Constitution of the Federative Republic of Brazil
The original copy of the Constitution
Ratified	October 5, 1988
Author(s)	1988 Constituent Assembly

Brazil

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The Constitution of the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: Constituição da República Federativa do Brasil) is the supreme law of Brazil. It is the foundation and source of the legal authority underlying the existence of Brazil and the federal government of Brazil. It provides the framework for the organization of the Brazilian government and for the relationship of the federal government to the states, to citizens, and to all people within Brazil.

The Constitution was ratified on October 5, 1988, by the 1988 Constituent Assembly. As of May 2011, it has been amended 67 times and has 250 articles.

Overview[link]

The seventh and current Brazilian Constitution was promulgated on October 5, 1988 after a two-year process in which it was written from scratch by a Constituent Assembly elected in 1986.

History[link]

The current Constitution of Brazil was drafted as a reaction to the period of military dictatorship, and sought to guarantee individual rights and restrict the state's ability to limit freedom, to punish offences and to regulate individual life. Among the new constitutional guarantees are the errand of injunction and the habeas data. It also anticipated the existence of a Consumers' Defence Code (enacted in 1990), of a Children's and Youth Code (1990) and of a new Civil Code (2002).

It was the first constitution to demand severe punishment for breaches of civil liberties and rights. Consequently, Brazil later approved a law making the propagation of prejudice against any minority or ethnic group an unbailable crime. This law provided legal remedy against those who spread hate speech or those who do not treat all citizens equally. This second aspect helped disabled people to have a reserved percentage of jobs in the public service and large companies, and Afro-Brazilians to seek reparation for racism in court.

Breaking with the authoritarian logic of the previous Constitution, it made unbailable crimes those of torture and of actions directed against the democratic state and the constitutional order, thus creating constitutional devices to block coups d'état of any kind.

The Constitution also established many forms of direct popular participation besides regular voting, such as plebiscite, referendum and the possibility of ordinary citizens proposing new laws. Examples of these democratic mechanisms were the 1993 plebiscite concerning the form of government, where the presidential system was confirmed, and the 2005 referendum concerning the prohibition of the sale of firearms and ammunition.

The mention of God in the preamble of the Constitution (and later on the Brazilian currency) was opposed by most leftists as incompatible with freedom of religion because it does not recognise the rights of polytheists (like the Amerindians) or atheists. The Supreme Federal Court has ruled that that this omission of the protection of God was not unconstitutional since the preamble of the constitution is simply an indication of principles that serves as an introduction to the constitutional text and reflects the ideological conceptions of the legislator, falling within the scope of political ideology and not of the Law.

Preamble[link]

The preamble to the Federal Constitution is a brief introductory statement that sets out the guiding purpose and principles of the document. The text reads^[1]:

References[link]

External links[link]

• (Portuguese) Constituição da República Federativa do Brasil (full actual text)
• (English) Constitution of the Federative Republic of Brazil (text until the 52nd Amendment)

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Federative Republic of Brazil República Federativa do Brasil (Portuguese)
Flag Coat of arms
Motto: "Ordem e Progresso" (Portuguese) (English: "Order and Progress")
Anthem:  Hino Nacional Brasileiro (Portuguese) (English: Brazilian National Anthem)
National seal Selo Nacional do Brasil (Portuguese) (English: "National Seal of Brazil")
Capital		Brasília 15°47′S 47°52′W / 15.783°S 47.867°W / -15.783; -47.867
Largest city		São Paulo
Official language(s)		Portuguese[1]
Ethnic groups (2010[2])		47.73% White 43.13% Brown (Multiracial) 7.61% Black 1.09% Asian 0.43% Amerindian
Demonym		Brazilian
Government		Federal presidential constitutional republic
-	President	Dilma Rousseff (PT)
-	Vice President	Michel Temer (PMDB)
-	President of the Chamber of Deputies	Marco Maia (PT)
-	President of the Senate	José Sarney (PMDB)
-	President of the Supreme Federal Court	Ayres Britto
Legislature		National Congress
-	Upper house	Federal Senate
-	Lower house	Chamber of Deputies
Independence		from United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves
-	Declared	7 September 1822
-	Recognized	29 August 1825
-	Republic	15 November 1889
-	Current constitution	5 October 1988
Area
-	Total	8,514,877 km2 (5th) 3,287,597 sq mi
-	Water (%)	0.65
Population
-	2011[4] estimate	192,376,496
-	2010 census	190,732,694[3] (5th)
-	Density	22/km2 (182nd) 57/sq mi
GDP (PPP)		2011 estimate
-	Total	$2.294 trillion[5] (7th)
-	Per capita	$11,769[5] (75th)
GDP (nominal)		2011 estimate
-	Total	$2.493 trillion[5] (6th)
-	Per capita	$12,788[5] (53rd)
Gini (2012)		▼51.9[6]
HDI (2011)		0.718[7] (high) (84th)
Currency		Real (R$) (BRL)
Time zone		BRT (UTC−2 to −4)
-	Summer (DST)	BRST (UTC−2 to −4)
Date formats		dd/mm/yyyy (CE)
Drives on the		right
ISO 3166 code		BR
Internet TLD		.br
Calling code		+55

Brazil ⁱ/brəˈzɪl/ (Portuguese: Brasil, IPA: [bɾaˈziw]^[8]), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil^[9][10] (Portuguese: República Federativa do Brasil,  listen (help·info)), is the largest country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country, both by geographical area and by population with over 192 million people.^[11][12] It is the only Portuguese-speaking country in the Americas and the largest lusophone country in the world.^[11]

Bounded by the Atlantic Ocean on the east, Brazil has a coastline of 7,491 km (4,655 mi).^[11] It is bordered on the north by Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname and the French overseas region of French Guiana; on the northwest by Colombia; on the west by Bolivia and Peru; on the southwest by Argentina and Paraguay and on the south by Uruguay. Numerous archipelagos form part of Brazilian territory, such as Fernando de Noronha, Rocas Atoll, Saint Peter and Paul Rocks, and Trindade and Martim Vaz.^[11] It borders all other South American countries except Ecuador and Chile.

Brazil was a colony of Portugal from the landing of Pedro Álvares Cabral in 1500 until 1815, when it was elevated to the rank of kingdom and the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves was formed. The colonial bond was in fact broken in 1808, when the capital of the Portuguese colonial empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro, after Napoleon invaded Portugal.^[13] Independence was achieved in 1822 with the formation of the Empire of Brazil, a unitary state governed under a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary system. The country became a presidential republic in 1889, when a military coup d'état proclaimed the Republic, although the bicameral legislature, now called Congress, dates back to the ratification of the first constitution in 1824.^[13] Its current Constitution, formulated in 1988, defines Brazil as a Federal Republic.^[14] The Federation is formed by the union of the Federal District, the 26 States, and the 5,564 Municipalities.^[14][15]

The Brazilian economy is the world's sixth largest by nominal GDP and the seventh largest by purchasing power parity (as of 2011).^[16][17] Brazil is one of the world's fastest growing major economies. Economic reforms have given the country new international recognition.^[18] Brazil is a founding member of the United Nations, the G20, CPLP, Latin Union, the Organization of Ibero-American States, the Organization of American States, Mercosul and the Union of South American Nations, and is one of the BRIC countries. Brazil is also one of the 17 Megadiverse countries, home to diverse wildlife, natural environments, and extensive natural resources in a variety of protected habitats.^[11]

Etymology[link]

The word "Brazil" comes from brazilwood, a tree that once grew plentifully along the Brazilian coast. In Portuguese, brazilwood is called pau-brasil, with the word brasil commonly given the etymology "red like an ember", formed from Latin brasa ("ember") and the suffix -il (from -iculum or -ilium).^[19][20][21] As brazilwood produces a deep red dye, it was highly valued by the European cloth industry and was the earliest commercially-exploited product from Brazil. Through the 16th century, massive amounts of brazilwood were harvested by indigenous peoples (mostly Tupi) along the Brazilian coast, who sold the timber to European traders (mostly Portuguese, but also French) in return for assorted European consumer goods.^[22]

The official name of the land, in original Portuguese records, was the "Land of the Holy Cross" (Terra da Santa Cruz), but European sailors and merchants commonly called it simply the "Land of Brazil" (Terra do Brasil) on account of the brazilwood trade. The popular appellation eclipsed and eventually supplanted the official name. Early sailors sometimes also called it the "Land of Parrots" (Terra di Papaga).

In the Guarani language, an official language of Paraguay, Brazil is called "Pindorama". This was the name the natives gave to the region, meaning "land of the palm trees".

History[link]

Portuguese colonization[link]

The land now called Brazil was claimed by Portugal in April 1500, on the arrival of the Portuguese fleet commanded by Pedro Álvares Cabral.^[23] The Portuguese encountered stone age natives divided into several tribes, most of whom spoke languages of the Tupi–Guarani family, and fought among themselves.^[24]

Though the first settlement was founded in 1532, colonization was effectively begun in 1534, when Dom João III divided the territory into twelve hereditary captaincies,^[25][26] but this arrangement proved problematic and in 1549 the king assigned a Governor-General to administer the entire colony.^[26][27] The Portuguese assimilated some of the native tribes^[28] while others were enslaved or exterminated in long wars or by European diseases to which they had no immunity.^[29][30] By the mid-16th century, sugar had become Brazil's most important export^[24][31] and the Portuguese imported African slaves^[32][33] to cope with the increasing international demand.^[29][34]

The first Christian mass in Brazil, 1500.

Through wars against the French, the Portuguese slowly expanded their territory to the southeast, taking Rio de Janeiro in 1567, and to the northwest, taking São Luís in 1615.^[35] They sent military expeditions to the Amazon rainforest and conquered British and Dutch strongholds,^[36] founding villages and forts from 1669.^[37] In 1680 they reached the far south and founded Sacramento on the bank of the Rio de la Plata, in the Eastern Strip region (present-day Uruguay).^[38]

At the end of the 17th century, sugar exports started to decline^[39] but beginning in the 1690s, the discovery of gold by explorers in the region that would later be called Minas Gerais (General Mines) in current Mato Grosso and Goiás, saved the colony from imminent collapse.^[40] From all over Brazil, as well as from Portugal, thousands of immigrants came to the mines.^[41]

The Spanish tried to prevent Portuguese expansion into the territory that belonged to them according to the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas, and succeeded in conquering the Eastern Strip in 1777. However, this was in vain as the Treaty of San Ildefonso, signed in the same year, confirmed Portuguese sovereignty over all lands proceeding from its territorial expansion, thus creating most of the current Brazilian borders.^[42]

In 1808, the Portuguese royal family and the majority of the Portuguese nobility, fleeing the troops of the French Emperor Napoleon I that were invading Portugal and most of Central Europe, established themselves in the city of Rio de Janeiro, which thus became the seat of the entire Portuguese Empire.^[43] In 1815 Dom João VI, then regent on behalf of his incapacitated mother, elevated Brazil from colony to sovereign Kingdom united with Portugal.^[43] In 1809 the Portuguese invaded French Guiana (which was returned to France in 1817)^[44] and in 1816 the Eastern Strip, subsequently renamed Cisplatina.^[45]

Independence and empire[link]

Declaration of the Brazilian independence by Emperor Pedro I on 7 September 1822.

After the Portuguese military had successfully repelled Napoleon's invasion, the King João VI returned to Europe on 26 April 1821, leaving his elder son Prince Pedro de Alcântara as regent to rule Brazil.^[46] The Portuguese government, guided by the new political regime imposed by the Liberal Revolution of 1820, attempted to turn Brazil into a colony once again, thus depriving it of its achievements since 1808.^[47] The Brazilians refused to yield and Prince Pedro stood by them declaring the country's independence from Portugal on 7 September 1822.^[48] On 12 October 1822, Pedro was declared the first Emperor of Brazil and crowned Dom Pedro I on 1 December 1822.^[49]

The public flogging of a slave in Rio de Janeiro. From Jean-Baptiste Debret, Voyage Pittoresque et Historique au Bresil (1834–1839).

At that time most Brazilians were in favour of a monarchy and republicanism had little support.^[50][51] The subsequent Brazilian War of Independence spread through almost the entire territory, with battles in the northern, northeastern, and southern regions.^[52] The last Portuguese soldiers surrendered on 8 March 1824^[53] and independence was recognized by Portugal on 29 August 1825.^[54]

The first Brazilian constitution was promulgated on 25 March 1824, after its acceptance by the municipal councils across the country.^{[55][56][57][58]} Pedro I abdicated on 7 April 1831 and went to Europe to reclaim his daughter’s crown, leaving behind his five year old son and heir, who was to become Dom Pedro II.^[59] As the new emperor could not exert his constitutional prerogatives until he reached maturity, a regency was created.^[60]

Disputes between political factions led to rebellions and an unstable, almost anarchical, regency.^[61] It is estimated that from 30 to 40% of the population of the Province of Grão-Pará died during the Cabanagem revolt.^[62] The rebellious factions, however, were not in revolt against the monarchy,^[63][64] even though some declared the secession of the provinces as independent republics, but only so long as Pedro II was a minor.^[65] Because of this, Pedro II was prematurely declared of age and "Brazil was to enjoy nearly half a century of internal peace and rapid material progress."^[66]

Brazilian forces (in blue uniform) engage the Paraguayan army (some in red uniform and other shirtless) during the Paraguayan War.

Despite the loss of Cisplatina in 1828 when it became an independent nation known as Uruguay,^[67] Brazil won three international wars during the 58-year reign of Pedro II (the Platine War, the Uruguayan War and the Paraguayan War, which left over 50,000 dead)^[68] and witnessed the consolidation of representative democracy, mainly due to successive elections and unrestricted freedom of the press.^[69] Most importantly, slavery was extinguished after a slow but steady process that began with the end of the international traffic in slaves in 1850^[70] and ended with the complete abolition of slavery in 1888.^[71] The slave population had been in decline since Brazil's independence: in 1823, 29% of the Brazilian population were slaves but by 1887 this had fallen to 5%.^[72]

When the monarchy was overthrown on 15 November 1889^[73] there was little desire in Brazil to change the form of government^[74] and Pedro II was at the height of his popularity among his subjects.^[75][76] However, he "bore prime, perhaps sole, responsibility for his own overthrow."^[77] After the death of his two sons, Pedro believed that "the imperial regime was destined to end with him."^[78] He cared little for the regime's fate^[79][80] and so neither did anything, nor allowed anyone else to do anything, to prevent the military coup, backed by former slave owners who resented the abolition of slavery.^[81][82][83]

Early republic[link]

The Brazilian coup d'état of 1930 raised Getúlio Vargas (center with military uniform but no hat) to power. He ruled the country for fifteen years.

At the beginning of the republican government it was little more than a military dictatorship,^[73] and the new constitution restricted political rights, such as the right to vote,^[84][85] yet provided for direct elections to be held in 1894.^[86] However, already in 1891, from the unfoldings of the encilhamento bubble^[87][88] and of the 1st naval revolt, the country entered in a prolonged cycle of financial, social and political instability, that would extend until the 1920s keeping the country plagued by several rebellions, both civilian^[89][90][91] as military,^[92][93][94] which little by little undermined the regime in a such extent, that by 1930 it was possible for the defeated presidential candidate Getúlio Vargas, supported by the majority of military,^[95] to lead a coup d'état and assume the presidency.^[96]

Vargas and the military, who were supposed to assume the government temporarily to implement democratic reforms related to 1891's Constitution, closed the Congress and ruled with emergency powers, replacing the states' governors with their supporters.^[97][98] Under the Claiming of the broken promises of changing, in 1932 the oligarchy of São Paulo tried to regain the power^[99] and in 1935 the Communists rebelled,^[100] having both been defeated. However, the communist threat served as an excuse for Vargas to preclude elections launching another coup d'état in 1937, creating a full dictatorship^{[101][102][103][104]} In May 1938, there was another failed attempt to take over the power by local fascists.^[105][106]

In foreign policy, the success in resolving border disputes with neighboring countries^[107] in the early years of this period, was followed by a failed attempt to permanently exert a prominent role in the League of Nations^[108] after military involvement in World War I.^{[109][110][111]} Notwithstanding, Brazil remained neutral at the beginning of World War II until the Pan-American Conference of January 1942 when Brazil stood alongside the U.S.A. severing diplomatic relations with the Axis powers.^[112] In retaliation, Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy extended their submarine warfare against Brazil, which led the country to enter the war on the allied side in August of that year.^[113][114]

With the allied victory in 1945 and the end of the Nazi-fascist regimes in Europe, Vargas's position became unsustainable and he was swiftly overthrown in another military coup.^[115] Democracy was reinstated and General Eurico Gaspar Dutra was elected president taking office in 1946.^[116] Having returned to power democratically elected at the end of 1950, Vargas committed suicide in August 1954 amid a political crisis.^[117][118]

Contemporary era[link]

The transition from Fernando Henrique Cardoso to Luís Inácio Lula da Silva indicated that Brazil had finally succeeded in achieving its long-sought political stability.

Several brief interim governments succeeded after Vargas's suicide.^[119] Juscelino Kubitscheck became president in 1956 and assumed a conciliatory posture towards the political opposition that allowed him to govern without major crises.^[120] The economy and industrial sector grew remarkably,^[121] but his greatest achievement was the construction of the new capital city of Brasília, inaugurated in 1960.^[122] His successor was Jânio Quadros, who resigned in 1961 less than a year after taking office.^[123] His vice-president, João Goulart, assumed the presidency, but aroused strong political opposition^[124] and was deposed in April 1964 by a coup that resulted in a military regime.^[125]

The new regime was intended to be transitory^[126] but it gradually closed in on itself and became a full dictatorship with the promulgation of the Fifth Institutional Act in 1968.^[127] The repression of the dictatorship's opponents, including urban guerrillas,^[128] was harsh, but not as brutal as in other Latin American countries.^[129] Due to the extraordinary economic growth, known as an "economic miracle", the regime reached its highest level of popularity in the years of repression.^[130]

General Ernesto Geisel became president in 1974 and began his project of re-democratization through a process that he said would be "slow, gradual and safe."^[131][132] Geisel ended the military indiscipline that had plagued the country since 1889,^[133] as well as the torture of political prisoners, censorship of the press,^[134] and finally, the dictatorship itself, after he extinguished the Fifth Institutional Act.^[127] However, the military regime continued, under his chosen successor General João Figueiredo, to complete the transition to full democracy.^[135]

The civilians fully returned to power in 1985 when José Sarney assumed the presidency^[136] but, by the end of his term, he had become extremely unpopular due to the uncontrollable economic crisis and unusually high inflation.^[137] Sarney's unsuccessful government allowed the election in 1989 of the almost unknown Fernando Collor, who was subsequently impeached by the National Congress in 1992.^[138] Collor was succeeded by his Vice-President Itamar Franco, who appointed Fernando Henrique Cardoso as Minister of Finance.

Cardoso produced a highly successful Plano Real (Royal or Real Plan)^[139] that granted stability to the Brazilian economy^[140] and he was elected as president in 1994 and again in 1998.^[141] The peaceful transition of power to Luís Inácio Lula da Silva, who was elected in 2002 and re-elected in 2006, proved that Brazil had finally succeeded in achieving its long-sought political stability.^[142] Lula was succeeded in 2011 by the current president, Dilma Rousseff.^[143]

Geography[link]

Topography map of Brazil

Brazil occupies a large area along the eastern coast of South America and includes much of the continent's interior,^[144] sharing land borders with Uruguay to the south; Argentina and Paraguay to the southwest; Bolivia and Peru to the west; Colombia to the northwest; and Venezuela, Suriname, Guyana and the French overseas department of French Guiana to the north. It shares a border with every country in South America except for Ecuador and Chile. It also encompasses a number of oceanic archipelagos, such as Fernando de Noronha, Rocas Atoll, Saint Peter and Paul Rocks, and Trindade and Martim Vaz.^[11] Its size, relief, climate, and natural resources make Brazil geographically diverse.^[144] Including its Atlantic islands, Brazil lies between latitudes 6°N and 34°S, and longitudes 28° and 74°W.

Brazil is the fifth largest country in the world, after Russia, Canada, China and the United States, and third largest in the Americas; with a total area of 8,514,876.599 km² (3,287,612 sq mi),^[145] including 55,455 km² (21,411 sq mi) of water.^[11] It spans three time zones; from UTC-4 in the western states, to UTC-3 in the eastern states (and the official time of Brazil) and UTC-2 in the Atlantic islands.^[146] Brazil is the only country in the world that lies on the equator while having contiguous territory outside the tropics.

Brazilian topography is also diverse and includes hills, mountains, plains, highlands, and scrublands. Much of the terrain lies between 200 metres (660 ft) and 800 metres (2,600 ft) in elevation.^[147] The main upland area occupies most of the southern half of the country.^[147] The northwestern parts of the plateau consist of broad, rolling terrain broken by low, rounded hills.^[147]

The southeastern section is more rugged, with a complex mass of ridges and mountain ranges reaching elevations of up to 1,200 metres (3,900 ft).^[147] These ranges include the Mantiqueira and Espinhaço mountains and the Serra do Mar.^[147] In the north, the Guiana Highlands form a major drainage divide, separating rivers that flow south into the Amazon Basin from rivers that empty into the Orinoco River system, in Venezuela, to the north. The highest point in Brazil is the Pico da Neblina at 2,994 metres (9,823 ft), and the lowest is the Atlantic Ocean.^[11]

Brazil has a dense and complex system of rivers, one of the world's most extensive, with eight major drainage basins, all of which drain into the Atlantic.^[148] Major rivers include the Amazon (the world's second-longest river and the largest in terms of volume of water), the Paraná and its major tributary the Iguaçu (which includes the Iguazu Falls), the Negro, São Francisco, Xingu, Madeira and Tapajós rivers.^[148]

Climate[link]

Snow in São Joaquim, Santa Catarina in 2010 (South) and tropical climate in Cabedelo, Paraíba, (Northeast).

The climate of Brazil comprises a wide range of weather conditions across a large area and varied topography, but most of the country is tropical.^[11] According to the Köppen system, Brazil hosts five major climatic subtypes: equatorial, tropical, semiarid, highland tropical, temperate, and subtropical. The different climatic conditions produce environments ranging from equatorial rainforests in the north and semiarid deserts in the northeast, to temperate coniferous forests in the south and tropical savannas in central Brazil.^[149] Many regions have starkly different microclimates.^[150][151]

An equatorial climate characterizes much of northern Brazil. There is no real dry season, but there are some variations in the period of the year when most rain falls.^[149] Temperatures average 25 °C (77 °F),^[151] with more significant temperature variation between night and day than between seasons.^[150]

Over central Brazil rainfall is more seasonal, characteristic of a savanna climate.^[150] This region is as extensive as the Amazon basin but has a very different climate as it lies farther south at a higher altitude.^[149] In the interior northeast, seasonal rainfall is even more extreme. The semiarid climatic region generally receives less than 800 millimetres (31.5 in) of rain,^[152] most of which generally falls in a period of three to five months of the year^[153] and occasionally less than this, creating long periods of drought.^[150] Brazil's 1877–78 Grande Seca (Great Drought), the most severe ever recorded in Brazil,^[154] caused approximately half a million deaths.^[155] The one from 1915 was devastating too.^[156]

South of Bahia, near the coasts, and more southerly most of the state of São Paulo, the distribution of rainfall changes, with rain falling throughout the year.^[149] The south enjoys temperate conditions, with cool winters and average annual temperatures not exceeding 18 °C (64.4 °F);^[151] winter frosts are quite common, with occasional snowfall in the higher areas.^[149][150] Other kinds of solid precipitation happen in a wider area, including cities as Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo. Fall of snow grains and ice pellets, deemed as not dissimilar from true hail, are popularly called granizo.

Biodiversity[link]

The Amazon Rainforest, the largest tropical forest in the world.

Brazil's large territory comprises different ecosystems, such as the Amazon Rainforest, recognized as having the greatest biological diversity in the world,^[157] with the Atlantic Forest and the Cerrado, sustaining the greatest biodiversity.^[158] In the south, the Araucaria pine forest grows under temperate conditions.^[158] The rich wildlife of Brazil reflects the variety of natural habitats. Scientists estimate that the total number of plant and animal species in Brazil could approach four million.^[158]

Larger mammals include pumas, jaguars, ocelots, rare bush dogs, and foxes; peccaries, tapirs, anteaters, sloths, opossums, and armadillos are abundant. Deer are plentiful in the south, and many species of New World monkeys are found in the northern rain forests.^[158][159] Concern for the environment has grown in response to global interest in environmental issues.^[160]

Environment[link]

The natural heritage of Brazil is severely threatened by cattle ranching and agriculture, logging, mining, resettlement, oil and gas extraction, over-fishing, wildlife trade, dams and infrastructure, water contamination, climate change, fire, and invasive species.^[157] In many areas of the country, the natural environment is threatened by development.^[161] Construction of highways has opened up previously remote areas for agriculture and settlement; dams have flooded valleys and inundated wildlife habitats; and mines have scarred and polluted the landscape.^[160][162] At least 70 dams are said to be planned for the Amazon region, including controversial Belo Monte hydroelectric dam.^[163]

Politics[link]

The National Congress in Brasília, the capital of Brazil.

The Brazilian Federation is the "indissoluble union" of three distinct political entities: the States, the Municipalities and the Federal District.^[14] The Union, the states and the Federal District, and the municipalities, are the "spheres of government." The Federation is set on five fundamental principles:^[14] sovereignty, citizenship, dignity of human beings, the social values of labour and freedom of enterprise, and political pluralism. The classic tripartite branches of government (executive, legislative, and judicial under the checks and balances system), is formally established by the Constitution.^[14] The executive and legislative are organized independently in all three spheres of government, while the judiciary is organized only at the federal and state/Federal District spheres.

All members of the executive and legislative branches are directly elected.^{[164][165][166]} Judges and other judicial officials are appointed after passing entry exams.^[164] For most of its democratic history, Brazil has had a multi-party system, proportional representation. Voting is compulsory for the literate between 18 and 70 years old and optional for illiterates and those between 16 and 18 or beyond 70.^[14] Together with several smaller parties, four political parties stand out: Workers' Party (PT), Brazilian Social Democracy Party (PSDB), Brazilian Democratic Movement Party (PMDB), and Democrats (DEM). Almost all governmental and administrative functions are exercised by authorities and agencies affiliated to the Executive.

The form of government is that of a democratic republic, with a presidential system.^[14] The president is both head of state and head of government of the Union and is elected for a four-year term,^[14] with the possibility of re-election for a second successive term. The current president is Dilma Rousseff who was inaugurated on January 1, 2011.^[167] The President appoints the Ministers of State, who assist in government.^[14] Legislative houses in each political entity are the main source of law in Brazil. The National Congress is the Federation's bicameral legislature, consisting of the Chamber of Deputies and the Federal Senate. Judiciary authorities exercise jurisdictional duties almost exclusively.

Fifteen political parties are represented in Congress. It is common for politicians to switch parties, and thus the proportion of congressional seats held by particular parties changes regularly. The largest political parties are the Workers' Party (PT), Democrats (DEM), Brazilian Democratic Movement Party (PMDB-center), Brazilian Social Democratic Party (PSDB), Progressive Party (PP), Brazilian Labor Party (PTB), Liberal Party (PL), Brazilian Socialist Party (PSB), Popular Socialist Party (PPS), Democratic Labor Party (PDT), and the Communist Party of Brazil (PCdoB).^[168]

Law[link]

Inside the Supreme Federal Court building at the Three Powers Plaza.

Brazilian law is based on Roman-Germanic traditions^[169] and civil law concepts prevail over common law practice. Most of Brazilian law is codified, although non-codified statutes also represent a substantial part, playing a complementary role. Court decisions set out interpretive guidelines; however, they are seldom binding on other specific cases. Doctrinal works and the works of academic jurists have strong influence in law creation and in law cases.

The legal system is based on the Federal Constitution, which was promulgated on 5 October 1988, and is the fundamental law of Brazil. All other legislation and court decisions must conform to its rules.^[170] As of April 2007^[update], there have been 53 amendments. States have their own constitutions, which must not contradict the Federal Constitution.^[171] Municipalities and the Federal District have "organic laws" (leis orgânicas), which act in a similar way to constitutions.^[14][172] Legislative entities are the main source of statutes, although in certain matters judiciary and executive bodies may enact legal norms.^[14] Jurisdiction is administered by the judiciary entities, although in rare situations the Federal Constitution allows the Federal Senate to pass on legal judgments.^[14] There are also specialized military, labor, and electoral courts.^[14] The highest court is the Supreme Federal Court.

This system has been criticised over the last few decades for the slow pace of decision making. Lawsuits on appeal may take several years to resolve, and in some cases more than a decade elapses before definitive rulings.^[173] Nevertheless, the Supreme Federal Tribunal was the first court in the world to transmit its sessions on television, and also via YouTube.^[174][175] More recently, in December 2009, the Supreme Court adopted Twitter to display items on the day planner of the ministers, to inform the daily actions of the Court and the most important decisions made by them.^[176]

Brazil continues to have high crime rates in a number of statistics, despite recent improvements. More than 500,000 people have been killed by firearms in Brazil between 1979 and 2003, according to a new report by the United Nations.^[177] In 2010, there were 473,600 people incarcerated in Brazilian prisons and jails.^[178]

Foreign relations and military[link]

Itamaraty Palace, headquarters of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

Brazil is a political and economic leader in Latin America.^[179][180] However, social and economic problems have prevented it from becoming an effective global power.^[181] Between 1945 and 1990, both democratic and military governments sought to expand Brazil's influence in the world by pursuing a state-led industrial policy and an independent foreign policy. More recently, the country has aimed to strengthen ties with other South American countries, and engage in multilateral diplomacy through the United Nations and the Organization of American States.^[182]

Brazil's current foreign policy is based on the country's position as a regional power in Latin America, a leader among developing countries, and an emerging world power.^[183] In general, current Brazilian foreign policy reflects multilateralism, peaceful dispute settlement, and nonintervention in the affairs of other countries.^[184] The Brazilian Constitution also determines that the country shall seek the economic, political, social and cultural integration of the nations of Latin America.^{[14][185][179][180]}

An increasingly well-developed tool of Brazil's foreign policy is providing aid as a donor to other developing countries.^[186] Brazil does not just use its growing economic strength to provide financial aid, but it also provides high levels of expertise and most importantly of all, a quiet non-confrontational diplomacy to improve governance levels.^[186] Total aid is estimated to be around $1 billion per year that includes:^[186]

• technical cooperation of around $480 million ($30 million in 2010 provided directly by the Brazilian Cooperation Agency (ABC))
• an estimated $450 million for in-kind expertise provided by Brazilian institutions specialising in technical cooperation

Frigates in Brazil during training exercise.

In addition, Brazil manages a peacekeeping mission in Haiti ($350 million) and makes in-kind contributions to the World Food Programme ($300 million).^[186] This is in addition to humanitarian assistance and contributions to multilateral development agencies. The scale of this aid places it on par with China and India and ahead of many western donors.^[186] The Brazilian South-South aid has been described as a "global model in waiting."^[187]

The armed forces of Brazil consist of the Brazilian Army, the Brazilian Navy, and the Brazilian Air Force. With a total of 371,199 active personnel,^[188] they constitute the largest armed force in Latin America.^[189] The Army is responsible for land-based military operations and has 235,978 active personnel.^[190]

The Military Police (States' Military Police) is described as an ancillary force of the Army by the constitution, but is under the control of each state's governor.^[14] The Navy is responsible for naval operations and for guarding Brazilian territorial waters. It is the oldest of the Brazilian armed forces and the only navy in Latin America to operate an aircraft carrier, the NAe São Paulo (formerly FS Foch of the French Navy).^[191] The Air Force is the aerial warfare branch of the Brazilian armed forces, and the largest air force in Latin America, with about 700 manned aircraft in service.^[192]

Administrative divisions[link]

Atlantic
Ocean

Pacific
Ocean

North Region

Northeast Region

Central-West Region

Southeast Region

South Region

Acre

Amazonas

Pará

Roraima

Amapá

Rondônia

Tocantins

Maranhão

Bahia

Piauí

Ceará

Rio Grande
do Norte

Paraíba

Pernambuco

Alagoas

Sergipe

Mato Grosso

Mato Grosso
do Sul

Federal
District

Goiás

Minas Gerais

São Paulo

Rio de Janeiro

Espírito Santo

Paraná

Santa Catarina

Rio Grande
do Sul

Argentina

Bolivia

Chile

Colombia

French Guiana

Guyana

Paraguay

Peru

Suriname

Uruguay

Venezuela

Brazil is a federation composed of 26 States, one federal district (which contains the capital city, Brasília) and municipalities.^[14] States have autonomous administrations, collect their own taxes and receive a share of taxes collected by the Federal government. They have a governor and a unicameral legislative body elected directly by their voters. They also have independent Courts of Law for common justice. Despite this, states have much less autonomy to create their own laws than in the United States. For example, criminal and civil laws can only be voted by the federal bicameral Congress and are uniform throughout the country.^[14]

The states and the federal district may be grouped into regions: Northern, Northeast, Central-West, Southeast and Southern. The Brazilian regions are merely geographical, not political or administrative divisions, and they do not have any specific form of government. Although defined by law, Brazilian regions are useful mainly for statistical purposes, and also to define the application of federal funds in development projects.

Municipalities, as the states, have autonomous administrations, collect their own taxes and receive a share of taxes collected by the Union and state government.^[14] Each has a mayor and an elected legislative body, but no separate Court of Law. Indeed, a Court of Law organized by the state can encompass many municipalities in a single justice administrative division called comarca (county).

Economy[link]

An Embraer ERJ-135 commercial jet. Brazil is the third-largest commercial aircraft manufacturer in the world,^[193] and the fourth-largest aircraft producer when including business jets into account.^[194]

Brazil is the largest national economy in Latin America, the world's sixth largest economy at market exchange rates and the seventh largest in purchasing power parity (PPP), according to the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. Brazil has a mixed economy with abundant natural resources. The Brazilian economy has been predicted to become one of the five largest in the world in the decades to come, the GDP per capita following and growing.^[195] Its current GDP (PPP) per capita is $10,200, putting Brazil in the 64th position according to World Bank data. It has large and developed agricultural, mining, manufacturing and service sectors, as well as a large labor pool.^[196]

Brazilian exports are booming, creating a new generation of tycoons.^[197] Major export products include aircraft, electrical equipment, automobiles, ethanol, textiles, footwear, iron ore, steel, coffee, orange juice, soybeans and corned beef.^[198] The country has been expanding its presence in international financial and commodities markets, and is one of a group of four emerging economies called the BRIC countries.^[199]

Brazil pegged its currency, the real, to the U.S. dollar in 1994. However, after the East Asian financial crisis, the Russian default in 1998^[200] and the series of adverse financial events that followed it, the Central Bank of Brazil temporarily changed its monetary policy to a managed-float scheme while undergoing a currency crisis, until definitively changing the exchange regime to free-float in January 1999.^[201]

Combine in a cotton Brazilian plantation. Brazil is the third largest exporter of agricultural products in the world.^[202]

Brazil received an International Monetary Fund rescue package in mid-2002 of $30.4 billion,^[203] then a record sum. Brazil's central bank paid back the IMF loan in 2005, although it was not due to be repaid until 2006.^[204] One of the issues the Central Bank of Brazil recently dealt with was an excess of speculative short-term capital inflows to the country, which may have contributed to a fall in the value of the U.S. dollar against the real during that period.^[205] Nonetheless, foreign direct investment (FDI), related to long-term, less speculative investment in production, is estimated to be $193.8 billion for 2007.^[206] Inflation monitoring and control currently plays a major part in the Central bank's role of setting out short-term interest rates as a monetary policy measure.^[207]

Between 1993 and 2010, 7'012 mergers & acquisitions with a total known value of $707 billion with the involvement of Brazlian firms have been announced.^[208] The year 2010 was a new record in terms of value with 115 bil. USD of transactions. The largest transaction with involvement of Brazilian companies has been: Cia Vale do Rio Doce acquired Inco in a tender offer valued at $18.9 billion USD.

The purchasing power in Brazil is eroded by the so-called Brazil cost.^[209]

Components and energy[link]

Itaipu Dam, the world's largest hydroelectric plant by energy generation and second-largest by installed capacity.

Brazil's economy is diverse,^[210] encompassing agriculture, industry, and many services.^{[197][211][212][213]} The recent economic strength has been due in part to a global boom in commodities prices with exports from beef to soybeans soaring.^[212][213] Agriculture and allied sectors like forestry, logging and fishing accounted for 5.1% of the gross domestic product in 2007,^[214] a performance that puts agribusiness in a position of distinction in terms of Brazil's trade balance, in spite of trade barriers and subsidizing policies adopted by the developed countries.^{[vague][215][216]}

The industry — from automobiles, steel and petrochemicals to computers, aircraft, and consumer durables— accounted for 30.8% of the gross domestic product.^[214] Industry, which is often technologically advanced, is highly concentrated in metropolitan São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Campinas, Porto Alegre, and Belo Horizonte.^[217]

Brazil is the world's tenth largest energy consumer with much of its energy coming from renewable sources, particularly hydroelectricity and ethanol; nonrenewable energy is mainly produced from oil and natural gas.^[218] A global power in agriculture and natural resources, Brazil experienced tremendous economic growth over the past three decades.^[219] It is expected to become a major oil producer and exporter, having recently made huge oil discoveries.^{[220][221][222]} The governmental agencies responsible for the energy policy are the Ministry of Mines and Energy, the National Council for Energy Policy, the National Agency of Petroleum, Natural Gas and Biofuels, and the National Agency of Electricity.^[223][224]

Science and technology[link]

Brazilian National Laboratory of Synchrotron Light in Campinas.

Technological research in Brazil is largely carried out in public universities and research institutes, and more than 73% of funding for basic research comes from government sources.^[225] Some of Brazil's most notable technological hubs are the Oswaldo Cruz Institute, the Butantan Institute, the Air Force's Aerospace Technical Center, the Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation and the INPE. The Brazilian Space Agency has the most advanced space program in Latin America, with significant capabilities^[vague] in launch vehicles, launch sites and satellite manufacturing.^[226]

Uranium is enriched at the Resende Nuclear Fuel Factory to fuel the country's energy demands and plans are underway to build the country's first nuclear submarine.^[227] Brazil is one of the three countries in Latin America^[228] with an operational Synchrotron Laboratory, a research facility on physics, chemistry, material science and life sciences. And Brazil is the first and only Latin American country to have a semiconductor company with its own fab, the CEITEC.^[229]

Transport[link]

BR-116 highway in the outskirts of Fortaleza.

Brazil has a large and diverse transport network. Roads are the primary carriers of freight and passenger traffic. The road system totaled 1.98 million km (1.23 million mi) in 2002. The total of paved roads increased from 35,496 km (22,056 mi) in 1967 to 184,140 km (114,425 mi) in 2002.^[230]

Brazil's railway system has been declining since 1945, when emphasis shifted to highway construction. The total length of railway track was 30,875 km (19,186 mi) in 2002, as compared with 31,848 km (19,789 mi) in 1970. Most of the railway system belongs to the Federal Railroad Corp., with a majority government interest. The government also privatized seven lines in 1997.^[231] The São Paulo Metro was the first underground transit system in Brazil. The other metro systems are in Rio de Janeiro, Porto Alegre, Recife, Belo Horizonte, Brasília, Teresina, Fortaleza, and Salvador.

There are about 2,500 airports in Brazil, including landing fields: the second largest number in the world, after the United States.^[232] São Paulo-Guarulhos International Airport, near São Paulo, is the largest and busiest airport, handling the vast majority of popular and commercial traffic of the country and connecting the city with virtually all major cities across the world.^[233]

Coastal shipping links widely separated parts of the country. Bolivia and Paraguay have been given free ports at Santos. Of the 36 deep-water ports, Santos, Itajaí, Rio Grande, Paranaguá, Rio de Janeiro, Sepetiba, Vitória, Suape, Manaus and São Francisco do Sul are the most important.^[234]

Demographics[link]

Population density in Brazil (2007).

The population of Brazil, as recorded by the 2008 PNAD, was approximately 190 million^[235] (22.31 inhabitants per square kilometer), with a ratio of men to women of 0.95:1^[236] and 83.75% of the population defined as urban.^[237] The population is heavily concentrated in the Southeastern (79.8 million inhabitants) and Northeastern (53.5 million inhabitants) regions, while the two most extensive regions, the Center-West and the North, which together make up 64.12% of the Brazilian territory, have a total of only 29.1 million inhabitants.

The first census in Brazil was carried out in 1872 and recorded a population of 9,930,478.^[238] From 1880 to 1930, 4 million Europeans arrived.^[239] Brazil's population increased significantly between 1940 and 1970, due to a decline in the mortality rate, even though the birth rate underwent a slight decline. In the 1940s the annual population growth rate was 2.4%, rising to 3.0% in the 1950s and remaining at 2.9% in the 1960s, as life expectancy rose from 44 to 54 years^[240] and to 72.6 years in 2007.^[241] It has been steadily falling since the 1960s, from 3.04% per year between 1950–1960 to 1.05% in 2008 and is expected to fall to a negative value of –0.29% by 2050 ^[242] thus completing the demographic transition.^[243]

In 2008, the illiteracy rate was 11.48%^[244] and among the youth (ages 15–19) 1.74%. It was highest (20.30%) in the Northeast, which had a large proportion of rural poor.^[245] Illiteracy was high (24.18%) among the rural population and lower (9.05%) among the urban population.^[246]

Race and ethnicity[link]

According to the National Research by Household Sample (PNAD) of 2008, 48.43% of the population (about 92 million) described themselves as White; 43.80% (about 83 million) as Brown (Multiracial), 6.84% (about 13 million) as Black; 0.58% (about 1.1 million) as Asian; and 0.28% (about 536 thousand) as Amerindian (officially called indígena, Indigenous), while 0.07% (about 130 thousand) did not declare their race.^[247]

In 2007, the National Indian Foundation reported the existence of 67 different uncontacted tribes, up from 40 in 2005. Brazil is believed to have the largest number of uncontacted peoples in the world.^[248]

About 95% to 99% of Brazilians descend from the country's indigenous peoples and Portuguese settlers, while near 85% to 95% also have African slave ancestors.^[252] Since the arrival of the Portuguese in 1500, considerable miscegenation between these groups has taken place, in all regions of the country (being the European one dominant nationwide according to the vast majority of all autosomal studies undertaken covering the entire population, accounting for between 65% to 77%).^{[253][254][255][256]}

Also is common intermixing between Brazilians which are descendants of more recent extractions and those of older ones, or different immigrant communities. It has never been a widespread taboo in any ethnic community for the notable exceptions of first German and latter Japanese ones, which nevertheless fully integrated in the second halfs of the 19th and 20th centuries respectively (in Brazilian culture, ethnic preservation taboos are regarded as plain fear of outsiders – in part inherited from nationalism defining a single Brazilian cultural identity, with no space to any other).

Brazilian ethnic diversity

Brazilian society is more markedly divided by social class lines – although a high income disparity is found between race groups, so racism and classism can be conflated. Socially significant closeness to one racial group is taken in account more in the basis of appearance (phenotypes) rather than ancestry, to the extent that full siblings can pertain to different "racial" groups.^[257] Socioeconomic factors are also significant, because a minority of pardos are likely to start declaring themselves White or Black if socially upward.^[258] Skin color and facial features do not line quite well with ancestry (usually, Afro-Brazilians are evenly mixed and European ancestry is dominant in Whites and pardos with a significant non-European contribution, but the individual variation is great).^{[256][259][260][261]}

The brown population (as multiracial Brazilians are officially called; pardo in Portuguese, also colloquially moreno, or swarthy)^[262][263] is a broad category that includes caboclos (assimilated Amerindians in general, and descendants of Whites and Natives), mulatos (descendants of primarily Whites and Afro-Brazilians) and cafuzos (descendants of Afro-Brazilians and Natives).^{[252][262][263][264][265][266]} People of considerable Amerindian ancestry form the majority of the population in the Northern, Northeastern and Center-Western regions.^[267] Higher percents of Blacks, mulattoes and tri-racials can be found in the eastern coast of the Northeastern region from Bahia to Paraíba^[266][268] and also in northern Maranhão,^[269][270] southern Minas Gerais^[271] and in eastern Rio de Janeiro.^[266][271] From the 19th century, Brazil opened its borders to immigration. About five million people from over 60 countries migrated to Brazil between 1808 and 1972, most of them of Portuguese, Italian, Spaniard, German, Japanese and Middle Eastern origin.^[272]

Religion[link]

Brazil possesses a richly spiritual society formed from the meeting of the Roman Catholic Church with the religious traditions of African slaves and indigenous peoples. This confluence of faiths during the Portuguese colonization of Brazil led to the development of a diverse array of syncretistic practices within the overarching umbrella of Brazilian Roman Catholicism, characterized by traditional Portuguese festivities,^[274] and in some instances, Allan Kardec's Spiritism (most Brazilian Spiritists are also Christians). Religious pluralism increased during the 20th century, and a Protestant community has grown to include over 15% of the population. The most common Protestant denominations are Pentecostal, Evangelical, Baptist, Seventh-day Adventist, Lutheran and the reformed churches.

Roman Catholicism is the country's predominant faith. Brazil has the world's largest Catholic population.^[275] According to the 2000 Demographic Census (the PNAD survey does not inquire about religion), 73.57% of the population followed Roman Catholicism; 15.41% Protestantism; 1.33% Kardecist spiritism; 1.22% other Christian denominations; 0.31% Afro-Brazilian religions; 0.13% Buddhism; 0.05% Judaism; 0.02% Islam; 0.01% Amerindian religions; 0.59% other religions, undeclared or undetermined; while 7.35% have no religion.^[273]

However, in the last ten years Protestantism, particularly Pentecostal and/or Evangelical Protestantism, has spread in Brazil, while the proportion of Catholics has dropped significantly.^[276] After Protestantism, individuals professing no religion are also a significant group, exceeding 7% of the population in the 2000 census. The cities of Boa Vista, Salvador and Porto Velho have the greatest proportion of Irreligious residents in Brazil. Teresina, Fortaleza, and Florianópolis were the most Roman Catholic in the country.^[277] Greater Rio de Janeiro, not including the city proper, is the most Irreligious and least Roman Catholic Brazilian periphery, while Greater Porto Alegre and Greater Fortaleza are in the opposite sides of the lists respectively.^[277]

Urbanization[link]

According to IBGE (Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics) urban areas already concentrate 84.35% of the population, while the Southeast region remains the most populated one, with over 80 million inhabitants.^[278] The largest metropolitan areas in Brazil are São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, and Belo Horizonte — all in the Southeastern Region — with 19.5, 11.5, and 5.1 million inhabitants respectively.^[279] Almost all of the state capitals are the largest cities in their states, except for Vitória, the capital of Espírito Santo, and Florianópolis, the capital of Santa Catarina. There are also non-capital metropolitan areas in the states of São Paulo (Campinas, Santos and the Paraíba Valley), Minas Gerais (Steel Valley), Rio Grande do Sul (Sinos Valley) and Santa Catarina (Itajaí Valley).^[280]

v t e Largest cities or towns of Brazil 2010 Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics estimate[281]
	Rank	City name	State	Pop.	Rank	City name	State	Pop.
São Paulo Rio de Janeiro	1	São Paulo	São Paulo	11,316,149	11	Belém	Pará	1,402,056	Salvador Brasília
	2	Rio de Janeiro	Rio de Janeiro	6,355,949	12	Goiânia	Goiás	1,318,148
	3	Salvador	Bahia	3,093,605	13	Guarulhos	São Paulo	1,233,426
	4	Brasília	Distrito Federal	2,609,997	14	Campinas	São Paulo	1,088,611
	5	Fortaleza	Ceará	2,476,589	15	São Luís	Maranhão	1,027,429
	6	Belo Horizonte	Minas Gerais	2,385,639	16	São Gonçalo	Rio de Janeiro	1,008,064
	7	Manaus	Amazonas	1,832,423	17	Maceió	Alagoas	943,109
	8	Curitiba	Paraná	1,764,540	18	Duque de Caxias	Rio de Janeiro	861,157
	9	Recife	Pernambuco	1,536,934	19	Teresina	Piauí	822,363
	10	Porto Alegre	Rio Grande do Sul	1,413,094	20	Natal	Rio Grande do Norte	810,780