators rested with the individual dioceses. In 2001, Ratzinger convinced John Paul II to put the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith in charge of all investigations and policies surrounding sexual abuse in order to combat such abuse more efficiently.[131][132] According to John L. Allen, Jr., Ratzinger in the following years "acquired a familiarity with the contours of the problem that virtually no other figure in the Catholic church can claim" and "driven by that encounter with what he would later refer to as 'filth' in the church, Ratzinger seems to have undergone something of a 'conversion experience' throughout 2003–04. From that point forward, he and his staff seemed driven by a convert's zeal to clean up the mess".[133] In his role as Head of the CFD, he "led important changes made in church law: the inclusion in canon law of internet offences against children, the extension of child abuse offences to include the sexual abuse of all under 18, the case by case waiving of the statute of limitation and the establishment of a fast-track dismissal from the clerical state for offenders."[134] As the Head of the CDF, Ratzinger developed a reputation for handling these cases. According to Charles J. Scicluna, a former prosecutor handling sexual abuse cases, "Cardinal Ratzinger displayed great wisdom and firmness in handling those cases, also demonstrating great courage in facing some of the most difficult and thorny cases, sine acceptione personarum (without exceptions)".[133][135]
One of the cases Ratzinger pursued involved Father Marcial Maciel Degollado, a Mexican priest and founder of the Legion of Christ, who had been accused repeatedly of sexual abuse. Biographer Andrea Tornielli suggested that Cardinal Ratzinger had wanted to take action against Marcial Maciel Degollado, but that John Paul II and other high-ranking officials, including several cardinals and notably the pope's influential secretary Stanisław Dziwisz, prevented him from doing so.[132][136] According to Jason Berry, Angelo Sodano "pressured" Cardinal Ratzinger, who was "operating on the assumption that the charges were not justified", to halt the proceedings against Maciel in 1999[137] When Maciel was honored by the Pope in 2004, new accusers came forward[137] and Cardinal Ratzinger "took it on himself to authorize an investigation of Maciel"[132] After Ratzinger became pope he began proceedings against Maciel and the Legion of Christ that forced Maciel out of active service in the church.[131] On 1 May 2010 the Vatican issued a statement denouncing Maciel's "very serious and objectively immoral acts", which were "confirmed by incontrovertible testimonies" and represent "true crimes and manifest a life without scruples or authentic religious sentiment." Pope Benedict also said he would appoint a special commission to examine the Legionaries’ constitution and open an investigation into its lay affiliate Regnum Christi.[138] Cardinal Christoph Schönborn explained that Ratzinger "made entirely clear efforts not to cover things up but to tackle and investigate them. This was not always met with approval in the Vatican".[131][139] According to Schönborn, Cardinal Ratzinger had pressed John Paul II to investigate Hans Hermann Groër, an Austrian cardinal and friend of John Paul accused of sexual abuse, resulting in Groër's resignation.[136]
In March 2010, the Pope sent a Pastoral Letter to the Catholic Church in Ireland addressing cases of sexual abuse by Catholic priests to minors, expressing sorrow, and promising changes in the way accusations of abuse are dealt with.[140] Victim groups claim the letter failed to clarify if secular law enforcement has priority over canon law confidentiality pertaining to internal investigation of abuse allegations.[141][142][143][144] The Pope then promised to introduce measures that would 'safeguard young people in the future' and 'bring to justice' priests who were responsible for abuse.[130] In April, the Vatican issued guidelines on how existing church law should be implemented. The guideline dictates that "Civil law concerning reporting of crimes... should always be followed."[145] The guideline was intended to follow the norms established by U.S. bishops, but it does not require the reporting of "allegations" or crimes where reporting is not required by law.[146]
Attire[link]
Main article: Ceremonial of Benedict XVI
Pope Benedict XVI has re-introduced several papal garments which had previously fallen into disuse. Pope Benedict XVI resumed the use of the traditional red papal shoes, which had not been used since early in the pontificate of Pope John Paul II. Contrary to the initial speculation of the press that the shoes had been made by the Italian fashion house Prada, the Vatican announced that the shoes were provided by the pope's personal shoemaker.[147]
On 21 December 2005, the pope once only wore the camauro, the traditional red papal hat usually worn in the winter. It had not been seen since the pontificate of Pope John XXIII (1958–1963). On 6 September 2006 the pope began wearing the red cappello romano (also called a saturno), a wide-brimmed hat for outdoor use. Rarely used by John Paul II, it was more widely worn by his predecessors.
Health[link]
Prior to his election as Pope in 2005, Joseph Ratzinger had hoped to retire—on account of age-related health problems, a long-held desire to have free time to write, and the retirement age for bishops (75)—and submitted his resignation as Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith three times, but continued at his post in obedience to the wishes of Pope John Paul II. In September 1991, Ratzinger suffered a hemorrhagic stroke, which slightly impaired his eyesight temporarily but he recovered completely.[148] This was never affirmed – the official news was that Cardinal Ratzinger fell and struck his head against a radiator – but an open secret known to the Conclave that elected him Pope.[149]
Since his election in April 2005 there have been several rumors about the Pope's health but none of them have ever been confirmed. Early in his pontificate Pope Benedict XVI predicted a short reign which led to concerns about his health.[150] In May 2005, the Vatican revealed that he had subsequently suffered another mild stroke. French Cardinal Philippe Barbarin further revealed that since the first stroke, Ratzinger had been suffering from a heart condition as a result of his age, for which he is currently on medication. In late November 2006, Vatican insiders told the international press that the Pope had a routine examination of the heart.[149] A few days later an unconfirmed rumor emerged that Pope Benedict had undergone an operation in preparation for an eventual bypass operation but this rumor was only published by a small left-wing Italian newspaper and was never confirmed by any Vatican insider.[151]
On Friday 17 July 2009 Benedict was hospitalized after falling and breaking his right wrist while on vacation in the Alps. His injuries were reported to be minor.[152]
Titles and style[link]
| Papal styles of Pope Benedict XVI |
|
|---|---|
|
|
| Reference style | His Holiness |
| Spoken style | Your Holiness |
| Religious style | Holy Father |
The official style of the Pope is His Holiness Pope Benedict XVI; in Latin, Benedictus XVI, Episcopus Romae.
However, his rarely used full title is: His Holiness Pope Benedict XVI, Bishop of Rome, Vicar of Christ, Successor of the Prince of the Apostles, Supreme Pontiff of the Universal Church, Primate of Italy, Archbishop and Metropolitan of the Roman province, Sovereign of the State of the Vatican City, Servant of the Servants of God.
Before 1 March 2006, the list of titles also used to contain that of a "Patriarch of the West", which traditionally appeared in that list of titles before "Primate of Italy". The title of "Patriarch of the West" was first adopted in the year 642 by Pope Theodore I, but was rarely used since the East-West Schism of 1054. From the Orthodox perspective, authority in the Church could be traced to the five patriarchates of Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem. However, some Catholic theologians have argued that the term "Patriarch of the West" has no clear historical or theological basis and was introduced into the papal court in 1870 at the time of the First Vatican Council. Pope Benedict chose to remove the title at a time when discussions with the Orthodox churches have centred on the issue of papal primacy.
Arms[link]
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Positions on moral and political issues[link]
Birth control and HIV/AIDS[link]
In 2005, the Pope listed several ways to combat the spread of HIV, including chastity, fidelity in marriage and anti-poverty efforts; he also rejected the use of condoms.[154] The alleged Vatican investigation of whether there are any cases when married persons may use condoms to protect against the spread of infections surprised many Catholics in the wake of John Paul II's consistent refusal to consider condom use in response to AIDS.[155] However, the Vatican has since stated that no such change in the Church's teaching can occur.[156] TIME also reported in its 30 April 2006 edition that the Vatican's position remains what it always has been with Vatican officials "flatly dismiss[ing] reports that the Vatican is about to release a document that will condone any condom use."[156]
In March 2009, the Pope stated:
I would say that this problem of AIDS cannot be overcome merely with money, necessary though it is. If there is no human dimension, if Africans do not help, the problem cannot be overcome by the distribution of prophylactics: on the contrary, they increase it. The solution must have two elements: firstly, bringing out the human dimension of sexuality, that is to say a spiritual and human renewal that would bring with it a new way of behaving towards others, and secondly, true friendship offered above all to those who are suffering, a willingness to make sacrifices and to practise self-denial, to be alongside the suffering.[157]
In November 2010, in a book-length interview, the Pope, using the example of male prostitutes, stated that the use of condoms, with the intention of reducing the risk of HIV infection, may be an indication that the prostitute is intending to reduce the evil connected with his or her immoral activity.[158] In the same interview, the Pope also reiterated the traditional teaching of the Church that condoms are not seen as a "real or moral solution" to the HIV/AIDS pandemic. Further, in December 2010, the Congregation of the Doctrine of the Faith explained that the Pope's statement did not constitute a legitimization of either prostitution or contraception, both of which remain gravely immoral.[158]
Homosexuality[link]
During his time as Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith (CDF) Benedict XVI made several efforts to tackle the issue of homosexuality within the Church and the wider world. In 1986 the CDF sent a letter to all Bishops entitled: On the Pastoral Care of Homosexual Persons. The letter condemned a liberal interpretation of the earlier CDF document Declaration on Certain Questions Concerning Sexual Ethics, which had led to a "benign" attitude "to the homosexual condition itself". On the Pastoral Care of Homosexual Persons clarified that the Church position on Homosexuality was that "although the particular inclination of the homosexual person is not a sin, it is a more or less strong tendency ordered toward an intrinsic moral evil; and thus the inclination itself must be seen as an objective disorder."[159] However the document also condemned homophobic attacks and violence stating "It is deplorable that homosexual persons have been and are the object of violent malice in speech or in action. Such treatment deserves condemnation from the Church's pastors wherever it occurs."[159]
In 1992 he again approved CDF documents declaring that homosexual "inclination itself must be seen as an objective disorder" and extended this principle to civil law. "Sexual orientation", the document opined, was not equivalent to race or ethnicity, and it declared that it was "not unjust discrimination to take sexual orientation into account."[160]
On 22 December 2008, the Pope gave an end of year message to the Roman Curia in which he talked about gender and the important distinction between men and women. The pope said that the church viewed the distinction as central to human nature, and "asks that this order, set down by creation, be respected". He characterised gender roles which deviated from his view of what gender roles should be as "a violation of the natural order". The church, he said, "should protect man from the destruction of himself". He said a sort of ecology of man was needed, adding: "The tropical forests do deserve our protection; but man, as a creature, does not deserve any less." He attacked what he described as gender theories which "lead towards the self-emancipation of man from creation and the creator"."[161][162]
LGBT groups such as the Italian Arcigay and German LSVD have announced that they found the Pope's comments homophobic.[163] Aurelio Mancuso, head of Arcigay, saying "A divine programme for men and women is out of line with nature, where the roles are not so clear."[161]
Father Federico Lombardi, a Vatican spokesman, claimed the Pope had not wished specifically to attack homosexuality, and had not mentioned gays or lesbians in his text. Father Lombardi insisted, however, that there had been an overreaction to the Pope's remarks. "He was speaking more generally about gender theories which overlook the fundamental difference in creation between men and women and focus instead on cultural conditioning." Nevertheless, the remarks were interpreted as a call to save mankind from homosexuals and transsexuals.[161]
International relations[link]
Main article: Foreign relations of the Holy See
Migrants and refugees[link]
In a message released 14 November 2006, during a Vatican press conference for the 2007 annual observance of World Day for Migrants and Refugees, the pope urged the ratification of international conventions and policies that defend all migrants, including refugees, exiles, evacuees, and internally displaced persons. "The church encourages the ratification of the international legal instruments that aim to defend the rights of migrants, refugees and their families," the pope said. "Much is already being done for the integration of the families of immigrants, although much still remains to be done."[164]
Pope Benedict has also promoted various UN events, such as World Refugee Day, on which he offered up special prayers for refugees and called for the international community to do more to secure refugees' human rights. He also called on Catholic communities and organizations to offer them concrete help.[165]
China[link]
Main article: People's Republic of China – Holy See relations
In 2007 Benedict sent a letter at Easter to Catholics in China that could have wide-ranging implications for the church's relationship with China's leadership. The letter provides long-requested guidance to Chinese bishops on how to respond to illicitly ordained bishops, as well as how to strengthen ties with the Patriotic Association and the Communist government.[166]
Korea[link]
On 13 November 2006, Benedict said the dispute over the North Korea nuclear weapons program should be resolved through negotiations, in his first public comment on the security issue, a news report said. "The Holy See encourages bilateral or multilateral negotiations, convinced that the solution must be sought through peaceful means and in respect for agreements taken by all sides to obtain the denuclearisation of the Korean Peninsula." Benedict was talking to the new Japanese ambassador to the Vatican.[167]
Turkey[link]
Main article: Holy See – Turkey relations
In a 2004 Le Figaro interview, Ratzinger said that Turkey, which is demographically Muslim but governmentally secular by virtue of its state constitution, should seek its future in an association of Muslim nations rather than the European Union, which Ratzinger has stated has Christian roots. He said Turkey had always been "in permanent contrast to Europe and that linking it to Europe would be a mistake.[168]
Later visiting the country to "reiterate the solidarity between the cultures," it was reported that he made a counter-statement backing Turkey's bid to join the EU. Prime Minister of Turkey Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, said that the pope told him in their meeting that while the Vatican seeks to stay out of politics it desires Turkey's membership in the EU.[169][170] However, the Common Declaration of Pope Benedict XVI and Patriarch Bartholomew I of Constantinople implied that support for Turkey's membership in the European Union would be contingent on the establishment of religious freedom in Turkey:[171] "In every step towards unification, minorities must be protected, with their cultural traditions and the distinguishing features of their religion."[172] The Declaration also reiterates Pope Benedict XVI's call for Europe to preserve its Christian roots.
Israel[link]
Main article: Holy See – Israel relations
In May 2009 he visited Israel.[173][174] This was the third Papal visit to the Holy Land, the previous ones being made by Pope Paul VI in 1964 and Pope John Paul II in 2000.
Vietnam[link]
Main article: Holy See – Vietnam relations
Pope Benedict XVI and Prime Minister Nguyễn Tấn Dũng met at the Vatican on 25 January 2007 in a "new and important step towards establishing diplomatic ties".[175] The Pope met with President Nguyễn Minh Triết on 11 December 2009. Vatican officials called the meeting "a significant stage in the progress of bilateral relations with Vietnam."[176]
Global economy[link]
In 2009 the Pope intervened in global economic and political affairs with his third encyclical, Charity in Truth (Latin Caritas in Veritate), which can be viewed on the Vatican's web site.[177] The document sets out the Pope's position on the case for worldwide redistribution of wealth in considerable detail and goes on to discuss the environment, migration, terrorism, sexual tourism, bioethics, energy and population issues. The Financial Times has reported that the Pope's advocacy for a fairer redistribution of wealth has helped set the agenda for the 2009 July G8 summit.[178][179]
Nuclear energy[link]
Pope Benedict XVI has called for nuclear disarmament. At the same time, he has supported the peaceful use of nuclear energy as a tool for development and the fight against poverty. In his message for the 50th anniversary of the founding of the International Atomic Energy Agency, he confirmed: "The Holy See, fully approving of the IAEA's goal, has been a member from the organisation's foundation and continues to support its activity."[180]
Interests[link]
Pope Benedict is known to be deeply interested in classical music,[8] and is an accomplished pianist.[181] He has a grand piano in his papal quarters. The Pontiff's favorite composer is Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, of whose music the Pope said: "His music is by no means just entertainment; it contains the whole tragedy of human existence."[182] Benedict also stated that Mozart's music affected him greatly as a young man and "deeply penetrated his soul."[182] Benedict's favorite works of music are Mozart's Clarinet Concerto and Clarinet Quintet.[183]
Pope Benedict has recorded an album of contemporary classical music in which Benedict sings and recites prayers to the Blessed Virgin Mary.[184] The album was set for release on 30 November 2009.
Pope Benedict is also known to be fond of cats.[8] As Cardinal Ratzinger he was known (according to former neighbours) to look after stray cats in his neighbourhood. A book called Joseph and Chico: A Cat Recounts the Life of Pope Benedict XVI was published in 2007 which told the story of the Pope's life from the feline Chico's perspective. This story was inspired by an orange tabby Pentling cat, which belonged to the family next door.[185] During his trip to Australia for World Youth Day in 2008 the media reported that festival organizers lent the Pope a grey cat called Bella[186] in order to keep him company during his stay.[187]
Honours and awards[link]
- 1977 Grand Cross of the National Order of Merit of the Republic of Ecuador
- 1977 Bavarian Order of Merit
- 1985 Great Cross of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany with Star and Sash
- 1985 Constitutional Medal of the Bavarian state parliament in Gold
- 1989 Ordine della Minerva at the University of Chieti
- 1989 Augustin Bea Prize (Rome)
- 1989 Karl-Valentin-Orden (Munich)
- 1991 Leopold Kunschak Prize (Vienna)
- 1991 Georg von Hertling Medal of CT
- 1992 Grand Gold Medal with Ribbon for Services to the Republic of Austria
- 1992 Literature Prize Capri S. Michele in Anacapri
- 1992 Premio Internazionale di Cultura Cattolica, Bassano del Grappa
- 1993 literary prize Premio Letterario Basilicata per la Letteratura e Poesia religiosa Spirituale in Potenza (Italy)
- 1996 Bavarian Maximilian Order for Science and the Arts
- 1998 Commander of the Legion of Honour (Legion d'Honneur) (France)
- 2002 Liberal Trieste
- 2004 Literature Prize Capri S. Michele in Anacapri
See also[link]
 |
Book: Pope Benedict XVI |
| Wikipedia books are collections of articles that can be downloaded or ordered in print. | |
- Georg Gänswein – private secretary to Benedict
- List of books by Pope Benedict XVI
- List of encyclicals of Pope Benedict XVI
- List of journeys of Pope Benedict XVI
- Papal regalia and insignia – papal attire
- Pope Benedict – list of other popes and antipopes using the name Benedict
- Three Secrets of Fátima – document on the release of the Third Secret of Fátima
- Works of Pope Benedict XVI – literature written by Pope Benedict XVI
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Further reading[link]
Books by Pope Benedict XVI[link]
Main article: Pope Benedict XVI bibliography
The following is a list of books written by Pope Benedict XVI arranged chronologically by English first edition. The original German first edition publication year is included in parentheses.
- Theological Highlights of Vatican II. New York: Paulist Press. 1966 (1963). ISBN 978-0-8091-4610-9. [note 1]
- Introduction to Christianity. London: Burns & Oats. 1968 (1968). ISBN 978-0-223-97705-1.
- Faith and Future. Chicago: Franciscan Herald Press. 1971 (1970). ISBN 978-1-58617-219-0.
- The God of Jesus Christ: Meditations on the Triune God. Chicago: Franciscan Herald Press. 1978 (1977). ISBN 978-1-58617-184-1.
- Daughter Zion: Meditations on the Church's Marian Belief. Chicago: Franciscan Herald Press. 1983 (1977). ISBN 978-0-89870-026-8.
- Dogma and Preaching. Chicago: Franciscan Herald Press. 1985 (1973). ISBN 978-1-58617-327-2.
- Principles of Christian Morality. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 1986 (1975). ISBN 978-0-89870-086-2.
- Feast of Faith: Approaches to a Theology of the Liturgy. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 1986 (1981). ISBN 978-0-89870-056-5.
- The Ratzinger Report: An Exclusive Interview on the State of the Church. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 1986 (1985). ISBN 978-0-89870-080-0.
- Seek That Which Is Above: Meditations through the Year. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 1986 (1985). ISBN 978-1-58617-187-2.
- Behold the Pierced One: An Approach to a Spiritual Christology. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 1986 (1984). ISBN 978-0-89870-087-9.
- The Blessing of Christmas: Meditations for the Season. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 1986. ISBN 978-1-58617-172-8.
- Principles of Catholic Theology: Building Stones for a Fundamental Theology. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 1987 (1982). ISBN 978-0-89870-215-6.
- Eschatology: Death and Eternal Life. Washington DC: Catholic University of America Press. 1988 (1977). ISBN 978-0-8132-1516-7.
- Church, Ecumenism and Politics: New Essays in Ecclesiology. New York: Crossroad. 1988 (1987). ISBN 978-1-58617-217-6.
- Ministers of Your Joy: Scriptural Meditations on Priestly Spirituality. Ann Arbor: Redeemer Books. 1989 (1988). ISBN 978-0-89283-654-3.
- The Theology of History in St. Bonaventure. Chicago: Franciscan Herald Press. 1989 (1959). ISBN 978-0-8199-0415-7.
- To Look on Christ: Excercises in Faith, Hope, and Love. New York: Crossroad. 1991 (1989). ISBN 978-0-8245-1064-0.
- A Turning Point for Europe?. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 1994 (1991). ISBN 978-1-58617-349-4.
- The Nature and Mission of Theology: Essays to Orient Theology in Today's Debates. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 1995 (1993). ISBN 978-0-89870-538-6.
- In the Beginning...: A Catholic Understanding of the Story of Creation and the Fall. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing. 1995 (1986). ISBN 978-0-8028-4106-3.
- Called to Communion: Understanding the Church Today. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 1996 (1991). ISBN 978-0-89870-578-2.
- A New Song for the Lord: Faith in Christ in Liturgy Today. New York: Crossroad. 1997 (1995). ISBN 978-0-8245-1536-2.
- Salt of the Earth: The Church at the End of the Millennium. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 1997 (1996). ISBN 978-0-89870-640-6.
- Milestones: Memoirs 1927–1977. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 1998 (1997). ISBN 978-0-89870-702-1.
- Many Religions, One Covenant: Israel, the Church, and the World. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 1999 (1997). ISBN 978-0-89870-753-3.
- The Spirit of the Liturgy. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2000 (2000). ISBN 978-0-89870-784-7.
- God and the World. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2002 (2000). ISBN 978-0-89870-868-4.
- God Is Near Us: The Eucharist, the Heart of Life. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2003 (2001). ISBN 978-0-89870-962-9.
- Truth and Tolerance: Christian Belief and World Religions. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2004 (2003). ISBN 978-1-58617-035-6.
- Introduction to Christianity (revised edition). San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2004 (1968). ISBN 978-1-58617-029-5.
- Pilgrim Fellowship of Faith: The Church as Communion. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2005 (2002). ISBN 978-0-89870-963-6.
- Compendium of the Catechism of the Catholic Church. Washington DC: United States Conference of Catholic Bishops. 2005. ISBN 978-1-57455-720-6.
- Mary: The Church at the Source. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2005 (1997). ISBN 978-1-58617-018-9.
- Way of the Cross. Boston: Pauline Books & Media. 2005. ISBN 978-0-8198-8308-7.
- On the Way to Jesus Christ. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2005. ISBN 978-1-58617-124-7.
- Christianity and the Crisis of Cultures. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2006 (2005). ISBN 978-1-58617-142-1.
- Handing on the Faith in an Age of Disbelief. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2006 (1983). ISBN 978-1-58617-143-8.
- Images of Hope: Meditations on Major Feasts. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2006 (1997). ISBN 978-0-89870-964-3.
- God's Revolution: Pope Benedict XVI's Cologne Talks. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2006 (2004). ISBN 978-1-58617-145-2.
- Values in a Time of Upheaval. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2006 (2004). ISBN 978-0-8245-2373-2.
- God Is Love: Deus Caritas Est. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2006 (2006). ISBN 978-1-58617-163-6.
- What It Means to Be a Christian. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2006 (1965). ISBN 978-1-58617-133-9.
- Without Roots: The West, Relativism, Christianity, Islam. San Francisco: Basic Books. 2006. ISBN 978-0-465-00627-4.
- On Conscience. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2007 (1984). ISBN 978-1-58617-160-5.
- Europe: Today and Tomorrow. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2007 (2004). ISBN 978-1-58617-134-6.
- New Outpourings of the Spirit. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2007 (2006). ISBN 978-1-58617-181-0.
- Jesus of Nazareth. New York: Doubleday. 2007 (2007). ISBN 978-0-385-52341-7.
- Jesus, the Apostles, and the Early Church. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2007. ISBN 978-1-58617-220-6.
- God's Word: Scripture, Tradition, Office. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2008 (2005). ISBN 978-1-58617-179-7.
- Saved in Hope: Spe Salvi. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2008 (2007). ISBN 978-1-58617-251-0.
- The Fathers. Huntington: Our Sunday Visitor. 2008. ISBN 978-1-59276-440-2.
- Church Fathers: From Clement of Rome to Augustine. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2008. ISBN 978-1-58617-245-9.
- Charity in Truth: Caritas in Veritate. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2009 (2009). ISBN 978-1-58617-280-0.
- Saint Paul. Huntington: Our Sunday Visitor. 2009 (2009). ISBN 978-1-58617-367-8.
- The Joy of Knowing Christ: Meditations on the Gospels. Frederick: Word Among Us Press. 2009. ISBN 978-1-59325-151-2.
- Light of the World: The Pope, The Church, and the Signs of the Times. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2010. ISBN 978-1-58617-606-8.
- The Fathers, Volume II. Huntington: Our Sunday Visitor. 2010. ISBN 978-1-59276-783-0.
- The Apostles. Huntington: Our Sunday Visitor. 2010. ISBN 978-1-59276-799-1.
- The Virtues. Huntington: Our Sunday Visitor. 2010. ISBN 978-1-59276-794-6.
- Great Teachers. Huntington: Our Sunday Visitor. 2011. ISBN 978-1-59276-536-2.
- Holiness Is Always in Season. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2011. ISBN 978-1-58617-444-6.
- Jesus of Nazareth: Holy Week. Huntington: Our Sunday Visitor. 2011. ISBN 978-1-58617-500-9.
- Holy Women. Huntington: Our Sunday Visitor. 2011. ISBN 978-1-61278-510-3.
- Doctors of the Church. Huntington: Our Sunday Visitor. 2011. ISBN 978-1-61278-576-9.
Literature about him[link]
- Allen, John L.: Cardinal Ratzinger: the Vatican's enforcer of the faith. – New York: Continuum, 2000
- Herrmann, Horst: Benedikt XVI. Der neue Papst aus Deutschland. – Berlin 2005
- Nichols OP, Aidan: The Theology of Joseph Ratzinger: An Introductory Study. – Edinburgh; T&T Clark, 1988
- Pater Prior Maximilian Heim: Joseph Ratzinger — Kirchliche Existenz und existenzielle Theologie unter dem Anspruch von Lumen gentium (diss.).
- Twomey, D. Vincent, S.V.D.: Pope Benedict XVI: The Conscience of Our Age (A Theological Portrait). – San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 2007
- Wagner, Karl: Kardinal Ratzinger: der Erzbischof in München und Freising in Wort und Bild. – München : Pfeiffer, 1977
Biographies[link]
- Allen, John L. The Rise of Benedict XVI: The Inside Story of How the Pope Was Elected and Where He Will Take the Catholic Church. NY: Doubleday, 2005. ISBN 0-385-51320-8.
- Allen, John L. Pope Benedict XVI: A Biography of Joseph Ratzinger. New York: Continuum International Publishing Group, 2005. ISBN 0-8264-1786-8. This is a reprint of Allen's 2000 book Cardinal Ratzinger: the Vatican's Enforcer of the Faith.
- Bardazzi, Marco. In the Vineyard of the Lord : The Life, Faith, and Teachings of Joseph Ratzinger, Pope Benedict XVI. New York: Rizzoli International, 2005. ISBN 0-8478-2801-8
- Bunson, Matthew. We Have a Pope! Benedict XVI Huntington, IN: Our Sunday Visitor. ISBN 1-59276-180-1.
- Campbell, Paul-Henri: Pope Benedikt XVI. Audio Book. Monarda Publishing House, 2012, ISBN 3-939513-80-6.
- Pursell, Brennan, Benedict of Bavaria: An Intimate Portrait of the Pope and His Homeland (Circle Press, 2008). ISBN 1-933271-17-5.
- Tobin, Greg. Holy Father : Pope Benedict XVI: Pontiff for a New Era. Sterling, 2005. ISBN 1-4027-3172-8.
- Weigel, George. God's Choice: Pope Benedict XVI and the Future of the Catholic Church, Harper Collins, 2005. ISBN 0-06-621331-2.
Documentaries[link]
- The Keys of the Kingdom, from John Paul II to Benedict XVI, produced by Vatican Television Center, distributed by HDH Communications, 2006.
Notes[link]
- ^ |This book was originally published in German in four volumes: Die erste Sitzungsperiode des Zweiten Vatikanischen Konzils (1963), Das Konzil auf dem Weg (1964), Ergebnisse und Probleme der dritten Konzilsperiode (1965), and Die letzte Sitzungsperiode des Konzils (1966).
External links[link]
| Find more about Pope Benedict XVI on Wikipedia's sister projects: | |
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Definitions and translations from Wiktionary |
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Images and media from Commons |
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Learning resources from Wikiversity |
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News stories from Wikinews |
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Quotations from Wikiquote |
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Source texts from Wikisource |
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Textbooks from Wikibooks |
- Vatican: the Holy See – Vatican web site
- The Holy See – The Holy Father – Benedict XVI – Vatican web site about the Holy Father Benedict XVI
- Vatican: Election Vatican web page about the Papal Conclave and Benedict's first acts as Pope
- The Vatican (Official YouTube channel from the Vatican about main activities of the Pope and relevant Vatican events)
- Pope Benedict XVI at Catholic-Hierarchy. Retrieved on 3 April 2010.
- Works by or about Pope Benedict XVI in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
- Encyclicals by Benedict XVI
- Deus Caritas Est – encyclical God is Love
- Spe Salvi – encyclical In hope we were saved
- Caritas in Veritate – encyclical In Charity and Truth
| Episcopal lineage | |
| Consecrated by: | Josef Stangl |
| Consecrator of | |
|---|---|
| Bishop | Date of consecration |
| Alberto Bovone | 12 May 1984 |
| Zygmunt Zimowski | 25 May 2002 |
| Josef Clemens | 6 January 2004 |
| Bruno Forte | 8 September 2004 |
| Mieczysław Mokrzycki | 29 September 2007 |
| Francesco Giovanni Brugnaro | 29 September 2007 |
| Gianfranco Ravasi | 29 September 2007 |
| Tommaso Caputo | 29 September 2007 |
| Sergio Pagano | 29 September 2007 |
| Vincenzo Di Mauro | 29 September 2007 |
| Gabriele Giordano Caccia | 12 September 2009 |
| Franco Coppola | 12 September 2009 |
| Pietro Parolin | 12 September 2009 |
| Raffaello Martinelli | 12 September 2009 |
| Giorgio Corbellini | 12 September 2009 |
| Catholic Church titles | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by Julius Döpfner |
Archbishop of Munich and Freising 1977–1982 |
Succeeded by Friedrich Wetter |
| Preceded by Franjo Šeper |
Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith 1981–2005 |
Succeeded by William Levada |
| Preceded by Bernardin Gantin |
Dean of the College of Cardinals 2002–2005 |
Succeeded by Angelo Sodano |
| Preceded by John Paul II |
Pope 19 April 2005 – present |
Incumbent |
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Benedict XVI, Pope |
| Alternative names | Ratzinger, Joseph Alois; Benedictus PP. XVI; Benedetto XVI; Benedikt XVI |
| Short description | 265th and reigning Pope |
| Date of birth | 16 April 1927 |
| Place of birth | Marktl am Inn, Bavaria, Germany |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
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This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
For other people named Robert Fiske, see Robert Fiske (disambiguation).
| Robert Fisk | |
|---|---|
 Robert Fisk at a book festival in Christchurch, New Zealand, in 2008. |
|
| Born | (1946-07-12) 12 July 1946 (age 65) Maidstone, Kent, England |
| Education | Lancaster University (B.A., 1968) Trinity College, Dublin (Ph.D., 1985) |
| Occupation | Middle East correspondent for The Independent |
| Notable credit(s) | Jacob's Award, Amnesty International UK Press Awards, British Press Awards, International Journalist of the Year, "Reporter of the Year", David Watt prize, Lannan Cultural Freedom Prize |
| Website | |
| http://www.independent.co.uk/news/fisk/ | |
Robert Fisk (born 12 July 1946) is an English writer and journalist from Maidstone, Kent. As Middle East correspondent of The Independent, he has primarily been based in Beirut for more than 30 years.[1] He has published a number of books and has reported on the United States's war in Afghanistan and its 2003 invasion of Iraq. Fisk holds more British and International Journalism awards than any other foreign correspondent.[2]
Contents |
Career[link]
The New York Times once described Robert Fisk as "probably the most famous foreign correspondent in Britain."[3] He reported the Northern Ireland troubles in the 1970s, the Portuguese Revolution in 1974, the Lebanese Civil War, the Iranian revolution in 1979, the Soviet war in Afghanistan, the Iran–Iraq War, the Gulf War and the invasion of Iraq in 2003. A vernacular Arabic speaker,[4] he is one of few Western journalists to have interviewed Osama bin Laden, and did so three times between 1994 and 1997.[5][6] His awards include being voted International Journalist of the Year seven times.
Fisk has said that journalism must "challenge authority, all authority, especially so when governments and politicians take us to war." He has quoted with approval the Israeli journalist Amira Hass: "There is a misconception that journalists can be objective ... What journalism is really about is to monitor power and the centres of power."[7] Speaking on "Lies, Misreporting, and Catastrophe in the Middle East," at the First Congregational Church of Berkeley, 22 September 2010, Fisk stated, "I think it is the duty of a foreign correspondent to be neutral and unbiased on the side of those who suffer, whoever they may be." [8]
He has written at length on how much of contemporary conflict has its origin, in his view, in lines drawn on maps: "After the allied victory of 1918, at the end of my father's war, the victors divided up the lands of their former enemies. In the space of just seventeen months, they created the borders of Northern Ireland, Yugoslavia and most of the Middle East. And I have spent my entire career—in Belfast and Sarajevo, in Beirut and Baghdad—watching the people within those borders burn."[9]
Fisk is a pacifist and has never voted.[10]
The blogosphere term fisking originates from various American conservative blogs, which have taken particular issue with Mr. Fisk, who holds a "very skeptical view of U.S. foreign policy", and his articles and reports. Many of these bloggers have responded by reprinting his dispatches on their blogs, adding their own paragraph-by-paragraph commentary, purportedly dissecting and debunking Fisk's facts and opinions.[11] Irrespective of the success of their endeavour, the term "fisking" has come to denote the practice of "savaging an argument and scattering the tattered remnants to the four corners of the internet".[12]
In a 2002 appearance at the Cambridge Union Society, actor John Malkovich when asked whom he would most like to "fight to the death", replied that he would "rather just shoot" journalist Robert Fisk and British MP George Galloway.[13] Both Fisk and Galloway reacted with outrage.[14][15]
Early career[link]
Fisk was educated at Yardley Court preparatory school,[16] Sutton Valence School and at Lancaster University [17] and has a PhD in Political Science, from Trinity College, Dublin in 1983.[18] The title of his doctoral thesis was "A condition of limited warfare: Éire’s neutrality and the relationship between Dublin, Belfast and London, 1939–1945".[18] He worked on the Sunday Express diary column before a disagreement with the editor, John Junor, prompted a move to The Times.[19] From 1972–75, the height of The Troubles, Fisk served as Belfast correspondent for The Times, before becoming its correspondent in Portugal covering the aftermath of the Carnation Revolution. He then was appointed Middle East correspondent (1976–1988). When a story of his was spiked (Iran Air Flight 655) after Rupert Murdoch's takeover, he moved to The Independent, with his first report published there on 28 April 1989.
Lebanon, and other conflicts[link]
Fisk has been living in Beirut since 1976,[20] and was present in Beirut throughout the Lebanese civil war. He was one of the first journalists to visit the scene of the Sabra and Shatila massacre in Lebanon, as well as the Syrian Hama Massacre. His book on the Lebanese conflict, Pity the Nation, was first published in 1990. Fisk also reported on the Arab-Israeli conflict, the Kosovo war, the Algerian civil war, and the Iran-Iraq War. Fisk suffered partial but permanent hearing loss as a result of being close to Iraqi heavy artillery in the Shatt-al-Arab when covering the early stages of the Iran-Iraq conflict.[citation needed]
Osama bin Laden[link]
Fisk is one of the few Western journalists to have interviewed Osama bin Laden—three times (all published by The Independent: 6 December 1993, 10 July 1996, and 22 March 1997). During one of Fisk's interviews with Bin Laden, Fisk noted an attempt by Bin Laden to convert him. Bin Laden said; "Mr Robert, one of our brothers had a dream. He dreamed ... that you were a spiritual person ... this means you are a true Muslim." Fisk replied; "Sheikh Osama, I am not a Muslim ... I am a journalist ... A journalist's task is to tell the truth." Bin Laden replied: "If you tell the truth, that means you are a good Muslim."[21][22]
During the 1996 interview, Bin Laden accused the Saudi royal family of corruption. During the 1997 (and final) interview, Bin Laden said he sought God's help "to turn America into a shadow of itself".[23]
11 September attacks[link]
Fisk condemned the 11 September 2001 attacks, describing them as a "hideous crime against humanity." He also denounced the Bush administration's response to the attacks, arguing that "a score of nations" were being identified and positioned as "haters of democracy" or "kernels of evil," and urged a more honest debate on U.S. policy in the Middle East. He argued that such a debate had hitherto been avoided "because, of course, to look too closely at the Middle East would raise disturbing questions about the region, about our Western policies in those tragic lands, and about America's relationship with Israel."[24]
In August 2007 Fisk expressed personal doubts about the official historical record of the 11 September attacks. In an article for The Independent, he claimed that, while the Bush administration was incapable of successfully carrying out such attacks due to its organisational incompetence: "I am increasingly troubled at the inconsistencies in the official narrative of 9/11." He proceeded to raise his concerns about a lack of aircraft debris, the melting point of steel, the collapse of World Trade Center 7, misidentified suicide-hijackers, the authenticity of correspondence attributed by the CIA to Mohamed Atta, and other familiar questions that have circulated within the 9/11 Truth Movement. He added that he does not condone the "crazed 'research' of David Icke [...] I am talking about scientific issues".[25] Fisk had earlier addressed similar concerns in a speech at Sydney University in 2006.[26] During the speech, Fisk said: "Partly I think because of the culture of secrecy of the White House, never have we had a White House so secret as this one. Partly because of this culture, I think suspicions are growing in the United States, not just among Berkeley guys with flowers in their hair [...] But there are a lot of things we don’t know, a lot of things we’re not going to be told [...] perhaps the plane was hit by a missile, we still don’t know."[27]
War in Afghanistan[link]
After the United States launched its attack on Afghanistan, Fisk was for a time transferred to Pakistan to provide coverage of that conflict. While reporting from there, he was attacked and beaten by a group of Afghan refugees fleeing heavy bombing by the United States Air Force. He was saved from this attack by another Afghan refugee. In his graphic account of his own beating, Fisk pardoned the attackers of responsibility and pointed out that their "brutality was entirely the product of others, of us—of we who had armed their struggle against the Russians and ignored their pain and laughed at their civil war and then armed and paid them again for the 'War for Civilisation' just a few miles away and then bombed their homes and ripped up their families and called them 'collateral damage.'"[28]
Iraq[link]
During the 2003 invasion of Iraq, Fisk was stationed in Baghdad and filed many eyewitness reports. He has criticized other journalists based in Iraq for what he calls their "hotel journalism", literally reporting from one's hotel room without interviews or first hand experience of events.[29] His opposition to the war brought criticism from both Irish Sunday Independent columnist and senator, Eoghan Harris,[30] and The Guardian columnist, Simon Hoggart.[31]
Fisk has criticised the American handling of the sectarian violence in post-invasion Iraq, and argued that the official narrative of sectarian conflict is not possible: "The real question I ask myself is: who are these people who are trying to provoke the civil war? Now the Americans will say it's Al Qaeda, it's the Sunni insurgents. It is the death squads. Many of the death squads work for the Ministry of Interior. Who runs the Ministry of Interior in Baghdad? Who pays the Ministry of the Interior? Who pays the militia men who make up the death squads? We do, the occupation authorities [...] We need to look at this story in a different light."[32]
Books and other works[link]
Books[link]
Fisk has published a number of books. His 2005 work, The Great War for Civilisation: The Conquest of the Middle East, with its criticism of Western and Israeli approaches to the Middle East, was well-received by critics and students of international affairs, and is perhaps his best-known work.
- The Point of No Return: The Strike which Broke the British in Ulster (1975). London: Times Books/Deutsch. ISBN 0-233-96682-X
- In Time of War: Ireland, Ulster and the Price of Neutrality, 1939–1945 (2001). London: Gill & Macmillan. ISBN 0-7171-2411-8 (1st ed. was 1983).
- Pity the Nation : Lebanon at War (3rd ed. 2001). London: Oxford University Press; xxi, 727 pages. ISBN 0-19-280130-9 (1st ed. was 1990).
- The Great War for Civilisation: The Conquest of the Middle East (October 2005) London. Fourth Estate; xxvi, 1366 pages. ISBN 1-84115-007-X
- The Age of the Warrior: Selected Writings (2008) London, Fourth Estate ISBN 978-0-00-727073-6
Video documentary[link]
Fisk produced a three-part series titled From Beirut To Bosnia in 1993 which Fisk says was an attempt "to find out why an increasing number of Muslims had come to hate the West."[33] Fisk says that the Discovery Channel did not show a repeat of the films, after initially showing them in full, due to a letter campaign launched by pro-Israel groups such as CAMERA.[33][34]
Forgery misattributed to Robert Fisk[link]
- Saddam Hussein—From Birth to Martyrdom (2007). Egypt: Ibda; 272 pages.[35]
Awards[link]
In 1991, Fisk won a Jacob's Award for his RTÉ Radio coverage of the first Gulf War.[36] He received Amnesty International UK Press Awards in 1998 for his reports from Algeria and again in 2000 for his articles on the NATO air campaign against Yugoslavia in 1999. In 1999, Fisk won the Orwell Prize for journalism.[37]
He has received the British Press Awards' International Journalist of the Year seven times, and twice won its "Reporter of the Year" award.[38] In 2001, he was awarded the David Watt Prize for "outstanding contributions towards the clarification of political issues and the promotion of their greater understanding" for his investigation into the Armenian Genocide by the Turks in 1915.[39] In 2002 he was the fourth recipient of the Martha Gellhorn Prize for Journalism. More recently, Fisk was awarded the 2006 Lannan Cultural Freedom Prize along with $350,000.[40]
He was made an honorary Doctor of Laws by the University of St Andrews on 24 June 2004. The Political and Social Sciences department of Ghent University (Belgium) awarded Fisk an honorary doctorate on 24 March 2006. He was awarded an honorary doctorate by the American University of Beirut in June 2006. Trinity College Dublin awarded him a second, honorary, Doctorate in July 2008.[41]
Fisk gave the 2005 Edward Said Memorial lecture at Adelaide University.[42]
In 2011, Fisk was awarded the International Prize at the Amalfi Coast Media Awards in Italy.[43]
Fisk is also a recipient of the College Historical Society's "Gold Medal for Outstanding Contribution to Public Discourse".[citation needed]
References[link]
- ^ "Robert Fisk". The Independent. http://news.independent.co.uk/world/fisk. Retrieved 2006-07-19.
- ^ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jjoGLA4mVxU&feature=channel
- ^ Bronner, Ethan (19 November 2005). "A Foreign Correspondent Who Does More Than Report". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2005/11/19/books/review/19bron.html?ei=5070&en=55044ab9f817eb99&ex=1153454400&pagewanted=print. Retrieved 2006-07-19.
- ^ http://fass.kingston.ac.uk/activities/item.php?updatenum=466
- ^ Robert Fisk: The Great War for Civilisation: The Conquest of the Middle Eastpp. 1–39 ISBN 1-84115-007-X
- ^ "Honoured War Reporter Sides With Victims of Conflict". New Zealand Press Association. 4 November 2005.
- ^ Miles, Oliver (19 November 2005). "The big picture". Guardian Unlimited. http://books.guardian.co.uk/reviews/politicsphilosophyandsociety/0,6121,1645908,00.html. Retrieved 2006-07-19.
- ^ "Robert Fisk: Terror of Power and Power of Terror". [[Making Contact (radio program)|]]. National Radio Project. 12 October 2010. http://www.radioproject.org/2010/10/robert-fisk-the-terror-of-power-and-the-power-of-terror/. Retrieved 28 June 2011.
- ^ Robert Fisk, The Great War for Civilisation, 2005
- ^ Robert Fisk and Martin Bell. (10 November 2009) The lost art of reportage The Independent. 15:48–15:52 minutes in. Retrieved 2009-12-08.
- ^ Word detective, 2003
- ^ "Archbishop on end of a good Fisking" The Guardian, 19 June 2005
- ^ "MP stunned at actor's outburst". BBC Online. May 4, 2002. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/1967317.stm. Retrieved December 28, 2008.
- ^ Fisk, Robert (May 14, 2002). "Why Does Malkovich Want to Kill Me?". The Independent (London). http://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/commentators/fisk/robert-fisk-why-does-john-malkovich-want-to-kill-me-605849.html. Retrieved July 14, 2011.
- ^ Fisk, Robert (10 March, 2012). "Robert Fisk: Condemn me, but get your facts right first". The Independent. http://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/commentators/fisk/robert-fisk-condemn-me-but-get-your-facts-right-first-7547335.html?origin=internalSearch. Retrieved April 29, 2012.
- ^ "Deadly skies: The bloody truth about the Battle of Britain 70 years on". The Independent. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/deadly-skies-the-bloody-truth-about-the-battle-of-britain-70-years-on-2015062.html. Retrieved 2011-10-24.
- ^ "Robert Fisk lecture". LU News (Lancaster University). November 2006. http://domino.lancs.ac.uk/Info/lunews.nsf/I/9273D1AFBDC1A6B38025721B0049FA77. Retrieved 2008-10-14
- ^ a b "Former postgraduate students". Trinity College, Dublin. http://www.tcd.ie/Political_Science/postgraduate/phdstudentspre1995.php. Retrieved 2008-07-26.
- ^ Robert Fisk (26 July 2008). "My days in Fleet Street's Lubyanka". The Independent. http://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/commentators/fisk/robert-fisk-my-days-in-fleet-streets-lubyanka-877812.html. Retrieved 2008-07-26.
- ^ Fisk, Robert (2006). The Great War for Civilization: The Conquest of the Middle East. London: Harper Perennial. pp. 973. ISBN 978-1-84115-008-6.
- ^ Ben Naparstek, New Zealand Listener, Watching the warriors, 30 August-5 September 2008 Vol 215 No 3564
- ^ Fisk, Robert (2007). The Great War For Civilisation: The Conquest of the Middle East. Vintage. pp. 29–30. ISBN 978-1-4000-7517-1.
- ^ Fisk, Robert. Robert Fisk on Bin Laden at 50, The Independent. 4 March 2007.
- ^ Fisk, Robert. One year on: A view from the Middle East, The Independent, 11 September 2002.
- ^ Fisk, Robert (25 August 2007). "Even I question the 'truth' about 9/11". The Independent. http://news.independent.co.uk/fisk/article2893860.ece. Retrieved 2007-08-25.
- ^ Are they all mad?, Andrew Bolt, Herald Sun, 29 March 2006
- ^ Robert Fisk at Sydney Ideas 2006 Robert Fisk, ABC News Australia, Sunday 26 March 2006
- ^ Fisk, Robert (2001-12-10). "My beating by refugees is a symbol of the hatred and fury of this filthy war". robert-fisk.com. Archived from the original on 2006-06-18. http://web.archive.org/web/20060618131439/http://www.robert-fisk.com/articles1.htm. Retrieved 2006-07-19.
- ^ Fisk, Robert (2005-01-17). "Hotel journalism gives American troops a free hand as the press shelters indoors". [1]. Archived from the original on 2006-03-27. http://web.archive.org/web/20060327175323/http://robert-fisk.com/articles450.htm. Retrieved 2006-07-19.
- ^ Harris, Eoghan. Air-kissing the terrorists—call it Luvvies Actually, Sunday Independent, 23 November 2003.
- ^ Hoggart, Simon. A war cry from the pulpit, The Guardian, 17 November 2001.
- ^ Robert Fisk shares his Middle East knowledge Tony Jones, ABC Australia, 02/03/2006
- ^ a b David Wallis, ed. (2004). Killed: great journalism too hot to print. Nation Books. pp. 388. ISBN 978-1-56025-581-9. http://books.google.com/?id=HH9XFP2VAhAC&pg=PA388&q=.
- ^ Trager, Robert; Donna Lee Dickerson (1999). Freedom of expression in the 21st century. Pine Forge Press. pp. 80. ISBN 978-0-8039-9085-2. http://books.google.com/?id=3B3HcQrDobYC&pg=PA80&q=.
- ^ Fisk, Robert (1 February 2008). "Robert Fisk: The curious case of the forged biography". The Independent. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/fisk/robert-fisk-the-curious-case-of-the-forged-biography-776775.html. Retrieved 2008-02-01.
- ^ The Irish Times, "In the wars", 19 November 1991
- ^ List of 1999 winners The Orwell Prize for Journalism
- ^ "Times reporter wins award". The Times. 15 December 1987.
- ^ "Fisk wins award for political journalism". The Independent. 20 July 2001. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/media/fisk-wins-award-for-political-journalism-678347.html.
- ^ "2006 Lannan Cultural Freedom Prize awarded to Robert Fisk". Lannan Foundation. http://www.lannan.org/lf/cf/detail/2006-lannan-cultural-freedom-prize-awarded-to-robert-fisk/.
- ^ "Five recipients to receive honorary degrees at Trinity College Dublin". http://www.tcd.ie/Communications/news/news.php?headerID=954&vs_date=2008-7-1.
- ^ "About the Edward Said Memorial Lecture". University of Adelaide. http://www.adelaide.edu.au/esml/about/. Retrieved 2009-10-17.
- ^ Robert Fisk wins International Prize
Further reading[link]
- Robert Fisk on Shakespeare and war
- Man of War by Rachel Cooke of The Observer, 13 April 2008
- Journalism and 'the words of power': Robert Fisk address to the fifth Al Jazeera annual forum on 23 May
External links[link]
- Column archive at The Independent
- Robert Fisk at ZSpace
- Article archive at Journalisted
- Appearances on C-SPAN
- Robert Fisk on Charlie Rose
- Robert Fisk at the Internet Movie Database
- Works by or about Robert Fisk in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
- Robert Fisk on the Gap Between U.S. Rhetoric and Action in the Egyptian Uprising—video interview by Democracy Now!, 2011
- Interview with Robert Fisk in Lebanon - 16 May 2011 (The Student Journals)
 |
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Robert Fisk |
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Fisk, Robert |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | |
| Date of birth | 1946-07-12 |
| Place of birth | Maidstone, Kent, England |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
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This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Fisk
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
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