The species problem is a mixture of difficult, related questions that often come up when biologists define the word "species". Definitions are usually based on how individual organisms reproduce, but biological reality means that a definition that works well for some organism (e.g., birds) will be useless for others (e.g., bacteria). This current meaning of the phrase "species problem" is quite different from what was meant by "species problem" during the 19th and early 20th centuries, as used by Darwin and others.^[2] For Darwin the species problem was the question of how new species arose.

One common but sometimes difficult question is how best to decide just which particular species an organism belongs to.^{[dubious – discuss]} Another challenge is deciding when to recognize a new species, for example when new data indicate that one previously described species actually may include two or more separately evolving groups, each of which could possibly be recognized as a separate species.

Many of the debates on species touch on philosophical issues, such as nominalism and realism, as well as on issues of language and cognition.

[edit] Confusion on the meaning of "Species"

Species is one of several ranks in the hierarchical system of scientific classification. These are called taxonomic ranks, and the system of classification includes, in addition to species the ranks of genus and family and others all the way up to kingdom. Usually the rank of species is the basal rank, meaning that in the system of scientific classification species is the bottommost rank that includes no other ranks. However sometimes when one species, that is already named and described, is found to actually include two slightly different kinds of organisms, it is necessary to use the rank of subspecies.

Even though it is not disputed that species is a taxonomic rank, this does not prevent disagreements when particular species are discussed. Consider the case of the Baltimore Oriole and Bullock's Oriole, two similar species of birds that have sometimes in the past been considered to be one single species, the Northern Oriole. Currently biologists agree that these are actually two separate species,^[3] but in the past this was not the case.^[4]

It is common in debates about species for participants to argue at cross purposes. For example, in a debate over the species status of Baltimore Oriole and Bullock's Oriole one person might think that the critical question is about the two kinds of orioles and how similar they are. A second person might think that the critical question concerns the actual taxonomic rank of species, and on what the correct criteria are for identifying a species. If one person is talking about the birds, and another person is talking about the rank of species, then there can be confusion.

Disagreements and confusion also happen over just what the best criteria are for identifying new species. In 1942 the famous biologist Ernst Mayr wrote that because biologists have different ways of identifying species, they actually have different species concepts.^[5] Mayr proceeded to list five different species concepts, and since then many more have been added.^[6][7][8] The question of which species concept is best has occupied many printed pages and many hours of discussion.^[9]

Some debates are philosophical in nature. One common disagreement is over whether a species is defined by the characteristics that biologists use to identify the species, or whether a species is an evolving entity in nature. Every named species has been formally described as a type of organism with particular defining characteristics. These defining traits are used to identify which species organisms belong to. But for many species, all of the individuals that fit the defining criteria also make up a single evolving unit. These two different ways of thinking about species, as a category and as an evolving population, are quite different from each other.

History[link]

Before Darwin[link]

The idea that one organism reproduces by giving birth to a similar organism, or producing seeds that grow to a similar organism, goes back to the earliest days of farming. While people tended to think of this as a relatively stable process, many thought that change was possible. The term species was just used as a term for a sort or kind of organism, until in 1686 John Ray introduced the biological concept that species were distinguished by always producing the same species, and this was fixed and permanent, though considerable variation was possible within a species.^[10][11] Carolus Linnaeus (1707–1778) formalized the taxonomic rank of species, and devised the two part naming system of binomial nomenclature that we use today. However this did not prevent disagreements on the best way to identify species.

The history of definitions of the term "species"^[12][13] reveal that the seeds of the modern species debate were alive and growing long before Darwin.

From Darwin to Mayr[link]

Charles Darwin's famous book On the Origin of Species (1859) offered an explanation as to how species changed over time (evolution). Although Darwin did not provide details on how one species splits into two, he viewed speciation as a gradual process. If Darwin was correct, then when new incipient species are forming there must be a period of time when they are not yet distinct enough to be recognized as species. Darwin's theory suggested that there was often not going to be an objective fact of the matter, on whether there were one or two species.

Darwin's book triggered a crisis of uncertainty for some biologists over the objectivity of species, and some came to wonder whether individual species could be objectively real — i.e. have an existence that is independent of the human observer.^[14][15]

In the 1920s and 1930s, Mendel's theory of inheritance and Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection were joined in what was called the modern evolutionary synthesis. This conjunction of theories also had a large impact on how biologists think about species. Edward Poulton anticipated many ideas on species that today are well accepted, and that were later more fully developed by Theodosius Dobzhansky and Ernst Mayr, two of the architects of the modern synthesis.^[16] Dobzhansky's 1937 book^[17] articulated the genetic processes that occur when incipient species are beginning to diverge. In particular Dobzhansky described the critical role, for the formation of new species, of the evolution of reproductive isolation.

Mayr and recent history[link]

Ernst Mayr's 1942 book was a turning point for the species problem.^[5] In it he wrote about how different investigators approach species identification, and he characterized these different approaches as different species concepts. He also argued strongly for what came to be called a biological species concept (BSC), which is that a species consists of populations of organisms that can reproduce with one another and that are reproductively isolated from other such populations.

Mayr was not the first to define "species" on the basis of reproductive compatibility. Many others before Mayr had suggested this idea, as Mayr makes clear in his book on the history of biology.^[13] For example Mayr discusses how Buffon proposed this kind of definition of "species" in 1753.

Theodosius Dobzhansky was a close contemporary of Mayr's and the author of a classic book about the evolutionary origins of reproductive barriers between species that came out a few years before Mayr's.^[17] Many biologists credit Dobzhansky and Mayr jointly for emphasizing the need to consider reproductive isolation when studying species and speciation.^[18][19]

Mayr was persuasive in many respects and from 1942 until his death in 2005 he and the biological species concept (BSC) played a central role in nearly all debates on the species problem. For many, the Biological Species Concept was a useful theoretical idea because it leads to a focus on the evolutionary origins of barriers to reproduction between species. But the BSC has been criticized for not being very useful for deciding when to identify new species. It is also true that there are many cases where members of different species will hybridize and produce fertile offspring when they are under confined conditions, such as in zoos. One fairly extreme example is that lions and tigers will hybridize in captivity, and at least some of the offspring have been reported to be fertile. Mayr's response to cases like these is that the reproductive barriers that are important for species are the ones that occur in the wild. But even so it is also the case that there are many cases of different species that are known to hybridize and produce fertile offspring in nature.

After Mayr's 1942 book many more species concepts were introduced. Some, such as the Phylogenetic Species Concept (PSC), were designed to be more useful than the BSC for actually deciding when a new species should be described. However not all of the new species concepts were about identifying species, and some concepts were mostly conceptual or philosophical.

About two dozen species concepts have been identified or proposed since Mayr's 1942 book, and many articles and several books have been written on the species problem. At some point it became common for articles to profess to "solve" or "dissolve" the species problem.^{[20][21][22][23][24][25][26]}

Some have argued that the species problem is too multidimensional to be "solved" by one definition of species or one species concept.^[27][28] Since the 1990s articles have appeared that make the case that species concepts, particularly those that specify how species should be identified, have not been very helpful in resolving the species problem.^{[27][29][30][31][32]}

Although Mayr promoted the Biological Species Concept for use in systematics, the concept has been criticized as not being useful for those who do research in systematics. Some systematists have criticized the BSC as not being operational.^{[9][33][34][35]} However for many others the BSC is the preferred description of species. For example many geneticists who work on the process of species formation prefer the BSC because it emphasizes the role of barriers to reproduction between species.^[36]

Philosophical aspects[link]

Realism and nominalism[link]

Realism and Nominalism are philosophical subjects that come up in debates over whether or not species literally exist. From one perspective, each species is a kind of organism and each species is based on a set of characteristics that are shared by all the organisms in the species. This usage of "species" refers to the taxonomic sense of the word, and under this kind of meaning a species is a category, or a type, or a natural kind. For example, the species that we call giraffe is a category of things that people have recognized have a lot in common with each other and to which we have given the name "giraffe". This is a category in the same sense that the words "mountain" and "snowflake" identify categories of things in nature.

This view of a species as a type, or natural kind, raises the question of whether such things are real. The question is not whether the organisms exist, but whether the kinds of organisms exist. There is a school of philosophical thought, called realism that says that natural kinds and other so called universals do exist. But what kind of existence would this be? It is one thing to say that a particular giraffe exists, but in what way does the giraffe category exist? This question is the opening for Nominalism which is a philosophical view that types and kinds, and universals in general, do not literally exist.

If the nominalist view is correct then kinds of things, that people have given names to, do not literally exist. It would follow then that because species are named types of organisms, that species do not literally exist. This can be a troubling idea, particularly to a biologist who studies species. If species are not real, then it would not be sensible to talk about "the origin of a species" or the "evolution of a species". As recently at least as the 1950s, some authors adopted this view and wrote of species as not being real.^[37][38]

A useful counterpoint to the nominalist view, in regard to species, was raised by Michael Ghiselin who argued that an individual species is not a type, but rather an actual individual, an actual entity.^[21][39] This idea comes from thinking of a species as an evolving dynamic population. As an entity a species exists quite regardless of whether or not people have observed it and whether or not it has been given a name based on traits shared by the organisms in the species.

Language and the role of human investigators[link]

The nominalist critique of the view that kinds of things exist, raises for consideration the role that humans play in the species problem. For example, Haldane suggested that species are just mental abstractions.^[40]

Several authors have noted the similarity between "species", as a word of ambiguous meaning, and points made by Wittgenstein on family resemblance concepts and the indeterminacy of language.^[20][41][42]

Jody Hey described the species problem as a result of two conflicting motivations by biologists:^[27][43]

1. to categorize and identify organisms;
2. to understand the evolutionary processes that give rise to species.

Under the first view, species appear to us as typical natural kinds, but when biologists turn to understand species evolutionarily they are revealed as changeable and without sharp boundaries. Hey argued that it is unrealistic to expect that one definition of "species" is going to serve the need for categorization and still reflect the changeable realities of evolving species.

Pluralism and monism[link]

Usually it is assumed that biologists approach the species problem with the idea that it would be useful to develop one common viewpoint of species - one single common conception of what species are and of how they should be identified. It is thought that if such a monistic description of species could be developed and agreed upon, then the species problem would be solved.

In contrast some authors have argued for pluralism, claiming that biologists cannot have just one shared concept of species, and that they should accept multiple, seemingly incompatible ideas about species.^[44][45][46]

David Hull argued that pluralist proposals were unlikely to actually solve the species problem.^[32]

Quotations on the species problem[link]

"... I was much struck how entirely vague and arbitrary is the distinction between species and varieties" Darwin 1859 (p. 48)^[1]

"No term is more difficult to define than "species," and on no point are zoologists more divided than as to what should be understood by this word". Nicholson (1872) p. 20^[47]

"Of late, the futility of attempts to find a universally valid criterion for distinguishing species has come to be fairly generally, if reluctantly, recognized" Dobzhansky (1937) p. 310^[17]

"The concept of a species is a concession to our linguistic habits and neurological mechanisms" Haldane (1956)^[40]

"The species problem is the long-standing failure of biologists to agree on how we should identify species and how we should define the word 'species'." Hey (2001)^[43]

"First, the species problem is not primarily an empirical one, but it is rather fraught with philosophical questions that require - but cannot be settled by - empirical evidence." Pigliucci (2003)^[20]

"An important aspect of any species definition whether in neontology or palaeontology is that any statement that particular individuals (or fragmentary specimens) belong to a certain species is an hypothesis (not a fact)"^[48]

See also[link]

Wikispecies has information related to: Species

• Evolutionarily Significant Unit (ESU)

References[link]

External links[link]

• A catalogue of species conceptions
• A Reduction of "Species" Resolves the Species Problem
• Curiosities of Biological Nomenclature

Esperanza Spalding
Spalding performing at the Newport Jazz Festival on August 10, 2008
Background information
Born	(1984-10-18) October 18, 1984 (age 27) Portland, Oregon, US
Genres	Jazz, jazz fusion, bossa nova, neo soul
Occupations	Musician, composer, educator, bandleader
Instruments	Upright bass, bass guitar, and vocals
Years active	2000–present[1]
Labels	Heads Up International, Hush, Merge
Associated acts	Stanley Clarke, Patti Austin, and Joe Lovano
Website	www.esperanzaspalding.com

Esperanza Spalding (born October 18, 1984)^[2] is an American multi-instrumentalist best known as a jazz bassist and singer, who draws upon many genres in her own compositions. In 2011, she won the Grammy Award for Best New Artist at the 53rd Grammy Awards,^[3] making her the first jazz artist to win the award.^[4][5]

Biography[link]

Early life and early education[link]

Spalding grew up in the King neighborhood of Portland, Oregon,^[6] a neighborhood she describes as "ghetto" and "pretty scary".^[7] Her mother raised her and her brother as a single parent.^[8] Spalding has a diverse ethnic background.^[7][9] Her father is African-American and her mother is of Welsh, Native American, and Hispanic descent.^[10] She also has an interest in the music of other cultures, including that of Brazil,^[11] commenting, "With Portuguese songs, the phrasing of the melody is intrinsically linked with the language, and it's beautiful."^[12]

Her mother shares Spalding's interest in music, having nearly become a touring singer herself.^[8][13] But while Spalding cites her mother as a powerful influence who encouraged her musical expansion, she attributes her inspiration for pursuing a life in music to watching classical cellist Yo-Yo Ma perform on an episode of Mister Rogers' Neighborhood when she was four.^[8]

By the time Spalding was five, she had taught herself to play the violin and was playing with the Chamber Music Society of Oregon.^[8] Spalding stayed with the Chamber Music Society of Oregon until she was fifteen and left as concertmaster.^[8] Due to a lengthy illness when she was child, Spalding spent much of her elementary school years being homeschooled,^[8] but also attended King Elementary School in northeast Portland.^[6] During this time, she also found the opportunity to pick up instruction in music by listening to her mother's college teacher instruct her mother in guitar.^[12] According to Spalding, when she was about eight, her mother briefly studied jazz guitar in college; Spalding says, "Going with her to her class, I would sit under the piano. Then I would come home and I would be playing her stuff that her teacher had been playing."^[12] Spalding also played oboe and clarinet before discovering the bass in high school.^[8][14] She is able to sing in English, Spanish, and Portuguese.^[15]

Spalding had begun performing live in clubs in Portland, Oregon as a teenager,^[11] securing her first gig at 15 in a blues club, when she could play only one line on bass.^[16] One of the seasoned musicians with which she played that first night invited her to join the band's rehearsals "so she could actually learn something", and her rehearsals soon grew into regular performances spanning almost a year.^[16] According to Spalding, it was a chance for her to stretch as a musician, reaching and growing beyond her experience.^[12] Her early contact with these "phenomenal resources", as she calls the musicians who played with her,^[12] fostered her sense of rhythm and helped nurture her interest in her instrument.^[16] She does not consider herself a musical prodigy.^[17] "I am surrounded by prodigies everywhere I go, but because they are a little older than me, or not a female, or not on a major label, they are not acknowledged as such", says Spalding.^[17]

Spalding had intended to play cello,^[12] but discovered the bass during a one-year stint at age 14 at the prestigious performing arts high school, The Northwest Academy, to which she had won a scholarship.^[16][18] The school was not a good fit, but the bass was.^[16] Spalding found high school "easy—and boring" and dropped out. When she was 15 or 16 years old, Spalding started writing lyrics for music for the local indie rock/pop group Noise for Pretend, touching on any topic that came to mind.^[17] Although she had taken a few private voice lessons, which taught her how to protect her voice, her primary singing experience had come from "singing in the shower", she said,^[17] before she started performing vocals for Noise for Pretend.^[12] Her desire to perform live evolved naturally out of the compositional process, when she would sing and play simultaneously to see how melody and voice fit together, but she acknowledges that performing both roles can be challenging.^[12][19] In a 2008 interview, she said, "[W]hat can be difficult is being a singer, in the sense that you are engaged with the audience, and really responsible for emoting, and getting into the lyrics, melody, etc., and being an effective bassist/band leader".^[19]

Spalding left high school at 16 and, after completing her GED, enrolled on a music scholarship in the music program at Portland State University, where she remembers being "the youngest bass player in the program".^[8] Although she lacked the training of her fellow students, she feels that her teachers nevertheless recognized her talent.^[8] She decided to instead apply to Berklee College of Music on the encouragement of her bass teacher, and did well enough in her audition to receive a full scholarship.^[13][16] In spite of the scholarship, Spalding found it a challenge meeting living expenses, so her friends arranged a benefit concert that paid her airfare and a little extra.^[12][16] Spalding's savings did not last long. Broke and exhausted,^[20] she considered leaving music and entering political science,^[13] a move jazz guitarist and composer Pat Metheny discouraged, telling Spalding she had "the 'X Factor'" and could make it if she applied herself.^[13] During her time at Berklee, her primary bass instructor was John Lockwood.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] 2004–07: Musical beginnings, teaching and Junjo

Spalding performing at the Umbria Jazz Festival in Perugia, Italy on July 12, 2007

Gary Burton, Executive Vice President at Berklee, said in 2004 that Spalding had "a great time feel, she can confidently read the most complicated compositions, and she communicates her upbeat personality in everything she plays".^[16] Ben Ratliff wrote in The New York Times on July 9, 2006, that Spalding's voice is "light and high, up in Blossom Dearie's pitch range, and [that] she can sing quietly, almost in a daydream" and that Spalding "invents her own feminine space, a different sound from top to bottom."^[21] Spalding was the 2005 recipient of the Boston Jazz Society scholarship for outstanding musicianship.^[8] Almost immediately after graduation from college later the same year, Spalding was hired by Berklee College of Music, becoming one of the youngest instructors in the institution's history,^[12] at age 20.^[22] As a teacher, Spalding tries to help her students focus their practice through a practice journal, which can help them recognize their strengths and what they need to pursue.^[12]

Her debut album Junjo was released on April 18, 2006, on the Ayva Music label.^[23][24] It was created to display the dynamic that she felt among her trio.^[17] Though Junjo was released solely under her name, Spalding considers it "a collaborative effort".^[12]

[edit] 2008–10: Esperanza

Spalding performing on December 10, 2009 at the Nobel Peace Prize Concert of 2009

When asked in 2008 why she plays the bass instead of some other instrument, Spalding said that it wasn't a choice, but the bass "had its own arc" and resonated with her.^[17] Spalding says that for her discovering the bass was like "waking up one day and realizing you're in love with a co-worker."^[12] By the time she randomly picked up the bass in music class and began experimenting with it, she had grown bored with her other instruments.^[16][25] Her band teacher showed her a blues line for the bass that she later used to secure her first gig.^[16] After that, she went in to play the bass daily and gradually fell in love.^[12]

Ratliff wrote in The New York Times again, two years later, on May 26, 2008 that one of Spalding's central gifts is "a light, fizzy, optimistic drive that's in her melodic bass playing and her elastic, small-voiced singing" but that "the music is missing a crucial measure of modesty."^[26] He added, "It's an attempt at bringing this crisscrossing [of Stevie Wonder and Wayne Shorter] to a new level of definition and power, but its vamps and grooves are a little obvious, and it pushes her first as a singer-songwriter, which isn't her primary strength."^[26] Pat Metheny said in 2008 it was immediately obvious "that she had a lot to say and was also unlike any musician I had ever run across before. Her unique quality is something that goes beyond her pretty amazing musical skills; She has that rare 'x' factor of being able to transmit a certain personal kind of vision and energy that is all her own."^[20] Andrés Quinteros wrote in the Argentinian periodical, 26Noticias on October 28, 2008 that Spalding is one of the greatest new talents on the jazz scene today.^[27] Patti Austin hired Spalding to tour with her internationally after Spalding's first semester at Berklee,^[16] where Spalding supported the singer on the Ella Fitzgerald tribute tour "For Ella".^[12] In 2008, Spalding recalled the tour as educational, helping her learn to accompany a vocalist and also how to sustain energy and interest playing the same material nightly.^[12] She continued to perform with Austin periodically for three years.^[12] During the same period, while at Berklee, Spalding studied under saxophonist Joe Lovano before eventually touring with him.^[12] They began as a trio, expanding into a quartet before joining quintet US5 and traveling across the United States from New York to California.^[12] As of 2008, she was also in the process of developing several courses for students at Berklee, including one that focuses "on transcribing as a tool for learning harmony and theory."^[12] Due to touring commitments, Spalding stopped giving classes at Berklee. She lives in New York and Austin, Texas.

Spalding performing at the Northsea Jazz Festival, 2009

Esperanza is Spalding's second studio album. Being exposed to many different cultural impressions while growing up, Spalding sings in three different languages, English, Spanish, and Portuguese.^[28] After Spalding's Grammy win in February 2011, the album entered the Billboard 200 at 138. With Esperanza, Spalding's material was meant to be more reflective of herself as an artist, with musicians selected to best present that material.^[17] Ed Morales wrote in PopMatters on June 23, 2008 that Esperanza is "a sprawling collage of jazz fusion, Brazilian and even a touch of hip-hop".^[29] Siddhartha Mitter wrote in The Boston Globe on May 23, 2008 that "the big change" in Esperanza "is the singing..... This makes it a much more accessible album, and in some ways more conventional".^[30]

On December 10, at the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize ceremonies, Spalding performed at Oslo City Hall in honor of the 2009 Laureate President Barack Obama and again at the Nobel Peace Prize Concert the following day. She was personally selected by Obama, as per the tradition of one laureate-invited-artist to perform.^[31] Spalding also was the featured final act for the opening night of the 2009 Park City Jazz Festival in Park City, Utah, one of the top jazz festivals in the country. She closed the show with a number along with bass artists Brian Bromberg and Sean O'Bryan Smith, who also performed earlier that day.^[32] As a tribute to Prince, Spalding was invited to sing along with Patti LaBelle, Alicia Keys, and Janelle Monáe. Spalding performed the 1987 hit single "If I Was Your Girlfriend".^[31][33] On February 7, 2010, Spalding became the most searched person and second most searched item on Google as a result of her appearance the previous evening on the PBS television program Austin City Limits.^[34][35]

[edit] 2011–present: Chamber Music Society and Radio Music Society

In February 2011, at the 53rd Grammy Awards, Spalding won the "Best New Artist" award.^[36] In November 2011, Spalding won "Jazz Artist of the Year" at the Boston Music Awards.^[37] Spalding collaborated with Tineke Postma on the track "Leave Me A Place Underground" from the album The Dawn Of Light in 2011.^[38] She also collaborated with Terri Lyne Carrington on the album The Mosaic Project where she features on the track "Crayola".^[39] Spalding sings a duet with Nicholas Payton on the track "Freesia" from the album Bitches in 2011.^{[40] [41]} Her next project was an album titled Radio Music Society, which she hoped would showcase jazz musicians in an accessible manner suitable for mainstream radio.^[36] With Radio Music Society, she hoped to incorporate her own musical compositions with covers of such artists as the Beach Boys and Wayne Shorter. She also plans to record an album with Milton Nascimento in the future.^[42]

Chamber Music Society was the third album by Spalding. After her surprise Grammy win, the album re-entered the Billboard 200 at number 34 with sales of 18,000.^[43] A video was made for the song "Little Fly".^[44] The song is a poem by William Blake set to music by Spalding. A vinyl version of the album was released in February 2011. This version of the album included a bonus track titled "Morning" that will be included in the tracklist of her upcoming Radio Music Society album.^[45] Chamber Music Society, inspiration from her earlier days as a concertmaster is apparent in her fusion of three-piece string ensemble with piano, keyboards, drums and percussion. As Patrick Jarenwattananon wrote for NPR Music, "the finished product certainly exudes a level of sophisticated intimacy, as if best experienced with a small gathering in a quiet, wood-paneled room."^[46] Spalding was the best-selling contemporary jazz artist, and her album Chamber Music Society was the best-selling contemporary jazz album, of 2011.^[47]

On February 26, 2012, Spalding performed at the 84th Academy Awards, singing the Louis Armstrong standard, "What a Wonderful World", alongside the Southern California Children's Chorus to accompany the video montage that celebrated the film industry greats who passed away in 2011 and early 2012.^[48] Radio Music Society is Spalding's fourth studio album, released by record label Heads Up International on March 20, 2012.^[49][50][51] Spalding appeared on Later... with Jools Holland.^[52]

Artistry[link]

Influences and attitude toward music and jazz[link]

Spalding alternates between upright bass...		and bass guitar in her performances

Spalding cites jazz bassists Ron Carter and Dave Holland as important influences on her music; Carter for the "orchestration" of his playing and Holland for the way his compositional method complements his personal style.^[53] She has described the saxophone player Wayne Shorter,^[13] and singer-songwriter Milton Nascimento, as heroes.^[54] She has also noted her preference for the music of Brazil.^[13]

Spalding says she loves fusion music and was influenced by a "wonderful arc that started 40 years ago where people kept incorporating modern sounds into their music."^[29] She has expressed concerns that jazz has wandered from its roots, suggesting that jazz has lost its street value and its relevance to "the Black experience to the Black Diaspora and beyond" now that has been co-opted by the "seasoned 'art' community".^[7] She notes that in its early days, jazz was "popular dance music" and "the music of young people who considered themselves awfully hip", and believes "hip-hop, or neo-soul [...] is our 'jazz' now as far as the role these genres play in the music genre lineage".^[7] Spalding, who has expressed a desire to be judged for her musicianship rather than her sex appeal, believes that female musicians must take responsibility to avoid oversexualizing themselves.^[29][13] and that in order to write original music, one must read and stay informed about the world.^[13] She has said she models her career on those of Madonna and Ornette Coleman.^[12]

Discography[link]

Solo albums[link]

Music videos[link]

Collaborative albums[link]

Awards and nominations[link]

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• Murphy, Sarah, "Student Profile: Esperanza Spalding", Berklee College of Music, April 2004
• Colapinto, John (March 15, 2010). "Profiles: New Note". The New Yorker 86 (4): 32–39. 

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Esperanza Spalding

• Official website
• Esperanza Spalding interview for OnTheGig.com
• Interview for allaboutjazz.com
• Who is Esperanza Spalding and how did she beat Justin Bieber? interview for Billboard.com
• VIDEO: Performance and interview at The Roots Picnic (2011)

MC Frontalot
MC Frontalot performing in April 2007.
Background information
Birth name	Damian Hess
Also known as	MC Frontalot
Born	(1973-12-03) December 3, 1973 (age 38)
Origin	San Francisco, California, USA
Genres	Nerdcore hip hop
Occupations	Songwriter, Rapper, Web Designer
Instruments	Rapping
Years active	1999–present
Labels	Level Up
Website	frontalot.com

Damian Hess (born December 3, 1973), better known by stage name MC Frontalot, is a Brooklyn-based hip hop musician and self-proclaimed "world's 579th greatest rapper". He is best known in nerdcore hip hop and video game culture, for naming the nerdcore subgenre, and performing at Penny Arcade's annual Penny Arcade Expo. Hess graduated from Wesleyan University in 1996 with degrees in English and Electronic Music.

Career[link]

Early days[link]

Hess began releasing music as MC Frontalot in 1999. His first successes came through Song Fight!, an online songwriting and recording competition, where he became known for consistently beating opponents. Throughout his history at Song Fight!, he has never lost a competition as MC Frontalot, although he has entered only seven entries in that name.^[1] In one such song fight, entitled "Romantic Cheapskate", he likens Song Fight! to a neglected lover who favours him regardless of how he treats her.^[2] The song went on to garner a total of 614 votes, while the next closest song ended the round with 28.^[3]

Nerdcore[link]

In 2000 he released the song "Nerdcore Hiphop". The song became an immediate hit in the geek and nerd communities. The rap subgenre of nerdcore hip hop, which had already been in development by various performers, embraced the title and has since been expanding rapidly.

Many consider Hess the founder of nerdcore. However, he has pointed out on his information webpage that many artists came before whom he considers his peers.

Hess released his first studio album on August 27, 2005. Entitled Nerdcore Rising, the album contains six new songs, along with 10 remixed versions of past tracks. Some of the new tracks contain production by popular online musicians from Song Fight!, including indie rock and hip hop artist Doctor Popular.

Spotlight[link]

Performing live at PAX, 2004.

On March 18, 2002, popular webcomic Penny Arcade (whose creators were long-time fans of Hess) declared Frontalot their rapper laureate, directing fans to his website.^[4] He has acknowledged that single act made his popularity skyrocket. In appreciation, he wrote and recorded the "Penny Arcade Theme" a few months later, which was in his own (tongue-in-cheek) words: "an attempt to cash in on their huge and devoted audience."^{[citation needed]}

He has appeared at every Penny Arcade Expo from 2004 to 2011 and Nerdcore Rising is now sold through the Penny Arcade Store. "Penny Arcade Theme" and "Which MC Was That?" both appear in the dance video game In the Groove. He also features on the Baddd Spellah track "Rhyme of the Nibelung", which was the winner of CBC Radio 2's Remix the Ring contest.

A new track 'Final Boss' featured over the end credits in the 2008 game Penny Arcade Adventures: On the Rain-Slick Precipice of Darkness- Episode 1.

MC Frontalot appears occasionally in the webcomic Overcompensating by Jeffrey Rowland

MC Frontalot has also been seen on commercials for G4 TV, as well as being on the show Freestyle 101 where he sang parts of his songs with freestyle lines connecting them.

Additionally, comic book illustrator Tony Moore became a fan of both Frontalot and fellow nerdcore artist MC Hawking, drawing both of them as zombies in an early issue of The Walking Dead series. Hess appears in a white shirt, tie and glasses, with the word "Front" written on his pocket protector; he is seen eating a deer.

A song written and performed by Frontalot based on the webcomic Achewood titled "Living At the Corner of Dude and Catastrophe" has been that website's theme song since 2006. On September 2, 2008 as part of a Penny Arcade download pack, "Living At the Corner of Dude and Catastrophe" was chosen for inclusion as a downloadable track for the video game Rock Band. The week of September 14, 2009 saw the release of "Origin of Species" (a satire of Creation Science) which was included in the Penny Arcade Expo track pack.

Live performances[link]

Although most of his fanbase is online, Hess gave a handful of live performances while living in San Francisco, and several more after moving to New York City. His first official tour started on May 12, 2006, with shows mostly in the Southeast United States.^[5] When he performs, he plays with a full ensemble, including keyboardist and frequent collaborator Gminor7, bassist Blak Lotus, and drummer The SturGENiUS. Other occasional band members include G.LATINusKY00B, The Categorical Imperative, Vic 20, and 56K. He finished a tour with Schäffer The Darklord as of 25 November 2007 and started another tour on 1 November 2008 with MC Lars and YTCracker. As of June 2010, he's been touring with alternative rock musicians, Wheatus, on their UK leg of their 10th anniversary tour; on occasion providing guest vocals on some of their live jams, as well as Wheatus offering musical accompaniment on some of his tracks.^[6]

Film[link]

Hess starred as "TP Factory Rapper" in the Sesame Street direct-to-video movie Elmo's Potty Time.^[7]

Nerdcore Rising is a documentary/concert film starring Hess and various other nerdcore artists such as mc chris, Optimus Rhyme and MC Lars with contributors such as "Weird Al" Yankovic, Prince Paul and Brian Posehn. The film, directed and produced by Negin Farsad, premiered at the 2008 South by Southwest festival in Austin, Texas. It combines interviews about nerdcore and its origins, with footage of Frontalot's 2006 Nerdcore Rising national tour.^[8]

As the lead voice-box for nerd culture, Hess was interviewed in Alexandre O. Philippe's documentary, The People vs. George Lucas, which premiered at the 2010 South by Southwest Film Festival. Hess attended the festival as a musician and panelist.

Musical influences[link]

Much of his earlier music features samples from other artists' works, many times using music acquired from famous artists such as Paul Simon, They Might Be Giants, James Brown, Fiona Apple, and many others.^[9] He addresses his borrowing of various drum beats in the song "Good Old Clyde", a song commenting on and using the popular "Funky Drummer" drum break by Clyde Stubblefield.^[10]

Since he began selling his albums commercially, Hess has collaborated on almost all his tracks with Baddd Spellah, an electronic musician and hip-hop beatsmith, and Gaby 'Gminor7' Alter, a composer and keyboardist whose playing was the basis for many of Frontalot's earlier songs. Hess has also collaborated with fellow rappers such as MC Hawking and Canadian rapper Jesse Dangerously.^[11]

Discography[link]

Studio Albums[link]

• Nerdcore Rising (2005)
• Secrets from the Future (2007)
• Final Boss (2008)
• Zero Day (2010)
• Solved (2011)

Other Releases[link]

• Nerdcore Hiphop (freely available demo)

^[12][13]

Non-album tracks[link]

• "24 Hours" (abandoned demo)
• "Bitchslap" (by MC Hawking)
• "My Sister" (by Duboce Triangle with The JBB)
• "Oh, the Hilarity" (from Indie Pop Cares a Lot)
• "Rappers We Crush" (with Kompressor)
• "Rhyme of the Nibelung" (with Baddd Spellah)
• "Romantic Cheapskate" (with Baddd Spellah for Song Fight!)
• "Soda Water" (by Jess Klein)
• "Start Over" (for a compilation of songs for children)
• "Oneonta (Eli Porter)" (with YTCracker and MC Lars on The Digital Gangster LP)
• "O.G. Original Gamer (with MC Lars on the MC Lars album This Gigantic Robot Kills)
• "Don't Wear Those Shoes" (for the "Weird Al" Yankovic tribute album Twenty-Six and a Half)
• "Another First Kiss" (for the They Might Be Giants "Mink Car" tribute album.

Known recorded live sets[link]

• July 7, 2001: "Songfight Live West Coast" — Hot Lunch, San Francisco, California, USA (two songs)
• October 24, 2002: "Young Zombies in Love Release Party" — Voodoo Lounge, San Francisco, California, USA
• July 26, 2003: "Song Fight Wet & Wild" — Finn MacCool's Public House, Seattle, Washington, USA (two songs, incomplete recording, the infamous "drunk set")
• December 12, 2003: "Both Hands on the Mic" — The Accordion, San Francisco, California, USA
• August 2004: Penny Arcade Expo — Meydenbauer Center, Bellevue, Washington, USA (a partial video recording of the set is available as well)
• May 15, 2004: Belladonna, Berkeley, California, USA
• June 15, 2005: Living Room, New York, New York City, USA (one verse of "unnecessary rap breakdown" during a Jess Klein show)
• June 23, 2005: The Bitter End, New York, New York City, USA
• August 27, 2005: Penny Arcade Expo — Meydenbauer Center, Bellevue, Washington, USA (video recording believed to be upcoming)
• August 26, 2006: Penny Arcade Expo — Meydenbauer Center, Bellevue, Washington, USA
• September 15, 2007: Kingdom of Loathing Convention - The Sets, Tempe, Arizona, USA
• November 25, 2008 Knitting Factory - Hollywood, California, USA

References[link]

External links[link]

• Official MC Frontalot website, includes official song lyrics, news, music, and forum
• Such a Scream, Hess's professional website
• MC Frontalot on Myspace
• MC Frontalot at the Internet Movie Database
• MC Frontalot convention appearances on AnimeCons.com
• MC Frontalot discography at MusicBrainz
• Nerdcore Rising: The Movie Trailer on YouTube

Philip Wollen OAM (born 1950) is an Australian philanthropist. He is a former vice-president of Citibank and was also a general manager at Citicorp.^[1] At age 34, Australian Business Magazine named him in the top 40 headhunted executives in Australia.^[2] In 2005 he received the Order of Australia ^[3] and in 2007 he won the Australian of the Year (Victoria) award ^[4].

The following was said about Philip by the National Australia Day Council:

"Through his kindness and generosity, Philip Wollen brings crucial help to many charitable causes and inspires others to share his humanitarian values and ideals. His achievements in the business world mark him as a man of action and he channels this energy into practical outcomes for the causes he champions through the Winsome Constance Kindness Trust. Philip promotes kindness towards all other living beings and strives to enshrine this as a recognisable trait in the Australian character and culture. The measure of his support can be seen in the extraordinary list of organisations the Winsome Constance Kindness Trust supports, benefiting children, animals, the ill, the environment and aspiring youth. Essentially a private man, he seeks no personal publicity but is not afraid to step into the limelight for a just cause."^[5]

Philip lives with his wife Trix and his four dogs in Melbourne, Victoria.

Winsome Constance Kindness Trust[link]

Philip Wollen's main project, the Winsome Constance Kindness Trust, is a global initiative whose mission statement is "to promote kindness towards all other living beings and enshrine it as a recognisable trait in the Australian character and culture".^[6] The Trust emphasises ethics, compassion and co-operation, and opposes cruelty to humans and non-human animals. In 2006 the Trust had initiatives in 34 countries and is growing.

Mrs Maneka Gandhi's Article in the Indian newspapers on Philip Wollen.

"Everyone in the animal welfare movement knows that the Australian ,Philip Wollen, is not a human being. He is from another planet. They simply do not make humans like him any more. He went from Bangalore to Australia when he was young, taught himself , got a job in a bank, rose to the top, left it, became rich and now donates all his money to animals and orphans and people who need it. He does so on a moment's notice. He doesn't want paperwork , he just needs to trust you and he does that easily. He picks up fights with aggressively anti animal governments and media , he pays for lectures , he supports the anti whaling campaigns of activists around the world, he builds sanctuaries in Asia for bears. On top of that , he is tall, handsome, well read, a vegan, speaks his mind, jokes a lot and writes deliciously. He lives in Melbourne with a beautiful wife called Trix and they work to make their money save the world. The name of their trust is The Winsome Constance Kindness Trust. Obviously he has landed here on a UFO and the technical word for his species is 'angel '.

This is a list of organisations supported by the Winsome Constance Kindness Trust.^[7][8]

• Amnesty International - Australia
• Anglican Church of Australia
• Anglicare Australia
• Animal Active - Australia
• Animal Aid Society - India
• Animal Help Foundation - India
• Animal House - Jamaica
• Animal Network - South Australia
• Animal People - Seattle
• Animal Rights and Rescue - Australia
• Animal Voice - South Africa
• Animal Welfare League of Queensland - Australia
• Animals Asia - China
• Animals Australia - Australia
• Animed Arad - Romania- Animal Rescue Branch (ARB)
• Anti Cancer Council - Australia
• ARB - Beijing
• Asociacion Para La Defensa De Los Derenchos Del Animal - Argentina
• Asthma Foundation Australia
• Australia West Papua Association - Australia
• Australia West Papua Association - Australia
• Australian Sports Foundation - Australia
• Australian Wildlife Protection Council - Australia
• Ballarat Organisation for Animal Rights - BOAR - Australia
• Beirut for the Ethical Treatment of Animals - BETA - Lebanon
• Beyond Zero Emissions - Australia
• Bishop Cotton Boys School - India
• Blue Cross of India - India
• Bordertown High School - Australia
• Brotherhood of St Laurence - Australia
• Cartmans - India
• CatRescue - Australia
• Centre for Animal Rehabilitation & Education - South Africa (CARE)
• Christian Blind Mission International
• Coalition Against Duck Hunting - Australia
• Compassion in World Farming - United Kingdom
• Compassion Unlimited Plus Action - India
• Daisy Hope Foundation - Romania
• Darjeeling Goodwill Animal Shelter - India
• Daw House Palliative Care - Australia
• Dharma Donkey Sanctuary - India
• Drakenstein Lion Park - South Africa
• Edgars Mission - Australia
• Egyptian Society of Animal friends - Egypt
• Enkosini Animal Sanctuary - South Africa
• Epilepsy Foundation - Australia
• Food Not Bombs - Australia
• Free the Bears - Australia
• Friendicoes Society - India
• Gentle World - New Zealand/Hawaii
• Hahndorf Animal Shelter - Australia
• Help in Suffering - India
• Homeless Animal Protection Society - Ethiopia
• HOPE and Animals Trust - India
• In Defence of Animals - India
• International Centre for Alternatives in Research & Education (I-CARE) - Chennai
• Kalahari Raptor Centre - South Africa
• Karuna Society for Animals - India
• Keith Area School Foundation - Australia
• Korean Animal Protection Society - Korea
• Last Chance For Animals - USA
• Leo Tolstoy Centre of Ethics - Ukraine
• Linis Gobyerno Native AnimBaguio City - The Philippines
• Morning Star Orphanage - India
• Multiple Sclerosis - Australia
• Museum Victoria & Scienceworks - Australia
• NSPCA - Zimbabwe
• O.R.C.A - Australia
• PACAT - People Against Cruelty in Animal Transport - Australia
• Pan Law Primary School - Myanmar
• Paraquad Paraplegics - Australia
• PAWS - Philippine Animal Welfare Society Manila - The Philippines
• PAWS - Plants Animals Welfare Society - India
• People for Animals Agra - India
• People for Animals Calcutta - India
• People for Animals Chandigarh - India
• People for Animals Chennai - India
• People for Animals Dehradun - India
• People for Animals Ghaziabad - India
• People for Animals Guwahati - India
• People for Animals Hooghly - India
• People for Animals Lucknow - India
• People for Animals Orissa - India
• Pet Rescue Australia - Australia
• PETA (People for The Ethical Treatment of Animals) - USA
• Philipsgate Project - Australia
• Phnom Tamao Wildlife Rescue - Cambodia
• Red Cross - Australia
• Royal Children's Hospital - Australia
• Royal Humane Society - Australia
• RSPCA - Australia
• S.P.A.R.E - Society for the Protection of Animal Rights - Egypt
• Salvation Army - Australia
• Save a Dog Scheme - SADS - Australia
• Save Our Friends Association - SOFA - Sri Lanka
• Say No to Animals in Pet Shops - Australia
• Sea Shepherd Conservation Society - USA
• Sealalert - South Africa
• The Smith Family - Australia
• Social Firms Australia - Australia
• Society of St. Vincent de Paul - Australia
• Soi Dog Foundation - Thailand
• South Australian Children's Ballet Company - Australia
• St James Centre of Ethics - Australia
• The MCKee Project - Costa Rica
• The Torch Project - Australia
• The Wilderness Society - Australia
• Tower Hill Stables Animal Sanctuary - England
• Vegetarian Victoria - Australia
• Vegetarian/Vegan Society of Queensland - Australia
• Very Special Kids - Australia
• Victoria Police - Australia
• Visakha SPCA - India
• Wildlife At Risk - Vietnam
• Wildlife Protection Association Australia - Australia
• WildlifeSOS - India
• World Society for the Protection of Animals - Pakistan
• World Vision - Australia
• World Society for the Protection of Animals - Australia
• Youth for Conservation - Kenya
• Zero Emission Network - Australia
• ZooPeru - Peru

External links[link]

• Winsome Constance Kindness Trust
• Australia Day Awards 2005
• Philip Wollen's quotes from All Creatures
• Altruism Australia

References[link]

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