Algiers

Tuesday, 30 October 2012

Algiers

[BBC]The battle of Algiers - A Case Study

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Abdera, Spain
http://wn.com/Abdera_Spain
Abu Dhabi
Abu Dhabi ( , literally Father of deer) is the capital and the second largest city in the United Arab Emirates. Abu Dhabi lies on a T-shaped island jutting into the Persian Gulf from the central western coast. The city proper, making up an area of
http://wn.com/Abu_Dhabi
Abuja
Abuja is the capital city of the West African nation of Nigeria. It is located in the centre of Nigeria in the Federal Capital Territory (FCT). Abuja is a planned city, and was built mainly in the 1980s. It officially became Nigeria's capital on 12 December 1991, replacing Lagos, the previous capital. As of the 2006 census, the Federal Capital Territory has a population of 778,567. On 1 October 2010, two car bombs exploded in the city during celebrations of the fiftieth anniversary of the nation's independence.
http://wn.com/Abuja
Accra
Accra ( or ) is the capital and largest city in Ghana with the population of the city proper estimated at 1,963,264 as of 2009. Accra also doubles as the capital of the Greater Accra Region and of the Accra Metropolitan District with which it is coterminous. Accra is also the anchor of a substantially larger metropolitan area called the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area and includes eight districts - Accra Metropolitan, Tema Metropolitan, Ga East Municipal, Ga West Municipal, Ga South Municipal, Ledzokuku-Krowor Municipal, Ashaiman Municipal and Adenta Municipal. It is home to about 4 million people, making it the largest metropolitan conglomeration in the country by population. As a primate city, Accra is the administrative, communications, and economic centre of the country.
http://wn.com/Accra
Addis Ababa
http://wn.com/Addis_Ababa
Adrar, Algeria
Adrar (, Berber: ) is a town and commune in Algeria, based around an oasis of the Sahara Desert and the administrative capital of the second largest province in Algeria: Adrar Province.
http://wn.com/Adrar_Algeria
Algeria
http://wn.com/Algeria
Algiers
http://wn.com/Algiers
Algiers Province
http://wn.com/Algiers_Province
Alicante
http://wn.com/Alicante
Amioun
http://wn.com/Amioun
Amman
http://wn.com/Amman
Amsterdam
Amsterdam (; Dutch ) is the capital and largest city of the Netherlands, with an urban population of 1,364,422 and a metropolitan population of 2,158,372. The city is located in the province of North Holland in the west of the country. It comprises the northern part of the Randstad, the sixth-largest metropolitan area in Europe, with a population of approximately 6.7 million.
http://wn.com/Amsterdam
Annaba
http://wn.com/Annaba
Antananarivo
Antananarivo ( or , French: Tananarive) is the capital and largest city in Madagascar. It is also known by its French colonial shorthand form Tana.
http://wn.com/Antananarivo
Argentina
Argentina (), officially the Argentine Republic (, ), is the second largest country in South America, constituted as a federation of 23 provinces and an autonomous city, Buenos Aires. It is the eighth-largest country in the world by land area and the largest among Spanish-speaking nations, though Mexico, Colombia and Spain are more populous.
http://wn.com/Argentina
Asmara
http://wn.com/Asmara
Aïn Bénian, Algiers
http://wn.com/Aïn_Bénian_Algiers
Aïn Defla
http://wn.com/Aïn_Defla
Aïn Taya
http://wn.com/Aïn_Taya
Aïn Témouchent
http://wn.com/Aïn_Témouchent
Baalbek
Baalbek () is a town in the Bekaa Valley of Lebanon, altitude , situated east of the Litani River. It is famous for its exquisitely detailed yet monumentally scaled temple ruins of the Roman period, when Baalbek, then known as Heliopolis, was one of the largest sanctuaries in the Empire. It is Lebanon's greatest Roman treasure, and it can be counted among the wonders of the ancient world. It contains the largest and most noble Roman temples ever built, and they are among the best preserved.
http://wn.com/Baalbek
Bab El Oued
Bab el-Oued is a neighbourhood in Algiers, the capital of Algeria, along the coast north of the city centre.
http://wn.com/Bab_El_Oued
Bab El Oued District
Bab El Oued is a district in Algiers Province, Algeria. It was named after its capital, Bab El Oued.
http://wn.com/Bab_El_Oued_District
Bab Ezzouar
Bab Ezzouar is a suburb of the city of Algiers in northern Algeria.
http://wn.com/Bab_Ezzouar
Baba Hassen
Baba Hassen is a suburb of the city of Algiers in northern Algeria.
http://wn.com/Baba_Hassen
Bachdjerrah
Bach Djerrah is a suburb of the city of Algiers in northern Algeria.
http://wn.com/Bachdjerrah
Baghdad
Baghdad (, , ) is the capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is coterminous. Having a population estimated between 7 and 7.5 million, it is the largest city in Iraq and the second largest city in the Arab World (after Cairo, Egypt).
http://wn.com/Baghdad
Bahrain
Bahrain, officially Kingdom of Bahrain (, , literally: "Kingdom of the Two Seas"), is a small island country in the Persian Gulf ruled by the Al Khalifa royal family. While Bahrain is an archipelago of thirty-three islands, the largest (Bahrain Island) is long by wide. Saudi Arabia lies to the west and is connected to Bahrain via the King Fahd Causeway, which was officially opened on 25 November 1986. Qatar is to the southeast across the Gulf of Bahrain.
http://wn.com/Bahrain
Bamako
Bamako, population 1,809,106 (2009 Census, provisional), is the capital and largest city of Mali, and currently estimated to be the fastest growing city in Africa (sixth fastest in the world). It is located on the Niger River, near the rapids that divide the Upper and Middle Niger Valleys, in the southwestern part of the country. Bamako is the nation's administrative center as well as a cercle, with a river port located in nearby Koulikoro, and a major regional trade and conference center. Bamako is the seventh largest West African urban center after Lagos, Abidjan, Kano, Ibadan, Dakar and Accra. Manufactures include textiles, processed meat, and metal goods. There is commercial fishing on the Niger River.
http://wn.com/Bamako
Bangui
Bangui is the capital of and the largest city in the Central African Republic. The majority of the population of the Central African Republic lives in the western parts of the country, near Bangui. Though located within Ombella-M'Poko prefecture, it is an independent commune, and thus politically independent of the surrounding prefecture.
http://wn.com/Bangui
Banjul
http://wn.com/Banjul
Baraki District
Baraki is a district in Algiers Province, Algeria. It was named after its capital, Baraki.
http://wn.com/Baraki_District
Baraki, Algiers
Baraki is a suburb of the city of Algiers in northern Algeria.
http://wn.com/Baraki_Algiers
Barcelona
http://wn.com/Barcelona
Batna, Algeria
Batna (, Berber: , Tbathent) is the main city of Batna Province, Algeria. With a population of 285,800 (2004 estimation) it is the fifth largest city in Algeria. It is also one of the principal cities of the Chaoui area and is considered the capital of the Aures.
http://wn.com/Batna_Algeria
Batroun
http://wn.com/Batroun
Beijing
{| style="float:right;"
http://wn.com/Beijing
Beirut
http://wn.com/Beirut
Ben Aknoun
Ben Aknoun is a suburb of the city of Algiers in northern Algeria.
http://wn.com/Ben_Aknoun
Berlin
Berlin (; ) is the capital city of Germany and one of sixteen states of Germany. With a population of 3.4 million people, Berlin is Germany's largest city. It is the second most populous city proper and the eighth most populous urban area in the European Union. Located in northeastern Germany, it is the center of the Berlin-Brandenburg Metropolitan Area, comprising 5 million people from over 190 nations. Geographically embedded in the European Plains, Berlin is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. Around one third of the city's territory is composed of forests, parks, gardens, rivers and lakes.
http://wn.com/Berlin
Berlin Wall
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http://wn.com/Berlin_Wall
Bir Mourad Raïs
http://wn.com/Bir_Mourad_Raïs
Birkhadem
Birkhadem is a suburb of the city of Algiers in northern Algeria.
http://wn.com/Birkhadem
Birtouta
Birtouta is a town and commune in Algiers Province, Algeria. As of 1998, the commune had a total population of 21,808.
http://wn.com/Birtouta
Birtouta District
Birtouta is a district in Algiers Province, Algeria. It was named after its capital, Birtouta.
http://wn.com/Birtouta_District
Biskra
Biskra (; Berber: Tibeskert) is the capital city of Biskra province, Algeria. In 2007, its population was recorded as 207,987.
http://wn.com/Biskra
Bissau
http://wn.com/Bissau
Bizerte
Bizerte or Bizerta (; transliterated: Banzart; Italian: Biserta) is a capital city of Bizerte Governorate in Tunisia. It has a population of 114,371 (2004 census).
http://wn.com/Bizerte
Blida
Blida () is a city in Algeria. It is the capital of Blida Province, and it is located about 45 km south-west of Algiers, the national capital. The name Blida, i.e. bulaydah, diminutive of the arab word belda, city.
http://wn.com/Blida
Bloemfontein
Bloemfontein (, Dutch for "spring of Bloem (bloom)", "flower spring" or "fountain of flowers") is the capital city of the Free State Province of South Africa. It is also the judicial capital, making it one of the three national capitals of South Africa (together with the administrative capital Pretoria and the legislative capital Cape Town). Bloemfontein is popularly and poetically known as "the city of roses", owing to the abundance of these flowers and the annual rose festival held there. The city's Sesotho name is Mangaung, meaning "place of cheetahs" and it has been included in the Mangaung Local Municipality since 2000.
http://wn.com/Bloemfontein
Bologhine
Bouloghine is a suburb of the city of Algiers in northern Algeria.
http://wn.com/Bologhine
Bordj Bou Arréridj
http://wn.com/Bordj_Bou_Arréridj
Bordj El Bahri
Bordj El Bahri is a suburb of the city of Algiers in northern Algeria. Bordj El Bahri is on the peninsula that forms the eastern side of Algiers Bay.
http://wn.com/Bordj_El_Bahri
Bordj El Kiffan
http://wn.com/Bordj_El_Kiffan
Boumerdès
http://wn.com/Boumerdès
Bourouba
Bourouba is a suburb of the city of Algiers in northern Algeria.
http://wn.com/Bourouba
Bouzareah
http://wn.com/Bouzareah
Bouzaréah
Bouzareah is a suburb of Algiers, the capital of Algeria, North Africa, and its eleventh district. It had a population of 69,200 people in 1998 and an altitude of over 600 meters ASL. The city's name is Arabic and means "of the grain" or "from the grain". The embassies of Niger, Oman, and Mauritania are located there.
http://wn.com/Bouzaréah
Bouzaréah District
http://wn.com/Bouzaréah_District
Bouïra
http://wn.com/Bouïra
Brazil
Brazil (; , ), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (, ), is the largest country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country, both by geographical area and by population. It is the only Portuguese-speaking country in the Americas and the largest lusophone country in the world.
http://wn.com/Brazil
Brazzaville
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http://wn.com/Brazzaville
British Library
The British Library (BL) is the national library of the United Kingdom and the world's largest library in terms of total number of items. The library is one of the world's major research libraries, holding over 150 million items in all known languages and formats: books, journals, newspapers, magazines, sound and music recordings, patents, databases, maps, stamps, prints, drawings and much more. The Library's collections include around 14 million books (second only to the American Library of Congress), along with substantial holdings of manuscripts and historical items dating back as far as 300 BC.
http://wn.com/British_Library
Buenos Aires
http://wn.com/Buenos_Aires
Bujumbura
Bujumbura (; ) is the capital city and main port of Burundi and ships most of the country's chief export, coffee, as well as cotton, skins, and tin ore. It is located on the northeastern shore of Lake Tanganyika.
http://wn.com/Bujumbura
Bulgaria
Bulgaria ( , Balgariya, ), officially the Republic of Bulgaria (, Republika Balgariya, ), is a country in Southern Europe. Bulgaria borders five other countries: Romania to the north (mostly along the Danube), Serbia and the Republic of Macedonia to the west, and Greece and Turkey to the south. The Black Sea defines the extent of the country to the east.
http://wn.com/Bulgaria
Béchar
http://wn.com/Béchar
Béjaïa
http://wn.com/Béjaïa
Béni Messous
Beni Messous is a suburb of the city of Algiers in northern Algeria.
http://wn.com/Béni_Messous
Cadiz
Cadiz ( , ) is a city and port in southwestern Spain. It is the capital of the Cadiz Province, one of eight which make up the autonomous community of Andalusia.
http://wn.com/Cadiz
Cagliari
Cagliari (, ) is the capital of the island of Sardinia, a region of Italy. Cagliari's Sardinian name Casteddu literally means castle. It has about 160,000 inhabitants, or about 400,000 including the outlying townships (metropolitan area): Elmas, Assemini, Capoterra, Selargius, Sestu, Monserrato, Quartucciu, Quartu Sant'Elena.
http://wn.com/Cagliari
Cairo
Cairo (; , literally "The Vanquisher" or "The Conqueror") is the capital of Egypt, the largest city in Africa and the Arab World, and one of the most densely populated cities in the world. Nicknamed "The City of a Thousand Minarets" for its preponderance of Islamic architecture, Cairo has long been a center of the region's political and cultural life. Even before Cairo was established in the 10th century, the land composing the present-day city was the site of national capitals whose remnants remain visible in parts of Old Cairo. Cairo is also associated with Ancient Egypt due to its proximity to the Great Sphinx and the pyramids in adjacent Giza.
http://wn.com/Cairo
Canada
Canada () is a country in North America, extending from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west and northward into the Arctic Ocean. It is the world's second largest country by total area. Canada's common border with the United States to the south and northwest is the longest in the world.
http://wn.com/Canada
Cape Town
Cape Town (; ) is the second-most populous city in South Africa, and the largest in land area, forming part of the City of Cape Town metropolitan municipality. It is the provincial capital and primate city of the Western Cape, as well as the legislative capital of South Africa, where the National Parliament and many government offices are located. The city is famous for its harbour as well as its natural setting in the Cape floral kingdom, including such well-known landmarks as Table Mountain and Cape Point.It is hailed as one of the most beautiful cities in the world as officially recognised by Forbes. National Geographic has also enlisted Cape Town as one of the most iconic cities on the planet and "Places of a Lifetime". Cape Town is also Africa's most popular tourist destination.
http://wn.com/Cape_Town
Cartagena, Spain
Cartagena is a Mediterranean city and naval station located in the Region of Murcia, southeastern Spain. , it has a population of 211,996, making it the second largest city in the Region, the 6th among the non-province capitals of Spain, and the 24th overall.
http://wn.com/Cartagena_Spain
Carthage
http://wn.com/Carthage
Chellah
Chellah, () or Sala Colonia is a necropolis and complex of ancient and medieval ruins that lie on Rabat, Morocco. This site is the most ancient human settlement on the mouth of the Bou Regreg River.
http://wn.com/Chellah
Chile
http://wn.com/Chile
China
China is seen variously as an ancient civilization extending over a large area in East Asia, a nation and/or a multinational entity.
http://wn.com/China
Chlef
Chlef () is the capital of Chlef Province, Algeria. It is home to the soccer club ASO Chlef, the Hassiba Ben Bouali university, and the basilica of Saint Reparatus, which is home to the oldest Christian labyrinth in the world.
http://wn.com/Chlef
Chéraga
http://wn.com/Chéraga
Chéraga District
http://wn.com/Chéraga_District
Cirta
Cirta was the capital city of the Kingdom of Numidia in northern Africa in modern Algeria due to its strategic maritime positioning with its port city of Russicada. Although Numidia was a key ally of the ancient Roman Republic during the Punic Wars, Cirta was subject to Roman invasions during the first and second centuries B.C., eventually falling under Roman domain during the rule of Julius Caesar.
http://wn.com/Cirta
Comoros
this is an island with to people on it
http://wn.com/Comoros
Conakry
http://wn.com/Conakry
Constantine, Algeria
Constantine (, ) is the capital of Constantine Province in north-eastern Algeria. Slightly inland, it is about 80 kilometers from the Mediterranean coast. Regarded as the capital of eastern Algeria and the centre of its region, Constantine has a population of over 750,000 (1,000,000 with the agglomeration), making it the third largest city in the country after Algiers and Oran. There are museums and important historical sites around the city.
http://wn.com/Constantine_Algeria
Cuicul
http://wn.com/Cuicul
Cyprus
http://wn.com/Cyprus
Dakar
Dakar is the capital city of Senegal, located on the Cap-Vert Peninsula, on the country's Atlantic coast. It is Senegal's largest city. Its position, on the western edge of Africa (it is the westernmost city on the African mainland), is an advantageous departure point for trans-Atlantic and European trade; this fact aided its growth into a major regional port.
http://wn.com/Dakar
Damascus
http://wn.com/Damascus
Djelfa
Djelfa () is the capital city of Djelfa province, Algeria. It has a population of 154,265 (1998 census). The city lies at the junction of the N1 and the N46.
http://wn.com/Djelfa
Djibouti
http://wn.com/Djibouti
Djibouti (city)
The City of Djibouti (,) is the capital and largest city of the Republic of Djibouti, a nation in the Horn of Africa. It lies on a peninsula that divides the Gulf of Aden from the Gulf of Tadjoura.
http://wn.com/Djibouti_(city)
Djémila
http://wn.com/Djémila
Dodoma
Dodoma (literally "It has sunk" in Gogo), officially Dodoma Urban District, population 324,347 (2002 census), is the national capital of Tanzania, and the capital of the Dodoma region. In 1973, plans were made to move the capital to Dodoma. Tanzania's National Assembly moved there in February 1996, but many government offices remain in the previous national capital, Dar es Salaam, which remains the commercial capital.
http://wn.com/Dodoma
Doha
Doha (, ' or ', literally: "the big tree") is the capital city of the state of Qatar. Located on the Persian Gulf, it had a population of 998,651 in 2008, and is also one of the municipalities of Qatar. Doha is Qatar's largest city, with over 80% of the nation's population residing in Doha or its surrounding suburbs, and is also the economic centre of the country.
http://wn.com/Doha
Douaouda
http://wn.com/Douaouda
Douéra
Douera is a suburb of the city of Algiers in northern Algeria.
http://wn.com/Douéra
Draria
Draria is a suburb of the city of Algiers in northern Algeria.
http://wn.com/Draria
Draria District
Draria is a district in Algiers Province, Algeria. It was named after its capital, Draria.
http://wn.com/Draria_District
Dubai
Dubai ( ; ) is one of the seven emirates of the United Arab Emirates (UAE). It is located south of the Persian Gulf on the Arabian Peninsula and has the largest population with the second-largest land territory by area of all the emirates, after Abu Dhabi. Dubai and Abu Dhabi are the only two emirates to have veto power over critical matters of national importance in the country's legislature.
http://wn.com/Dubai
Dély Ibrahim
Dely Brahim is a suburb of the city of Algiers in northern Algeria.
http://wn.com/Dély_Ibrahim
Egypt
http://wn.com/Egypt
El Aaiun
http://wn.com/El_Aaiun
El Achour
El Achour is a suburb of the city of Algiers in northern Algeria.
http://wn.com/El_Achour
El Bayadh
El Bayadh () is a municipality of Algeria. It is the capital of El Bayadh Province.
http://wn.com/El_Bayadh
El Biar
http://wn.com/El_Biar
El Djazair
http://wn.com/El_Djazair
El Harrach
El Harrach () is a suburb of the Algerian capital Algiers, located about 10 km to the east of the city.
http://wn.com/El_Harrach
El Harrach District
El Harrach is a district in Algiers Province, Algeria. It was named after its capital, El Harrach.
http://wn.com/El_Harrach_District
El Madania
El Madania () is a municipality in Algiers Province, Algeria. It is administratively part of Sidi M'Hamed district. Its municipal code is 1603 and postal code is 16075 and it has a population of 51,404 as of the 1998 census, which gives it 15 seats in the PMA.
http://wn.com/El_Madania
El Magharia
El Magharia is a suburb of the city of Algiers in northern Algeria.
http://wn.com/El_Magharia
El Marsa, Algiers
El Marsa is a town in Algiers Province, Algeria. The population is 11,860.
http://wn.com/El_Marsa_Algiers
El Mouradia
El Mouradia () is a municipality in Algiers Province, Algeria. It is administratively part of Sidi M'Hamed district. Its municipal code is 1627 and postal code is 16070 and it has a population of 29,503 as of the 1998 census, which gives it 11 seats in the PMA.
http://wn.com/El_Mouradia
El Oued
El Oued or Oued Souf is a city in El Oued province, Algeria
http://wn.com/El_Oued
El Taref
El Taref () is a city in Algeria. It is the capital of El Taref Province. La Calle is a port town near El Taref. El Taref is 700 kilometers east of Algiers. In 1998, it had a population of around 20,300.
http://wn.com/El_Taref
Enfeh
Enfeh is a fishing town on the coast of North Lebanon, in El-Koura district (capital Amioun)
http://wn.com/Enfeh
Essaouira
Mogador redirects here, for the hamlet in Surrey see Mogador, Surrey.
http://wn.com/Essaouira
Finike
Finike (historically known as Phoenicus) is a district on the Mediterranean coast of Antalya Province of Turkey, 90 minutes west of the city of Antalya.
http://wn.com/Finike
France
{{Infobox Country
http://wn.com/France
Freetown
Freetown is the capital and largest city of Sierra Leone, a country in West Africa. It is a major port city on the Atlantic Ocean located in the Western Area of the country and with a population of 1,070,200 The city is the economic, financial, and cultural center of Sierra Leone. Many of the country's largest corporations locate their headquarters' home offices in Freetown as well as the majority of international companies. The city's economy revolves largely around its harbor - occupying a part of the estuary of the [[Sierra Leone River in one the world's largest natural
http://wn.com/Freetown
Gaborone
(Tswana ; English or , named after Chief Kgosi Gabarone) is the capital and largest city of Botswana with a population of 191,776 based on a 2006 survey. Gaborone is situated between Kgale and Oodi Hills, on the Notwane River in the southeastern corner of Botswana, and from the South African border. The city is served by the Sir Seretse Khama International Airport. It is an administrative district in its own right, but is the capital of the surrounding South-East District. Locals often refer to the city as Gabs.
http://wn.com/Gaborone
Gao
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http://wn.com/Gao
Germany
Germany (), officially the Federal Republic of Germany (, ), is a country in Western Europe. It is bordered to the north by the North Sea, Denmark, and the Baltic Sea; to the east by Poland and the Czech Republic; to the south by Austria and Switzerland; and to the west by France, Luxembourg, Belgium, and the Netherlands. The territory of Germany covers 357.021 km2 and is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. With 81.8 million inhabitants, it is the most populous member state of the European Union, and home to the third-largest number of international migrants worldwide.
http://wn.com/Germany
Ghardaïa
http://wn.com/Ghardaïa
Gibraltar
Gibraltar () is a British overseas territory located on the southern end of the Iberian Peninsula at the entrance of the Mediterranean, overlooking the Strait of Gibraltar. The territory itself is a peninsula of whose isthmus connects to the north with Spain. The Rock of Gibraltar is the major landmark of the area and gives its name to the densely populated town, home to almost 30,000 Gibraltarians.
http://wn.com/Gibraltar
Gozo
Gozo () is a small island of the Maltese archipelago in the Mediterranean Sea. The island is part of the Southern European country of Malta; after the island of Malta itself, it is the second-largest island in the archipelago. Compared to its southeastern neighbour, Gozo is more rural and known for its scenic hills, which are featured on its coat of arms.
http://wn.com/Gozo
Guelma
Guelma () is the capital of Guelma Province and Guelma District, located in north-eastern Algeria, at about 40 kilometers from the Mediterranean coast. It is home to the titular see of Calama.
http://wn.com/Guelma
Gué de Constantine
http://wn.com/Gué_de_Constantine
H'raoua
http://wn.com/H'raoua
Hadrumetum
Hadrume(n)tum (sometimes called Adrametum or Adrametus) was a Phoenician colony that pre-dated Carthage and stood on the site of modern-day Sousse, Tunisia.
http://wn.com/Hadrumetum
Hammamet, Algeria
Hammamet is a town and commune in Algiers Province, Algeria. As of 1998, the commune had a total population of 15,879.
http://wn.com/Hammamet_Algeria
Harare
Harare ( or , before 1982 known as Salisbury) is the largest city and capital of Zimbabwe. It has an estimated population of 1,600,000, with 2,800,000 in its metropolitan area (2006). Administratively, Harare is an independent city equivalent to a province. It is Zimbabwe's largest city and its administrative, commercial, and communications centre. The city is a trade centre for tobacco, maize, cotton, and citrus fruits. Manufactures include textiles, steel, and chemicals, and gold is mined in the area. Harare is situated at an elevation of 1483 metres (4865 feet) and its climate falls into the warm temperate category.
http://wn.com/Harare
Hargeisa
Hargeisa (, ) is the capital of the Woqooyi Galbeed region and the 2nd largest city in Somalia with a population of approximately 1.3 million. Hergesia is the capital of Somaliland, a de facto independent republic that is internationally recognized as a part of Somalia. It was the colonial capital of British Somaliland from 1941 to 1960 when it gained independence as the State of Somaliland and united with Italian Somaliland to form the Somali Republic.
http://wn.com/Hargeisa
Hippo Regius
Hippo Regius is the ancient name of the modern city of Annaba, in Algeria. Under this name, it was a major city in Roman Africa, hosting several early Christian councils, and was the home of the philosopher and theologian Augustine of Hippo. In even earlier days, the city was a royal residence for Numidian kings.
http://wn.com/Hippo_Regius
Honaine
http://wn.com/Honaine
Huelva
Huelva is a city in southwestern Spain, the capital of the province of Huelva in the autonomous region of Andalusia. It is located along the Gulf of Cadiz coast, at the confluence of the Odiel and Tinto rivers. According to the 2008 census, the city has a population of 148,950 inhabitants. The city has been inhabited since 3000 BC. The town is home to Recreativo de Huelva, the oldest football club in Spain.
http://wn.com/Huelva
Hussein Dey District
Hussein Dey is a district in Algiers Province, Algeria. It was named after its capital, Hussein Dey.
http://wn.com/Hussein_Dey_District
Hussein-dey
http://wn.com/Hussein-dey
Hydra (Algiers) will
http://wn.com/Hydra_(Algiers)_will
Hydra, Algeria
http://wn.com/Hydra_Algeria
Icosium
http://wn.com/Icosium
Illizi
Illizi () is a town situated in the south-eastern part of Algeria, capital of Illizi Province. It is one of the gates to the Tassili N'Ajjer National Park with caves situated under the sands containing prehistoric drawings dating from 6000 years BC. There is a hotel and two camping sites, as well as many local tourist agencies.
http://wn.com/Illizi
Indonesia
Indonesia ( or ), officially the Republic of Indonesia (), is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania. Indonesia comprises 17,508 islands. With a population of around 238 million people, it is the world's fourth most populous country, and has the world's largest population of Muslims. Indonesia is a republic, with an elected legislature and president. The nation's capital city is Jakarta. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, and Malaysia. Other neighboring countries include Singapore, Philippines, Australia, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indonesia is a founding member of ASEAN and a member of the G-20 major economies.
http://wn.com/Indonesia
Iraq
Iraq ( or , Arabic: ), officially the Republic of Iraq (Arabic:
http://wn.com/Iraq
Ireland
Ireland (,; , ; Ulster Scots: Airlann) is the third-largest island in Europe and the twentieth-largest island in the world. It lies to the northwest of continental Europe and is surrounded by hundreds of islands and islets. To the east of Ireland is Great Britain, separated from it by the Irish Sea. The island is divided between the Republic of Ireland, which covers just under five-sixths of the island, and Northern Ireland, a part of the United Kingdom, which covers the remainder and is located in the northeast of the island. The population of Ireland is approximately 6.2 million people. Just under 4.5 million live in the Republic of Ireland and just under 1.8 million live in Northern Ireland.
http://wn.com/Ireland
Israel
http://wn.com/Israel
Italy
http://wn.com/Italy
Jerusalem
Jerusalem ( , ; Arabic: , al-Quds Sharif, "The Holy Sanctuary") is the capital of Israel, though not internationally recognized as such. If the area and population of East Jerusalem is included, it is Israel's largest city in both population and area, with a population of 763,800 residents over an area of . Located in the Judean Mountains, between the Mediterranean Sea and the northern edge of the Dead Sea, modern Jerusalem has grown far beyond the boundaries of the Old City.
http://wn.com/Jerusalem
Jijel
Jijel (formerly known as Djidjelli, ) is the capital of Jijel Province in northeastern Algeria. It is flanked by the Mediterranean Sea in the region of Corniche Jijelienne, and has an estimated population of 148,000 inhabitants (2007).
http://wn.com/Jijel
Johannesburg
Johannesburg (, ) also known as Jozi, '''Jo'burg or eGoli''', is the largest city in South Africa. Johannesburg is the provincial capital of Gauteng, the wealthiest province in South Africa, having the largest economy of any metropolitan region in Sub-Saharan Africa.. The city is one of the 40 largest metropolitan areas in the world, and is also the world's largest city not situated on a river, lake, or coastline.
http://wn.com/Johannesburg
Jordan
{{Infobox Country
http://wn.com/Jordan
Kampala
Kampala is the largest city and capital of Uganda. The city is divided into five boroughs that oversee local planning: Kampala Central, Kawempe Division, Makindye Division, Nakawa Division and Lubaga Division. The city is coterminous with Kampala District.
http://wn.com/Kampala
Kasbah
http://wn.com/Kasbah
Kelibia
http://wn.com/Kelibia
Kerkouane
Kerkouane (; occasionally Kerkuane) is a Punic city in northeastern Tunisia, near Cape Bon. This Phoenician city was probably abandoned during the First Punic War (c. 250 B.C.), and as a result was not rebuilt by the Romans. It had existed for almost 400 years.
http://wn.com/Kerkouane
Ketchaoua Mosque
The Ketchaoua Mosque (, Djamaa Ketchaoua) is a mosque in Algiers, the capital of Algeria. It is located at the foot of the Casbah noted for its blend of Moorish and Byzantine architecture.
http://wn.com/Ketchaoua_Mosque
Khartoum
http://wn.com/Khartoum
Khenchela
http://wn.com/Khenchela
Khraïcia
Khraicia is a suburb of the city of Algiers in northern Algeria.
http://wn.com/Khraïcia
Kigali
Kigali, population 965,398 (2009), is the capital and largest city of Rwanda. It is situated near the geographic centre of the nation, and has been the economic, cultural, and transport hub of Rwanda since it became capital at independence in 1962. The main residence and offices of the President of Rwanda are located in the city, as are the government ministries. The city is coterminous with the province of Kigali City, which was enlarged in January 2006 as part of local government reorganisation in the country. The city's urban area covers about 70% of the municipal boundaries.
http://wn.com/Kigali
Kinshasa
http://wn.com/Kinshasa
Kouba, Algeria
Kouba is a suburb of the city of Algiers in northern Algeria.
http://wn.com/Kouba_Algeria
Kuwait
The State of Kuwait (, Dawlat al-Kuwayt) is a sovereign Arab nation situated in the northeast of the Arabian Peninsula in Western Asia. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south, and Iraq to the north. It lies on the northwestern shore of the Persian Gulf. The name Kuwait is derived from the Arabic "akwat", the plural of "kout", meaning fortress built near water. The emirate covers an area of 17,820 square kilometres (6,880 sq mi) and has a population of about 2.7 million.
http://wn.com/Kuwait
Kuwait City
http://wn.com/Kuwait_City
Laghouat
Laghouat () is the capital city of the Laghouat Province, Algeria, 400 km south of the Algerian capital Algiers in the Atlas Mountains. As of 2005, the population of the city was 126,291 inhabitants. Nearby, in Hassi R'Mel, there is the largest natural gas reserve in Africa.
http://wn.com/Laghouat
Lagos
http://wn.com/Lagos
Larnaca
http://wn.com/Larnaca
Lebanon
Lebanon ( or ; ; ), officially the Republic of Lebanon (Arabic: ; French: ), is a country on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea. It is bordered by Syria to the north and east, and Israel to the south. Lebanon's location at the crossroads of the Mediterranean Basin and the Arabian hinterland has dictated its rich history, and shaped a cultural identity of religious and ethnic diversity.
http://wn.com/Lebanon
Leptis Magna
http://wn.com/Leptis_Magna
Leptis Parva
Leptis Parva (also Leptis Minor, Lesser Leptis or Little Leptis; not to be confused with Leptis Magna in Tripolitania) was an ancient city on the eastern coast of Tunisia by the Gulf of Hammamet in proximity to the modern city of Monastir. It was founded as a Phoenician colony in the 8th century BCE, around the time Carthage was founded, and was a commercial city. It was a prominent city during the Phoenician period, but became a less important city during the Punic rule of the region, c. 600BCE to 146BCE. It was incorporated into the Roman Republic with the destruction of Carthage in 146BCE, but gained more autonomy than it had during Punic Era. Julius Caesar used it as his base of operations in 46BCE during his winter campaign against supporters for Pompey led by Titus Labienus. It remained an important city even during the Byzantine Period and was one of the most important cities in North Africa. It suffered the same fate that the other great cities, including Leptis Magna and Carthage, suffered at the hands of invading Arabs, who virtually destroyed the city in the 7th century CE. It was abandoned, never to be settled again.
http://wn.com/Leptis_Parva
Les Eucalyptus
Les Eucalyptus is a suburb of the city of Algiers in northern Algeria.
http://wn.com/Les_Eucalyptus
Libreville
Libreville (population 578,156 January 1, 2005) is the capital and largest city of Gabon. The city is a port on the Komo River, near the Gulf of Guinea, and a trade center for a timber region.
http://wn.com/Libreville
Libya
http://wn.com/Libya
Lilongwe
Lilongwe, estimated population 902,388 as of 2009, is the capital and largest city of Malawi. It lies in the country's central region, on the Lilongwe River, near the border of Malawi, Mozambique, and Zambia, and on the main north-south highway of Malawi, the M1.
http://wn.com/Lilongwe
Lixus (ancient city)
Lixus is the site of an ancient city located in Morocco just north of the modern seaport of Larache on the bank of the Loukkos River. The location was one of the main cities of the Roman province Mauretania Tingitana.
http://wn.com/Lixus_(ancient_city)
Lobamba
Lobamba is the traditional and legislative capital of Swaziland, seat of the Parliament and residence of the Queen Mother. It is located in the west of the country, in the Ezulwini valley, 16 km from Mbabane, in the district of Hhohho. Its population is 5,800.
http://wn.com/Lobamba
Lomé
http://wn.com/Lomé
London
London () is the capital of England and the United Kingdom, the largest metropolitan area in the United Kingdom and the largest urban zone in the European Union by most measures. London has been a major settlement for two millennia, its history going back to its founding by the Romans, who called it Londinium. London's core, the ancient City of London, largely retains its square-mile mediaeval boundaries. Since at least the 19th century, the name London has also referred to the metropolis developed around this core. The bulk of this conurbation forms the London region and the Greater London administrative area, governed by the elected Mayor of London and the London Assembly.
http://wn.com/London
Luanda
Luanda (formerly spelled Loanda) is the capital and largest city of Angola. Located on Angola's coast with the Atlantic Ocean, Luanda is both Angola's chief seaport and administrative center and has a population of at least 5 million (2008). It is also the capital city of Luanda Province. Luanda is located at . The city is currently undergoing a major reconstruction, with many large developments taking place that will alter the cityscape significantly.
http://wn.com/Luanda
Lusaka
Lusaka is the capital and largest city of Zambia. It is located in the southern part of the central plateau of the country, at an elevation of 1279 m. It has a population of 3,100,000 (2007 estimate). It is a commercial centre as well as the centre of government, and the four main highways of Zambia radiate north, south, east and west from it. The two main languages spoken in Lusaka are English and Nyanja.
http://wn.com/Lusaka
M'Sila
'''M'Sila (also spelled Msila or MSila''') (; Berber: ) is the capital of M'Sila Province, Algeria, and is co-extensive with '''M'Sila District'''. It has a population of over 100,000. M'Sila University is also located in this city.
http://wn.com/M'Sila
Mahelma
Mahelma is a suburb of the city of Algiers in northern Algeria.
http://wn.com/Mahelma
Malabo
http://wn.com/Malabo
Mali
http://wn.com/Mali
Malta
Malta , officially the Republic of Malta (), is a southern European country and consists of an archipelago situated centrally in the Mediterranean, 93 km south of Sicily and 288 km east of Tunisia, with the Strait of Gibraltar 1,826 km to the west and Alexandria 1,510 km to the east.
http://wn.com/Malta
Manama
http://wn.com/Manama
Maputo
http://wn.com/Maputo
Marsala
Marsala is a seaport city located in the Province of Trapani on the island of Sicily in Italy. The low coast on which it is situated is the westernmost point of the island. It is best known as the source of Marsala wine.
http://wn.com/Marsala
Martyrs Memorial
The Martyrs Memorial ('' Maquam E' chahid '') is an iconic concrete monument commemorating the Algerian war for independence. The monument was opened in 1982 on the 20th anniversary of Algeria's independence. It is fashioned in the shape of three standing palm leaves which shelter the "Eternal Flame" beneath. At the edge of each palm leaf stands a statue of a soldier, each representing a stage of Algeria's struggle.
http://wn.com/Martyrs_Memorial
Mascara, Algeria
Mascara () is the capital city of Mascara Province, Algeria, in northwestern Algeria. It has 150,000 inhabitants (2008 estimate). The name Mascara comes from the Arabic "Mother of Soldiers".
http://wn.com/Mascara_Algeria
Maseru
Maseru is the capital of Lesotho. It is also the capital of the Maseru District. Located on the Caledon River, bordering South Africa, Maseru is Lesotho's only sizable city, with a population of approximately 227,880 (2006). The city was established as a police camp and assigned as the capital after the country became a British protectorate in 1869. When the country achieved independence in 1966, Maseru retained its status as capital. The name of the city is a Sesotho word meaning "place of the red sandstone".
http://wn.com/Maseru
Mauritania
http://wn.com/Mauritania
Mbabane
Mbabane (), with an estimated population of 95,000 (2007), is the capital and largest city of Swaziland. It is located on the Mbabane River and its tributary the Polinjane River in the Mdimba Mountains. It is located in the district of Hhohho, of which it is also the capital. The average elevation of the city is 3,800 ft. The population (estimated) in 1987 was 30,000.
http://wn.com/Mbabane
Melilla
http://wn.com/Melilla
Mila, Algeria
Mila () is a city in the Northeast of Algeria, capital of Mila Province. In antiquity, in was known by its Latin name Milevum, which is currently a titular episcopal see in the Roman province of Numidia.
http://wn.com/Mila_Algeria
Mogadishu
Mogadishu (; , popularly Xamar; ; , literally "The Seat of the Shah") is the largest city in Somalia and the nation's capital.
http://wn.com/Mogadishu
Monrovia
:For alternate meanings, see Monrovia (disambiguation).
http://wn.com/Monrovia
Montreal
http://wn.com/Montreal
Morocco
http://wn.com/Morocco
Moroni, Comoros
:For other places, people and things with the same name, see Moroni.
http://wn.com/Moroni_Comoros
Moscow
Moscow ( or ; ; see also ) is the capital, the most populous city, and the most populous federal subject of Russia. The city is a major political, economic, cultural, religious, financial, educational, and transportation centre of Russia and the world, a global city. Moscow is the most populous city on the continent of Europe and the seventh largest city proper in the world, a megacity. The population of Moscow (as of 1 January 2010) is 10,563,038.
http://wn.com/Moscow
Mostaganem
Mostaganem () is a port city in and capital of Mostaganem province, in the northwest of Algeria. The city, founded in the 11th century lies on the Gulf of Arzew, Mediterranean Sea and is 72 km ENE of Oran. It has 130,288 inhabitants as of the 1998 census.
http://wn.com/Mostaganem
Motya
Motya (Greek: ; Italian: Mozia ot Mothia; Sicilian: Mozzia), was an ancient and powerful city on an island off the west coast of Sicily, between Drepanum (modern Trapani) and Lilybaeum (modern Marsala). The eponymous (in ancient times) island renamed San Pantaleo in the 11th century by Basilian monks is situated in a lagoon on the most western part of Sicily (nearly 850 meters long and 750 meters wide) about one km (six stadia) from the mainland of Sicily, to which it was joined by an artificial causeway (paved road), by which chariots with large wheels could reach the town.
http://wn.com/Motya
Muscat, Oman
http://wn.com/Muscat_Oman
Musée de l'Armée
http://wn.com/Musée_de_l'Armée
Myriandrus
http://wn.com/Myriandrus
Médéa
http://wn.com/Médéa
N'Djamena
http://wn.com/N'Djamena
Nairobi
Nairobi () is the capital and largest city of Kenya. The city and its surrounding area also forms the Nairobi Province. The name "Nairobi" comes from the Maasai phrase Enkare Nyirobi, which translates to "the place of cool waters". However, it is popularly known as the "Green City in the Sun" and is surrounded by several expanding villa suburbs. The people of Nairobi are popularly nicknamed 'Nairobians'.
http://wn.com/Nairobi
Naples
Naples ( , , Neapolitan: Napule) is a city in Italy; it is the capital of the region of Campania and of the province of Naples. Known for its rich history, art, culture, architecture, music, and gastronomy, Naples has played an important role in the the Italian peninsula and beyond for much of its existence, which began more than 2,800 years ago. Situated on the west coast of Italy by the Gulf of Naples, the city is located halfway between two volcanic areas, Mount Vesuvius and the Phlegraean Fields.
http://wn.com/Naples
Naâma
http://wn.com/Naâma
Netherlands
{{Infobox country
http://wn.com/Netherlands
Niamey
http://wn.com/Niamey
Nora, Italy
Nora is an ancient Roman and pre-Roman town placed on a peninsula near Pula, near to Cagliari in Sardinia. According with the legend , Nora was founded by a group of Iberians led by Norax , a mythological hero son of Eriteide and the god Hermes. It is believed to be the first town founded in Sardinia and to have been settled by the ancient Sherden or the Nuraghi people, however after colonization by Phoenicians and a period of domination by Carthage the town came under Roman control after the conquest of Sardinia in 238 BC. It went into decline from the 4th century AD and appears to have been abandoned during the 8th century.
http://wn.com/Nora_Italy
Nouakchott
http://wn.com/Nouakchott
OCO
http://wn.com/OCO
Olbia
Olbia ( or locally ; Sardinian name: Terranoa, Gallurese: Tarranoa), is a town and comune of approximately 54,000 (2009) inhabitants in northeastern Sardinia (Italy), in the Gallura sub-region. Called Olbia in the Roman age, Civita in the Middle Ages (Giudicati period) and Terranova Pausania before the 1940s, Olbia was again the official name of the town after the period of Fascism.
http://wn.com/Olbia
Oman
Oman (pronounced ; '), officially the Sultanate of Oman''' ( ), is an Arab country in southwest Asia on the southeast coast of the Arabian Peninsula. It borders the United Arab Emirates on the northwest, Saudi Arabia on the west and Yemen on the southwest. The coast is formed by the Arabian Sea on the southeast and the Gulf of Oman on the northeast. The country also contains Madha and Musandam, two exclaves on the Gulf of Oman, south of the Strait of Hormuz and surrounded by the United Arab Emirates on the land side.
http://wn.com/Oman
Operation Torch
Operation Torch (initially called Operation Gymnast) was the British-American invasion of French North Africa in World War II during the North African Campaign, started 8 November 1942.
http://wn.com/Operation_Torch
Oran
http://wn.com/Oran
Ouagadougou
Ouagadougou (, Mossi: ) is the capital of Burkina Faso and the administrative, communications, cultural and economic center of the nation. It is also the country's largest city, with a population of 1,475,223 (as of 2006). The city's name is often shortened to Ouaga. The inhabitants are called ouagalais. The spelling of the name Ouagadougou is derived from the French orthography common in former French African colonies. If English orthography were used (as in Ghana or Nigeria), the spelling would be Wagadugu.
http://wn.com/Ouagadougou
Ouargla
Ouargla () is the capital city of Ouargla province, southern Algeria. It has a flourishing oil industry. It hosts one of Algeria's universities. The city had a population of 129,402 in 1998 (census figures).
http://wn.com/Ouargla
Oued Smar
Oued Smar is a suburb of the city of Algiers in northern Algeria.
http://wn.com/Oued_Smar
Ouled Chebel
Ouled Chebel is a town and commune in Algiers Province, Algeria. As of 1998, the commune had a total population of 16,335.
http://wn.com/Ouled_Chebel
Ouled Fayet
Ouled Fayet is a suburb of the city of Algiers in northern Algeria.
http://wn.com/Ouled_Fayet
Oum el-Bouaghi
http://wn.com/Oum_el-Bouaghi
Palermo
Palermo (, Sicilian: Palermu, , from , Panormos, , Balharm) is a historic city in Southern Italy, the capital of both the autonomous region of Sicily and the Province of Palermo. The city is noted for its rich history, culture, architecture and gastronomy, playing an important role throughout much of its existence; it is over 2,700 years old. Palermo is located in the northwest of the island of Sicily, right by the Gulf of Palermo in the Tyrrhenian Sea.
http://wn.com/Palermo
Phoenicia
http://wn.com/Phoenicia
Port Louis
Port Louis (pronounced in French as ) is the capital of Mauritius. It is the largest city of the country and main port, which borders the Indian Ocean. It is located in the Port Louis District. The population is 147,688 (2003 census).
http://wn.com/Port_Louis
Porto-Novo
http://wn.com/Porto-Novo
Portugal
Portugal (, ), officially the Portuguese Republic (; ), is a country located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Portugal is the westernmost country of Europe and is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the west and south and by Spain to the north and east. The Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira are also part of Portugal.
http://wn.com/Portugal
Praia
http://wn.com/Praia
Pretoria
Pretoria is a city located in the northern part of Gauteng Province, South Africa. It is one of the country's three capital cities, serving as the executive (administrative) and de facto national capital; the others are Cape Town, the legislative capital, and Bloemfontein, the judicial capital.
http://wn.com/Pretoria
Qatar
Qatar ( ; ; local pronunciation: ), also known as the State of Qatar or locally , is an Arab country, known officially as an emirate, in the Middle East, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeasterly coast of the much larger Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south; otherwise, the Persian Gulf surrounds the state. A strait of the Persian Gulf separates Qatar from the nearby island nation of Bahrain.
http://wn.com/Qatar
Rabat
http://wn.com/Rabat
Rahmania
Rahmania is a suburb of the city of Algiers in northern Algeria.
http://wn.com/Rahmania
Ramallah
http://wn.com/Ramallah
Relizane
http://wn.com/Relizane
Riyadh
http://wn.com/Riyadh
Rome
Rome (; , ; ) is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in . In 2006 the population of the metropolitan area was estimated by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development to have a population of 3.7 million.
http://wn.com/Rome
Rouïba
http://wn.com/Rouïba
Rouïba District
http://wn.com/Rouïba_District
Russia
Russia (; ), also officially known as the Russian Federation (), is a state in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects. From northwest to southeast, Russia shares borders with Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland (both via Kaliningrad Oblast), Belarus, Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, the People's Republic of China, Mongolia, and North Korea. It also has maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk and the United States by the Bering Strait. At , Russia is the largest country in the world, covering more than a ninth of the Earth's land area. Russia is also the ninth most populous nation with 142 million people. It extends across the whole of northern Asia and 40% of Europe, spanning 9 time zones and incorporating a wide range of environments and landforms. Russia has the world's largest reserves of mineral and energy resources. It has the world's largest forest reserves and its lakes contain approximately one-quarter of the world's fresh water.
http://wn.com/Russia
Réghaïa
http://wn.com/Réghaïa
Sabratha
Sabratha, Sabratah or Siburata (), in the Az Zawiyah District in the northwestern corner of modern Libya, was the westernmost of the "three cities" of Tripolis. From 2001 to 2007 it was the capital of the former Sabratha Wa Surman District. It lies on the Mediterranean coast about 65km (40 miles) west of Tripoli (ancient Oea). The extant archaeological site was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1982.
http://wn.com/Sabratha
Safita
Safita (, ) is a city in northwestern Syria, located to the southeast of Tartous and to the northwest of Krak des Chevaliers. The city has a population of 33,000. It's situated atop three hills and the valleys between them, in the Syrian Coastal Mountain Range. Safita grew prominent during the Crusades, and was inhabited by the Knights Templar of the castle Chastel Blanc, while a part of the County of Tripoli.
http://wn.com/Safita
Sana'a
http://wn.com/Sana'a
Sant'Antioco
'''Sant'Antioco' is the name of both an island and a municipality (comune'') in southwestern Sardinia, in the Province of Carbonia-Iglesias, in Sulcis zone. With a population of 11,730, the municipality of Sant'Antioco it is the island's largest community. It is also the site of ancient Sulci, considered the second city of Sardinia in antiquity.
http://wn.com/Sant'Antioco
Santiago de Chile
http://wn.com/Santiago_de_Chile
Saoula
Saoula is a suburb of the city of Algiers in northern Algeria.
http://wn.com/Saoula
Saudi Arabia
http://wn.com/Saudi_Arabia
Saïda, Algeria
http://wn.com/Saïda_Algeria
Senegal
http://wn.com/Senegal
Shanghai
http://wn.com/Shanghai
Sidi M'Hamed
'''Sidi M'Hamed' () is a municipality in Algiers Province, Algeria. It is the seat of the district of the same name. Its municipal code is 1602 and postal code is 16014'' and it has a population of 90,455 as of the 1998 census, which gives it 15 seats in the PMA.
http://wn.com/Sidi_M'Hamed
Sidi Moussa
Sidi Moussa is a suburb of the city of Algiers in northern Algeria.
http://wn.com/Sidi_Moussa
Sidon
http://wn.com/Sidon
Sitifis
http://wn.com/Sitifis
Skikda
Skikda () is a city in north eastern Algeria and a port on the Gulf of Stora, the ancient Sinus Numidicus. It was known as Philippeville until the end of the Algerian War of Independence in 1962. It is the capital of Skikda Province and Skikda District.
http://wn.com/Skikda
Sofia
Sofia (, ) is the capital and largest city of Bulgaria and the 47th largest city by population in the European Union, with 1.4 million people living in the Capital Municipality. It is located in western Bulgaria, at the foot of Mount Vitosha, and is the administrative, cultural, economic, and educational centre of the country.
http://wn.com/Sofia
Soluntum
::"Solus" redirects here. For the CrossGen comic book, see Solus (comics).
http://wn.com/Soluntum
Somalia
Somalia ( ; ; ), officially the Republic of Somalia (, ) and formerly known as the Somali Democratic Republic under communist rule, is a country located in the Horn of Africa. It is bordered by Djibouti to the northwest, Kenya to the southwest, the Gulf of Aden with Yemen to the north, the Indian Ocean to the east, and Ethiopia to the west. With the longest coastline on the continent, its terrain consists mainly of plateaus, plains and highlands.
http://wn.com/Somalia
Souidania
Souidania is a suburb of the city of Algiers in northern Algeria.
http://wn.com/Souidania
Souk Ahras
Souk Ahras (; Chaoui: ) is a municipality in Algeria. It is the capital of Souk Ahras Province. The Numidian city of Thagaste (or Tagaste), on whose ruins Souk Ahras was built, was the birthplace of Augustine of Hippo and a center of Berber culture.
http://wn.com/Souk_Ahras
Spain
Spain ( ; , ), officially the Kingdom of Spain (), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Its mainland is bordered to the south and east by the Mediterranean Sea except for a small land boundary with the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar; to the north by France, Andorra, and the Bay of Biscay; and to the northwest and west by the Atlantic Ocean and Portugal.
http://wn.com/Spain
Stade 5 Juillet 1962
Stade 5 Juillet 1962 () (the name refers to 5 July 1962, the day Algeria declared independence from France), also known as El Djezair Stadium (), is a football and athletics stadium located in Algiers, Algeria. The stadium was inaugurated in 1972 with a capacity of 105,000. It served as the main stadium of the 1975 Mediterranean Games, the 1978 All-Africa Games, the 2004 Pan Arab Games, and the 2007 All-Africa Games. The stadium was one of two venues of the 1990 African Cup of Nations (the other venue was the Stade 19 Mai 1956 in Annaba). It hosted 9 matches of the tournament, including the final match, which had a record attendance of approximately 120,000 spectators. In the final match, the home team Algeria defeated Nigeria 1-0 to win the tournament. It also hosted the 2000 African Championships in Athletics. After a formal compliance with current safety standards in 1999, the stadium was reduced to an 80,000 capacity, and following a new phase of renovation in 2003, the stadium's capacity has been reduced further to its current all-seater capacity of 66,000.
http://wn.com/Stade_5_Juillet_1962
Staouéli
http://wn.com/Staouéli
Sudan
Sudan (), officially the Republic of the Sudan, is a country in northeastern Africa. It is the largest country in Africa and the Arab world, and tenth largest in the world by area. It is bordered by Egypt to the north, the Red Sea to the northeast, Eritrea and Ethiopia to the east,Kenya and Uganda to the southeast, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Central African Republic to the southwest, Chad to the west and Libya to the northwest. The world's longest river, the Nile, divides the country between east and west sides.
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Surakarta (colloquially Solo) is an Indonesian city of more than 600,000 people located in Central Java.
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Switzerland (, , , ), officially the Swiss Confederation (Confoederatio Helvetica in Latin, hence its ISO country codes CH and CHE), is a federal republic consisting of 26 cantons, with Bern as the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in Western Europe where it is bordered by Germany to the north, France to the west, Italy to the south, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east.
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Syria
Syria ( ; ' or '), officially the Syrian Arab Republic (), is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the West, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south, and Israel to the southwest.
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Tamanrasset
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Tangier
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Tessala El Merdja
Tessala El Merdja is a town and commune in Algiers Province, Algeria. As of 1998, the commune had a total population of 10,792.
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Thapsus
Thapsus (less commonly, Tapsus) was an ancient city in what is modern day Tunisia. Its ruins exist at Ras Dimas near Bekalta, approximately 200 km southeast of Carthage. Originally founded by Phoenicians, it served as a marketplace on the coast of the province Byzacena in Africa Propria. Thapsus was established near a salt lake on a point of land eighty stadia (14.8 km) from the island of Lampedusa.
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Tharros
:For the ancient city in Crete, see Tarra, Crete.
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Thyna
Thyna is a town and commune in the Sfax Governorate, Tunisia. As of 2004 it had a population of 26,635.
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Tiaret
Tiaret (Berber: ; Tihert or Tahert, i.e. "station", ) is the name of one of the largest towns in the actual Algeria, one that gives its name to the wider farming region of 'Wilaya de Tiaret' province in central Algeria. Both the town and region lie south-west of the capital of Algiers exactly in the western region of the central hignlands, ex, in the Tell Atlas, and about 150 km (95 miles) from the sea coast. It is served by Bou Chekif Airport.
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Timgad
Timgad (, called Thamugas or Thamugadi) was a Roman colonial town in North Africa founded by the Emperor Trajan around 100 A.D. The full name of the town was Colonia Marciana Ulpia Traiana Thamugadi. Trajan commemorated the city after his mother Marcia, father Marcus Ulpius Traianus and his eldest sister Ulpia Marciana. The ruins are noteworthy for representing one of the best extant examples of the grid plan as used in Roman city planning.
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Tindouf
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Tipaza
Tipaza (formerly Tefessedt, Chenoua: Bazar, ) is a town on the coast of Algeria, capital of the Tipaza province. The modern town, founded in 1857, is remarkable chiefly for its sandy beach, and Roman ruins.
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Tissemsilt
Tissemsilt () is a municipality in Algeria. It is the capital of Tissemsilt Province and Tissemsilt District.
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Tizi Ouzou
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Tlemcen
Tlemcen () is a town in Northwestern Algeria, and the capital of the province of the same name. Its population is 132,341 as of the 1998 census. Located inland, it is located in the center of a region known for its olive plantations and vineyards. The city has developed leather, carpet, and textile industries, which it ships to the port of Rashgun for export. The word Tlemcen () comes from Berber Tala Imsan ( in Tifinagh) which means "the dry spring". The name is sometimes spelled Tlemsen, Tlemsan, or Tilimsen.
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Turkey (), known officially as the Republic of Turkey (), is a Eurasian country that stretches across the Anatolian peninsula in western Asia and Thrace in the Balkan region of southeastern Europe. Turkey is one of the six independent Turkic states. Turkey is bordered by eight countries: Bulgaria to the northwest; Greece to the west; Georgia to the northeast; Armenia, Azerbaijan (the exclave of Nakhchivan) and Iran to the east; and Iraq and Syria to the southeast. The Mediterranean Sea and Cyprus are to the south; the Aegean Sea to the west; and the Black Sea is to the north. The Sea of Marmara, the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles (which together form the Turkish Straits) demarcate the boundary between Eastern Thrace and Anatolia; they also separate Europe and Asia.
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Tyre, Lebanon
Tyre (Arabic: , '; Phoenician: , , '; , Tzor; Tiberian Hebrew , ; Akkadian:
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United Arab Emirates
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK, or Britain) is a country and sovereign state located off the northwestern coast of continental Europe. It is an island nation, spanning an archipelago including Great Britain, the northeastern part of the island of Ireland, and many smaller islands. Northern Ireland is the only part of the UK with a land border with another sovereign state, sharing it with the Republic of Ireland. Apart from this land border, the UK is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea, the English Channel and the Irish Sea. Great Britain is linked to continental Europe by the Channel Tunnel.
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Vietnam ( ; , ), officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (, ), is the easternmost country on the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia. It is bordered by People's Republic of China (PRC) to the north, Laos to the northwest, Cambodia to the southwest, and the South China Sea, referred to as East Sea (), to the east. With a population of over 86 million, Vietnam is the 13th most populous country in the world.
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Other topics that could fall under Duquesne can be found at Marquis Duquesne (disambiguation)
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The Algerian Civil War was an armed conflict between the Algerian government and various Islamist rebel groups which began in 1991. It is estimated to have cost between 150,000 and 200,000 lives.
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The Andalusians are the people of the southern region in Spain. They are generally not considered an ethnically distinct people because they lack two of the most important markers of distinctiveness: their own language and an awareness of a presumed common origin. Andalusian Spanish is said to be a distinct dialect, although it is debatable. The Andalusians have a rich culture which includes the Semana Santa (see Holy Week in Spain), the Carnival of Cadiz and the famous flamenco style of music and dance. Andalusia's own statute of autonomy identifies the region as an "historic nationality" and grants it a high level of devolved political power.
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Berber people
Berbers are the indigenous peoples of North Africa west of the Nile Valley. They are discontinuously distributed from the Atlantic to the Siwa oasis, in Egypt, and from the Mediterranean to the Niger River. Historically they spoke various Berber languages, which together form a branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family. Today many of them speak Darija and also French in the Maghreb, due to the French colonization of the Maghreb, and especially Spanish in Morocco. Today most Berber-speaking people live in Morocco, Algeria, Libya and Tunisia.
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Biyouna
Biyouna (Baya Bouzar) is an Algerian singer, dancer, actress born in 1952 in Belcourt, Algiers, Algeria.
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Bologhine ibn Ziri
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China is seen variously as an ancient civilization extending over a large area in East Asia, a nation and/or a multinational entity.
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Joe Tulip was an English footballer best known for his time at Dumfries club Queen of the South.
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Juba may refer to:
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Kabyle people
The Kabyles or Kabylians (in Kabyle language: Iqbayliyen) are the largest homogenous Algerian cultural community and they consider themselves exclusively Berber. Their traditional homeland is Kabylie (or Kabylia) in the northeast of Algeria. Since the beginning of the 20th century, they are also very present in the Algerois (Algiers's region). Around 40% of Algiers's population is Kabyle.
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Larbi Ben M'Hidi
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Lubna Azabal is a Belgian actress, born in Brussels to parents of Moroccan origin.
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Maurice Audin
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Maurice Boitel
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Merzak Allouache
Merzak Allouache (born 6 October 1944) is an Algerian film director and screenwriter. He has directed 16 films since 1976. His 1996 film Salut cousin! was submitted to the 69th Academy Awards in the category for Best Foreign Language Film.
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Mohamed Boudiaf
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Moorish Empire
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Moors
The description Moors has referred to several historic and modern populations of Berber, Black African and Arab descent from Northern Africa, some of whom came to conquer and occupy the Iberian Peninsula for nearly 800 years. At that time they were Muslim, although earlier the people had followed other religions. They called the territory Al Andalus, comprising most of what is now Spain and Portugal.
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Ottoman Empire
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Samy Naceri
Samy Naceri (born 2 July 1961) is a French actor known for his work in the four Taxi movies and The Code (La Mentale).
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Shanghai
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Vespasian
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Yaqut al-Hamawi
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Algiers - Uncover Me

Video release for the Algiers single, Uncover Me taken from the Four Priests Ep due to be ...

published: 29 Sep 2011

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métro Alger Algiers' underground en HD

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published: 14 Nov 2011

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Calexico - "Splitter"

"Splitter" by Calexico from the new album 'Algiers,' available September 11th! Pre-order a...

published: 06 Sep 2012

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Calexico - "Algiers"

"Algiers, the title track from Calexico's new album, available now! Order at www.anti.com...

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published: 20 Mar 2012

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published: 22 Jan 2012

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published: 02 Sep 2007

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published: 28 May 2012

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CAROLINE - A film by Mani Nasry

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published: 07 Sep 2010

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We conjure the dead sound to life. Blood 7 inch now available from Doublephantom.com For...

published: 30 Jan 2012

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published: 03 Apr 2011

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Photo: AP / Themba Hadebe

Mine workers sing a dance during a memorial service at the Lonmin Platinum Mine near Rustenburg, South Africa, Thursday, Aug. 23, 2012. Police shot and killed 34 striking miners and wounded 78 others last week. Demands for higher wages spread to at least two other mines, raising fears of further protests at more South African mines that provide most of the world's platinum.

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WorldNews.com

29 Oct 2012

Article by WN.com Correspondent Dallas Darling. Yesterday while protesting with striking mine workers in South Africa, Mohandas Gandhi was gunned down by heavily armed security forces. Gandhi, who...

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Photo: AP / Joseph Kaczmarek

Waves crash onto the sea wall protecting homes in Longport, N.J., Sunday, Oct. 28, 2012, as Hurricane Sandy approaches the area.

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Xinhua

29 Oct 2012

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Palestinians filling plastic bottles and jerry cans with drinking water from a public tap at the United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA) headquarters in the southern Gaza Strip refugee camp of Rafah. -- The Israeli blockade on Gaza has made life more difficult for the inhabitants of the camp. Unemployment levels have increased dramatically, with a large proportion of the residents relying on UNRWA's nutritional and financial assistance.

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Al Jazeera

29 Oct 2012

A poll of Jewish Israelis published last week in Ha'aretz newspaper created headlines round the world with its findings of support among the public for discriminatory policies. Some greeted the...

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In this May 6, 2012 file photo, Gov. Paul LePage speaks at the Maine Republican Convention in Augusta, Maine. LePage met with representatives from two Jewish groups on Friday, July 13, 2012, following comments he has made comparing the Internal Revenue Service to the Gestapo

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WorldNews.com

28 Oct 2012

Article by WN.com Correspondent Dallas Darling Even though Maine's Governor, Paul LePage, apologized for making comments for comparing the Affordable Health Care Act and Internal Revenue Service (IRS)...

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Clinton in Algeria for Talks On Mali 30 Oct 2012

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photo: AP / SAUL LOEB

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This article is about the capital of Algeria. For other uses, see Algiers (disambiguation).

"Algerine" redirects here. For other uses, see Algerine (disambiguation).

Algiers
الجزائر
Dzayer ⴷⵣⴰⵢⴻⵔ دزاير (Vernacular)

Clockwise: Buildings along the Mediterranean coast of Algiers, Martyrs Memorial, Notre Dame d'Afrique, Ketchaoua Mosque, Casbah, the Grand Post Office and the Ministry of Finances of Algeria

Seal

Nickname(s): Algiers the White ; Algiers the Dazzling

Algiers

Location of Algiers within Algeria

Coordinates: 36°42′N 3°13′E / 36.7°N 3.217°ECoordinates: 36°42′N 3°13′E / 36.7°N 3.217°E

Country

Algeria

Wilaya

Algiers

Re-founded

AD 944

Government

• Wali (Governor)

M. Mohamed Kebir Addou

Area

• City

1,190 km² (460 sq mi)

Elevation

0.9 m (3 ft)

Population (1998 for city proper, 2011 for metro area)^[1]^[2]

• City

2,988,145

• Metro

5,000,000

Time zone

CET (UTC+1)

Postal codes

16000–16132

Algiers (Arabic: الجزائر‎, al-Jazā’ir; Algerian Arabic: دزاير, Berber: Dzayer / ⴷⵣⴰⵢⴻⵔ) is the capital and largest city of Algeria. According to the 1998 census, the population of the city proper was 1,519,570 and that of the urban agglomeration was 2,135,630.^[1] In 2009, the population was about 3,500,000. An estimate puts the population at about 3,574,000 as of 2010.^[2]

Called El-Behdja (البهجة) or alternatively Alger la Blanche ("Algiers the White") for the glistening white of its buildings as seen rising up from the sea, Algiers is situated on the west side of a bay of the Mediterranean Sea. The modern part of the city is built on the level ground by the seashore; the old part, the ancient city of the deys, climbs the steep hill behind the modern town and is crowned by the casbah or citadel, 122 metres (400 ft) above the sea. The casbah and the two quays form a triangle.

Etymology [link]

The city name is derived (via French Alger and Catalan Alger^[3]) from the Arabic name الجزائر al-Jazā’ir, which translates as "The Islands", referring to the four islands which lay off the city's coast until becoming part of the mainland in 1525. Al-Jazā’ir is itself a truncated form of the city's older name جزائر بني مازغان Jazā’ir Banī Mazghannā, "The Islands of the Sons of Mazghanna", used by early medieval geographers such as al-Idrisi and Yaqut al-Hamawi.

History [link]

A Phoenician commercial outpost called Ikosim which later developed into a small Roman town called Icosium existed on what is now the marine quarter of the city. The rue de la Marine follows the lines of what used to be a Roman street. Roman cemeteries existed near Bab-el-Oued and Bab Azoun. The city was given Latin rights by Vespasian. The bishops of Icosium are mentioned as late as the 5th century.

Old Algiers in the 16th century, with the Spanish-built Peñón of Algiers in the forefront.

The present-day city was founded in 944 by Bologhine ibn Ziri, the founder of the Berber Zirid–Sanhaja dynasty. He had earlier (935) built his own house and a Sanhaja center at Ashir, just south of Algirs. Although his Zirid dynasty was overthrown by Roger II of Sicily in 1148, the Zirids had already lost control of Algiers to their cousins the Hammadids in 1014.^[4] The city was wrested from the Hammadids by the Almohades in 1159, and in the 13th century came under the dominion of the Ziyanid sultans of Tlemcen. Nominally part of the sultanate of Tlemcen, Algiers had a large measure of independence under amirs of its own due to Oran being the chief seaport of the Ziyanids.

As early as 1302 the islet of Peñón in front of Algiers harbour had been occupied by Spaniards. Thereafter, a considerable amount of trade began to flow between Algiers and Spain. However, Algiers continued to be of comparatively little importance until after the expulsion of the Moors from Spain, many of whom sought asylum in the city. In 1510, following their occupation of Oran and other towns on the coast of Africa, the Spaniards fortified the islet of Peñon and imposed a levy intended to suppress corsair activity.^[5]

Ottoman rule [link]

Abraham Duquesne delivering Christian captives in Algiers after the bombing in 1683.

In 1516, the amir of Algiers, Selim b. Teumi, invited the corsair brothers Oruc and Hayreddin Barbarossa to expel the Spaniards. Oruc came to Algiers, ordered the assassination of Selim, and seized the town and ousted the Spanish in the Capture of Algiers (1516). Hayreddin, succeeding Oruc after the latter was killed in battle against the Spaniards in the Fall of Tlemcen (1517), was the founder of the pashaluk, which subsequently became the beylik, of Algeria. Barbarossa lost Algiers in 1524 but regained it with Capture of Algiers (1529), and then formally invited the Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent to accept sovereignty over the territory and to annex Algiers to the Ottoman Empire.

Historic map of Algiers by Piri Reis

Algiers from this time became the chief seat of the Barbary pirates. In October 1541 in the Algiers expedition, the King of Spain and Holy Roman Emperor Charles V sought to capture the city, but a storm destroyed a great number of his ships, and his army of some 30,000, chiefly made up of Spaniards, was defeated by the Algerians under their Pasha, Hassan.

The bombardment of Algiers by Lord Exmouth, August 1816, painted by Thomas Luny

Ornate Ottoman cannon founded in Algiers on 8 October 1581 by founder Ca'fer el-Mu'allim. Length: 385 cm, cal:178 mm, weight: 2910 kg, stone projectile. Seized by France during the invasion of Algiers in 1830. Musée de l'Armée, Paris.

Formally part of the Ottoman Empire but essentially free from Ottoman control, starting in the 17th century Algiers turned to piracy and ransoming. Due to its location on the periphery of both the Ottoman and European economic spheres, and depending for its existence on a Mediterranean that was increasingly controlled by European shipping, backed by European navies, piracy became the primary economic activity. Repeated attempts were made by various nations to subdue the pirates that disturbed shipping in the western Mediterranean and engaged in slave raids as far north as Iceland.^[6] The United States fought two wars (the First and Second Barbary Wars) over Algiers' attacks on shipping.

The city under Ottoman control was enclosed by a wall on all sides, including along the seafront. In this wall, five gates allowed access to the city, with five roads from each gate dividing the city and meeting in front of the Ketchaoua Mosque. In 1556, a citadel was constructed at the highest point in the wall. A major road running north to south divided the city in two: The upper city (al-Gabal, or 'the mountain') which consisted of about fifty small quarters of Andalusian, Jewish, Moorish and Kabyle communities, and the lower city (al-Wata, or 'the plains') which was the administrative, military and commercial centre of the city, mostly inhabited by Turkish dignitaries and other upper-class families.^[7]

In 1817, the city was bombarded by a British squadron under Lord Exmouth (a descendant of Thomas Pellew, taken in an Algerian slave raid in 1715^{[citation needed]}), assisted by Dutch men-of-war, destroying the corsair fleet harboured in Algiers.

French rule [link]

The history of Algiers from 1815 to 1962 is bound to the largest history of Algeria and its relationship to France. On July 4, 1830, under the pretext of an affront to the French consul—whom the dey had hit with a fly-whisk when the consul said the French government was not prepared to pay its large outstanding debts to two Algerian merchants—a French army under General de Bourmont attacked the city in the 1830 invasion of Algiers. The city capitulated the following day. Algiers became the capital of French Algeria.

Many Europeans settled in Algiers, and by the early 20th century they formed a majority of the city's population.^[8] During the 1930s, the architect Le Corbusier drew up plans for a complete redesign of the colonial city. Le Corbusier was highly critical of the urban style of Algiers, describing the European district as "nothing but crumbling walls and devastated nature, the whole a sullied blot". He also criticised the difference in living standards he perceived between the European and African residents of the city, describing a situation in which "the 'civilised' live like rats in holes" whereas "the 'barbarians' live in solitude, in well-being".^[9] However, these plans were ultimately ignored by the French administration.

During World War II, Algiers was the last city to be seized from the Germans by the Allies during Operation Torch.

City and harbour of Algiers, c. 1921

In 1962, after a bloody independence struggle in which hundreds of thousands (estimates range between 500,000 to 1,500,000) died (mostly Algerians but also French and Pieds-Noirs) at the hands of the French Army and the Algerian Front de Libération Nationale, Algeria finally gained its independence, with Algiers as its capital. Since then, despite losing its entire pied-noir population, the city has expanded massively. It now has about five million inhabitants, or 10 percent of Algeria's population—and its suburbs now cover most of the surrounding Mitidja plain.

During the early French colonial years, a bronze cannon that weighed twelve tons and was built in 1542 was taken by the French in 1830. This canon was not any ordinary canon. This canon was the most powerful in the Mediterranean, and had defended Algiers for two centuries. The canon originally named Merzoug Baba was renamed by the French to the 'consular'. This was in reference to two French consuls, who became attached and intrigued by the muzzle of the cannon. This cannon is regarded more than just a symbol by Algerians and the state is trying to secure its return back to Algiers, in time for the fiftieth anniversary of independence, 182 years of its absence.^[10]

Algiers was the host city for both the 1978 and 2007 All-Africa Games. The city was also designated the Arab Capital of Culture for 2007.

Algerian War [link]

Coat of arms of French Algiers

Algiers also played a pivotal role in the Algerian War (1954–1962), particularly during the Battle of Algiers when the 10th Parachute Division of the French Army, starting on January 7, 1957, and on the orders of then French Minister of Justice François Mitterrand (who authorized any means "to eliminate the insurrectionists"^{[citation needed]}), led attacks against the Algerian fighters for independence. Algiers remains marked by this battle, which was characterized by merciless fighting between Algerian forces who, on the one hand, resorted to attacking the French community and pro-French Algerians, and the French Army who, on the other, carried out a bloody repression including the quasi-systematic use of torture on protesters of the colonial order. Two such victims were the nationalist leader, Larbi Ben M'Hidi, and a young professor of mathematics, Maurice Audin, both of whom have since been honored by the municipality with principal arteries of the city named after them. The demonstrations of May 13 during the crisis of 1958 provoked the fall of the Fourth Republic in France, as well as the return of General de Gaulle to power.

Independence [link]

Algeria achieved independence on July 5, 1962. Run by the military that had liberated it, Algiers became a member of Non-Aligned Movement during the Cold War. In October 1988, one year before the fall of the Berlin Wall, Algiers was the site of demonstrations demanding the end of the single party system and the creation of a real democracy baptized the “Spring of Algiers”. The demonstrators were repressed by the authorities (more than 300 dead), but the movement constituted a turning point in the political history of modern Algeria. In 1989, a new constitution was adopted that put an end to the reign of the single party and saw the creation of more than fifty political parties, as well as official freedom of the press.

Crisis of the 1990s [link]

The city became the theatre of many political demonstrations of all descriptions until 1992. In 1991, a political entity dominated by religious conservatives called the Islamic Salvation Front engaged in a political test of wills with the authorities. In the 1992 elections for the Algerian National Assembly, the Islamists garnered a large amount of support in the first round, helped by a massive abstention from disillusioned Algerian voters by the turn of events. Fearing an eventual win by the Islamists, the army cancelled the election process, setting off a civil war between the State and armed religious conservatives which would last for a decade.

On December 11, 2007, two car bombs exploded in Algiers. One bomb targeted two United Nations buildings and the other targeted a government building housing the Supreme Court. The death toll is at least 62, with over two hundred injured in the attacks.^[11] However, only 26 remained hospitalized the following day.^[12] As of 2008, it is speculated that the attack was carried out by the Al Qaida cell within the city.^[13]

Indigenous terrorist groups have been actively operating in Algeria since around 2002.

Geography [link]

Districts of Algiers [link]

Notre Dame d'Afrique

The Casbah (of Al Qasbah , “the Citadel”), Ier District of Algiers: called Al-Djazaïr Al Mahroussa (“Well Kept Algiers”), it is founded on the ruins of old Icosium. It is a small city which, built on a hill, goes down towards the sea, divided in two: the High city and the Low city. One finds there masonries and mosques of the 17th century; Ketchaoua mosque (built in 1794 by the Dey Baba Hassan) flanked by two minarets, mosque el Djedid (built in 1660, at the time of Turkish regency) with its large finished ovoid cupola points some and its four coupolettes, mosque El Kébir (oldest of the mosques, it was built by almoravide Youssef Ibn Tachfin and rebuilt later in 1794), mosque Ali Betchnin (Raïs, 1623), Dar Aziza, palate of Jénina. In the Kasbah, there are also labyrinths of lanes and houses that are very picturesque; and if one gets lost there, it is enough to go down again towards the sea to reposition oneself.

Bab El Oued : Literally the River's Gate, the popular district which extends from the Casbah beyond "the gate of the river". It is the capital's darling and best liked borough. Famous for its square with “the three clocks” and for its “market Triplet”, it is also a district of workshops and manufacturing plants.
Edge of sea : from 1840, the architects Pierre-August Guiauchain and Charles Frédéric Chassériau designed new buildings apart from the Kasbah, town hall, law courts, buildings, theatre, palace of the Governor, casino ... to form an elegant walk bordered by arcades which is the boulevard today Che Guevara (ex-boulevard of Republic).

Kouba (will daira of Hussein-dey): Kouba is an old village which was absorbed by the expansion of the town of Algiers. Of village, Kouba quickly developed under the French colonial era then continued growing due to formidable demographic expansion that Algiers knew after the independence of Algeria in 1962. It is today a district of Algiers which is largely made up of houses, villas and buildings not exceeding five stories.

El Harrach, a suburb of Algiers, is located about 10 km to the east of the city.

The communes of Hydra, Ben Aknoun, El-Biar and Bouzareah form what the inhabitants of Algiers call the heights of Algiers. These communes, sometimes famous knacks, shelter the majority of the foreign embassies of Algiers, of many ministries and university centers, which makes it one of the administrative and policy centers of the country.

The street Didouche Mourade is located in the 3rd district Of Algiers. It extends from the Grande Post office to the Heights of Algiers. It crosses in particular the place Audin , the Faculty of Algiers , The Crowned Heart and the park of Galland . It is bordered by smart stores and restaurants along most of its length. It is regarded as the heart of the capital.

Astronaut view of Algiers

Climate [link]

Algiers has a Mediterranean climate with warm summers and mild winters. Its proximity to the Mediterranean Sea aids in moderating the city's temperatures. As a result Algiers usually does not see the extreme temperatures that are experienced in the adjacent interior deserts. The climate of Algiers, like that of other Mediterranean cities, features wet winters and dry summers. Algiers on average receives roughly 600 millimetres (24 in) of rain per year, the bulk of which is seen between October and April.

Snow is very rare; in 2012, the city received 10 centimetres (3.9 in), its first snowfall in eight years.^[14]

Climate data for Algiers
Month	Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec	Year
Average high °C (°F)	16.7 (62.1)	17.4 (63.3)	19.2 (66.6)	20.9 (69.6)	23.9 (75.0)	28.2 (82.8)	31.2 (88.2)	32.2 (90.0)	29.6 (85.3)	25.9 (78.6)	20.8 (69.4)	17.9 (64.2)	23.65 (74.57)
Average low °C (°F)	5.5 (41.9)	5.9 (42.6)	7.1 (44.8)	8.8 (47.8)	12.3 (54.1)	16.1 (61.0)	18.9 (66.0)	19.8 (67.6)	17.6 (63.7)	14.2 (57.6)	9.8 (49.6)	7.2 (45.0)	11.9 (53.4)
Rainfall mm (inches)	81.4 (3.205)	72.7 (2.862)	55.0 (2.165)	58.4 (2.299)	41.9 (1.65)	8.5 (0.335)	4.5 (0.177)	8.2 (0.323)	28.3 (1.114)	58.8 (2.315)	89.6 (3.528)	91.0 (3.583)	598.3 (23.555)
Avg. rainy days (≥ 0.1 mm)	11.4	10.6	9.7	9.1	7.3	2.5	1.5	2.5	5.3	8.6	11.1	12.1	91.7
Source: World Meteorological Organization (UN)^[15]

Local architecture [link]

Algiers waterfront

Cosmopolitan Algiers

There are many public buildings of interest, including the whole Kasbah quarter, Martyrs Square (Sahat ech-Chouhada ساحة الشهداء), the government offices (formerly the British consulate), the "Grand", "New", and Ketchaoua Mosques, the Roman Catholic cathedral of Notre Dame d'Afrique, the Bardo Museum (a former Turkish mansion), the old Bibliothèque Nationale d'Alger—a Turkish palace built in 1799–1800—and the new National Library, built in a style reminiscent of the British Library.

The main building in the Kasbah was begun in 1516 on the site of an older building, and served as the palace of the deys until the French conquest. A road has been cut through the centre of the building, the mosque turned into barracks, and the hall of audience allowed to fall into ruin. There still remain a minaret and some marble arches and columns. Traces exist of the vaults in which were stored the treasures of the dey.

The Great Mosque (Jamaa-el-Kebir الجامع الكبير) is the oldest mosque in Algiers. It was first built by Yusuf ibn Tashfin, but reconstructed many times. The pulpit (minbar منبر) bears an inscription showing that the building existed in 1097. The minaret was built by the sultan of Tlemcen, in 1324. The interior of the mosque is square and is divided into aisles by columns joined by Moorish arches.

The New Mosque (Jamaa-el-Jedid الجامع الجديد), dating from the 17th century, is in the form of a Greek cross, surmounted by a large white cupola, with four small cupolas at the corners. The minaret is 27 metres (89 ft) high. The interior resembles that of the Grand Mosque.

The church of the Holy Trinity (built in 1870) stands at the southern end of the rue d'Isly near the site of the demolished Fort Bab Azoun باب عزون. The interior is richly decorated with various coloured marbles. Many of these marbles contain memorial inscriptions relating to the British residents (voluntary and involuntary) of Algiers from the time of John Tipton, the first English consul, in 1580 (NB Some sources give 1585). One tablet records that in 1631 two Algerine pirate crews landed in Ireland, sacked Baltimore.

The Ketchaoua Mosque

The Ketchaoua mosque (Djamaa Ketchaoua جامع كتشاوة), at the foot of the Casbah, was before independence in 1962 the cathedral of St Philippe, itself made in 1845 from a mosque dating from 1612. The principal entrance, reached by a flight of 23 steps, is ornamented with a portico supported by four black-veined marble columns. The roof of the nave is of Moorish plaster work. It rests on a series of arcades supported by white marble columns. Several of these columns belonged to the original mosque. In one of the chapels was a tomb containing the bones of San Geronimo. The building seems a curious blend of Moorish and Byzantine styles.

Algiers possesses a college with schools of law, medicine, science and letters. The college buildings are large and handsome. The Bardo Museum in Tunisia holds some of the ancient sculptures and mosaics discovered in Algeria, together with medals and Algerian money.

The port of Algiers is sheltered from all winds. There are two harbours, both artificial—the old or northern harbour and the southern or Agha harbour. The northern harbour covers an area of 95 hectares (235 acres). An opening in the south jetty affords an entrance into Agha harbour, constructed in Agha Bay. Agha harbour has also an independent entrance on its southern side. The inner harbour was begun in 1518 by Khair-ad-Din Barbarossa (see History, below), who, to accommodated his pirate vessels, caused the island on which was Fort Penon to be connected with the mainland by a mole. The lighthouse which occupies the site of Fort Penon was built in 1544.

Algiers was a walled city from the time of the deys until the close of the 19th century. The French, after their occupation of the city (1830), built a rampart, parapet and ditch, with two terminal forts, Bab Azoun باب عزون to the south and Bab-el-Oued باب الواد to the north. The forts and part of the ramparts were demolished at the beginning of the 20th century, when a line of forts occupying the heights of Bouzareah بوزريعة (at an elevation of 396 metres (1,299 ft) above the sea) took their place. Notre Dame d'Afrique, a church built (1858–1872) in a mixture of the Roman and Byzantine styles, is conspicuously situated overlooking the sea, on the shoulder of the Bouzareah hills, 3 km (2 mi) to the north of the city. Above the altar is a statue of the Virgin depicted as a black woman. The church also contains a solid silver statue of the archangel Michael, belonging to the confraternity of Neapolitan fishermen.

Villa Abd-el-Tif, former residence of the dey, was used during the French period, to accommodate French artists, chiefly painters, and winners of the Abd-el-Tif prize, among whom Maurice Boitel, for a while of two years. Nowadays, Algerian artists are back in the villa's studios.

Monuments [link]

The Monument of the Martyrs (Maquam E’chahid)

Grand Post Office

Notre Dame d'Afrique , accessible by one cable car, is one of the city's most outstanding monuments: located in the district of Z' will ghara, the basilica was built around 1858.
Monument des Martyrs ( Maquam E' chahid ): an iconic concrete monument commemorating the Algerian war for independence. The monument was opened in 1982 on the 20th anniversary of Algeria's independence. It is fashioned in the shape of three standing palm leaves which shelter the "Eternal Flame" beneath. At the edge of each palm leaf stands a statue of a soldier, each representing a stage of Algeria's struggle.

The El Jedid mosque at the Place des Martyrs

The El Jedid mosque at the Place des Martyrs near the port.
Place of the Emir Abdelkader (formerly Bugeaud): in memory of the famous emir Abd El-Kader, resistant during French conquest of Algeria.
Grand Post Office (1910, by Voinot and Tondoire): construction of the neo-Moorish type which is in full centre town of Algiers.
The Jardin d'essai (Garden of Test; El-Hamma): situated in the east of Algiers, it extends over 80 hectares (198 acres) and contains exotic plants and gardens. It was created in 1832 by A. Hardy.
Villa Abd-el-Hair , with the top of the Garden of test, one of the old residences of the dey, where until 1962, were placed the artists prizes winner of Price Abd-el-Hair, and in particular Maurice Boitel and Andre Hamburg.
Citadel .
Riadh El-Feth (shopping centre and art gallery).
Ketchaoua Mosque (This mosque became the Saint-Philippe cathedral during colonization before becoming again a mosque).
National Library , is in the district of El HAMMA. Architecture modèrne.
The Great Mosque of Algiers at the Rue de la Marine. It is the oldest mosque of Algiers and was built during the reign of the Almoravid sultan Yusuf ibn Tashfin.

Demographics [link]

Algiers has a population of about 5,000,000 (2011 estimates).^[16]

The ethnic distribution is 53% from an Arabic-speaking background, 44% from a Berber-speaking background and 3% foreign-born, mostly from China, Vietnam, and Mali.

1940 – 300,000 people lived in Algiers.
1960 – 900,000 people lived in Algiers.
1963 – 600.000 people lived in Algiers.

Year	Population
1977 (Census)	1,353,826
1987 (Census)	1,507,241
1998 (Census)	1,519,570
2007 (Estimate)	2,072,993

Economy [link]

"Centre Commercial Al Qods" in Algiers

Ministry of Finances of Algeria

Algiers is an important economic, commercial and financial center, with in particular a stock exchange with a capitalisation of 60 million euros. The city has the highest cost of living of any city in North Africa, as well as the 50th highest worldwide, as of March 2007, having gained one position compared to the previous year.^[17]

Mohamed Ben Ali El Abbar, president of the Council d administration of the emirate group EMAAR, presented five "megaprojects" to Algerian President Abdelaziz Bouteflika, during a ceremony which took place Saturday, July 15 with the Palate of the People of Algiers. The projects will transform the city of Algiers and its surroundings by equipping them with a retail area, and restoration and leisure facilities.

The first project will concentrate on the reorganization and the development of the infrastructures of the railway station "Aga" located in the downtown area. Ultramodern, the station, intended to accommodate more than 80.000 passengers per day, will become a center of circulation in the heart of the grid system, surrounded by commercial offices and buildings and hotels intended for travelers in transit. A shopping centre and three high-rise office buildings rising with the top of the commercial zone will accompany the project.

The second project will relate to the bay of Algiers and aims to revitalize the sea front. The development of the 44 km (27 mi) sea front will include marinas, channels, luxury hotels, offices, apartments of great standing, luxury stores and leisure amenities. A crescent-shaped peninsula will be set up on the open sea. The project of the bay of Algiers will also comprise six small islands, of which four of round form, connected to each other by bridges and marinas and will include tourist and residential complexes.

Air Algérie head office in Place Audin near the University of Algiers, in Alger-Centre

The third project will relate to restructuring an area of Algiers, qualified by the originators of the project of "city of wellness". El Abbar indicated to the journalists that the complex would be "agréable for all those which will want to combine tourism and wellbeing or tourism and relaxation". The complex will include a university, a research center and a medical centre. It should also include a hospital complex, a care, centre, a hotel zone, an urban centre and a thermal spa with villas and apartments. The university will include a medical school and a school for care male nurses which will be able to accommodate 500 students. The university campus will have the possibility of seeing setting up broad ranges of buildings of research laboratories and residences.

Another project relates to technological implantation of a campus in Sidi Abdellah, 25 km (16 mi) south-east from Algiers. This 90 hectares (222 acres) site will include shopping centres, residential zones with high standard apartments and a golf course surrounded by villas and hotels. Two other residential zones, including 1.800 apartments and 40 high standard villas, will be built on the surrounding hills.

The fifth project is that of the tourist complex Colonel Abbès, which will be located 25 km (16 mi) west from Algiers. This complex will include several retail zones, meeting places, and residential zones composed of apartments and villas with views of the sea.^{[citation needed]}

A Hewlett Packard office for French-speaking countries in Africa is in Algiers.^[18]

Tourist installations [link]

Notre Dame d'Afrique panorama

Some 20 km (12 mi) to the west of Algiers are such seaside resorts as Sidi Fredj (ex-Sidi Ferruch), Palm Beach, Douaouda, Zéralda, and the Club of the Pines (residence of State); there are tourist complexes, Algerian and other restaurants, souvenir shops, supervised beaches, and other amenities. The city is also equipped with important hotel complexes such as the hotel Hilton, El-Aurassi or El Djazair. Algiers also has the first water park in the country. The tourism of Algiers is growing but is not as developed as that of the larger cities in Morocco or Tunisia.

Public transport [link]

Public transport of Algiers

ETUSA (urban and suburban bus transportation for Algiers) operates bus service in Algiers and the surrounding suburbs. 54 lines are currently operating, with service from 5:30 a.m. to 12:45 a.m.

SNTF (national railroad company) operates commuter-rail lines connecting the capital to the surrounding suburbs.

Algiers Metro, opened November 1, 2011.

Algiers tramway, opened on May 8, 2011.

Houari Boumediene Airport is located 20 km (12 mi) from the city. The airport serves domestics, many European cities, West Africa, the Middle East, Asia and North America. On July 5, 2006, a new international air terminal was opened for service. The terminal is managed by Aéroports de Paris.

4 urban ropeways:

El Madania – Belouizdad
Notre Dame d’Afrique – Bologhine
Memorial des Martyres/Riad el Feth – Jardin d’essais
Palais de la culture – Oued Kniss

Province projects [link]

Several ongoing projects aim to solve Algiers deficit and transportation problems. A tram connecting the downtown area to Dergana is expected to open by the end of 2010.^[19] Subway lines connecting Tafourah-Large Harrach Post office-El were expected in 2008, in addition to three Regional Express Network (RER) lines: Algiers-Aga-Thenia, Algiers-Aga-Elafroun, Algiers-Aga-Zeralda. Three new cable cars, reconstruction of roads and restoration of the city station—which will accommodate the High-speed rail line connecting Annaba, Algiers and Oran—are also ongoing. Congestion control measures including new roundabouts and motorways are also being added to the city.

New residential developments aim to solve Algiers current housing shortage.

Sports [link]

Algiers is the largest sporting centre of Algeria. The city has a number of professional clubs in the variety of sports, which have won national and international titles. Among the sports facilities within the city, there is an enormous sporting complex – Complex of OCO – Mohamed Boudiaf. This includes the Stade 5 Juillet 1962 (capacity 80,000), a venue for athletics, an Olympic swimming pool, a multisports room (the Cupola), an 18-hole golf course, and several tennis courts.

The following major sporting events have been held in Algiers (not-exhaustive list):

Mediterranean Games 1975.
All-Africa Games 1978, 2007.
African Cup of Nations 1990.
African Handball Nations Championship 1989, 2001.

Football clubs [link]

Principal clubs of association football of the city (having already evolved/moved in Division 1):

1936 Algiers invitational football tournament [link]

In 1936 the local journalists association organised a four team invitational tournament in Algiers. With Algeria then under French colonial rule the official programme^[20] listed the venue as "Stade-Velodrome Municipal d'Alger" and the participants as:

Le Queen of the South – La Belle Equipe Ecossaise de Première Division
Racing-Club de Santander – Favori des Championnats d'Espagne
Floriana F. C. de Malte – Champion Officiel et Vainqueur de la Coupe
R.U.A. – Champion de l'Afrique du Nord 1935

The match days were Thursday May 21 and Sunday May 24.

Home side Racing Universitaire d'Alger (R.U.A. for whom Nobel Prize winning author/philosopher Albert Camus had played in goals for their junior team) had already won both the North African Champions Cup and the North African Cup in the 1930s (R.U.A. would win each twice by the decade's end). Goals by Willie Thomson and Joe Tulip saw Queens book a place in the invitational tournament final with a 2–1 victory against them.

In the final Queens faced a Racing de Santander side who had just finished 4th in Spain's La Liga notching home and away double victories against both Real Madrid and F.C. Barcelona. Racing had seen off Floriana in their semi final. Norrie Haywood's goal and a 1–0 scoreline saw victory for La Belle Equipe Ecossaise. The trophy can still be seen in Queens' club museum today.^[21]

International relations [link]

Twin towns – Sister cities [link]

Algiers is twinned with:

Cairo, Egypt Amman, Jordan Beijing, People's Republic of China Berlin, Germany Tunis, Tunisia Paris, France El Aaiun, Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic	Montreal, Canada^[22] London, United Kingdom Izmir, Turkey Tyre, Lebanon Santiago, Chile Sofia, Bulgaria Moscow, Russia	Bordeaux, France Barcelona, Spain Geneva, Switzerland Rome, Italy Amsterdam, Netherlands Dubai, United Arab Emirates	São Paulo, Brazil Buenos Aires, Argentina Shanghai, People's Republic of China Tripoli, Libya Dakar, Senegal Rabat, Morocco Surakarta, Indonesia,(Start since 24 July 2011)

In addition, many of the wards and cities within Algiers maintain sister-city relationships with other foreign cities.

Films about Algiers [link]

Algiers, 1938, directed by John Cromwell;
The Battle of Algiers, 1966, directed by Gillo Pontecorvo;
Tahya ya Didou, Alger Insolite, 1970, Mohammed Zinet;
Bab El-Oued City, 1994, directed by Merzak Allouache;
Viva Laldjérie, 2003, directed by Nadir Moknèche, with Biyouna and Lubna Azabal;
Bab el Web, 2004, directed by Merzak Allouache, with Samy Naceri, Julie Gayet, Faudel;
It was once in the wadi, 2005, directed by Djamel Bensalah;
Beur, White, Red, 2005, directed by Mahmoud Zemmouri.
Delice Paloma, 2007, directed by Nadir Moknèche, with Biyouna and Nadia Kaci.

Bibliography [link]

Nacéra Benseddik, Chronique d’une cité antique, dans Alger. Lumières sur la ville, Actes du colloque de l’EPAU 4-6 mai 200l, Alger 2004, p. 29-34.

References [link]

This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
This article is based on a translation of the French Wikipedia's article of the same name.

Notes [link]

^ ^a ^b "Population of the city proper accoding to the 2008 census (via". Citypopulation.de. http://citypopulation.de/Algeria.html. Retrieved 2010-06-27.
^ ^a ^b "UN World Urbanization Prospects". Esa.un.org. http://esa.un.org/unup/index.asp?panel=2. Retrieved 2010-06-27.
^ Origins of Algiers by Louis Leschi, speech delivered June 16, 1941 published in El Djezair Sheets, July 1941 History of Algeria (French).
^ Ruedy, John Douglas (2005) Modern Algeria: The origins and development of a nation Indiana University Press, Bloomington, Indiana page 13, ISBN 978-0-253-21782-0
^ Celik, Zeynep, Urban Forms and Colonial Confrontations: Algiers Under French Rule, University of California Press, 1997, p. 13.
^ "Tyrkjaránið – Heimaslóð" (in (Icelandic)). Heimaslod.is. http://www.heimaslod.is/index.php/Tyrkjar%C3%A1ni%C3%B0. Retrieved 2010-06-27.
^ Celik, Zeynep, Urban Forms and Colonial Confrontations: Algiers Under French Rule, University of California Press, 1997, pp. 13–14.
^ Albert Habib Hourani, Malise Ruthven (2002). "A history of the Arab peoples". Harvard University Press. p.323. ISBN 0-674-01017-5
^ Celik, Zeynep, Urban Forms and Colonial Confrontations: Algiers Under French Rule, University of California Press, 1997, p. 5.
^ http://www.ennaharonline.com/en/news/7762.html
^ "Les autorités accusent al-Qaïda". RFI. http://www.rfi.fr/actufr/articles/096/article_60149.asp. Retrieved 2007-12-11.
^ "Toll in Algiers bombings rises to 31". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 2007-12-14. http://web.archive.org/web/20071214021257/http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20071212/ap_on_re_af/algeria_explosion. Retrieved 2007-12-12.
^ "Al Qaeda blamed for Algeria bombs". CNN. 2007-12-12. http://edition.cnn.com/2007/WORLD/africa/12/11/algeria.blast/index.html. Retrieved 2007-12-11.
^ Balmforth, Richard (4 February 2012). "European Chill Moves West, 122 Die in Ukraine". Reuters. http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/02/04/us-europe-weather-idUSTRE8130NK20120204.
^ "Weather Information for Algiers". http://www.worldweather.org/122/c00242.htm.
^ "Algiers in the World Gazetteer". World-gazetteer.com. http://www.world-gazetteer.com/wg.php?x=&men=gadm&lng=en&dat=32&geo=-66&srt=npan&col=aohdq. Retrieved 2010-06-27.
^ "MERCER Human Resources Consulting – Moscow tops Mercer's cost of living list; London is close behind". Mercerhr.com. http://www.mercerhr.com/costofliving. Retrieved 2010-06-27.
^ "HP Office locations". Welcome.hp.com. http://welcome.hp.com/gms/emea_africa/en/contact/office_locs.html. Retrieved 2010-06-27.
^ "Tram testing starts in Alger". Railway Gazette. 2010. http://www.railwaygazette.com/news/single-view/view/10/tram-testing-starts-in-alger/browse/1.html. Retrieved 2010-05-18.
^ Back cover, 'Through the lens glimpses of Old Queen of the South', published by Dumfries and Galloway Libraries, Information and Archives with Queen of the South Museum, 1998
^ "Profile of the Queen of the South 1936 overseas tour including the Algiers invitational tournament". Qosfc.com. http://www.qosfc.com/AboutUs/OurHistory/QueensLegends/tabid/115/Default.aspx. Retrieved 2010-06-27. ^{[dead link]}
^ "Sherlock, banque d'information de la Ville de Montréal". 1.ville.montreal.qc.ca. http://www11.ville.montreal.qc.ca/sherlock2/servlet/template/sherlock%2CAfficherDocumentInternet.vm/nodocument/20146;jsessionid=24C10045060CDD0AA23BD919B260FD0F. Retrieved 2010-06-27.

External links [link]

Media related to Algiers at Wikimedia Commons

v t e Algiers Province

Zéralda District	Zéralda Staouéli Souidania Rahmania Mahelma

Chéraga District	Chéraga Hammamet Dély Ibrahim Aïn Bénian Ouled Fayet

Draria District	Draria Baba Hassen Douéra Khraïcia El Achour

Birtouta District	Birtouta Ouled Chebel Tessala El Merdja

Bir Mourad Raïs District	Bir Mourad Raïs Hydra Saoula Birkhadem Gué de Constantine

Bouzaréah District	Bouzaréah Béni Messous Ben Aknoun El Biar

Bab El Oued District	Bab El Oued Casbah Bologhine Raïs Hamidou

Hussein Dey District	Hussein Dey Kouba El Magharia Mohamed Belouizdad

Sidi M'Hamed District	Sidi M'Hamed El Madania El Mouradia Alger Centre

El Harrach District	El Harrach Oued Smar Bourouba Bachdjerrah

Baraki District	Baraki Les Eucalyptus Sidi Moussa

Dar El Beïda District	Dar El Beïda Bab Ezzouar Aïn Taya El Marsa Bordj El Bahri Bordj El Kiffan Mohammedia

Rouïba District	Rouïba Reghaïa H'raoua

v t e Provincial seats of Algeria

Adrar Aïn Defla Aïn Témouchent Algiers Annaba Batna Béchar Béjaïa Biskra Blida Bordj Bou Arréridj Bouïra Boumerdès Chlef Constantine Djelfa El Bayadh El Oued El Taref Ghardaïa Guelma Illizi Jijel Khenchela Laghouat Mascara Médéa Mila Mostaganem M'Sila Naâma Oran Ouargla Oum el-Bouaghi Relizane Saida Sétif Sidi Bel Abbès Skikda Souk Ahras Tamanrasset Tébessa Tiaret Tindouf Tipaza Tissemsilt Tizi Ouzou Tlemcen

Phoenician cities and colonies

Algeria: Hippo Regius; Ikosium; Guelma; Iol; Rus Icada; Rus Azuz; Iom; Honaine; Pomoria; Cirta; Rus Ucurru; Rus Aghoun; Rus Ipir; Qart Ina; Siga; Timgad; Lambese; Djémila; Uzinaza; Cuicul; Altava; Igligili; Imonium; Sitifis; Auzia; Rapidum; Portus Magnus; Tipaza
Cyprus: Kition
Italy: Karalis; Lilybaeum; Motya; Nora; Olbia; Panormus; Solki; Soluntum; Tharros
Lebanon: Amia; Ampi; Arqa; Baalbek; Berut; Botrys; Gebal; Sarepta; Sur; Sydon; Tripolis
Libya: Leptis Magna; Oea; Sabratha
Malta: Gozo
Mauritania: Cerne
Morocco: Arambys; Caricus Murus; Chellah; Lixus; Tingis; Volubilis
Portugal: Olissipona; Ossonoba
Spain: Abdera; Abyla; Akra Leuke; Gadir; Herna; Ibossim; Mahón; Malaca; Onoba; Qart Hadašt; Rusadir; Sexi
Syria: Amrit; Arwad; Safita; Ugarit
Tunisia: Carthage; Hadrumetum; Hippo Diarrhytos; Kelibia; Kerkouane; Leptis Parva; Thanae; Thapsus; Utica
Turkey: Myriandrus; Phoenicus
Gibraltar

v t e Capitals of Arab countries

Africa	Algiers (Algeria) Cairo (Egypt) Khartoum (Sudan) Moroni (Comoros) Djibouti (Djibouti) Nouakchott (Mauritania) Rabat (Morocco) Mogadishu (Somalia) Tripoli (Libya) Tunis (Tunisia)

Asia	Abu Dhabi (United Arab Emirates) Amman (Jordan) Baghdad (Iraq) Beirut (Lebanon) Damascus (Syria) Doha (Qatar) Jerusalem (Proclaimed) / Ramallah (De facto) (Palestinian territories) Kuwait City (Kuwait) Manama (Bahrain) Muscat (Oman) Riyadh (Saudi Arabia) Sana'a (Yemen)

Capitals of Africa

Abuja, Nigeria
Accra, Ghana
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Algiers, Algeria
Antananarivo, Madagascar
Asmara, Eritrea
Bamako, Mali
Bangui, Central African Republic
Banjul, Gambia
Bissau, Guinea-Bissau
Bloemfontein, South Africa ¹
Brazzaville, Rep. of the Congo
Bujumbura, Burundi
Cairo, Egypt
Cape Town, South Africa ²
Conakry, Guinea

Dakar, Senegal
Djibouti, Djibouti
Dodoma, Tanzania
Freetown, Sierra Leone
Gaborone, Botswana
Gao, Azawad ⁴
Harare, Zimbabwe
Hargeisa, Somaliland ⁴
Jamestown, Saint Helena
Juba, South Sudan
Kampala, Uganda
Khartoum, Sudan
Kigali, Rwanda
Kinshasa, D.R. Congo
Libreville, Gabon
Lilongwe, Malawi

Lobamba, Swaziland ²
Lomé, Togo
Luanda, Angola
Lusaka, Zambia
Malabo, Equatorial Guinea
Mamoudzou, Mayotte
Maputo, Mozambique
Maseru, Lesotho
Mbabane, Swaziland ³
Mogadishu, Somalia
Monrovia, Liberia
Moroni, Comoros
Nairobi, Kenya
N'Djamena, Chad
Niamey, Niger
Nouakchott, Mauritania

Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
Port Louis, Mauritius
Porto-Novo, Benin
Praia, Cape Verde
Pretoria, South Africa ³
Rabat, Morocco
Saint-Denis, Réunion
São Tomé, São Tomé and Príncipe
Tripoli, Libya
Tunis, Tunisia
Victoria, Seychelles
Windhoek, Namibia
Yaoundé, Cameroon
Yamoussoukro, Côte d'Ivoire

¹ Judicial. ² Parliamentary. ³ Executive. ⁴ An unrecognised or partially-recognised state.

v t e All-Africa Games host cities

1965: Brazzaville 1973: Lagos 1978: Algiers 1987: Nairobi 1991: Cairo 1995: Harare 1999: Johannesburg 2003: Abuja 2007: Algiers 2011: Maputo

Arab Capital of Culture

http://wn.com/Algiers

http://de.wn.com/Algier

http://es.wn.com/Argel

http://ru.wn.com/Алжир (город)

http://cs.wn.com/Alžír

http://pt.wn.com/Argel

http://pl.wn.com/Algier

http://it.wn.com/Algeri

http://id.wn.com/Aljir

http://nl.wn.com/Algiers

http://fr.wn.com/Alger

This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algiers

This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.

Hillary Rodham Clinton

67th United States Secretary of State
Incumbent
Assumed office January 21, 2009
President	Barack Obama
Deputy	William Burns (2011-present) James Steinberg (2009-2011)
Preceded by	Condoleezza Rice
United States Senator from New York
In office January 3, 2001 – January 21, 2009
Preceded by	Daniel Patrick Moynihan
Succeeded by	Kirsten Gillibrand
First Lady of the United States
In office January 20, 1993 – January 20, 2001
Preceded by	Barbara Bush
Succeeded by	Laura Bush
First Lady of Arkansas
In office January 11, 1983 – December 12, 1992
Preceded by	Gay Daniels White
Succeeded by	Betty Tucker
In office January 9, 1979 – January 19, 1981
Preceded by	Barbara Pryor
Succeeded by	Gay Daniels White
Personal details
Born	Hillary Diane Rodham (1947-10-26) October 26, 1947 (age 64) Chicago, Illinois, U.S.
Political party	Democratic Party (1968–present)
Other political affiliations	Republican Party (before 1968)
Spouse(s)	Bill Clinton
Children	Chelsea Clinton
Residence	Chappaqua, New York
Alma mater	Wellesley College Yale Law School
Profession	Lawyer
Religion	Methodist
Signature
Website	Official website

The Hillary Rodham Clinton series v t e
Tenure as Secretary of State, 2009– Campaign for the Presidency, 2007–2008 United States Senate career, 2001–2009 Political positions Awards and honors List of books about Hillary Rodham Clinton

Hillary Diane Rodham Clinton ( /ˈhɪləri daɪˈæn ˈrɒdəm ˈklɪntən/; born October 26, 1947) is the 67th United States Secretary of State, serving in the administration of President Barack Obama. She was a United States Senator for New York from 2001 to 2009. As the wife of the 42nd President of the United States, Bill Clinton, she was the First Lady of the United States from 1993 to 2001. In the 2008 election, Clinton was a leading candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination.

A native of Illinois, Hillary Rodham first attracted national attention in 1969 for her remarks as the first student commencement speaker at Wellesley College. She embarked on a career in law after graduating from Yale Law School in 1973. Following a stint as a Congressional legal counsel, she moved to Arkansas in 1974 and married Bill Clinton in 1975. Rodham cofounded the Arkansas Advocates for Children and Families in 1977 and became the first female chair of the Legal Services Corporation in 1978. Named the first female partner at Rose Law Firm in 1979, she was twice listed as one of the 100 most influential lawyers in America. First Lady of Arkansas from 1979 to 1981 and 1983 to 1992 with husband Bill as Governor, she successfully led a task force to reform Arkansas's education system. She sat on the board of directors of Wal-Mart Stores and several other corporations.

In 1994, as First Lady of the United States, her major initiative, the Clinton health care plan, failed to gain approval from the U.S. Congress. However, in 1997 and 1999, Clinton played a role in advocating the creation of the State Children's Health Insurance Program, the Adoption and Safe Families Act, and the Foster Care Independence Act. Her years as First Lady drew a polarized response from the American public. The only First Lady to have been subpoenaed, she testified before a federal grand jury in 1996 due to the Whitewater controversy, but was never charged with wrongdoing in this or several other investigations during her husband's administration. The state of her marriage was the subject of considerable speculation following the Lewinsky scandal in 1998.

After moving to the state of New York, Clinton was elected as a U.S. Senator in 2000. That election marked the first time an American First Lady had run for public office; Clinton was also the first female senator to represent the state. In the Senate, she initially supported the Bush administration on some foreign policy issues, including a vote for the Iraq War Resolution. She subsequently opposed the administration on its conduct of the war in Iraq and on most domestic issues. Senator Clinton was reelected by a wide margin in 2006. In the 2008 presidential nomination race, Hillary Clinton won more primaries and delegates than any other female candidate in American history, but narrowly lost to Illinois Senator Barack Obama.

Obama went on to win the election and appoint Clinton as Secretary of State; Clinton became the first former First Lady to serve in a president's cabinet. She has put into place institutional changes seeking to maximize departmental effectiveness and promote the empowerment of women worldwide, and has set records for most-traveled secretary for time in office. She has been at the forefront of the U.S. response to the Arab Spring, including advocating for the military intervention in Libya. She has used "smart power" as the strategy for asserting U.S. leadership and values in the world and has championed the use of social media in getting the U.S. message out.

1 Early life and education
2 Marriage and family, law career and First Lady of Arkansas
3 First Lady of the United States
4 Senate election of 2000
5 United States Senator
6 Presidential campaign of 2008
7 Secretary of State
- 7.1 Nomination and confirmation
- 7.2 Tenure
8 Political positions
9 Writings and recordings
10 Cultural and political image
11 Awards and honors
12 Electoral history
13 Notes
14 References
15 Bibliography
16 Further reading
17 External links

Early life and education [link]

Early life [link]

Hillary Diane Rodham^{[nb 1]} was born at Edgewater Hospital in Chicago, Illinois.^[1]^[2] She was raised in a United Methodist family, first in Chicago and then, from the age of three, in suburban Park Ridge, Illinois.^[3] Her father, Hugh Ellsworth Rodham (1911–1993), was the son of Welsh and English immigrants;^[4] he managed a successful small business in the textile industry.^[5] Her mother, Dorothy Emma Howell (1919–2011), was a homemaker of English, Scottish, French, French Canadian, and Welsh descent.^[4]^[6] Hillary grew up with two younger brothers, Hugh and Tony.

File:HRCEarlyYearsExhibitClintonPresidentialCenter.jpg

Mementos of Hillary Rodham's early life are shown at the William J. Clinton Presidential Center.

As a child, Hillary Rodham was a teacher's favorite at her public schools in Park Ridge.^[7]^[8] She participated in swimming, baseball, and other sports.^[7]^[8] She also earned numerous awards as a Brownie and Girl Scout.^[8] She attended Maine East High School, where she participated in student council, the school newspaper, and was selected for National Honor Society.^[1]^[9] For her senior year, she was redistricted to Maine South High School, where she was a National Merit Finalist and graduated in the top five percent of her class of 1965.^[9]^[10] Her mother wanted her to have an independent, professional career,^[6] and her father, otherwise a traditionalist, was of the opinion that his daughter's abilities and opportunities should not be limited by gender.^[11]

Raised in a politically conservative household,^[6] at age thirteen Rodham helped canvass South Side Chicago following the very close 1960 U.S. presidential election, where she found evidence of electoral fraud against Republican candidate Richard Nixon.^[12] She then volunteered to campaign for Republican candidate Barry Goldwater in the U.S. presidential election of 1964.^[13] Rodham's early political development was shaped most by her high school history teacher (like her father, a fervent anticommunist), who introduced her to Goldwater's classic The Conscience of a Conservative,^[14] and by her Methodist youth minister (like her mother, concerned with issues of social justice), with whom she saw and met civil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr., in Chicago in 1962.^[15]

Wellesley College years [link]

In 1965, Rodham enrolled at Wellesley College, where she majored in political science.^[16] During her freshman year, she served as president of the Wellesley Young Republicans;^[17]^[18] with this Rockefeller Republican-oriented group,^[19] she supported the elections of John Lindsay and Edward Brooke.^[20] She later stepped down from this position, as her views changed regarding the American Civil Rights Movement and the Vietnam War.^[17] In a letter to her youth minister at this time, she described herself as "a mind conservative and a heart liberal."^[21] In contrast to the 1960s current that advocated radical actions against the political system, she sought to work for change within it.^[22] In her junior year, Rodham became a supporter of the antiwar presidential nomination campaign of Democrat Eugene McCarthy.^[23] Following the assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr., Rodham organized a two-day student strike and worked with Wellesley's black students to recruit more black students and faculty.^[23] In early 1968, she was elected president of the Wellesley College Government Association and served through early 1969;^[22]^[24] she was instrumental in keeping Wellesley from being embroiled in the student disruptions common to other colleges.^[22] A number of her fellow students thought she might some day become the first woman President of the United States.^[22] So she could better understand her changing political views, Professor Alan Schechter assigned Rodham to intern at the House Republican Conference, and she attended the "Wellesley in Washington" summer program.^[23] Rodham was invited by moderate New York Republican Representative Charles Goodell to help Governor Nelson Rockefeller's late-entry campaign for the Republican nomination.^[23] Rodham attended the 1968 Republican National Convention in Miami. However, she was upset by how Richard Nixon's campaign portrayed Rockefeller and by what she perceived as the convention's "veiled" racist messages, and left the Republican Party for good.^[23]

Main article: Hillary Rodham senior thesis

Rodham wrote her senior thesis, a critique of the tactics of radical community organizer Saul Alinsky, under Professor Schechter.^[25] (Years later, while she was First Lady, access to the thesis was restricted at the request of the White House and it became the subject of some speculation.)^[25]

In 1969, she graduated with a Bachelor of Arts,^[26] with departmental honors in political science.^[25] Following pressure from some fellow students,^[27] she became the first student in Wellesley College history to deliver its commencement address.^[24] Her speech received a standing ovation lasting seven minutes.^[22]^[28]^[29] She was featured in an article published in Life magazine,^[30] due to the response to a part of her speech that criticized Senator Edward Brooke, who had spoken before her at the commencement.^[27] She also appeared on Irv Kupcinet's nationally syndicated television talk show as well as in Illinois and New England newspapers.^[31] That summer, she worked her way across Alaska, washing dishes in Mount McKinley National Park and sliming salmon in a fish processing cannery in Valdez (which fired her and shut down overnight when she complained about unhealthy conditions).^[32]

Yale Law School and postgraduate studies [link]

Rodham then entered Yale Law School, where she served on the editorial board of the Yale Review of Law and Social Action.^[33] During her second year, she worked at the Yale Child Study Center,^[34] learning about new research on early childhood brain development and working as a research assistant on the seminal work, Beyond the Best Interests of the Child (1973).^[35]^[36] She also took on cases of child abuse at Yale-New Haven Hospital^[35] and volunteered at New Haven Legal Services to provide free legal advice for the poor.^[34] In the summer of 1970, she was awarded a grant to work at Marian Wright Edelman's Washington Research Project, where she was assigned to Senator Walter Mondale's Subcommittee on Migratory Labor. There she researched migrant workers' problems in housing, sanitation, health and education.^[37] Edelman later became a significant mentor.^[38] Rodham was recruited by political advisor Anne Wexler to work on the 1970 campaign of Connecticut U.S. Senate candidate Joseph Duffey, with Rodham later crediting Wexler with providing her first job in politics.^[39]

In the late spring of 1971, she began dating Bill Clinton, also a law student at Yale. That summer, she interned at the Oakland, California, law firm of Treuhaft, Walker and Burnstein.^[40] The firm was well known for its support of constitutional rights, civil liberties, and radical causes (two of its four partners were current or former Communist Party members);^[40] Rodham worked on child custody and other cases.^{[nb 2]} Clinton canceled his original summer plans, in order to live with her in California;^[41] the couple continued living together in New Haven when they returned to law school.^[42] The following summer, Rodham and Clinton campaigned in Texas for unsuccessful 1972 Democratic presidential candidate George McGovern.^[43] She received a Juris Doctor degree from Yale in 1973,^[26] having stayed on an extra year to be with Clinton.^[44] Clinton first proposed marriage to her following graduation, but she declined.^[44]

Rodham began a year of postgraduate study on children and medicine at the Yale Child Study Center.^[45] Her first scholarly article, "Children Under the Law", was published in the Harvard Educational Review in late 1973.^[46] Discussing the new children's rights movement, it stated that "child citizens" were "powerless individuals"^[47] and argued that children should not be considered equally incompetent from birth to attaining legal age, but that instead courts should presume competence except when there is evidence otherwise, on a case-by-case basis.^[48] The article became frequently cited in the field.^[49]

Marriage and family, law career and First Lady of Arkansas [link]

From the East Coast to Arkansas [link]

During her postgraduate study, Rodham served as staff attorney for Edelman's newly founded Children's Defense Fund in Cambridge, Massachusetts,^[50] and as a consultant to the Carnegie Council on Children.^[51] In 1974 she was a member of the impeachment inquiry staff in Washington, D.C., advising the House Committee on the Judiciary during the Watergate scandal.^[52] Under the guidance of Chief Counsel John Doar and senior member Bernard Nussbaum,^[35] Rodham helped research procedures of impeachment and the historical grounds and standards for impeachment.^[52] The committee's work culminated in the resignation of President Richard Nixon in August 1974.^[52]

By then, Rodham was viewed as someone with a bright political future; Democratic political organizer and consultant Betsey Wright had moved from Texas to Washington the previous year to help guide her career;^[53] Wright thought Rodham had the potential to become a future senator or president.^[54] Meanwhile, Clinton had repeatedly asked her to marry him, and she continued to demur.^[55] However, after failing the District of Columbia bar exam^[56] and passing the Arkansas exam, Rodham came to a key decision. As she later wrote, "I chose to follow my heart instead of my head".^[57] She thus followed Bill Clinton to Arkansas, rather than staying in Washington where career prospects were brighter. He was then teaching law and running for a seat in the U.S. House of Representatives in his home state. In August 1974, Rodham moved to Fayetteville, Arkansas, and became one of only two female faculty members in the School of Law at the University of Arkansas, Fayetteville.^[58]^[59] She gave classes in criminal law, where she was considered a rigorous teacher and tough grader, and was the first director of the school's legal aid clinic.^[60] She still harbored doubts about marriage, concerned that her separate identity would be lost and that her accomplishments would be viewed in the light of someone else's.^[61]

Early Arkansas years [link]

File:HillaryRodhamBillClintonLittleRockHouse1adjusted.jpg

Hillary Rodham and Bill Clinton lived in this 980 square feet (91 m²) house in the Hillcrest neighborhood of Little Rock from 1977 to 1979 while he was Arkansas Attorney General.^[62]

Hillary Rodham and Bill Clinton bought a house in Fayetteville in the summer of 1975, and Hillary finally agreed to marry.^[63] Their wedding took place on October 11, 1975, in a Methodist ceremony in their living room.^[64] She announced she was keeping the name Hillary Rodham,^[64] to keep their professional lives separate and avoid apparent conflicts of interest and because "it showed that I was still me,"^[65] although her decision upset their mothers.^[66] Bill Clinton had lost the congressional race in 1974, but in November 1976 was elected Arkansas Attorney General, and so the couple moved to the state capital of Little Rock.^[67] There, in February 1977, Rodham joined the venerable Rose Law Firm, a bastion of Arkansan political and economic influence.^[68] She specialized in patent infringement and intellectual property law^[33] while also working pro bono in child advocacy;^[69] she rarely performed litigation work in court.^[70]

Rodham maintained her interest in children's law and family policy, publishing the scholarly articles "Children's Policies: Abandonment and Neglect" in 1977^[71] and "Children's Rights: A Legal Perspective" in 1979.^[72] The latter continued her argument that children's legal competence depended upon their age and other circumstances and that in serious medical rights cases, judicial intervention was sometimes warranted.^[48] An American Bar Association chair later said, "Her articles were important, not because they were radically new but because they helped formulate something that had been inchoate."^[48] Historian Garry Wills would later describe her as "one of the more important scholar-activists of the last two decades",^[73] while conservatives said her theories would usurp traditional parental authority,^[74] allow children to file frivolous lawsuits against their parents,^[48] and argued that her work was legal "crit" theory run amok.^[75]

In 1977, Rodham cofounded the Arkansas Advocates for Children and Families, a state-level alliance with the Children's Defense Fund.^[33]^[76] Later that year, President Jimmy Carter (for whom Rodham had been the 1976 campaign director of field operations in Indiana)^[77] appointed her to the board of directors of the Legal Services Corporation,^[78] and she served in that capacity from 1978 until the end of 1981.^[79] From mid-1978 to mid-1980,^{[nb 3]} she served as the chair of that board, the first woman to do so.^[80] During her time as chair, funding for the Corporation was expanded from $90 million to $300 million; subsequently she successfully fought President Ronald Reagan's attempts to reduce the funding and change the nature of the organization.^[69]

Following her husband's November 1978 election as Governor of Arkansas, Rodham became First Lady of Arkansas in January 1979, her title for twelve years (1979–1981, 1983–1992). Clinton appointed her chair of the Rural Health Advisory Committee the same year,^[81] where she secured federal funds to expand medical facilities in Arkansas's poorest areas without affecting doctors' fees.^[82]

In 1979, Rodham became the first woman to be made a full partner of Rose Law Firm.^[83] From 1978 until they entered the White House, she had a higher salary than that of her husband.^[84] During 1978 and 1979, while looking to supplement their income, Rodham made a spectacular profit from trading cattle futures contracts;^[85] an initial $1,000 investment generated nearly $100,000 when she stopped trading after ten months.^[86] The couple also began their ill-fated investment in the Whitewater Development Corporation real estate venture with Jim and Susan McDougal at this time.^[85]

On February 27, 1980, Rodham gave birth to a daughter, Chelsea, her only child. In November 1980, Bill Clinton was defeated in his bid for reelection.

Later Arkansas years [link]

Long shot of two men flanked by two women walking down read carpet, as military band plays on either side

Governor Bill Clinton and Hillary Clinton attend the 1987 Dinner Honoring the Nation's Governors with President Ronald Reagan and First Lady Nancy Reagan.

Bill Clinton returned to the governor's office two years later by winning the election of 1982. During her husband's campaign, Rodham began to use the name Hillary Clinton, or sometimes "Mrs. Bill Clinton", to assuage the concerns of Arkansas voters;^{[nb 4]} she also took a leave of absence from Rose Law to campaign for him full-time.^[87] As First Lady of Arkansas, Hillary Clinton was named chair of the Arkansas Educational Standards Committee in 1983, where she sought to reform the state's court-sanctioned public education system.^[88]^[89] In one of the Clinton governorship's most important initiatives, she fought a prolonged but ultimately successful battle against the Arkansas Education Association, to establish mandatory teacher testing and state standards for curriculum and classroom size.^[81]^[88] In 1985, she also introduced Arkansas's Home Instruction Program for Preschool Youth, a program that helps parents work with their children in preschool preparedness and literacy.^[90] She was named Arkansas Woman of the Year in 1983 and Arkansas Mother of the Year in 1984.^[91]^[92]

Clinton continued to practice law with the Rose Law Firm while she was First Lady of Arkansas. She earned less than the other partners, as she billed fewer hours,^[93] but still made more than $200,000 in her final year there.^[94] She seldom did trial work,^[94] but the firm considered her a "rainmaker" because she brought in clients, partly thanks to the prestige she lent the firm and to her corporate board connections.^[94] She was also very influential in the appointment of state judges.^[94] Bill Clinton's Republican opponent in his 1986 gubernatorial reelection campaign accused the Clintons of conflict of interest, because Rose Law did state business; the Clintons deflected the charge by saying that state fees were walled off by the firm before her profits were calculated.^[95]

From 1982 to 1988, Clinton was on the board of directors, sometimes as chair, of the New World Foundation,^[96] which funded a variety of New Left interest groups.^[97] From 1987 to 1991, she chaired the American Bar Association's Commission on Women in the Profession,^[98] which addressed gender bias in the law profession and induced the association to adopt measures to combat it.^[98] She was twice named by the National Law Journal as one of the 100 most influential lawyers in America: in 1988 and in 1991.^[99] When Bill Clinton thought about not running again for governor in 1990, Hillary considered running, but private polls were unfavorable and, in the end, he ran and was reelected for the final time.^[100]

Clinton served on the boards of the Arkansas Children's Hospital Legal Services (1988–1992)^[101] and the Children's Defense Fund (as chair, 1986–1992).^[1]^[102] In addition to her positions with nonprofit organizations, she also held positions on the corporate board of directors of TCBY (1985–1992),^[103] Wal-Mart Stores (1986–1992)^[104] and Lafarge (1990–1992).^[105] TCBY and Wal-Mart were Arkansas-based companies that were also clients of Rose Law.^[94]^[106] Clinton was the first female member on Wal-Mart's board, added following pressure on chairman Sam Walton to name a woman to the board.^[106] Once there, she pushed successfully for Wal-Mart to adopt more environmentally friendly practices, was largely unsuccessful in a campaign for more women to be added to the company's management, and was silent about the company's famously anti-labor union practices.^[104]^[106]^[107]

Bill Clinton presidential campaign of 1992 [link]

Black-and-white close-up photographic portrait of the same woman as in the top photo, in her forties and with shoulder-length blonde hair

Hillary Rodham Clinton, 1992

Hillary Clinton received sustained national attention for the first time when her husband became a candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination of 1992. Before the New Hampshire primary, tabloid publications printed claims that Bill Clinton had had an extramarital affair with Arkansas lounge singer Gennifer Flowers.^[108] In response, the Clintons appeared together on 60 Minutes, where Bill Clinton denied the affair but acknowledged "causing pain in my marriage."^[109] This joint appearance was credited with rescuing his campaign.^[110] During the campaign, Hillary Clinton made culturally disparaging remarks about Tammy Wynette and her outlook on marriage,^{[nb 5]} and about women staying home and baking cookies and having teas,^{[nb 6]} that were ill-considered by her own admission. Bill Clinton said that in electing him, the nation would "get two for the price of one", referring to the prominent role his wife would assume.^[111] Beginning with Daniel Wattenberg's August 1992 The American Spectator article "The Lady Macbeth of Little Rock", Hillary Clinton's own past ideological and ethical record came under conservative attack.^[74] At least twenty other articles in major publications also drew comparisons between her and Lady Macbeth.^[112]

First Lady of the United States [link]

Role as First Lady [link]

When Bill Clinton took office as president in January 1993, Hillary Rodham Clinton became the First Lady of the United States, and announced that she would be using that form of her name.^[113] She was the first First Lady to hold a postgraduate degree^[114] and to have her own professional career up to the time of entering the White House.^[114] She was also the first to have an office in the West Wing of the White House in addition to the usual First Lady offices in the East Wing.^[45]^[115] She was part of the innermost circle vetting appointments to the new administration, and her choices filled at least eleven top-level positions and dozens more lower-level ones.^[116] She is regarded as the most openly empowered presidential wife in American history, save for Eleanor Roosevelt.^[117]^[118]

Man, same woman, and teenage girl walk across lawn after leaving a helicopter

The Clinton family arrives at the White House on Marine One, 1993.

Some critics called it inappropriate for the First Lady to play a central role in matters of public policy. Supporters pointed out that Clinton's role in policy was no different from that of other White House advisors and that voters were well aware that she would play an active role in her husband's presidency.^[119] Bill Clinton's campaign promise of "two for the price of one" led opponents to refer derisively to the Clintons as "co-presidents",^[120] or sometimes the Arkansas label "Billary".^[81]^[121] The pressures of conflicting ideas about the role of a First Lady were enough to send Clinton into "imaginary discussions" with the also-politically-active Eleanor Roosevelt.^{[nb 7]} From the time she came to Washington, she also found refuge in a prayer group of The Fellowship that featured many wives of conservative Washington figures.^[122]^[123] Triggered in part by the death of her father in April 1993, she publicly sought to find a synthesis of Methodist teachings, liberal religious political philosophy, and Tikkun editor Michael Lerner's "politics of meaning" to overcome what she saw as America's "sleeping sickness of the soul" and that would lead to a willingness "to remold society by redefining what it means to be a human being in the twentieth century, moving into a new millennium."^[124]^[125] Other segments of the public focused on her appearance, which had evolved over time from inattention to fashion during her days in Arkansas,^[126] to a popular site in the early days of the World Wide Web devoted to showing her many different, and frequently analyzed, hairstyles as First Lady,^[127]^[128] to an appearance on the cover of Vogue magazine in 1998.^[129]

Health care and other policy initiatives [link]

Hillary Rodham Clinton's Gallup Poll favorable and unfavorable ratings, 1992–1996^[130]

favorable

unfavorable

no opinion

In January 1993, Bill Clinton appointed Hillary Clinton to head the Task Force on National Health Care Reform, hoping to replicate the success she had in leading the effort for Arkansas education reform.^[131] She privately urged that passage of health care reform be given higher priority than the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) (which she was also unenthusiastic about the merits of).^[132]^[133] The recommendation of the task force became known as the Clinton health care plan, a comprehensive proposal that would require employers to provide health coverage to their employees through individual health maintenance organizations. Its opponents quickly derided the plan as "Hillarycare"; some protesters against it became vitriolic, and during a July 1994 bus tour to rally support for the plan, she was forced to wear a bulletproof vest at times.^[134]^[135]

The plan did not receive enough support for a floor vote in either the House or the Senate, although Democrats controlled both chambers, and the proposal was abandoned in September 1994.^[134] Clinton later acknowledged in her book, Living History, that her political inexperience partly contributed to the defeat, but mentioned that many other factors were also responsible. The First Lady's approval ratings, which had generally been in the high-50s percent range during her first year, fell to 44 percent in April 1994 and 35 percent by September 1994.^[136] Republicans made the Clinton health care plan a major campaign issue of the 1994 midterm elections,^[137] which saw a net Republican gain of fifty-three seats in the House election and seven in the Senate election, winning control of both; many analysts and pollsters found the plan to be a major factor in the Democrats' defeat, especially among independent voters.^[138] The White House subsequently sought to downplay Hillary Clinton's role in shaping policy.^[139] Opponents of universal health care would continue to use "Hillarycare" as a pejorative label for similar plans by others.^[140]

Same woman reads a book in a classroom to an African American boy in her lap, as an African American girl and two adults look on

Clinton reads to a child during a school visit

Along with Senators Ted Kennedy and Orrin Hatch, she was a force behind the passage of the State Children's Health Insurance Program in 1997, a federal effort that provided state support for children whose parents could not provide them with health coverage, and conducted outreach efforts on behalf of enrolling children in the program once it became law.^[141] She promoted nationwide immunization against childhood illnesses and encouraged older women to seek a mammogram to detect breast cancer, with coverage provided by Medicare.^[142] She successfully sought to increase research funding for prostate cancer and childhood asthma at the National Institutes of Health.^[45] The First Lady worked to investigate reports of an illness that affected veterans of the Gulf War, which became known as the Gulf War syndrome.^[45] Together with Attorney General Janet Reno, Clinton helped create the Office on Violence Against Women at the Department of Justice.^[45] In 1997, she initiated and shepherded the Adoption and Safe Families Act, which she regarded as her greatest accomplishment as First Lady.^[45]^[143] In 1999, she was instrumental in the passage of the Foster Care Independence Act, which doubled federal monies for teenagers aging out of foster care.^[143] As First Lady, Clinton hosted numerous White House conferences, including ones on Child Care (1997),^[144] on Early Childhood Development and Learning (1997),^[145] and on Children and Adolescents (2000).^[146] She also hosted the first-ever White House Conference on Teenagers (2000)^[147] and the first-ever White House Conference on Philanthropy (1999).^[148]

Clinton traveled to 79 countries during this time,^[149] breaking the mark for most-traveled First Lady held by Pat Nixon.^[150] She did not hold a security clearance or attend National Security Council meetings, but played a soft power role in U.S. diplomacy.^[151] A March 1995 five-nation trip to South Asia, on behest of the U.S. State Department and without her husband, sought to improve relations with India and Pakistan.^[152] Clinton was troubled by the plight of women she encountered, but found a warm response from the people of the countries she visited and a gained better relationship with the American press corps.^[152]^[153] The trip was a transformative experience for her and presaged her eventual career in diplomacy.^[154] In a September 1995 speech before the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing, Clinton argued very forcefully against practices that abused women around the world and in the People's Republic of China itself,^[155] declaring "that it is no longer acceptable to discuss women's rights as separate from human rights".^[155] Delegates from over 180 countries heard her say: "If there is one message that echoes forth from this conference, let it be that human rights are women's rights and women's rights are human rights, once and for all."^[156] In doing so, she resisted both internal administration and Chinese pressure to soften her remarks.^[149]^[156] She was one of the most prominent international figures during the late 1990s to speak out against the treatment of Afghan women by the Islamist fundamentalist Taliban.^[157]^[158] She helped create Vital Voices, an international initiative sponsored by the United States to promote the participation of women in the political processes of their countries.^[159] It and Clinton's own visits encouraged women to make themselves heard in the Northern Ireland peace process.^[160]

Whitewater and other investigations [link]

For more details on these investigations, see Whitewater controversy, Travelgate, Filegate, and Hillary Rodham cattle futures controversy.

First Lady Clinton was a subject of several investigations by the United States Office of the Independent Counsel, the independent prosecutor of the United States Congress, and others. Some believed the Independent Counsels were politically motivated.^[161]^[162]

The Whitewater controversy was the focus of media attention from the publication of a New York Times report during the 1992 presidential campaign,^[163] and throughout her time as First Lady. The Clintons had lost their late-1970s investment in the Whitewater Development Corporation;^[164] at the same time, their partners in that investment, Jim and Susan McDougal, operated Madison Guaranty, a savings and loan institution that retained the legal services of Rose Law Firm^[164] and may have been improperly subsidizing Whitewater losses.^[163] Madison Guaranty later failed, and Clinton's work at Rose was scrutinized for a possible conflict of interest in representing the bank before state regulators that her husband had appointed;^[163] she claimed she had done minimal work for the bank.^[165] Independent counsels Robert Fiske and Kenneth Starr subpoenaed Clinton's legal billing records; she said she did not know where they were.^[166]^[167] The records were found in the First Lady's White House book room after a two-year search, and delivered to investigators in early 1996.^[167] The delayed appearance of the records sparked intense interest and another investigation about how they surfaced and where they had been;^[167] Clinton's staff attributed the problem to continual changes in White House storage areas since the move from the Arkansas Governor's Mansion.^[168] After the discovery of the records, on January 26, 1996, Clinton became the first First Lady to be subpoenaed to testify before a Federal grand jury.^[166] After several Independent Counsels had investigated, a final report was issued in 2000 that stated there was insufficient evidence that either Clinton had engaged in criminal wrongdoing.^[169]

Same teenage girl, man and woman walk down a broad street in wintertime, as security personnel trail and a crowd looks on

The Clinton family takes an Inauguration Day walk down Pennsylvania Avenue to start President Bill Clinton's second term in office. January 20, 1997.

Scrutiny of the May 1993 firings of the White House Travel Office employees, an affair that became known as "Travelgate", began with charges that the White House had used audited financial irregularities in the Travel Office operation as an excuse to replace the staff with friends from Arkansas.^[170] The 1996 discovery of a two-year-old White House memo caused the investigation to focus more on whether Hillary Clinton had orchestrated the firings and whether the statements she made to investigators about her role in the firings were true.^[171]^[172] The 2000 final Independent Counsel report concluded she was involved in the firings and that she had made "factually false" statements, but that there was insufficient evidence that she knew the statements were false, or knew that her actions would lead to firings, to prosecute her.^[173]

Following deputy White House counsel Vince Foster's July 1993 suicide, allegations were made that Hillary Clinton had ordered the removal of potentially damaging files (related to Whitewater or other matters) from Foster's office on the night of his death.^[174] Independent Counsel Kenneth Starr investigated this, and by 1999, Starr was reported to be holding the investigation open, despite his staff having told him there was no case to be made.^[175] When Starr's successor Robert Ray issued his final Whitewater reports in 2000, no claims were made against Hillary Clinton regarding this.^[169]

An outgrowth of the Travelgate investigation was the June 1996 discovery of improper White House access to hundreds of FBI background reports on former Republican White House employees, an affair that some called "Filegate".^[176] Accusations were made that Hillary Clinton had requested these files and that she had recommended hiring an unqualified individual to head the White House Security Office.^[177] The 2000 final Independent Counsel report found no substantial or credible evidence that Hillary Clinton had any role or showed any misconduct in the matter.^[176]

In March 1994, newspaper reports revealed her spectacular profits from cattle futures trading in 1978–1979;^[178] allegations were made in the press of conflict of interest and disguised bribery,^[179] and several individuals analyzed her trading records, but no formal investigation was made and she was never charged with any wrongdoing.^[179]

Lewinsky scandal [link]

Hillary Rodham Clinton's Gallup Poll favorable and unfavorable ratings, 1997–2000^[130]

favorable

unfavorable

no opinion

In 1998, the Clintons' relationship became the subject of much speculation when investigations revealed that the President had had extramarital relations with White House intern Monica Lewinsky.^[180] Events surrounding the Lewinsky scandal eventually led to the impeachment of Bill Clinton by the House of Representatives. When the allegations against her husband were first made public, Hillary Clinton stated that they were the result of a "vast right-wing conspiracy",^[181] characterizing the Lewinsky charges as the latest in a long, organized, collaborative series of charges by Bill Clinton's political enemies^{[nb 8]} rather than any wrongdoing by her husband. She later said that she had been misled by her husband's initial claims that no affair had taken place.^[182] After the evidence of President Clinton's encounters with Lewinsky became incontrovertible, she issued a public statement reaffirming her commitment to their marriage,^[183] but privately was reported to be furious at him^[184] and was unsure if she wanted to stay in the marriage.^[185]

There was a variety of public reactions to Hillary Clinton after this: some women admired her strength and poise in private matters made public, some sympathized with her as a victim of her husband's insensitive behavior, others criticized her as being an enabler to her husband's indiscretions, while still others accused her of cynically staying in a failed marriage as a way of keeping or even fostering her own political influence.^[186] Her public approval ratings in the wake of the revelations shot upward to around 70 percent, the highest they had ever been.^[186] In her 2003 memoir, she would attribute her decision to stay married to "a love that has persisted for decades" and add: "No one understands me better and no one can make me laugh the way Bill does. Even after all these years, he is still the most interesting, energizing and fully alive person I have ever met."^[187]

Traditional duties [link]

Clinton initiated and was Founding Chair of the Save America's Treasures program, a national effort that matched federal funds to private donations to preserve and restore historic items and sites,^[188] including the flag that inspired "The Star-Spangled Banner" and the First Ladies Historic Site in Canton, Ohio.^[45] She was head of the White House Millennium Council,^[189] and hosted Millennium Evenings,^[190] a series of lectures that discussed futures studies, one of which became the first live simultaneous webcast from the White House.^[45] Clinton also created the first White House Sculpture Garden, located in the Jacqueline Kennedy Garden, which displayed large contemporary American works of art loaned from museums.^[191]

In the White House, Clinton placed donated handicrafts of contemporary American artisans, such as pottery and glassware, on rotating display in the state rooms.^[45] She oversaw the restoration of the Blue Room to be historically authentic to the period of James Monroe,^[192] the redecoration of the Treaty Room into the presidential study along 19th century lines,^[193] and the redecoration of the Map Room to how it looked during World War II.^[193] Clinton hosted many large-scale events at the White House, such as a Saint Patrick's Day reception, a state dinner for visiting Chinese dignitaries, a contemporary music concert that raised funds for music education in public schools, a New Year's Eve celebration at the turn of the 21st century, and a state dinner honoring the bicentennial of the White House in November 2000.^[45]

Senate election of 2000 [link]

Main article: United States Senate election in New York, 2000

When the long-serving United States Senator from New York, Daniel Patrick Moynihan, announced his retirement in November 1998, several prominent Democratic figures, including Representative Charles B. Rangel of New York, urged Clinton to run for Moynihan's open seat in the United States Senate election of 2000.^[194] Once she decided to run, the Clintons purchased a home in Chappaqua, New York, north of New York City, in September 1999.^[195] She became the first First Lady of the United States to be a candidate for elected office.^[196] Initially, Clinton expected to face Rudy Giuliani, the Mayor of New York City, as her Republican opponent in the election. However, Giuliani withdrew from the race in May 2000 after being diagnosed with prostate cancer and having developments in his personal life become very public, and Clinton instead faced Rick Lazio, a Republican member of the United States House of Representatives representing New York's 2nd congressional district. Throughout the campaign, opponents accused Clinton of carpetbagging, as she had never resided in New York nor participated in the state's politics before this race. Clinton began her campaign by visiting every county in the state, in a "listening tour" of small-group settings.^[197] During the campaign, she devoted considerable time in traditionally Republican Upstate New York regions.^[198] Clinton vowed to improve the economic situation in those areas, promising to deliver 200,000 jobs to the state over her term. Her plan included tax credits to reward job creation and encourage business investment, especially in the high-tech sector. She called for personal tax cuts for college tuition and long-term care.^[198]

The contest drew national attention. Lazio blundered during a September debate by seeming to invade Clinton's personal space trying to get her to sign a fundraising agreement.^[199] The campaigns of Clinton and Lazio, along with Giuliani's initial effort, spent a record combined $90 million.^[200] Clinton won the election on November 7, 2000, with 55 percent of the vote to Lazio's 43 percent.^[199] She was sworn in as United States Senator on January 3, 2001.

United States Senator [link]

Main article: Senate career of Hillary Rodham Clinton

First term [link]

Reenactment of Hillary Rodham Clinton being sworn in as a United States Senator by Vice President Al Gore in the Old Senate Chamber, as President Clinton and daughter Chelsea look on. January 3, 2001.

Clinton's official photo as U.S. Senator

Upon entering the Senate, Clinton maintained a low public profile and built relationships with senators from both parties.^[201] She forged alliances with religiously inclined senators by becoming a regular participant in the Senate Prayer Breakfast.^[122]^[202]

Clinton served on five Senate committees: Committee on Budget (2001–2002),^[203] Committee on Armed Services (since 2003),^[204] Committee on Environment and Public Works (since 2001),^[203] Committee on Health, Education, Labor and Pensions (since 2001)^[203] and Special Committee on Aging.^[205] She was also a Commissioner of the Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe^[206] (since 2001).^[207]

Following the September 11, 2001, attacks, Clinton sought to obtain funding for the recovery efforts in New York City and security improvements in her state. Working with New York's senior senator, Charles Schumer, she was instrumental in quickly securing $21 billion in funding for the World Trade Center site's redevelopment.^[202]^[208] She subsequently took a leading role in investigating the health issues faced by 9/11 first responders.^[209] Clinton voted for the USA Patriot Act in October 2001. In 2005, when the act was up for renewal, she worked to address some of the civil liberties concerns with it,^[210] before voting in favor of a compromise renewed act in March 2006 that gained large majority support.^[211]

Clinton strongly supported the 2001 U.S. military action in Afghanistan, saying it was a chance to combat terrorism while improving the lives of Afghan women who suffered under the Taliban government.^[212] Clinton voted in favor of the October 2002 Iraq War Resolution, which authorized United States President George W. Bush to use military force against Iraq, should such action be required to enforce a United Nations Security Council Resolution after pursuing with diplomatic efforts.

After the Iraq War began, Clinton made trips to Iraq and Afghanistan to visit American troops stationed there. On a visit to Iraq in February 2005, Clinton noted that the insurgency had failed to disrupt the democratic elections held earlier, and that parts of the country were functioning well.^[213] Noting that war deployments were draining regular and reserve forces, she cointroduced legislation to increase the size of the regular United States Army by 80,000 soldiers to ease the strain.^[214] In late 2005, Clinton said that while immediate withdrawal from Iraq would be a mistake, Bush's pledge to stay "until the job is done" was also misguided, as it gave Iraqis "an open-ended invitation not to take care of themselves."^[215] Her stance caused frustration among those in the Democratic Party who favored immediate withdrawal.^[216] Clinton supported retaining and improving health benefits for veterans, and lobbied against the closure of several military bases.^[217]

Hillary Rodham Clinton's Gallup Poll favorable and unfavorable ratings, 2001–2009^[130]

favorable

unfavorable

no opinion

Senator Clinton voted against President Bush's two major tax cut packages, the Economic Growth and Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2001 and the Jobs and Growth Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2003.^[218] Clinton voted against the 2005 confirmation of John G. Roberts as Chief Justice of the United States and the 2006 confirmation of Samuel Alito to the United States Supreme Court.^[219]

In 2005, Clinton called for the Federal Trade Commission to investigate how hidden sex scenes showed up in the controversial video game Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas.^[220] Along with Senators Joe Lieberman and Evan Bayh, she introduced the Family Entertainment Protection Act, intended to protect children from inappropriate content found in video games. In 2004 and 2006, Clinton voted against the Federal Marriage Amendment that sought to prohibit same-sex marriage.^[218]^[221]

Looking to establish a "progressive infrastructure" to rival that of American conservatism, Clinton played a formative role in conversations that led to the 2003 founding of former Clinton administration chief of staff John Podesta's Center for American Progress, shared aides with Citizens for Responsibility and Ethics in Washington, founded in 2003, and advised the Clintons' former antagonist David Brock's Media Matters for America, created in 2004.^[222] Following the 2004 Senate elections, she successfully pushed new Democratic Senate leader Harry Reid to create a Senate war room to handle daily political messaging.^[223]

Reelection campaign of 2006 [link]

Main article: United States Senate election in New York, 2006

In November 2004, Clinton announced that she would seek a second Senate term. The early frontrunner for the Republican nomination, Westchester County District Attorney Jeanine Pirro, withdrew from the contest after several months of poor campaign performance.^[224] Clinton easily won the Democratic nomination over opposition from antiwar activist Jonathan Tasini.^[225] Clinton's eventual opponents in the general election were Republican candidate John Spencer, a former mayor of Yonkers, along with several third-party candidates. She won the election on November 7, 2006, with 67 percent of the vote to Spencer's 31 percent,^[226] carrying all but four of New York's sixty-two counties.^[227] Clinton spent $36 million for her reelection, more than any other candidate for Senate in the 2006 elections did. Some Democrats criticized her for spending too much in a one-sided contest, while some supporters were concerned she did not leave more funds for a potential presidential bid in 2008.^[228] In the following months, she transferred $10 million of her Senate funds toward her presidential campaign.^[229]

Second term [link]

Senator Clinton listens as Chief of Naval Operations Navy Admiral Mike Mullen responds to a question during his 2007 confirmation hearing with the Senate Armed Services Committee.

Clinton opposed the Iraq War troop surge of 2007.^[230] In March 2007, she voted in favor of a war-spending bill that required President Bush to begin withdrawing troops from Iraq by a deadline; it passed almost completely along party lines^[231] but was subsequently vetoed by President Bush. In May 2007, a compromise war funding bill that removed withdrawal deadlines but tied funding to progress benchmarks for the Iraqi government passed the Senate by a vote of 80–14 and would be signed by Bush; Clinton was one of those who voted against it.^[232] Clinton responded to General David Petraeus's September 2007 Report to Congress on the Situation in Iraq by saying, "I think that the reports that you provide to us really require a willing suspension of disbelief."^[233]

In March 2007, in response to the dismissal of U.S. attorneys controversy, Clinton called on Attorney General Alberto Gonzales to resign.^[234] In May and June 2007, regarding the high-profile, hotly debated comprehensive immigration reform bill known as the Secure Borders, Economic Opportunity and Immigration Reform Act of 2007, Clinton cast several votes in support of the bill, which eventually failed to gain cloture.^[235]

As the financial crisis of 2007–2008 reached a peak with the liquidity crisis of September 2008, Clinton supported the proposed bailout of United States financial system, voting in favor of the $700 billion Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008, saying that it represented the interests of the American people.^[236] It passed the Senate 74–25.

Presidential campaign of 2008 [link]

Main article: Hillary Clinton presidential campaign, 2008

Clinton had been preparing for a potential candidacy for United States President since at least early 2003.^[237] On January 20, 2007, Clinton announced via her web site the formation of a presidential exploratory committee for the United States presidential election of 2008; she stated, "I'm in, and I'm in to win."^[238] No woman had ever been nominated by a major party for President of the United States. In April 2007, the Clintons liquidated a blind trust, that had been established when Bill Clinton became president in 1993, to avoid the possibility of ethical conflicts or political embarrassments in the trust as Hillary Clinton undertook her presidential race.^[239] Later disclosure statements revealed that the couple's worth was now upwards of $50 million,^[239] and that they had earned over $100 million since 2000, with most of it coming from Bill Clinton's books, speaking engagements, and other activities.^[240]

Clinton led candidates competing for the Democratic nomination in opinion polls for the election throughout the first half of 2007. Most polls placed Senator Barack Obama of Illinois and former Senator John Edwards of North Carolina as Clinton's closest competitors.^[241] Clinton and Obama both set records for early fundraising, swapping the money lead each quarter.^[242] By September 2007, polling in the first six states holding Democratic primaries or caucuses showed that Clinton was leading in all of them, with the races being closest in Iowa and South Carolina. By the following month, national polls showed Clinton far ahead of Democratic competitors.^[243] At the end of October, Clinton suffered a rare poor debate performance against Obama, Edwards, and her other opponents.^[244]^[245]^[246] Obama's message of "change" began to resonate with the Democratic electorate better than Clinton's message of "experience".^[247] The race tightened considerably, especially in the early caucus and primary states of Iowa, New Hampshire, and South Carolina, with Clinton losing her lead in some polls by December.^[248]

Clinton campaigning at Augsburg College in Minneapolis, Minnesota, two days before Super Tuesday 2008.

In the first vote of 2008, she placed third in the January 3 Iowa Democratic caucus to Obama and Edwards.^[249] Obama gained ground in national polling in the next few days, with all polls predicting a victory for him in the New Hampshire primary.^[250]^[251] However, Clinton gained a surprise win there on January 8, defeating Obama narrowly.^[252] Explanations for her New Hampshire comeback varied but often centered on her being seen more sympathetically, especially by women, after her eyes welled with tears and her voice broke while responding to a voter's question the day before the election.^[252]^[253]

The nature of the contest fractured in the next few days. Several remarks by Bill Clinton and other surrogates,^[254] and a remark by Hillary Clinton concerning Martin Luther King, Jr., and Lyndon B. Johnson,^{[nb 9]} were perceived by many as, accidentally or intentionally, limiting Obama as a racially oriented candidate or otherwise denying the post-racial significance and accomplishments of his campaign.^[255] Despite attempts by both Hillary Clinton and Obama to downplay the issue, Democratic voting became more polarized as a result, with Clinton losing much of her support among African Americans.^[254]^[256] She lost by a two-to-one margin to Obama in the January 26 South Carolina primary,^[257] setting up, with Edwards soon dropping out, an intense two-person contest for the twenty-two February 5 Super Tuesday states. Bill Clinton had made more statements attracting criticism for their perceived racial implications late in the South Carolina campaign, and his role was seen as damaging enough to her that a wave of supporters within and outside of the campaign said the former President "needs to stop."^[258]

On Super Tuesday, Clinton won the largest states, such as California, New York, New Jersey and Massachusetts, while Obama won more states; they almost evenly split the total popular vote.^[259]^[260] But Obama was gaining more pledged delegates for his share of the popular vote due to better exploitation of the Democratic proportional allocation rules.^[261]

Clinton speaking at a Pennsylvania rally in support of her former rival, Barack Obama; October 2008.

The Clinton campaign had counted on winning the nomination by Super Tuesday, and was unprepared financially and logistically for a prolonged effort; lagging in Internet fundraising, Clinton began loaning her campaign money.^[247]^[262] There was continuous turmoil within the campaign staff and she made several top-level personnel changes.^[262]^[263] Obama won the next eleven February caucuses and primaries across the country, often by large margins, and took a significant pledged delegate lead over Clinton.^[261]^[262] On March 4, Clinton broke the string of losses by winning in Ohio among other places,^[262] where her criticism of NAFTA, a major legacy of her husband's presidency, had been a key issue.^[264] Throughout the campaign, Obama dominated caucuses, which the Clinton campaign largely ignored organizing for.^[247]^[261]^[265] Obama did well in primaries where African Americans or younger, college-educated, or more affluent voters were heavily represented; Clinton did well in primaries where Hispanics or older, non-college-educated, or working-class white voters predominated.^[266]^[267] Some Democratic party leaders expressed concern that the drawn-out campaign between the two could damage the winner in the general election contest against Republican presumptive nominee John McCain, especially if an eventual triumph for Clinton was won via party-appointed superdelegates.^[268]

Clinton's admission in late March, that her repeated campaign statements about having been under hostile fire from snipers during a 1996 visit to U.S. troops at Tuzla Air Base in Bosnia-Herzegovina were not true, attracted considerable media attention and risked undermining both her credibility and her claims of foreign policy expertise as First Lady.^[269]

On April 22, she won the Pennsylvania primary, and kept her campaign alive.^[270] However, on May 6, a narrower-than-expected win in the Indiana primary coupled with a large loss in the North Carolina primary ended any realistic chance she had of winning the nomination.^[270] She vowed to stay on through the remaining primaries, but stopped attacks against Obama; as one advisor stated, "She could accept losing. She could not accept quitting."^[270] She won some of the remaining contests, and indeed, over the last three months of the campaign she won more delegates, states, and votes than Obama, but she failed to overcome Obama's lead.^[262]

Clinton speaks during the second night of the 2008 Democratic National Convention in Denver, Colorado.

Following the final primaries on June 3, 2008, Obama had gained enough delegates to become the presumptive nominee.^[271] In a speech before her supporters on June 7, Clinton ended her campaign and endorsed Obama, declaring, "The way to continue our fight now to accomplish the goals for which we stand is to take our energy, our passion, our strength and do all we can to help elect Barack Obama."^[272] By campaign's end, Clinton had won 1,640 pledged delegates to Obama's 1,763;^[273] at the time of the clinching, Clinton had 286 superdelegates to Obama's 395,^[274] with those numbers widening to 256 versus 438 once Obama was acknowledged the winner.^[273] Clinton and Obama each received over 17 million votes during the nomination process,^{[nb 10]} with both breaking the previous record.^[275] Clinton also eclipsed, by a very large margin, Congresswoman Shirley Chisholm's 1972 mark for most primaries and delegates won by a woman.^[276] Clinton gave a passionate speech supporting Obama at the 2008 Democratic National Convention and campaigned frequently for him in Fall 2008, which concluded with his victory over McCain in the general election on November 4.^[277] Clinton's campaign ended up severely in debt; she owed millions of dollars to outside vendors and wrote off the $13 million that she lent it herself.^[278]

Secretary of State [link]

Main article: Hillary Rodham Clinton's tenure as Secretary of State

Nomination and confirmation [link]

Wikinews has related news: Hillary Clinton nominated as US Secretary of State

Clinton takes the oath-of-office as Secretary of State, administered by Associate Judge Kathryn Oberly as Bill Clinton holds the Bible.

In mid-November 2008, President-elect Obama and Clinton discussed the possibility of her serving as U.S. Secretary of State in his administration,^[279] and on November 21, reports indicated that she had accepted the position.^[280] On December 1, President-elect Obama formally announced that Clinton would be his nominee for Secretary of State.^[281] Clinton said she was reluctant to leave the Senate, but that the new position represented a "difficult and exciting adventure".^[281] As part of the nomination and in order to relieve concerns of conflict of interest, Bill Clinton agreed to accept several conditions and restrictions regarding his ongoing activities and fundraising efforts for the Clinton Presidential Center and Clinton Global Initiative.^[282]

The appointment required a Saxbe fix, passed and signed into law in December 2008.^[283] Confirmation hearings before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee began on January 13, 2009, a week before the Obama inauguration; two days later, the Committee voted 16–1 to approve Clinton.^[284] By this time, her public approval rating had reached 65 percent, the highest point since the Lewinsky scandal.^[285] On January 21, 2009, Clinton was confirmed in the full Senate by a vote of 94–2.^[286] Clinton took the oath of office of Secretary of State and resigned from the Senate that same day.^[287] She became the first former First Lady to serve in the United States Cabinet.^[288]

Tenure [link]

Obama and Clinton speaking with one another at the 21st NATO summit, April 2009

Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and Clinton, May 2009

Clinton spent her initial days as Secretary of State telephoning dozens of world leaders and indicating that U.S. foreign policy would change direction: "We have a lot of damage to repair."^[289] She advocated an expanded role in global economic issues for the State Department and cited the need for an increased U.S. diplomatic presence, especially in Iraq where the Defense Department had conducted diplomatic missions.^[290] She pushed for a larger international affairs budget;^[290] the Obama administration's proposed 2010 budget contained a 7 percent increase for the State Department and other international programs.^[291] In March 2009, Clinton prevailed over Vice President Joe Biden on an internal debate to send an additional 20,000 troops to the war in Afghanistan.^[292] An elbow fracture and subsequent painful recuperation caused Clinton to miss two foreign trips in June 2009.^[292]^[293]

Clinton announced the most ambitious of her departmental reforms, the Quadrennial Diplomacy and Development Review, which establishes specific objectives for the State Department's diplomatic missions abroad; it is modeled after a similar process in the Defense Department that she was familiar with from her time on the Senate Armed Services Committee.^[294] (The first such review was issued in late 2010 and called for the U.S. leading through "civilian power" as a cost-effective way of responding to international challenges and defusing crises.^[295] It also sought to institutionalize goals of empowering women throughout the world.^[156]) In September, Clinton unveiled the Global Hunger and Food Security Initiative at the annual meeting of her husband's Clinton Global Initiative.^[296] The new initiative seeks to battle hunger worldwide as a strategic part of U.S. foreign policy, rather than just react to food shortage emergencies as they occur, and emphasizes the role of women farmers.^[296] In October, on a trip to Switzerland, Clinton's intervention overcame last-minute snags and saved the signing of an historic Turkish–Armenian accord that established diplomatic relations and opened the border between the two long-hostile nations.^[297]^[298] In Pakistan, she engaged in several unusually blunt discussions with students, talk show hosts, and tribal elders, in an attempt to repair the Pakistani image of the U.S.^[154]

In a major speech in January 2010, Clinton drew analogies between the Iron Curtain and the free and unfree Internet.^[299] Chinese officials reacted negatively towards it, and it garnered attention as the first time a senior American official had clearly defined the Internet as a key element of American foreign policy.^[300] By mid-2010, Clinton and Obama had forged a good working relationship; she was a team player within the administration and a defender of it to the outside, and was careful that neither she nor her husband would upstage him.^[301] She met with him weekly, but did not have the close, daily relationship that some of her predecessors had had with their presidents.^[301] In July 2010, Secretary Clinton visited Korea, Vietnam, Pakistan and Afghanistan, all the while preparing for the July 31 wedding of daughter Chelsea amid much media attention.^[302] In late November 2010, Clinton led the U.S. damage control effort after WikiLeaks released confidential State Department cables containing blunt statements and assessments by U.S. and foreign diplomats.^[303]^[304] A few of the cables released by WikiLeaks concerned Clinton directly: they revealed that directions to members of the foreign service, written by the CIA, had gone out in 2009 under her (systematically attached) name to gather biometric and other personal details on foreign diplomats, including officials of the United Nations and U.S. allies.^[305]^[306]^[307]

Secretary Clinton in February 2011

The 2011 Egyptian protests posed the biggest foreign policy crisis for the administration yet.^[308] Clinton was in the forefront of U.S. public response to it, quickly evolving from an early assessment that the government of Hosni Mubarak was "stable" to a stance that there needed to be an "orderly transition [to] a democratic participatory government" to a condemnation of violence against the protesters.^[309]^[310] Obama also came to rely upon Clinton's advice, organization, and personal connections in the behind-the-scenes response to developments.^[308] As protests spread throughout the region, Clinton was at the forefront of a U.S. response that she recognized was sometimes contradictory, backing some regimes while supporting protesters against others.^[311] As the 2011 Libyan civil war took place, Clinton's shift in favor of military intervention was a key turning point in overcoming internal administration opposition and gaining the backing for, and Arab and U.N. approval of, the 2011 military intervention in Libya.^[311]^[312]^[313] She later used U.S. allies and what she called "convening power" to help keep the Libyan rebels unified as they eventually overthrew the Gaddafi regime.^[313] Following the successful May 2011 U.S. mission to kill Osama bin Laden, Clinton played a key role in the administration's decision not to release photographs of the dead al-Qaeda leader.^[314] In a December 2011 speech before the United Nations Human Rights Council, she said that the U.S. would advocate for gay rights abroad and that "Gay rights are human rights" and that "It should never be a crime to be gay."^[315] The same month saw her conclude the first visit to Burma by a U.S. secretary of state since 1955, as she met with Burmese leaders as well as opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi and sought to support the 2011 Burmese democratic reforms.^[316]

Throughout her tenure, Clinton has looked towards "smart power" as the strategy for asserting U.S. leadership and values, combining military strength with U.S. capacities in global economics, development aid, and technology.^[313] She has also greatly expanded the State Department's use of social media, including Facebook and Twitter, both to get its message out and to help empower people vis à via their rulers.^[313] And in the Mideast turmoil, Clinton particularly saw an opportunity to advance one of the central themes of her tenure, the empowerment and welfare of women and girls worldwide.^[156] By now Clinton had set the record for most-traveled Secretary of State for a comparable period of time, logging 465,000 miles (748,000 km) and visiting 79 countries.^[156] (Time magazine wrote that "Clinton's endurance is legendary."^[313]) Throughout her term, Clinton had indicated she had no interest in running for president again^[317] or in holding any other office. In March 2011, she expanded upon that by saying she was not interested in serving a second term as Secretary of State should Obama be re-elected in 2012.^[312]^[318]

Political positions [link]

Main article: Political positions of Hillary Rodham Clinton

Clinton with Prime Minister of Australia Kevin Rudd in March 2008

In a Gallup poll conducted during May 2005, 54 percent of respondents considered Clinton a liberal, 30 percent considered her a moderate, and 9 percent considered her a conservative.^[319]

Several organizations attempted to measure Clinton's place on the political spectrum scientifically using her Senate votes. National Journal's 2004 study of roll-call votes assigned Clinton a rating of 30 in the political spectrum, relative to the then-current Senate, with a rating of 1 being most liberal and 100 being most conservative.^[320] National Journal's subsequent rankings placed her as the 32nd-most liberal senator in 2006 and 16th-most liberal senator in 2007.^[321] A 2004 analysis by political scientists Joshua D. Clinton of Princeton University, Simon Jackman and Doug Rivers of Stanford University found her to be likely the sixth-to-eighth-most liberal Senator.^[322] The Almanac of American Politics, edited by Michael Barone and Richard E. Cohen, rated her votes from 2003 through 2006 as liberal or conservative, with 100 as the highest rating, in three areas: Economic, Social, and Foreign; averaged for the four years, the ratings are: Economic = 75 liberal, 23 conservative; Social = 83 liberal, 6 conservative; Foreign = 66 liberal, 30 conservative. Average = 75 liberal, 20 conservative.^{[nb 11]}

Interest groups also gave Clinton scores based on how well her Senate votes aligned with the positions of the group. Through 2008, she had an average lifetime 90 percent "Liberal Quotient" from Americans for Democratic Action^[323] and a lifetime 8 percent rating from the American Conservative Union.^[324]

Writings and recordings [link]

As First Lady of the United States, Clinton published a weekly syndicated newspaper column titled "Talking It Over" from 1995 to 2000, distributed by Creators Syndicate.^[325] It focused on her experiences and those of women, children and families she met during her travels around the world.^[1]

In 1996, Clinton presented a vision for the children of America in the book It Takes a Village: And Other Lessons Children Teach Us. The book made the New York Times Best Seller list and Clinton received the Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album in 1997 for the book's audio recording.^[326]

Other books released by Clinton when she was First Lady include Dear Socks, Dear Buddy: Kids' Letters to the First Pets (1998) and An Invitation to the White House: At Home with History (2000). In 2001, she wrote an afterword to the children's book Beatrice's Goat.^[327]

In 2003, Clinton released a 562-page autobiography, Living History. In anticipation of high sales, publisher Simon & Schuster paid Clinton a near-record advance of $8 million.^[328] The book set a first-week sales record for a nonfiction work,^[329] went on to sell more than one million copies in the first month following publication,^[330] and was translated into twelve foreign languages.^[331] Clinton's audio recording of the book earned her a nomination for the Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album.^[332]

Cultural and political image [link]

Hillary Clinton has frequently been featured in the media and popular culture from a wide spectrum of perspectives. In 1995, New York Times writer Todd Purdum labeled Clinton "the First Lady as Rorschach test",^[333] an assessment echoed at the time by feminist writer and activist Betty Friedan, who said, "Coverage of Hillary Clinton is a massive Rorschach test of the evolution of women in our society."^[334]

Hillary Rodham Clinton, January 2007

Clinton has often been described in the popular media as a polarizing figure,^[333]^[335]^[336]^[337]^[338]^[339] with some arguing otherwise.^[339]^[340] James Madison University political science professor Valerie Sulfaro's 2007 study used the American National Election Studies' "feeling thermometer" polls, which measure the degree of opinion about a political figure, to find that such polls during Clinton's First Lady years confirm the "conventional wisdom that Hillary Clinton is a polarizing figure", with the added insight that "affect towards Mrs. Clinton as first lady tended to be very positive or very negative, with a fairly constant one fourth of respondents feeling ambivalent or neutral."^[341] University of California, San Diego political science professor Gary Jacobson's 2006 study of partisan polarization found that in a state-by-state survey of job approval ratings of the state's senators, Clinton had the fourth-largest partisan difference of any senator, with a 50 percentage point difference in approval between New York's Democrats and Republicans.^[342]

Northern Illinois University political science professor Barbara Burrell's 2000 study found that Clinton's Gallup poll favorability numbers broke sharply along partisan lines throughout her time as First Lady, with 70 to 90 percent of Democrats typically viewing her favorably while 20 to 40 percent of Republicans did not.^[343] University of Wisconsin–Madison political science professor Charles Franklin analyzed her record of favorable versus unfavorable ratings in public opinion polls, and found that there was more variation in them during her First Lady years than her Senate years.^[344] The Senate years showed favorable ratings around 50 percent and unfavorable ratings in the mid-40 percent range; Franklin noted that, "This sharp split is, of course, one of the more widely remarked aspects of Sen. Clinton's public image."^[344] McGill University professor of history Gil Troy titled his 2006 biography of her Hillary Rodham Clinton: Polarizing First Lady, and wrote that after the 1992 campaign, Clinton "was a polarizing figure, with 42 percent [of the public] saying she came closer to their values and lifestyle than previous first ladies and 41 percent disagreeing."^[345] Troy further wrote that Hillary Clinton "has been uniquely controversial and contradictory since she first appeared on the national radar screen in 1992"^[346] and that she "has alternately fascinated, bedeviled, bewitched, and appalled Americans."^[346]

File:RoseLawFirmRear2008.jpg

Clinton worked at Rose Law Firm for fifteen years. Her professional career and political involvement set the stage for public reaction to her as First Lady.

Burrell's study found women consistently rating Clinton more favorably than men by about ten percentage points during her First Lady years.^[343] Jacobson's study found a positive correlation across all senators between being women and receiving a partisan-polarized response.^[342] Colorado State University communication studies professor Karrin Vasby Anderson describes the First Lady position as a "site" for American womanhood, one ready made for the symbolic negotiation of female identity.^[347] In particular, Anderson states there has been a cultural bias towards traditional first ladies and a cultural prohibition against modern first ladies; by the time of Clinton, the First Lady position had become a site of heterogeneity and paradox.^[347] Burrell, as well as biographers Jeff Gerth and Don Van Natta, Jr., note that Clinton achieved her highest approval ratings as First Lady late in 1998, not for professional or political achievements of her own, but for being seen as the victim of her husband's very public infidelity.^[186]^[343] University of Pennsylvania communications professor Kathleen Hall Jamieson saw Hillary Clinton as an exemplar of the double bind, who though able to live in a "both-and" world of both career and family, nevertheless "became a surrogate on whom we projected our attitudes about attributes once thought incompatible", leading to her being placed in a variety of no-win situations.^[334] Quinnipiac University media studies professor Lisa Burns found press accounts frequently framing Clinton both as an exemplar of the modern professional working mother and as a political interloper interested in usurping power for herself.^[348] University of Indianapolis English professor Charlotte Templin found political cartoonists using a variety of stereotypes – such as gender reversal, radical feminist as emasculator, and the wife the husband wants to get rid of – to portray Hillary Clinton as violating gender norms.^[349]

Over fifty books and scholarly works have been written about Hillary Clinton, from many different perspectives. A 2006 survey by The New York Observer found "a virtual cottage industry" of "anti-Clinton literature",^[350] put out by Regnery Publishing and other conservative imprints,^[350] with titles such as Madame Hillary: The Dark Road to the White House, Hillary's Scheme: Inside the Next Clinton's Ruthless Agenda to Take the White House, and Can She Be Stopped? : Hillary Clinton Will Be the Next President of the United States Unless .... Books praising Clinton did not sell nearly as well^[350] (other than the memoirs written by her and her husband). When she ran for Senate in 2000, a number of fundraising groups such as Save Our Senate and the Emergency Committee to Stop Hillary Rodham Clinton sprang up to oppose her.^[351] Van Natta, Jr., found that Republican and conservative groups viewed her as a reliable "bogeyman" to mention in fundraising letters,^[352] on a par with Ted Kennedy and the equivalent of Democratic and liberal appeals mentioning Newt Gingrich.^[352]

Going into the early stages of her presidential campaign for 2008, a Time magazine cover showed a large picture of her, with two checkboxes labeled "Love Her", "Hate Her",^[353] while Mother Jones titled its profile of her "Harpy, Hero, Heretic: Hillary".^[354] Democratic netroots activists consistently rated Clinton very low in polls of their desired candidates,^[355] while some conservative figures such as Bruce Bartlett and Christopher Ruddy were declaring a Hillary Clinton presidency not so bad after all^[356]^[357] and an October 2007 cover of The American Conservative magazine was titled "The Waning Power of Hillary Hate".^[358] By December 2007, communications professor Jamieson observed that there was a large amount of misogyny present about Clinton on the Internet,^[359] up to and including Facebook and other sites devoted to depictions reducing Clinton to sexual humiliation.^[359] She noted that, in response to widespread comments on Clinton's laugh,^[360] that "We know that there's language to condemn female speech that doesn't exist for male speech. We call women's speech shrill and strident. And Hillary Clinton's laugh was being described as a cackle."^[359] Use of the "bitch" epithet, which taken place against Clinton going back to her First Lady days and was seen by Karrin Vasby Anderson as a tool of containment against women in American politics,^[361] flourished during the campaign, especially on the Internet but via conventional media as well.^[362] Following Clinton's "choked up moment" and related incidents before the January 2008 New Hampshire primary, both The New York Times and Newsweek found that discussion of gender's role in the campaign had moved into the national political discourse.^[363]^[364] Newsweek editor Jon Meacham summed the relationship between Clinton and the American public by saying that the New Hampshire events, "brought an odd truth to light: though Hillary Rodham Clinton has been on the periphery or in the middle of national life for decades ... she is one of the most recognizable but least understood figures in American politics."^[364]

Once she became Secretary of State, Clinton's image seemed to dramatically improve among the American public and become one of a respected world figure.^[365] She gained consistently high approval ratings (by 2011, the highest of her career except for during the Lewinsky scandal),^[366] and her favorable-unfavorable ratings during 2010 and 2011 were easily the highest of any active, nationally prominent American political figure.^[365]^[367]^[368] She continued to do well in Gallup's most admired man and woman poll; in 2011 she was named the most admired woman by Americans for the tenth straight time and the sixteenth time overall.^[369]

Awards and honors [link]

Main article: Hillary Rodham Clinton awards and honors

Clinton has received many awards and honors during her career from American and international organizations for her activities concerning health, women, and children.

Electoral history [link]

Main article: Electoral history of Hillary Rodham Clinton

New York United States Senate election, 2000
Party		Candidate	Votes	%	±%
	Democratic	Hillary Rodham Clinton	3,747,310	55.3
	Republican	Rick Lazio	2,915,730	43.0

New York United States Senate election, 2006
Party		Candidate	Votes	%	±%
	Democratic	Hillary Rodham Clinton	3,008,428	67.0	+11.7
	Republican	John Spencer	1,392,189	31.0	-12.0

Notes [link]

^ In 1995, Hillary Clinton said her mother had named her after Sir Edmund Hillary, who, with Sherpa Tenzing, was the first mountaineer to scale Mount Everest, and that was the reason for the unusual "two L's" spelling of her name. However, the Everest climb did not take place until 1953, more than five years after she was born. In October 2006, a Clinton spokeswoman said she was not named after the mountain climber. Instead, this account of her name's origin "was a sweet family story her mother shared to inspire greatness in her daughter, to great results I might add." See Hakim, Danny (October 17, 2006). "Hillary, Not as in the Mount Everest Guy". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/17/nyregion/17hillary.html. Retrieved April 25, 2008.
^ Gerstein, Josh (November 26, 2007). "Hillary Clinton's Radical Summer". The New York Sun. http://www.nysun.com/national/hillary-clintons-radical-summer/66933/. Retrieved May 9, 2009. Gerstein finds it is unclear exactly which cases beyond child custody ones Rodham worked on at the Treuhaft firm. Anti-Clinton writers such as Barbara Olson would later charge Hillary Clinton with never repudiating Treuhaft's ideology, and for retaining social and political ties with his wife and fellow communist Jessica Mitford. (Olson 1999, pp. 56–57) Research by The New York Sun in 2007 revealed that Mitford and Hillary Clinton were not close, and had a falling out over a 1980 Arkansas prisoner case. See Gerstein, Josh (November 27, 2007). "Hillary Clinton's Left Hook". The New York Sun. http://www.nysun.com/national/hillary-clintons-left-hook/67002/. Retrieved May 9, 2009.
^ For the start date, see Brock 1996, p. 96. Secondary sources give inconsistent dates as to when her time as chair ended. Primary sources indicate that sometime between about April 1980 and September 1980, Rodham was replaced as chair by F. William McCalpin. See Subcommittee On The Departments Of State, United States. Congress. House. Committee on Appropriations; Justice,; Commerce,; Judiciary, the; Agencies, Related (1980). House Committee on Appropriations, Subcommittee on Departments of State, Justice, Commerce, the Judiciary, and Related Agencies Appropriations. U.S. House of Representatives. http://books.google.com/?id=KWRBPOdZCdAC&q=%22legal+services+corporation%22+rodham+baby&dq=%22legal+services+corporation%22+rodham+baby. Rodham is still chair after having given birth "a few weeks ago"; Chelsea Clinton was born on February 27, 1980. And see "Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Courts, Civil Liberties, and the Administration of Justice, of the Committee of the Judiciary, House of Representatives". Background release, Legal Services Corporation, September 1980. U.S. House of Representatives. September 21, 27, 1979. http://lawlibrary.rutgers.edu/cgi-bin/lib/hearing.cgi?file=81601609%20page=0001. pp. 388–403, exact reference p. 398, which shows McCalpin as chair in September 1980.
^ Bill Clinton's advisers thought her use of her maiden name to be one of the reasons for his 1980 gubernatorial reelection loss. During the following winter, Vernon Jordan, Jr. suggested to Hillary Rodham that she start using the name Clinton, and she began to do so publicly with her husband's February 1982 campaign announcement. She later wrote that "I learned the hard way that some voters in Arkansas were seriously offended by the fact that I kept my maiden name" (Clinton 2003, pp. 91–93; see also Morris 1996, p. 282).
^ During the political damage control over the Gennifer Flowers episode during the 1992 campaign, Hillary Clinton said in the joint 60 Minutes interview, "I'm not sitting here as some little woman 'standing by my man' like Tammy Wynette. I'm sitting here because I love him and I respect him, and I honor what he's been through and what we've been through together." The seemingly sneering reference to country music provoked immediate criticism that Clinton was culturally tone-deaf, and Tammy Wynette herself did not like the remark because her classic song "Stand by Your Man" is not written in the first person. See "2000: Hillary Clinton is first First Lady in Senate". BBC News Online. November 7, 2000. http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/november/7/newsid_4385000/4385582.stm. Retrieved October 1, 2007. Wynette added that Clinton had "offended every true country music fan and every person who has 'made it on their own' with no one to take them to a White House." See Troy 2006, p. 42. A few days later, on Prime Time Live, Hillary Clinton apologized to Wynette. Clinton would later write that she had been careless in her choice of words and that "the fallout from my reference to Tammy Wynette was instant – as it deserved to be – and brutal." See Clinton 2003, p. 108. The two women later resolved their differences, with Wynette appearing at a Clinton fund raiser.
^ Less than two months after the Tammy Wynette remarks, Hillary Clinton was facing questions about whether she could have avoided possible conflicts of interest between her governor husband and work given to the Rose Law Firm, when she remarked, "I've done the best I can to lead my life ... You know, I suppose I could have stayed home and baked cookies and had teas, but what I decided to do was fulfill my profession, which I entered before my husband was in public life" (Clinton 2003, p. 109). The "cookies and teas" part of this statement prompted even more culture-based criticism of Clinton's apparent distaste for women who had chosen to be homemakers; the remark became a recurring campaign liability (Bernstein 2007, pp. 205–206). Clinton subsequently offered up some cookie recipes as a way of making amends, and would later write of her chagrin: "Besides, I've done quite a lot of cookie baking in my life, and tea-pouring too!" (Clinton 2003, p. 109).
^ The Eleanor Roosevelt "discussions" were first reported in 1996 by Washington Post writer Bob Woodward; they had begun from the start of Hillary Clinton's time as First Lady. See Clines, Francis X. (June 25, 1996). "Mrs. Clinton Calls Sessions Intellectual, Not Spiritual". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1996/06/25/us/mrs-clinton-calls-sessions-intellectual-not-spiritual.html. Following the Democrats' loss of congressional control in the 1994 elections, Clinton had engaged the services of human potential expert Jean Houston. Houston encouraged Clinton to pursue the Roosevelt connection, and while no psychic techniques were used with Clinton, critics and comics immediately suggested that Clinton was holding séances with Eleanor Roosevelt. The White House stated that this was merely a brainstorming exercise, and a private poll later indicated that most of the public believed these were indeed just imaginary conversations, with the remainder believing that communication with the dead was actually possible. See Wheen, Francis (July 26, 2000). "Never mind the pollsters". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/Columnists/Column/0,5673,347240,00.html. Retrieved October 2, 2007. In her 2003 autobiography, Clinton titled an entire chapter "Conversations with Eleanor", and stated that holding "imaginary conversations [is] actually a useful mental exercise to help analyze problems, provided you choose the right person to visualize. Eleanor Roosevelt was ideal [as a trail-blazer and controversial First Lady]." (Clinton 2003, pp. 258–259)
^ Clinton was referring to the Arkansas Project and its funder Richard Mellon Scaife, Kenneth Starr's connections to Scaife, Regnery Publishing and its connections to Lucianne Goldberg and Linda Tripp, Jerry Falwell, and others. See Kirn, Walter (February 9, 1998). "Persecuted or Paranoid? A look at the motley characters behind Hillary Clinton's 'vast right-wing conspiracy'". Time. http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/1998/02/02/time/kirn.html.
^ Hillary Clinton said to a news correspondent asking for reaction to an Obama remark earlier in the day about his possibly representing false hope: "I would point to the fact that Dr. King's dream began to be realized when President Johnson passed the Civil Rights Act of 1964, when he was able to get through Congress something that President Kennedy was hopeful to do, the President before had not even tried, but it took a president to get it done. That dream became a reality, the power of that dream became real in people's lives because we had a president who said we are going to do it, and actually got it accomplished." See for transcript: Hulse, Carl; Healy, Patrick (January 11, 2008). "Bill Clinton Tries to Tamp Down 'Fairy-Tale' Remark About Obama". The New York Times. http://thecaucus.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/01/11/bill-clinton-tries-to-tamp-down-fairy-tale-remark-about-obama/. Retrieved January 28, 2008. See for actual interview: Garrett, Major (January 7, 2008). "Clinton's Candid Assessment". Fox News. http://bourbonroom.blogs.foxnews.com/2008/01/07/clintons-candid-assessment/. Retrieved January 28, 2008. ^{[dead link]}
^ "2008 Democratic Popular Vote". RealClearPolitics. http://www.realclearpolitics.com/epolls/2008/president/democratic_vote_count.html. Retrieved July 8, 2008. The popular vote count for a nomination process is unofficial, and meaningless in determining the nominee. It is difficult to come up with precise totals due to some caucus states not reporting popular vote totals and thus having to be estimated. It is further difficult to compare Clinton and Obama's totals, due to only her name having been on the ballot in the Michigan primary.
^ See Barone, Michael; Cohen, Richard E. (2008). The Almanac of American Politics. National Journal. p. 1126. And 2006 edition of same, 1152. The scores for individual years are [highest rating 100, format: liberal, (conservative)]: 2003: Economic = 90 (7), Social = 85 (0), Foreign = 79 (14). Average = 85 (7). 2004: Economic = 63 (36), Social = 82 (0), Foreign = 58 (41). Average = 68 (26). 2005: Economic = 84 (15), Social = 83 (10), Foreign = 66 (29). Average = 78 (18). 2006: Economic = 63 (35), Social = 80 (14), Foreign = 62 (35). Average = 68 (28).

References [link]

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d "Hillary Rodham Clinton". The White House. http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/firstladies/hc42.html. Retrieved August 22, 2006.
^ O'Laughlin, Dania (Summer 2003). "Edgewater Hospital 1929–2001". Edgewater Historical Society. http://www.edgewaterhistory.org/articles/index.html?v14-3-4.html. Retrieved June 10, 2007.
^ Bernstein 2007, pp. 18, 34
^ ^a ^b Roberts, Gary Boyd. "Notes on the Ancestry of Senator Hillary Rodham Clinton". New England Historic Genealogical Society. http://www.newenglandancestors.org/research/services/articles_ancestry_hillary_clinton.asp. Retrieved May 25, 2008.
^ Bernstein 2007, pp. 17–18
^ ^a ^b ^c Brock 1996, p. 4. Her father was an outspoken Republican, while her mother kept quiet but was "basically a Democrat." See also Bernstein 2007, p. 16
^ ^a ^b Morris 1996, p. 113.
^ ^a ^b ^c Bernstein 2007, p. 29
^ ^a ^b Bernstein 2007, pp. 30–31
^ Maraniss 1995, p. 255. She was also voted "most likely to succeed".
^ Bernstein 2007, p. 13
^ Gerth and Van Natta Jr. 2007, p. 19.
^ Middendorf, J. William (2006). Glorious Disaster: Barry Goldwater's Presidential Campaign And the Origins of the Conservative Movement. Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-04573-1. p. 266.
^ Troy 2006, p. 15.
^ Gerth and Van Natta Jr. 2007, pp. 18–21. The teacher, Paul Carlson, and the minister, Donald Jones, came into conflict in Park Ridge; Clinton would later see that "as an early indication of the cultural, political and religious fault lines that developed across America in the [next] forty years" (Clinton 2003, p. 23).
^ Clinton, Hillary Rodham (May 29, 1992). "Hillary Rodham Clinton Remarks to Wellesley College Class of 1992". Wellesley College. http://www.wellesley.edu/PublicAffairs/Commencement/1992/speecheshrc.html. Retrieved June 1, 2007.
^ ^a ^b Clinton 2003, p. 31.
^ "Wellesley College Republicans: History and Purpose". Wellesley College. May 16, 2007. http://www.wellesley.edu/Activities/homepage/gop/history.html. Retrieved June 2, 2007. Gives organization's prior name.
^ Milton, Joyce (1999). The First Partner: Hillary Rodham Clinton. William Morrow and Company. ISBN 0-688-15501-4. pp. 27–28
^ Brock 1996, pp. 12–13.
^ Bernstein 2007, p. 50. Bernstein states she believed this combination was possible and that no equation better describes the adult Hillary Clinton.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Kenney, Charles (January 12, 1993). "Hillary: The Wellesley Years: The woman who will live in the White House was a sharp-witted activist in the class of '69" (fee required). The Boston Globe. http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-8210491.html. Retrieved February 7, 2008.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Leibovich, Mark (September 7, 2007). "In Turmoil of '68, Clinton Found a New Voice". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/05/us/politics/05clinton.html. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
^ ^a ^b Rodham, Hillary (May 31, 1969). "Wellesley College 1969 Student Commencement Speech". Wellesley College. http://www.wellesley.edu/PublicAffairs/Commencement/1969/053169hillary.html. Retrieved August 22, 2006.
^ ^a ^b ^c Dedman, Bill (updated May 9, 2007). "Reading Hillary Rodham's hidden thesis". msnbc.com. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/17388372/. Retrieved January 31, 2012.
^ ^a ^b Cooper, Helene. "Hillary Rodham Clinton". The New York Times. http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/people/c/hillary_rodham_clinton/index.html. Retrieved April 13, 2008.
^ ^a ^b Gerth and Van Natta Jr. 2007, pp. 34–36.
^ "Brooke Speech Challenged by Graduate". Fitchburg Sentinel. June 2, 1969.
^ "Brooke Speech Draws Reply". Nevada State Journal. June 2, 1969.
^ "The Class of '69". Life. June 20, 1969. The article features Rodham and two student commencement speakers from other schools, with photos and excerpts from their speeches.
^ Bernstein 2007, p. 70
^ Morris 1996, p. 139; Bernstein 2007, p. 105. Clinton would later write, and repeat on the Late Show with David Letterman, that sliming fish was the best preparation she would ever have for living in Washington. Clinton 2003, pp. 42–43.
^ ^a ^b ^c "Hillary Diane Rodham Clinton (1947–)". The Encyclopedia of Arkansas History & Culture. http://www.encyclopediaofarkansas.net/encyclopedia/entry-detail.aspx?entryID=2744. Retrieved April 8, 2007.
^ ^a ^b Gerth and Van Natta Jr. 2007, pp. 42–43.
^ ^a ^b ^c Bernstein 2007, p. 75
^ The authors of Beyond the Best Interests of the Child were Center director Al Solnit, Yale Law professor Joe Goldstein, and Anna Freud.
^ Morris 1996, pp. 142–143.
^ Bernstein 2007, pp. 71–74
^ Weil, Martin (August 8, 2009). "Anne Wexler, Political Adviser and Lobbyist, Dies at 79". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/08/AR2009080800058.html. Retrieved August 20, 2009.
^ ^a ^b Bernstein 2007, pp. 82–83
^ Gerstein, Josh (November 26, 2007). "The Clintons' Berkeley Summer of Love". The New York Sun. http://www.nysun.com/national/clintons-berkeley-summer-of-love/66982/. Retrieved May 9, 2009.
^ Gerstein, Josh (November 26, 2007). "Hillary Clinton's Radical Summer". The New York Sun. http://www.nysun.com/national/hillary-clintons-radical-summer/66933/. Retrieved May 9, 2009.
^ Gerth and Van Natta Jr. 2007, pp. 48–49.
^ ^a ^b Bernstein 2007, p. 89
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j "First Lady Biography: Hillary Clinton". National First Ladies' Library. http://www.firstladies.org/biographies/firstladies.aspx?biography=43. Retrieved August 22, 2006.
^ Rodham, Hillary (1973). "Children Under the Law". Harvard Educational Review 43 (4): 487–514.
^ Troy 2006, p. 21.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Lewin, Tamar (August 24, 1992). "Legal Scholars See Distortion In Attacks on Hillary Clinton". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1992/08/24/us/1992-campaign-issues-women-families-legal-scholars-see-distortion-attacks.html.
^ This Google Scholar search result produces nearly one hundred hits showing citations of her paper in academic literature.
^ Bernstein 2007, pp. 91–92
^ "Adults Urge Children's Rights". The Arizona Sentinel. October 4, 1974.
^ ^a ^b ^c Bernstein 2007, pp. 94–96, 101–103
^ Bernstein 2007, p. 62
^ Maraniss 1995, p. 277.
^ Bernstein 2007, pp. 90, 120
^ Bernstein 2007, p. 92. Two-thirds (551 of 817) of the candidates had passed, and Rodham did not tell even close friends of the failure until revealing it thirty years later in her autobiography.
^ Clinton 2003, p. 69. Excerpted at Clinton, Hillary Rodham (June 8, 2003). "Hillary Unbound". Time. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,457362-2,00.html. Retrieved December 8, 2007.
^ Bernstein 2007, p. 92
^ Clinton 2003, p. 70. Source for number of female faculty members.
^ Maraniss 1995, p. 328.
^ Bernstein 2007, pp. 62, 90, 117
^ Clinton, Bill (2004). My Life. Knopf Publishing Group. p. 244.
^ Bernstein 2007, p. 120
^ ^a ^b Maraniss 1995, pp. 121–122.
^ Bernstein 2007, p. 157
^ Clinton 2003, pp. 91–92.
^ Gerth and Van Natta Jr. 2007, p. 57.
^ Bernstein 2007, pp. 128, 103. The firm was called Rose, Nash, Williamson, Carroll, Clay & Giroir, but it simplified its name to Rose Law Firm in 1980.
^ ^a ^b Bernstein 2007, p. 133
^ Bernstein 2007, pp. 131–132
^ Rodham, Hillary; Steiner, Gilbert Y. (June 1977). "Children's Policies: Abandonment and Neglect". Yale Law Journal 68 (7): 1522–1531. DOI:10.2307/795794. JSTOR 795794.
^ Rodham, Hillary (1979). "Children's Rights: A Legal Perspective". In Patricia A. Vardin, Ilene N. Brody (eds.). Children's Rights: Contemporary Perspectives. New York: Teacher's College Press. pp. 21–36.
^ Wills, Garry (March 5, 1992). "H.R. Clinton's Case". The New York Review of Books. http://www.nybooks.com/articles/article-preview?article_id=2999.
^ ^a ^b Wattenberg, Daniel (August 1992). "The Lady Macbeth of Little Rock". The American Spectator.
^ Olson 1999, p. 57.
^ Bernstein 2007, p. 154
^ Bernstein 2007, p. 125
^ "Jimmy Carter: Nominations Submitted to the Senate, Week Ending Friday, December 16, 1977". American Presidency Project. http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=7026. Retrieved September 3, 2007.
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^ Morris 1996, p. 225.
^ ^a ^b ^c Kelly, Michael (January 20, 1993). "The First Couple: A Union of Mind and Ambition". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1993/01/20/us/the-inauguration-the-first-couple-a-union-of-mind-and-ambition.html.
^ Bernstein 2007, p. 147
^ Gerth and Van Natta Jr. 2007, p. 60.
^ Bernstein 2007, p. 130
^ ^a ^b Gerth and Van Natta Jr. 2007, pp. 66–67.
^ Gerth and Van Natta Jr. 2007, pp. 73–76.
^ Bernstein 2007, p. 166
^ ^a ^b Bernstein 2007, pp. 170–175. Bernstein states that "the political battle for education reform ... would be her greatest accomplishment in public life until she was elected to the U.S. Senate."
^ "Hillary Clinton Guides Movement to Change Public Education in Arkansas". Old State House Museum. Spring 1993. Archived from the original on January 4, 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20060104114405/http://www.oldstatehouse.com/educational_programs/classroom/arkansas_news/detail.asp?id=528&issue_id=29&page=1. Retrieved August 22, 2006.
^ Kearney, Janis F. (2006). Conversations: William Jefferson Clinton, from Hope to Harlem. Writing Our World Press. ISBN 0-9762058-1-5. p. 295.
^ Morris 1996, p. 330.
^ Brock 1996, pp. 176–177.
^ Gerth and Van Natta Jr. 2007, p. 63.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Labaton, Stephen (February 26, 1994). "Rose Law Firm, Arkansas Power, Slips as It Steps Onto a Bigger Stage". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1994/02/26/us/rose-law-firm-arkansas-power-slips-as-it-steps-onto-a-bigger-stage.html.
^ Gerth and Van Natta Jr. 2007, pp. 80–81.
^ "Limbaugh Responds to FAIR". FAIR. June 28, 1994. http://www.fair.org/index.php?page=1906. Retrieved May 9, 2008.
^ Troy 2006, p. 29.
^ ^a ^b Gerth and Van Natta Jr. 2007, pp. 82–84.
^ Gerth and Van Natta Jr. 2007, pp. 87–88.
^ Gerth and Van Natta Jr. 2007, p. 85; Bernstein 2007, pp. 187–189
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^ ^a ^b ^c Barbaro, Michael (May 20, 2007). "As a Director, Clinton Moved Wal-Mart Board, but Only So Far". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/20/us/politics/20walmart.html. Retrieved September 23, 2007.
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^ "In 1992, Clinton Conceded Marital 'Wrongdoing'". The Washington Post. January 26, 1992. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/special/clinton/stories/flowers012792.htm.
^ Troy 2006, pp. 39–42; Gerth and Van Natta Jr. 2007, pp. 94–96.
^ Burns 2008, p. 140.
^ Burns 2008, p. 142.
^ York, Anthony (July 8, 1999). "On her own". Salon. http://www.salon.com/news/feature/1999/07/08/hillary/print.html. Retrieved July 14, 2007. Her announcement was parodied by the May 1993 film spoof Hot Shots! Part Deux, in which all the female characters were given the middle name "Rodham"; see IMDB entry.
^ ^a ^b Williams, Jasim K (October 30, 2006). "Hillary Rodham Clinton". New York Post. http://www.nypost.com/seven/10302006/news/cextra/hillary_rodham_clinton_cextra_jasim_k__williams.htm. Retrieved April 27, 2008. ^{[dead link]} Clinton had the first postgraduate degree through regular study and scholarly work. Eleanor Roosevelt had been previously awarded a postgraduate honorary degree. Clinton's successor Laura Bush became the second First Lady with a postgraduate degree.^{[dead link]}
^ Troy 2006, p. 71.
^ Troy 2006, p. 68.
^ Troy 2006, p. xii.
^ Rajghatta, Chidanand (January—February 2004). "First Lady President?". Verve.
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^ Bernstein 2007, pp. 313–314
^ Kelly, Michael (May 23, 1993). "St. Hillary". The New York Times Magazine.
^ Painton, Priscilla (May 31, 1993). "The Politics of What?". Time. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,978625,00.html.
^ Maraniss 1995, p. 317.
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^ Troy 2006, p. 1.
^ ^a ^b ^c Data for table is from "Favorability: People in the News: Hillary Clinton". The Gallup Organization. 2009. http://www.gallup.com/poll/1618/Favorability-People-News.aspx. Retrieved April 6, 2009. See also Franklin, Charles H. (January 21, 2007). "Hillary Clinton, Favorable/Unfavorable, 1993–2007". Political Arithmetik. http://politicalarithmetik.blogspot.com/2007/01/hillary-clinton-favorableunfavorable.html. Retrieved January 26, 2008. for confirmation of trend line and historical interpretation.
^ Bernstein 2007, pp. 170–175
^ Smith, Sally Bedell (2007). For Love of Politics: Inside the Clinton White House. Random House. p. 117. ISBN 1-4000-6324-8.
^ Gergen, David (2000). Eyewitness to Power: The Essence of Leadership Nixon to Clinton. Simon & Schuster. p. 280.
^ ^a ^b Bernstein 2007, pp. 400–402
^ Gerth and Van Natta Jr. 2007, pp. 139–140.
^ Bernstein 2007, pp. 240, 380, 530. The Whitewater investigations were also a factor in her decline.
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^ Gerth and Van Natta Jr. 2007, p. 210.
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^ ^a ^b Purdum, Todd S (July 24, 1995). "The First Lady's Newest Role: Newspaper Columnist". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1995/07/24/us/the-first-lady-s-newest-role-newspaper-columnist.html.
^ ^a ^b Jamieson, Kathleen Hall (1995). "Hillary Clinton as Rorschach Test". Beyond the Double Bind: Women and Leadership. Oxford University Press. pp. 22–25. ISBN 0-19-508940-5.
^ Dowd, Maureen (May 18, 1992). "Hillary Clinton as Aspiring First Lady: Role Model, or a 'Hall Monitor' Type?". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1992/05/18/us/1992-campaign-candidate-s-wife-hillary-clinton-aspiring-first-lady-role-model.html.
^ Sullivan, Amy (July/August 2005). "Hillary in 2008?". Washington Monthly. http://www.washingtonmonthly.com/features/2005/0507.sullivan1.html. Retrieved September 30, 2007.
^ Daniel Schorr (July 16, 2006). Hillary Clinton's Polarizing Force as a Candidate (audio). National Public Radio. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5560786. Retrieved February 5, 2007.
^ Cox, Ana Marie (August 19, 2006). "How Americans View Hillary: Popular but Polarizing". Time. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1229053,00.html. Retrieved February 5, 2007.
^ ^a ^b Davis, Lanny (October 10, 2007). "Hillary Clinton: Not Polarizing and Highly Electable". The Hill. http://pundits.thehill.com/2007/10/10/hillary-clinton-not-polarizing-and-highly-electable/. Retrieved March 3, 2008.
^ Estrich, Susan (2005). The Case for Hillary Clinton. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-083988-0. pp. 66–68.
^ Sulfaro, Valerie A. (September 2007). "Affective evaluations of first ladies: a comparison of Hillary Clinton and Laura Bush" (Fee or registration required). Presidential Studies Quarterly 37 (3): 486–514. DOI:10.1111/j.1741-5705.2007.02608.x. http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-33219066_ITM.
^ ^a ^b Jacobson, Gary (August 2006) (Proceedings). Partisan Differences in Job Approval Ratings of George W. Bush and U.S. Senators in the States: An Exploration. Annual meeting of the American Political Science Association.
^ ^a ^b ^c Burrell, Barbara (October 2000). "Hillary Rodham Clinton as first lady: the people's perspective". The Social Science Journal 37 (4): 529–546. DOI:10.1016/S0362-3319(00)00094-X.
^ ^a ^b Franklin, Charles H (January 21, 2007). "Hillary Clinton, Favorable/Unfavorable, 1993–2007". Political Arithmetik. http://politicalarithmetik.blogspot.com/2007/01/hillary-clinton-favorableunfavorable.html. Retrieved January 26, 2008.
^ Troy 2006, p. 60.
^ ^a ^b Troy 2006, p. 4.
^ ^a ^b Anderson, Karrin Vasby (2003). "The First Lady: A Site of 'American Womanhood'". In Molly Meijer Wertheimer. Inventing a Voice: The Rhetoric of American First Ladies of the Twentieth Century. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 21. ISBN 0-7425-2971-1.
^ Burns 2008, pp. 135–136, 140–141.
^ Templin, Charlotte (1999). "Hillary Clinton as Threat to Gender Norms: Cartoon Images of the First Lady". Journal of Communication Inquiry 23 (1): 20–36. DOI:10.1177/0196859999023001002.
^ ^a ^b ^c Smith, Ben (March 12, 2006). "Da Hillary Code". The New York Observer. http://www.observer.com/node/38532. Retrieved October 3, 2007.
^ Levy, Clifford J (October 27, 2000). "Clinton Rivals Raise Little Besides Rage". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2000/10/27/nyregion/clinton-rivals-raise-little-besides-rage.html. Retrieved September 29, 2007.
^ ^a ^b Van Natta Jr., Don (July 10, 1999). "Hillary Clinton's Campaign Spurs A Wave of G.O.P. Fund-Raising". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1999/07/10/us/hillary-clinton-s-campaign-spurs-a-wave-of-gop-fund-raising.html.
^ "The Presidential Ambitions of Hillary Clinton". Time. August 26, 2006. http://www.time.com/time/covers/0,16641,20060828,00.html. Retrieved September 27, 2007.
^ Hitt, Jack (January/February 2007). "Harpy, Hero, Heretic: Hillary". Mother Jones. http://www.motherjones.com/news/feature/2007/01/harpy_hero_heretic_hillary.html. Retrieved October 7, 2007.
^ Brooks, David (September 25, 2007). "The Center Holds". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/25/opinion/25brooks.html. Retrieved September 30, 2007.
^ Bartlett, Bruce (May 1, 2007). "Get Ready for Hillary". Creators Syndicate. http://www.creators.com/opinion/bruce-bartlett/conservatives-for-hillary.html. Retrieved September 30, 2007.
^ Kirkpatrick, David D. (February 19, 2007). "As Clinton Runs, Some Old Foes Stay on Sideline". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/02/19/us/politics/19clinton.html. Retrieved September 30, 2007.
^ "Contents: October 22, 2007 Issue". The American Conservative. October 22, 2007. Archived from the original on October 26, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20071026051323/http://www.amconmag.com/2007/2007_10_22/index1.html. Retrieved October 29, 2007.
^ ^a ^b ^c "Transcript: December 7, 2007". Bill Moyers Journal (PBS). December 7, 2007. http://www.pbs.org/moyers/journal/12072007/transcript1.html. Retrieved December 10, 2007.
^ Kurtz, Howard (October 3, 2007). "Hillary Chuckles; Pundits Snort". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/10/02/AR2007100201940.html. Retrieved December 10, 2007.
^ Anderson, Karrin Vasby (1999). "'Rhymes with rich': 'Bitch' as a tool of containment in contemporary American politics". Rhetoric & Public Affairs 2 (4): 599–623. DOI:10.1353/rap.2010.0082.
^ Falk, Erika (2007). Women for President: Media Bias in Eight Campaigns. University of Illinois Press. pp. 161–163. ISBN 0-252-07511-0.
^ Kantor, Jodi (January 10, 2008). "Women's Support for Clinton Rises in Wake of Perceived Sexism". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/10/us/politics/10women.html. Retrieved January 13, 2008.
^ ^a ^b Meacham, Jon (January 21, 2008). "Letting Hillary Be Hillary". Newsweek. http://www.newsweek.com/id/91795. Retrieved March 16, 2008.
^ ^a ^b Torregrossa, Luisita Lopez (October 12, 2010). "Hillary Clinton Leads the Pack in Bloomberg Popularity Poll". Politics Daily. http://www.politicsdaily.com/2010/10/12/hillary-clinton-leads-the-pack-in-bloomberg-popularity-poll/.
^ Saad, Lydia (March 30, 2011). "Hillary Clinton Favorable Near Her All-Time High". Gallup Organization. http://www.gallup.com/poll/146891/Hillary-Clinton-Favorable-Near-Time-High.aspx. Retrieved April 3, 2011.
^ [[Nate Silver |Silver, Nate]] (November 17, 2010). "Is Pelosi America's Most Unpopular Politician?". The New York Times. http://fivethirtyeight.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/11/17/is-pelosi-americas-most-unpopular-politician/.
^ Bailey, Holly (September 16, 2011). "Poll: A third of Americans believe Clinton would've been a better president". Yahoo! News. http://news.yahoo.com/blogs/ticket/poll-third-americans-believe-clinton-ve-better-president-152358495.html.
^ "Gallup: Obama, Hillary Clinton are most admired, again and again". Los Angeles Times. December 28, 2011. http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/nationnow/2011/12/gallup-poll-obama-and-hillary-clinton-top-most-admired-list-again.html.

Bibliography [link]

Bernstein, Carl (2007). A Woman in Charge: The Life of Hillary Rodham Clinton. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0-375-40766-9.
Brock, David (1996). The Seduction of Hillary Rodham. New York: The Free Press. ISBN 0-684-83451-0.
Burns, Lisa M. (2008). First Ladies and the Fourth Estate: Press Framing of Presidential Wives. DeKalb, Illinois: Northern Illinois University Press. ISBN 0-87580-391-1.
Clinton, Hillary Rodham (2003). Living History. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-2224-5.
Gerth, Jeff; Van Natta, Jr., Don (2007). Her Way: The Hopes and Ambitions of Hillary Rodham Clinton. New York: Little, Brown and Company. ISBN 0-316-01742-6.
Heilemann, John; Halperin, Mark (2010). Game Change: Obama and the Clintons, McCain and Palin, and the Race of a Lifetime. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-173363-6.
Kornblut, Anne E. (2009). Notes from the Cracked Ceiling: Hillary Clinton, Sarah Palin, and What It Will Take for a Woman to Win. New York: Crown Books. ISBN 0-307-46425-3.
Maraniss, David (1995). First in His Class: A Biography of Bill Clinton. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-87109-9.
Morris, Roger (1996). Partners in Power: The Clintons and Their America. New York: Henry Holt. ISBN 0-8050-2804-8.
Olson, Barbara (1999). Hell to Pay: The Unfolding Story of Hillary Rodham Clinton. Washington: Regnery Publishing. ISBN 0-89526-197-9.
Troy, Gil (2006). Hillary Rodham Clinton: Polarizing First Lady. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 0-7006-1488-5.

External links [link]

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"Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton". U.S. Department of State. http://www.state.gov/secretary/.
"Hillary Clinton.com – Friends of Hillary". http://www.hillaryclinton.com.
"Hillary Rodham Clinton". The White House. http://www.whitehouse.gov/about/first-ladies/hillaryclinton. Official Biography of First Lady Clinton
Biography at WhoRunsGov.com at The Washington Post
Biography at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
Voting record maintained by The Washington Post
Biography, voting record, and interest group ratings at Project Vote Smart
Issue positions and quotes at On the Issues
Financial information at OpenSecrets.org
Campaign finance reports and data at the Federal Election Commission
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Appearances at the Internet Movie Database
Collected news and commentary at The New York Times
Collected news and commentary at The Wall Street Journal
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Works by or about Hillary Rodham Clinton in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
Senator Hillary Rodham Clinton at the Open Directory Project

Succession and navigation boxes related to Hillary Clinton

Legal offices
Preceded by William McCalpin	Chairperson of the Legal Services Corporation 1978–1980	Succeeded by William McCalpin
Honorary titles
Preceded by Barbara Pryor	First Lady of Arkansas 1979–1981	Succeeded by Gay Daniels White
Preceded by Gay Daniels White	First Lady of Arkansas 1983–1992	Succeeded by Betty Tucker
Preceded by Barbara Bush	First Lady of the United States 1993–2001	Succeeded by Laura Bush
Preceded by Barbara Bush	Honorary Chairperson of the President's Committee on the Arts and Humanities 1993–2001	Succeeded by Laura Bush
Party political offices
Preceded by Daniel Patrick Moynihan	Democratic nominee for United States Senator from New York (Class 1) 2000, 2006	Succeeded by Kirsten Gillibrand
New office	Chairperson of the Democratic Steering and Outreach Committee 2005–2007	Succeeded by Debbie Stabenow
United States Senate
Preceded by Daniel Patrick Moynihan	United States Senator (Class 1) from New York 2001–2009 Served alongside: Charles Schumer	Succeeded by Kirsten Gillibrand
Preceded by John Thune	Chairperson of the Senate Environment and Public Works Subcommittee on Superfund and Environmental Health 2007–2009	Succeeded by Frank Lautenberg
Political offices
Preceded by Condoleezza Rice	United States Secretary of State Served under: Barack Obama 2009–present	Incumbent
United States order of precedence
Preceded by Ambassadors from the United States (while at their posts)	Order of Precedence of the United States as Secretary of State	Succeeded by Ambassadors to the United States (in order of tenure)
Preceded by Otherwise George W. Bush as Former President		Succeeded by Otherwise Ban Ki-moon as Secretary-General of the United Nations
United States presidential line of succession
Preceded by Daniel Inouye as President pro tempore of the Senate	4th in line as Secretary of State	Succeeded by Timothy Geithner as Secretary of the Treasury

v t e Hillary Rodham Clinton

Secretary of State	Tenure as Secretary of State · Foreign policy of the Barack Obama administration

Senator, Presidential candidate	2000 senate election · Senate career · 2006 senate re-election · 2008 presidential campaign · Presidential campaign endorsements · HillRaisers · Political positions · Electoral history

First Lady	1993 health care reform · Hillaryland · Travel office · FBI files · "Vast right-wing conspiracy" · Vital Voices · Save America's Treasures

Arkansas	Rose Law Firm · Legal Services Corporation · Whitewater · Cattle futures

Her books	Senior thesis · Scholarly articles · It Takes a Village · An Invitation to the White House: At Home with History · Living History

Reactions	Awards and Honors · Books about

Family	Bill Clinton · Chelsea Clinton · Hugh E. Rodham · Dorothy Howell Rodham · Hugh Rodham · Tony Rodham · Socks · Buddy

v t e First Ladies of the United States

Martha Washington Abigail Adams Martha Jefferson Randolph Dolley Madison Elizabeth Monroe Louisa Adams Emily Donelson Sarah Jackson Angelica Van Buren Anna Harrison Jane Harrison Letitia Tyler Priscilla Tyler Julia Tyler Sarah Polk Margaret Taylor Abigail Fillmore Jane Pierce Harriet Lane Mary Lincoln Eliza Johnson Julia Grant Lucy Hayes Lucretia Garfield Mary McElroy Rose Cleveland Frances Cleveland Caroline Harrison Mary Harrison Frances Cleveland Ida McKinley Edith Roosevelt Helen Taft Ellen Wilson Edith Wilson Florence Harding Grace Coolidge Lou Hoover Eleanor Roosevelt Bess Truman Mamie Eisenhower Jacqueline Kennedy Lady Bird Johnson Pat Nixon Betty Ford Rosalynn Carter Nancy Reagan Barbara Bush Hillary Clinton Laura Bush Michelle Obama

v t e State Secretaries of the United States

Secretary of Foreign Affairs 1781–1789	R. Livingston Jay

Secretary of State 1789–present	Jefferson Randolph Pickering J. Marshall Madison Smith Monroe Adams Clay Van Buren E. Livingston McLane Forsyth Webster Upshur Calhoun Buchanan Clayton Webster Everett Marcy Cass Black Seward Washburne Fish Evarts Blaine Frelinghuysen Bayard Blaine Foster Gresham Olney Sherman Day Hay Root Bacon Knox Bryan Lansing Colby Hughes Kellogg Stimson Hull Stettinius Byrnes G Marshall Acheson Dulles Herter Rusk Rogers Kissinger Vance Muskie Haig Shultz Baker Eagleburger Christopher Albright Powell Rice Clinton

v t e Current Foreign Ministers of the Group of 8

Baird Fabius Westerwelle Terzi di Sant'Agata Gemba Lavrov Hague Clinton Ashton

v t e Current members of the Cabinet of the United States

Obama Biden

Bryson Chu Clinton Donovan Duncan Geithner Holder Jackson^c Kirk^c Krueger^c LaHood Lew^c Mills^c Napolitano Panetta Rice^c Salazar Sebelius Solis Shinseki Vilsack Zients^ca

^c - cabinet-level; ^a - acting

Cabinet of President Barack Obama (since 2009)

Cabinet

Secretary of State	Hillary Clinton (2009–present)

Secretary of the Treasury	Timothy Geithner (2009–present)

Secretary of Defense	Robert Gates (2009–2011) Leon Panetta (2011–present)

Attorney General	Eric Holder (2009–present)

Secretary of the Interior	Ken Salazar (2009–present)

Secretary of Agriculture	Tom Vilsack (2009–present)

Secretary of Commerce	Gary Locke (2009–2011) John Bryson (2011–present)

Secretary of Labor	Hilda Solis (2009–present)

Secretary of Health and Human Services	Kathleen Sebelius (2009–present)

Secretary of Education	Arne Duncan (2009–present)

Secretary of Housing and Urban Development	Shaun Donovan (2009–present)

Secretary of Transportation	Ray LaHood (2009–present)

Secretary of Energy	Steven Chu (2009–present)

Secretary of Veterans Affairs	Eric Shinseki (2009–present)

Secretary of Homeland Security	Janet Napolitano (2009–present)

Cabinet-level

Vice President	Joe Biden (2009–present)

White House Chief of Staff	Rahm Emanuel (2009–2010) William Daley (2011–2012) Jacob Lew (2012–present)

Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency	Lisa Jackson (2009–present)

Director of the Office of Management and Budget	Peter Orszag (2009–2010) Jacob Lew (2010–2012)

Trade Representative	Ron Kirk (2009–present)

Ambassador to the United Nations	Susan Rice (2009–present)

Chair of the Council of Economic Advisers	Christina Romer (2009–2010) Austan Goolsbee (2010–2011) Alan Krueger (2011–present)

Director of the Central Intelligence Agency	Leon Panetta (2009–2011) David Petraeus (2011–present)

Administrator of the Small Business Administration	Karen Mills (2012–present)*

* took office in 2009, raised to cabinet-rank in 2012

See also: Confirmations of Barack Obama's Cabinet

v t e United States Senators from New York

Class 1	Schuyler Burr Schuyler Hobart North Watson Morris Bailey Armstrong Mitchill German Sanford Van Buren Dudley Tallmadge Dickinson Fish P. King Morgan Fenton Kernan Platt Miller Hiscock Murphy Depew O'Gorman Calder Copeland Mead Ives Keating Kennedy Goodell Buckley Moynihan H. Clinton Gillibrand

Class 3	R. King Laurance Armstrong D. Clinton Armstrong Smith R. King Sanford Marcy Wright Foster Dix Seward Harris Conkling Lapham Evarts Hill Platt Root Wadsworth Wagner Dulles Lehman Javits D'Amato Schumer

v t e Legal Services Corporation

Prominent national chairs	F. William McCalpin · Hillary Rodham · William F. Harvey

Prominent state organizations	Native Hawaiian Legal Corporation · Colorado Legal Services · Texas RioGrande Legal Aid, Inc. · Wyoming Legal Services, Inc. · Legal Aid Society of Louisville

v t e Rose Law Firm

Founders	Robert Crittenden · Chester Ashley

Prominent partners	Hillary Rodham Clinton · Webster Hubbell · Vince Foster · George C. Watkins · Uriah M. Rose

Prominent clients	Wal-Mart · Tyson Foods · Arkansas Democrat-Gazette · Bank of America · WEHCO Media · Stephens Inc.

v t e Bill Clinton

Presidency	Foreign policy · Clinton Doctrine · Judicial appointments · Nannygate · Electoral history · 1st inauguration · 2nd inauguration · Lewinsky scandal · Impeachment hearing

Post-presidency	Clinton Foundation · Presidential Center and Park

Books	Between Hope and History · My Life · Giving · Back to Work

Family	Hillary Rodham Clinton (spouse) · Chelsea Clinton (daughter) · Virginia Clinton Kelley (mother) · Roger Clinton, Sr. (first stepfather) · Jeff Dwire (second stepfather) · Roger Clinton, Jr. (brother) · William Jefferson Blythe, Jr. (biological father) · Socks (cat) · Buddy (dog)

Wiktionary · Wikibooks · Wikiquote · Wikisource · Commons · Wikinews · Bill Clinton

United States presidential election, 2008

Democratic Party

Democratic candidates

VP nominee: Joe Biden
(positions)

Republican Party

Republican candidates

Nominee: John McCain
(campaign
positions)

VP nominee: Sarah Palin
(positions)

Draft movements

Democratic Party:
Al Gore
Mark Warner (movement)

Republican Party:
Newt Gingrich
Condoleezza Rice (movement)

Independent:
Michael Bloomberg (movement)

Third party and independent candidates

Constitution Party: Convention	Nominee: Chuck Baldwin (campaign) VP nominee: Darrell Castle Candidates: Daniel Imperato Alan Keyes (campaign)

Green Party: Convention	Nominee: Cynthia McKinney (campaign positions) VP nominee: Rosa Clemente Candidates: Elaine Brown Jesse Johnson Kent Mesplay Kat Swift

Libertarian Party: Convention	Nominee: Bob Barr (campaign positions) VP nominee: Wayne Allyn Root Candidates: Mike Gravel (campaign) Daniel Imperato Michael Jingozian Steve Kubby Wayne Allyn Root Mary Ruwart Doug Stanhope

American Party	Nominee: Diane Beall Templin

America's Independent Party	Nominee: Alan Keyes (campaign) VP nominee: Brian Rohrbough

Boston Tea Party	Nominee: Charles Jay

New American Independent Party	Nominee: Frank McEnulty

Objectivist Party	Nominee: Tom Stevens

Peace and Freedom Party	Nominee: Ralph Nader (campaign) VP nominee: Matt Gonzalez Candidates: Gloria LaRiva Cynthia McKinney (campaign) Brian Moore (campaign)

Prohibition Party	Nominee: Gene Amondson

Reform Party	Nominee: Ted Weill VP nominee: Frank McEnulty

Socialism and Liberation Party	Nominee: Gloria La Riva VP nominee: Eugene Puryear

Socialist Party	Nominee: Brian Moore (campaign) VP nominee: Stewart Alexander Candidates: Eric Chester

Socialist Workers Party	Nominee: Róger Calero Alternate nominee: James Harris VP nominee: Alyson Kennedy

Independent / Other	Earl Dodge Bradford Lyttle Frank Moore Joe Schriner Jonathon Sharkey

Other 2008 elections:
House
Senate
Gubernatorial

This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hillary_Rodham_Clinton

This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.

Persondata
Name	Clinton, Hillary Rodham
Alternative names	Rodham, Hillary Diane
Short description	U.S. Secretary of State, U.S. Senator, U.S. First Lady
Date of birth	1947-10-26
Place of birth	Chicago, Illinois, United States
Date of death
Place of death

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Pure mathematics

Applied mathematics

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