Sonora

Thursday, 29 November 2012

Sonora Acústica - Beatrix e Guilherme de Sá (Rosa de Saron)

Sonora Dinamita - Que nadie sepa mi sufrir

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Aconchi
Aconchi is a small city and the municipality that surrounds it, located in the center of the Mexican state of Sonora. The population of the municipality (urban and rural) was 2,452 in 2005 in an area of 358.74 square kilometers. It became a municipality in 1932 but was founded in 1639 the Jesuit missionary Bartolomé Castaños.
The municipal seat lies at an elevation of 609 meters above sea level. Neighboring municipalities are Huépac, Cumpas, Ures, Baviácora, Rayón, Banamichi and San Felipe de Jesús.
The land is mainly mountainous making agriculture difficult; therefore the economy is dependent on cattle raising. The Río Sonora crosses the municipality from north to south, but its water flow is irregular.
Aconchi lies on the main highway linking state capital Hermosillo with Cananea.
There is a modest spa called Aguas Termales de Aconchi, located a few kilometers to the north, which has tourist potential. The main tourist attraction is “El Agua Caliente de Aconchi”, which consists of a spring of medicinal waters reaching a temperature of 59 °C (138.2 °F). It is located 4 km from the town on the highway that goes from Hermosillo to Arizpe.

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Agua Prieta
Coordinates: 31°19′33″N 109°32′56″W / 31.32583°N 109.54889°W / 31.32583; -109.54889
Agua Prieta is a pueblo and municipality in the northeastern corner of the Mexican state of Sonora (31°19′33″N 109°32′56″W / 31.32583°N 109.54889°W / 31.32583; -109.54889). It stands on the U.S.–Mexico border, adjacent to the town of Douglas, Arizona, USA. The municipality covers an area of 3,631.65 km² (1,402.2 sq mi). In the 2010 census the town had a population of 77,254 people, making it the seventh-largest community in the state, and a literacy rate of 96.3%. 89% of the homes in the city have electricity, 94% have running water, and 86% are connected to the sewer system. The city's most important economic activities, in descending order, are industry, commerce, and farming. The city is the location of the CFE Agua Prieta power plant. The municipality's population was 79,138 at the 2010 census.
Agua Prieta began growing at the end of the 19th century as railroads were built between Douglas, Arizona, and Nacozari, Sonora, to transport minerals. As a result, the first settlers of the town were those employed by the U.S. mining company Phelps Dodge Corporation, which was based in Douglas, Arizona. The town was founded in 1899 as the Commissary of Fronteras, but did not become an independent municipality with its current name until August 28, 1916. Rodolfo L. Márquez was the new municipality's first president. It rose to the status of villa (town) on May 8, 1933, and it was officially placed in the category of city relatively recently, on November 11, 1942.

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Aguascalientes
Aguascalientes (Spanish pronunciation: [ˈaɣwaskaˈljentes] ( listen)), officially Free and Sovereign state of Aguascalientes (Spanish: Estado Libre y Soberano de Aguascalientes), is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 11 municipalities and its capital city is Aguascalientes.
It is located in North-Central Mexico. It is bordered by the states of Zacatecas to the north and Jalisco to the south. Its name means "hot waters" in Spanish and originated from the abundance of hot springs in the area, the corresponding demonym for the state and its inhabitants is hidrocálido.
The state is located about 480 km (300 mi) from Mexico City.
It covers 5,471 square kilometers (2,112 sq mi) and has a little more than one million inhabitants. Most of its inhabitants live in the densely populated metropolitan area of its capital city.
The state as it is now was created on October 27, 1857 when it was separated from Zacatecas after the tale says that the wife of the governor of the state promised to give a kiss to the President of the time, in exchange for the separation of Aguascalientes from Zacatecas, which explains the shape of a kiss the state has. It bears the name Aguascalientes taken from its largest city and capital also called Aguascalientes.

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Altar Desert
The Gran Desierto de Altar is one of the major portions of the Sonoran Desert of Mexico, including the only active erg dune region in North America. It extends across much of the northern border of the Gulf of California, reaching more than 100 kilometers east to west, and over 50 km north to south, and constitutes the largest continuous wilderness area within the Sonoran Desert. The eastern portion of the area is a biosphere reserve (the full title is Reserva de la Biosfera el Pinacate y Gran Desierto de Altar)
The Gran Desierto covers approximately 5,700 km², most of it in the Mexican state of Sonora. The northernmost edges overlap the border into southwestern Arizona. The dominant sand sheets and dunes range in thickness from less than one meter to greater than 120 meters. The total volume of sand in the Gran Desierto is about 60 km³. Most of that volume was delivered by the Pleistocene Colorado River which flowed through the present-day Gran Desierto area ~120,000 years before present. This Pleistocene delta migrated westward concomitant with strike-slip faulting and rifting associated with the opening of the Salton Trough and the Gulf of California.

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Altar Municipality
Altar (municipality) is a municipality in Sonora in north-western Mexico. The municipality had a 2010 census population of 9,049 inhabitants, the vast majority of whom lived in the municipal seat of Altar, which had a population of 7,927 inhabitants. There are no other localities with over 1,000 inhabitants.
The largest localities (cities, towns, and villages) are:
Coordinates: 30°43′N 111°50′W / 30.717°N 111.833°W / 30.717; -111.833

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Altar, Sonora
Altar (O'odham: Wawuk) is small city in Altar Municipality in the Mexican state of Sonora. It is located in the northwest region of the state at 30°42′49″N 111°50′07″W / 30.71361°N 111.83528°W / 30.71361; -111.83528. Surrounding municipalities are Sáric, Tubutama, Atil, Trincheras, Pitiquito, Caborca and Oquitoa. The northern boundary is with Pima County in the U.S. state of Arizona.
The total area of the municipality (urban and rural) is 3,944.90 square kilometers. The municipal population in 2010 was 9,049 inhabitants, with 7,927 (87.6%) living in the municipal seat. Other settlements are La Cabecera Municipal, Ejido 16 de Septiembre, Ejido Llano Blanco, and Ejido Santa Matilde.
The territory of the municipality was originally inhabited by the O'odham people. It was founded in 1775 by Captain Bernardo de Urrea, as a military fort, being called Santa Gertrudis del Altar and later Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe del Altar.
The land lies at an elevation of between 200 and 400 meters sloping towards the Gulf of California. The climate is dry with extremely high temperatures in the summer. The temperatures sometimes exceed 131 degrees fahrenheit ( 55 degrees celsius ) and is among the hottest places in the world from May to September.

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Arivechi
Arivechi is both a town and a municipality in the Mexican state of Sonora. It is located in the east of Sonora at 28°55'"N 109°11'"W , at an elevation of 556 meters. It has boundaries in the north, east, and south with the municipality of Sahuaripa and in the west with Bacanora. The area of the municipality (urban and rural) is 738.8 square kilometers and the population was 1,280 inhabitants (2005), 866 of whom resided in the municipal seat. [1]
The settlement of San Javier de Arivechi was founded in 1627 by the Jesuit missionary Pedro Méndez. The land had been occupied by the Opata tribe, conceded in the mission system of the Rectorado de San Francisco de Borja together with the peoples of Pónida y Bacanora. Arivechi became a municipality in 1932.
The area is crossed by the Sahuaripa River, which is a tributary of the Yaqui River.
The economy is based on cattle raising and agriculture.
Arivechi lies on tarmacked highway 117, which links Arivechi to Agua Prieta. The distance to the international border is 339 kilometers (211 mi).

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Arizpe
Arizpe (or Arispe) is a small town in Arizpe Municipality in the north of the Mexican state of Sonora. It is located at 30°20'"N 110°09'"W. The area of the municipality is 2,806.78 sq.km. The population in 2005 was 2,959 of which 1,743 lived in the municipal seat as of the 2000 census.
The region of Arizpe was occupied by the Opata people. The name, Arizpe, is a combination of two Opata words (Arit meaning fire ant and Pa meaning place) and translates to "the land of the fire ants".
Arizpe was founded in 1646 by the Jesuit missionary Jerónimo de la Canal as a mission. In 1776 Arizpe was made the capital of the Commandancy General of the Provincias Internas, with jurisdiction over Nueva Vizcaya (today Durango and Chihuahua), Arizona, Las Californias, Sonora y Sinaloa and Coahuila and Texas. The capital of the Intendencia was here and Arizpe was already a city by the end of the eighteenth century, the first in Sonora. In 1775 an expedition of settlers was formed, headed by captain Juan Bautista de Anza, which explored and opened one of the routes to Alta California, establishng the city of San Francisco, California. Juan Bautista de Anza's remains lie in the main church at Arizpe.

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Arizpe Municipality
Arizpe (municipality) is a municipality in Sonora in north-western Mexico.

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Atil Municipality
Atil (municipality) is a municipality in Sonora in north-western Mexico.

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Atil, Sonora
Atil (also Átil) is a small town in Atil Municipality in the northwest of the Mexican state of Sonora. The total area is 400.43 km² and the population of the municipality was 734 in 2005, of whom 699 lived in the municipal seat (2000). Neighboring municipalities are Tubutama, Trincheras, Oquitoa, and Altar.
It was founded in 1751 by the Jesuit missionary Jacobo Sedelmayer as a mission with the name of Atil. The first inhabitants were Pima Alto or Nebome Indians, who before conversion had led a nomadic or semi-nomadic life.
Atil is one of the smallest municipalities in the state. It is said that its name means "Arrow Point", in the Pima language. [1]
The terrain is desert and mostly flat. Summer temperatures average 25.6°C but daytime extremes are frequently above 40°C. The winter average is 12.8°C.
There is one tarmacked road crossing the municipality linking Altar with Tubutama. There are several dirt roads crossing the desert.
The economy is based on agriculture with lands irrigated by the Cuautémoc Reservoir located in the north of the municipality. There is also cattle raising.

wn.com/Atil,_Sonora
Bacadéhuachi
Bacadéhuachi is a village and municipality in the northeast of the Mexican state of Sonora. It is 269 kilometers northeast of the state capital, Hermosillo.
The area of the municipality is 1,530.47 km² and the population was 1,264 in 2005, most of whom were residing in the only settlement, which serves as the municipal seat. [1]. The municipal seat is located at an elevation of 850 meters.
The name is derived from the Opata language with the roots "Baca", reed, "degua", entrance, door, and "tzi", place; "In the place of the reed". [2]
In 1645 the Jesuit missionary Cristóbal García founded the settlement of San Luis de Bacadéhuachi, in lands then occupied by the Opata tribe.
The region is semi-arid and lies in the foothills of the Sierra Madre Occidental. The main river is the Bavispe. There are pine forests in the mountainous areas and wildlife is abundant. Mammals still present are deer, puma, lince, coyote, jaguar, mapache, and skunk. Some of the birds are the owl, nightengale, buzzard, and eagle.

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Bacerac
Bacerac is a town in Bacerac Municipality in the Mexican state of Sonora. It is situated in the northeast of the state and the municipality has boundaries with Bavispe Municipality in the north, with Huachinera in the south, with the state of Chihuahua in the east, and with the municipalities of Nacozari de García and Villa Hidalgo in the west. The municipal seat lies at an elevation of 1,432 meters above sea level. See detailed map at [1]
The area of the municipality is 1,275.8 km². and the total population was 1,342 in 2005. Most of the inhabitants lived in the municipal seat. The population has been diminishing since 1995 when it was 1,535. Causes are the lack of employment and the absence of middle-level schools for families to better educate their children. [2]
The territory once was occupied by the Opata Indians. In 1645, the Jesuit missionary Cristóbal García founded a settlement to which he gave the name of Santa María de Bacerac, which is derived from the Opata language and means "place where water is seen".

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Bacerac Municipality
Bacerac (municipality) is a municipality in Sonora in north-western Mexico.

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Bacoachi
Bacoachi is a small town in Bacoachi Municipality in the north of the Mexican state of Sonora. The area of the municipality is 487 square miles (1,260.65 km²) and the population (rural and urban) was 1,456 in 2005, with 924 inhabitants residing in the municipal seat. [1] The elevation of the municipal seat is 4,429 feet (1,350 meters) above sea level.
Bacoachi is located southeast of Cananea and has boundaries in the north with Naco, in the east with Fronteras, in the southeast with Nacozari, in the southwest with Arizpe and in the east with Cananea. See maps at [2] or [3]
The territory was originally inhabited by the Opata Teguima Indians, who called their settlement "Cuchibaciachi". In 1649, Captain Simón Lazo de la Vega founded a Spanish town in the same spot. The name means "water snake" in the indigenous language.
Most of the land is mountainous and is part of the Sierra de Sonora. There are still pine forests and a rich variety of fauna, including coyotes, jaguars, deer, raccoons, wild pigs, skunks, and owls, among others.

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Bahia Kino
Bahía Kino is a town in the Mexican state of Sonora, Hermosillo (municipality), on the Sea of Cortez (Gulf of California); it was named after Eusebio Kino. The name also applies to the adjacent bay between Tiburón Island and Punta San Nicolás, Sonora. The names Bahía de Kino, Bahía Kino and Kino Bay are used interchangeably.
The first documentation of the historic residents of the Bahia de Kino region were probably in the form of notes taken by Padre Eusebio Kino during his travels to the region in 1685 when he visited the bay and named it Bahia San Juan Bautista (Doode 1999). The local indigenous population was widely dispersed in small hunter-gatherer groups ranging from the Guaymas area as far north as present day Puerto Libertad. They called themselves Comcaac (Seri) . The harsh environment of the coastal region dictated that the Comcaac live with a high degree of flexibility and resourcefulness, a characteristic that allowed them to remain free of contact with, and exploitation by, the Spaniards.

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Bahía Kino
Bahía Kino is a town in the Mexican state of Sonora, Hermosillo (municipality), on the Sea of Cortez (Gulf of California); it was named after Eusebio Kino. The name also applies to the adjacent bay between Tiburón Island and Punta San Nicolás, Sonora. The names Bahía de Kino, Bahía Kino and Kino Bay are used interchangeably.
The first documentation of the historic residents of the Bahia de Kino region were probably in the form of notes taken by Padre Eusebio Kino during his travels to the region in 1685 when he visited the bay and named it Bahia San Juan Bautista (Doode 1999). The local indigenous population was widely dispersed in small hunter-gatherer groups ranging from the Guaymas area as far north as present day Puerto Libertad. They called themselves Comcaac (Seri) . The harsh environment of the coastal region dictated that the Comcaac live with a high degree of flexibility and resourcefulness, a characteristic that allowed them to remain free of contact with, and exploitation by, the Spaniards.

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Baja California
Baja California (English /ˈbɑːhɑː kælɨˈfɔrnjə/, Spanish: [ˈbaxa kaliˈfornja]), officially Free and Sovereign State of Baja California (Spanish: Estado Libre y Soberano de Baja California, literally: Lower California), is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is both the northernmost and westernmost state of Mexico, but before becoming a state in 1953, the area was known as the North Territory of Baja California. It has an area of 70,113 km² (27,071 sq mi), or 3.57% of the land mass of Mexico and comprises the northern half of the Baja California peninsula, north of the 28th parallel. The state is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean, on the east by Sonora, the U.S. State of Arizona, and the Gulf of California (also known as the Sea of Cortez), and on the south by Baja California Sur. Its northern limit is the U.S. state of California.
The state has a population of 2,844,469 (2005 census), and estimated 3,165,776 (June 2009) much more than the sparsely populated Baja California Sur to the south, and similar to San Diego County on its north. Over 75% of the population lives in the capital city, Mexicali, or in Ensenada and Tijuana. Other important cities include San Felipe, Rosarito and Tecate. The population of the state is composed of Mestizos, mostly immigrants from other parts of Mexico, and, as with most northern Mexican states, a large population of Mexicans of European ancestry, and also a large minority group of East Asian, Middle Eastern and indigenous descent. Additionally, there is a large immigrant population from the United States due to its proximity to San Diego and the cheaper cost of living compared to San Diego. There is also a significant population from Central America. Many immigrants moved to Baja California for a better quality of life and the number of higher paying jobs in comparison to the rest of Mexico and Latin America.

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Baja California Sur
Baja California Sur (Spanish pronunciation: [ˈbaxa kaliˈfornja sur]), officially Free and Sovereign State of Baja California Sur (Spanish: Estado Libre y Soberano de Baja California Sur, literally: South Lower California), is the smallest (by population) of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. Before becoming a state on October 8, 1974, the area was known as the South Territory of Baja California. It has an area of 73,475 km² (28,369 sq mi), or 3.57% of the land mass of Mexico and comprises the southern half of the Baja California peninsula, south of the 28th parallel. It is bordered to the north by the state of Baja California, to the west by the Pacific Ocean, and to the east by the Gulf of California, also known as the "Sea of Cortés." Also, the state has maritime borders with Sonora and Sinaloa to the east across the Gulf of California.
As of 2010, the population was 637,026. The state is home to the tourist resorts of Cabo San Lucas and San José del Cabo. Its largest city and capital is La Paz, a tourist resort and historic landmark. It includes Loreto, the historic first capital of all three Californias (Baja California Sur, Baja California, and California), the town of Santa Rosalía which is the site of a historic church designed by Gustave Eiffel. The smoke stack of the silver smelters in El Triunfo, Baja California Sur was designed by Gustave Eiffel. Eiffel never visited Baja California Sur, rather his early architectural works were sold as 'cookie cutter' designs and can be seen in hundreds of locations around the world. Although the silver industry ended full scale production in the 1950s the stack and ruins of the silver industry remain as a significant landmark today.

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Bavispe Municipality
Bavispe (municipality) is a municipality in Sonora in north-western Mexico.

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Bácum Municipality
Bácum is a municipality in Sonora in north-western Mexico.

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Caborca
Caborca (O'odham: Kawulk) is both a municipality and a municipal seat in the Mexican state of Sonora. The area of the municipality is 10,721.84 km², which is 5.78 percent of the state total. The municipal population was 81,308 (2010) of whom 59,922 lived in the municipal seat. The official name of the city is Heroica Caborca.
The municipal seat, Heroica Caborca 30°42′56″N 112°09′33″W / 30.71556°N 112.15917°W / 30.71556; -112.15917, lies at an elevation of 280 meters. Municipal boundaries are with Pima County, Arizona in the United States of America in the north, Altar in the east, Pitiquito in the southeast, Puerto Peñasco and Plutarco Elías Calles in the northwest, and the Gulf of California in the southwest. Heroica Caborca, lies on Federal Highway 2, which connects Mexico City with Tijuana.
Caborca is nestled among hills in high Sonoran desert scenery. With moderate winter and spring temperatures, the temperatures climb above 38 °C in May and stay there until October or November. Because it has a very dry climate, strong winds can bring localized dust storms as well as "dust devils", localized plumes of swirling dust that resemble tornadoes, often reaching over 100 feet (30 m) into the air. They're harmless, but provide an interesting sight when driving in the area.

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Caborca Municipality
Caborca (municipality) is a municipality in Sonora in north-western Mexico.

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Cajeme
Cajeme is one of the municipalities of the northwestern state of Sonora, Mexico. Its capital is Ciudad Obregón. It is named after Cajemé, a Yaqui leader. The municipality has an area of 3,312.05 km² (1,278.79 sq mi) and with a population of 398,800 inhabitants (INEGI 2005).
Yaqui tribes settled in the region at approximately 1100 and in 1533 had the first contact with the Spanish conquistadors, when Diego de Guzmán arrived at the Yaqui region. The Yaquis defeated the Spanish army. In the 17th century Jesuit missionaries visited the zone to evangelize the Yaqui natives in 1617. In 1619, one of the missionaries, Martín Burgencio founded the villa of Buenavista and later the villa of Cumuripa. In 1715 El Realito was founded, which is located in the northern region of the current municipio). In the 19th century agriculture developed at the villas of Cumuripa, Buenavista and Cócorit.
Buenavista was the site for the military base of San Carlos de Buenavista during the Spanish colony. It was considered the capital of the Villa de Salvación since 1820 and in the second half of the 19th century it was considered part of the Guaymas district, as well as part of the Yaqui pueblos.

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Campeche
Campeche (Spanish pronunciation: [kamˈpetʃe]), officially Free and Sovereign State of Campeche (Spanish: Estado Libre y Soberano de Campeche), is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. Located in Southeast Mexico, it is bordered by the states of Yucatán to the north east, Quintana Roo to the east, and Tabasco to the south west. To the south it is bordered by the Petén department of Guatemala, to the east by Belize and to the west by the Gulf of Mexico. The state capital, also called Campeche, was declared a World Heritage Site in 1997. The formation of the state began with the city, which was founded in 1540 as the Spanish began the conquest of the Yucatán Peninsula. During the colonial period, the city was a rich and important port, but declined after Mexico’s Independence. Campeche was part of the province of Yucatán but split off in the mid 19th century, mostly due to political friction with city of Mérida. Today, much of the state’s economic comeback is due to the finding of petroleum offshore in the 1970s, which has made the coastal cities of Campeche and Ciudad del Carmen important economic centers. The state has important Mayan and colonial sites but they are not as well known or visited as others in the Yucatán.

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Cananea
Cananea (from the Apache term for "horse meat") is a city in the northern Mexican state of Sonora. It is the seat of the municipality of the same name. The population of the city was 31,560 as recorded by the 2010 census. The population of the municipality, which includes rural areas, was 32,936. The total area of the municipality is approximately 4,100 square kilometres (1,600 sq mi).
This is the location where the company the Cananea Consolidated Copper Company controlled by Col. William Cornell Greene of Greene Consolidated Copper Mining was founded in 1899 and was one participant in the Cananea Strike of 1906 that resulted in the death of 23 people in a fight between the strikers and a posse led by Arizona Rangers from the United States. A corrido titled La cárcel de Cananea ("Cananea jail") written in 1917 and commemorating the incident has since become famous. At the time of the strike the population of 23,000 included 7,000 Americans and 5,000 Chinese.
The first non-native inhabitants of the land where Cananea is now located arrived in 1760. Jesuit priests discovered and extracted gold and silver mines.

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Cananea Municipality
Cananea is a municipality in the northern portion of the Mexican state of Sonora, on the U.S. border. Its municipal seat is the city of Cananea, located at 30°58′55″N 110°18′02″W / 30.98194°N 110.30056°W / 30.98194; -110.30056.
The population of the municipality of Cananea was 32,936 (2010 census). Most of the population lives in the municipal seat, which had 31,560 inhabitants in the same year. This represented over 95.8% of the total.
The largest localities (cities, towns, and villages) are:
The territory now occupied by the municipality was originally a rancheria inhabited by the Pima Indians, who had been pacified by the Spanish in the seventeenth century.
According to local information, the word Cananea comes from two Apache words: “can” which means "meat" and “efa” which means "horse".
The colonial development of Cananea was influenced gby the nearby missions of Arizpe, Santa María and Cocóspera. In the middle of the nineteenth century Cananea became part of the province of Sonora, becoming a "real de minas". On 8 November 1901, Cananea was raised to municipal status, after having been part of the municipality of Fronteras.

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Carbó
Carbó is a municipality and the municipal seat of the same in the Mexican state of Sonora.
It has an area of 1962.66 square kilometers, which is 0.91 percent of the area of the state, and 0.09 percent of the national area of Mexico. The municipality's population was 4,966 residents in the year 2000. It had an annual growth rate of 0.8 percent from 1990 to 2000, and the density of population in 2000 was 2.95 residents per square kilometer (7.64 residents per square mile). In the census count of 2005 the population had dropped to 4,644. [1]. The census of 2000 showed that 4,189 people were living in the municipal seat. [2]
The municipality is located in the west central part of the state of Sonora. It is located at 29° 41' north latitude, and 110° 57' longitude west, at an altitude of 304 meters (997 feet). It borders the following municipalities: Opodepe on the north, Rayón on the east, San Miguel de Horcasitas on the south, Hermosillo on the southeast, and Pitiquito on the northwest. See detailed map at [3]

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Carbó Municipality
Carbó (municipality) is a municipality in Sonora in north-western Mexico.

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Casas Grandes
Casas Grandes (Spanish for Great Houses; also known as Paquimé) is the contemporary name given to a pre-Columbian archaeological zone and its central site, located in northwestern Mexico in the modern-day Mexican state of Chihuahua. It is one of the largest and most complex sites in the region. Developed as multi-storied dwellings about 1350 CE after earlier settlement beginning after 1130 CE, the community was abandoned approximately 1450 CE. Regarded as one of the most significant archaeological zones in the northwestern region, Casas Grandes is located in a wide, fertile valley on the Casas Grandes or San Miguel River, 35 miles (56 km) south of Janos and 150 miles (240 km) northwest of the state capital, the city of Chihuahua. The settlement relied on irrigation to support its agriculture. Casas Grandes has been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
The archaeological zone is contained within the eponymous modern municipio (municipality) of Casas Grandes. The valley and region have been inhabited by indigenous groups for thousands of years.

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Chiapas
Chiapas (Spanish pronunciation: [ˈtʃjapas]), officially Free and Sovereign State of Chiapas (Spanish: Estado Libre y Soberano de Chiapas), is one of the 31 states that, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 118 municipalities and its capital city is Tuxtla Gutierrez. Other important cites in Chiapas include San Cristóbal de las Casas, Comitán, and Tapachula. Located in Southwestern Mexico, it is the southernmost State of Mexico. It is bordered by the states of Tabasco to the north, Veracruz to the northwest and Oaxaca to the west. To the east Chiapas borders Guatemala, and to the south the Pacific Ocean.
In general, Chiapas has a humid, tropical climate. In the north, in the area bordering Tabasco, near Teapa, rainfall can average more than 3,000 mm (120 in) per year. In the past, natural vegetation at this region was lowland, tall perennial rainforest, but this vegetation has been destroyed almost completely to give way to agriculture and ranching. Rainfall decreases moving towards the Pacific Ocean, but it is still abundant enough to allow the farming of bananas and many other tropical crops near Tapachula. On the several parallel "sierras" or mountain ranges running along the center of Chiapas, climate can be quite temperate and foggy, allowing the development of cloud forests like those of the Reserva de la Biosfera el Triunfo, home to a handful of Resplendent Quetzals and Horned Guans.

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Chihuahua (state)
Chihuahua (Spanish pronunciation: [tʃiˈwawa]), officially Free and Sovereign State of Chihuahua (Spanish: Estado Libre y Soberano de Chihuahua), is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. Its capital city is Chihuahua.
It is located in Northwestern Mexico. It is bordered by the states of Sonora to the west, Sinaloa to the southwest, Durango to the south, and Coahuila to the east. To the north and northeast, it has a long line with the U.S.–Mexico border adjacent to the U.S. states of New Mexico and Texas.
Chihuahua is the largest state in Mexico by area, with a mainland area of 247,455 square kilometres (95,543 sq mi), it is slightly larger than the United Kingdom. It is consequently known under the nickname El Estado Grande ("The Big State").
Although Chihuahua is primarily identified with the Chihuahuan Desert for namesake, it has more forests than any other state in Mexico. Due to its variant climate the state has a large variety of fauna and flora. The state is mostly characterized by rugged mountainous terrain and wide river valleys. The Sierra Madre Occidental mountain range, an extension of the Rocky Mountains, dominates the state's terrain and is home to the state's greatest attraction, Las Barrancas del Cobre, or Copper Canyon, a canyon system larger and deeper than the Grand Canyon. On the slope of the Sierra Madre Occidental mountains (around the regions of Casas Grandes, Cuauhtémoc and Parral), there are vast prairies of short yellow grass, the source of the bulk of the state's agricultural production. Most of the inhabitants live along the Rio Grande Valley and the Conchos River Valley.

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China
China (ⁱ/ˈtʃaɪnə/; Chinese: 中国; pinyin: Zhōngguó; see also Names of China), officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is the world's most-populous country, with a population of over 1.3 billion. Covering approximately 9.6 million square kilometres, the East Asian state is the world's second-largest country by land area, and the third- or fourth-largest in total area, depending on the definition of total area.
The People's Republic of China is a single-party state governed by the Communist Party of China. It exercises jurisdiction over 22 provinces, five autonomous regions, four directly controlled municipalities (Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, and Chongqing), and two mostly self-governing special administrative regions (Hong Kong and Macau). Its capital city is Beijing. The PRC also claims Taiwan—which is controlled by the Republic of China (ROC), a separate political entity—as its 23rd province, a claim controversial due to the complex political status of Taiwan and the unresolved Chinese Civil War. The PRC government denies the legitimacy of the ROC.

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Ciudad Obregón
Ciudad Obregon is the second largest city in the northern Mexican state of Sonora and is situated 525 km (326 mi) south of the state's northern border with the U.S. state of Arizona. It is also the municipal seat of Cajeme municipality, located in the Yaqui Valley.
The city, previously named Cajeme, takes its name from Mexican Revolutionary Álvaro Obregón, a native of nearby Huatabampo, Sonora. Álvaro Obregón became president of Mexico after the Revolution and initiated an "agricultural revolution" in the Yaqui Valley, introducing modern agricultural techniques and making this valley one of the most prosperous agricultural regions in the country. Renowned U.S. agronomist Dr. Norman Borlaug, the architect of the "Green Revolution" worked here after successful developments in increasing the resistance of wheat. For his efforts he was later awarded the Nobel Prize.
Ciudad Obregon has a hot arid climate with extremely hot summers and cool winters because it is located in the Sonoran desert. It is normal that in summer the temperature reach 47 °C (116.6 °F), with overnight lows greater than 30 °C (86 °F) and sometimes reaching 35 °C (95 °F). Sunny skies and clear nights can be expected through all the year. Many severe thunderstorms with sandstorms reach the region in summer. Rainfall is scarce but it is more prominent it the summer. In the winter, daytime temperatures can be warmer than 30 °C (86 °F) but at night the temperature can fall to 5 °C (41 °F).

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Cocorit
Cócorit is a town located in the municipality of Cajeme in the southern part of the Mexican state of Sonora. Cajeme is located in the Yaqui Valley. The comisario municipal ("municipal commissioner") is Ing. Arturo Soto Valenzuela. Cócorit reported a 2005 census population of 7,953 inhabitants, and is the fifth-largest town in the municipality of Cajeme (after Ciudad Obregón, Esperanza, Pueblo Yaqui, and Tobarito).
The town was originally founded in 1617 by the Jesuit Andrés Pérez de Ribas and Tomás Basilio missionaries although the inhabitants were forced to leave by the Yaqui native population of the area. In 1835 the town was inhabited again, this time in an independent Mexico; the town was a dependence of the municipio of Buenavista. In 1867 the governor of Sonora (Pesqueira) organized two successful military expeditions to control the Yaquis in Cócorit and neighboring Guaymas. In 1875, Cajemé, a Yaqui leader attacked Cócorit and set it on fire. Under the protection of the Mexican army, Cócorit was repopulated in 1885 with inhabitants of the neighboring towns of El Quiriego and Baroyeca. In 1886, the Yaquis continued to strengthen their positions, but the state and federal governments confiscated more than 20,000 head of livestock. In 1887 Cajemé is captured and was scheduled to be executed in Cócorit before a firing squad. After an interview with Ramón Corral he escaped and was taken to Medano on steamboat but was shot by the army.

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Colima
Colima (Spanish pronunciation: [koˈlima]), officially Free and Sovereign State of Colima (Spanish: Estado Libre y Soberano de Colima), is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, make up the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It shares its name with its capital and main city, Colima.
Colima is a small state located in the Western Mexico region on Mexico’s central Pacific coast. It shares borders with the states of Jalisco and Michoacán. In addition to the capital city of Colima, the state's main cities include Manzanillo and Tecomán. Despite being the fourth smallest entity in Mexico with the lowest numerical population, the state has one of Mexico’s highest standards of living and lowest unemployment.
The state covered a territory of 5,455km2 and is the fourth smallest federal entity after Tlaxcala, Morelos and the Federal District of Mexico City, with only .3% of the country total territory. The state is located in the middle of Mexico’s Pacific coast, bordered by the states of Jalisco and Michoacán along with the Pacific Ocean. Colima’s territory also includes the Revillagigedo Islands which consist of Socorro, San Benedicto, Clarión and Roca Partida. They are under federal jurisdiction but are considered as part of the municipality of Manzanillo . Politically, the state is divided into ten municipalities . Natural geography divides the state into a northern and southern region. The north has a cooler climate due to the higher mountains. The south is hotter and includes the Pacific Ocean coastline. The Revillagigedo Islands are of volcanic origin which are dispersed along the19° north over an areas of about 400 km. In total, they cover an area of 205km2. The altitude of the state varies from zero at the coastline to 3,839 masl at the crater of the Colima Volcano .

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Cucurpe
Cucurpe is a municipality, and the town that serves as its municipal seat, of the same name in the Mexican state of Sonora.
Originally the territory was occupied by the Opatas and the Pimas Altas. In 1647 the Jesuit missionary Marcos del Río founded the first Spanish settlement with the category of mission and gave it the name of "Los Santos Reyes de Cucurpe." In 1859 it was given the title of "Villa" and in 1932 it became a municipality.
This town was once the considered the "Rim of Christendom" and it was from here that Father Eusebio Kino rode out to do his now historic work in the area then known as the Pimaria Alta. He rode out on 14 March 1687, 24 years and one day before his death on 15 March 1711.
The total area of the municipality is 1,778.55 square kilometers, which represents 0.96% of the state total and 0.09% of the national total. The population of the municipality was 937 inhabitants in the 2000 census and 798 inhabitants in the 2005 second count. The population of the municipal seat was 487 in 2000. The negative population growth is due to the high migration from this municipality, the deficient educational infrastructure, and the lack of sources of work.

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Cucurpe Municipality
Cucurpe (municipality) is a municipality in Sonora in north-western Mexico.

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Cumpas Municipality
Cumpas (municipality) is a municipality in Sonora in north-western Mexico.

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Douglas, AZ
Douglas is a city in Cochise County, Arizona, United States. Douglas has a border crossing with Mexico and a history of mining.
The population was 14,312 at the 2000 census. According to 2008 Census Bureau estimates, the population of the city is 20,316.
Douglas is located at 31°20′42″N 109°32′29″W / 31.345°N 109.54139°W / 31.345; -109.54139 (31.344911, -109.541376).
Douglas stands on the U.S.-Mexico border, across from the city of Agua Prieta, Sonora, Mexico.
The Douglas area was first settled by the Spanish in the 18th century. Presidio de San Bernardino was established in 1776 and abandoned in 1780. It was located a few miles east of present day Douglas. The United States Army established Camp San Bernardino in the latter half of the 19th century near the presidio and in 1910 Camp Douglas was built next to the town. Douglas was founded as an American smelter town, to treat the copper ores of nearby Bisbee, Arizona. The town is named after mining pioneer James Douglas. Two copper smelters operated at the site. The Calumet and Arizona Company Smelter was built in 1902. The Copper Queen operated in Douglas from 1904 until 1931, when the Phelps Dodge Corporation purchased the Calumet and Arizona Company and took over their smelter. The Calumet and Arizona smelter then became the Douglas Reduction Works. Douglas was the site of the Phelps-Dodge Corporation Douglas Reduction Works until its closure in 1987. The smoke stacks of the smelter were not taken down until January 13, 1991.

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Durango
Durango (Spanish pronunciation: [duˈɾaŋɡo]), officially Free and Sovereign State of Durango (Spanish: Estado Libre y Soberano de Durango), is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. The state is located in Northwest Mexico. With a population of 1,632,934, it has Mexico's second-lowest population density, after Baja California Sur. The city of Victoria de Durango is the state's capital, named after the first president of Mexico, Guadalupe Victoria.

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El Desemboque
El Desemboque, known as "Haxöl Iihom" in the Seri language, is a town located 376 km^{[citation needed]} from Hermosillo on the shore of Gulf of California in the Mexican state of Sonora; coordinates N 29° 30' 13", W 112° 23' 43". It is part of the Municipality of Pitiquito, and is one of two major villages on the Seri Indian communal property, the other being Punta Chueca. The Spanish name refers to the fact that the (generally dry) Río San Ignacio meets the sea near that point. The Seri name is literally where the clams lie. It has been a good location to find the small clams Protothaca grata (haxöl). According to the Mexican census of 2010, the town (officially a locality, or localidad) had a population of 287 inhabitants.
El Desemboque is thought to have been originally located about 2 kilometers to the north of its present location. At some point, probably in the 1930s, it was moved to its current location which offered better protection for the developing fleet of small skiffs (local Spanish, pangas) that the Seris used for commercial fishing. El Desemboque was the center of political and cultural activities until the early 1970s. After the construction of the highway linking Bahía de Kino to Hermosillo by the year 1953 (Sonora State Highway 100), the small community of Punta Chueca to the south (and closer to Bahía de Kino) rose in prominence to become the focal point of Seri political life.

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Empalme Municipality
Empalme (municipality) is a municipality in Sonora in north-western Mexico.

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Fronteras
Fronteras is the seat of Fronteras Municipality in the northeast of the Mexican state of Sonora. The elevation is 1,120 meters and neighboring municipalities are Agua Prieta, Nacozari and Bacoachi. The area is 2839.62 km², which represents 1.53% of the state total.
Fronteras is located in a mountainous area on the west side of the Sierra Madre Occidental. The average annual temperature is 16.9°C. The rainy season is from July to August and the average annual rainfall is 427.5 millimeters. [1]
The municipal population was 7,081 inhabitants (2.34 inhab/km²) in 2000, although in a second counting in 2005 this number had increased to 7,470 inhabitants. The most important settlement and the municipal seat had 874 inhabitants in 2000. [2] [3]
Industry is the most important economic activity together with agriculture and cattle raising. There was one maquiladora in 2000. The main agricultural crops were wheat, beans, corn, and grasses for cattle fodder. The cattle herd was substantial with over 30,000 head counted in 2000. Almost all were for meat production.

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Fronteras, Sonora
Fronteras is the seat of Fronteras Municipality in the northeast of the Mexican state of Sonora. The elevation is 1,120 meters and neighboring municipalities are Agua Prieta, Nacozari and Bacoachi. The area is 2839.62 km², which represents 1.53% of the state total.
Fronteras is located in a mountainous area on the west side of the Sierra Madre Occidental. The average annual temperature is 16.9°C. The rainy season is from July to August and the average annual rainfall is 427.5 millimeters. [1]
The municipal population was 7,081 inhabitants (2.34 inhab/km²) in 2000, although in a second counting in 2005 this number had increased to 7,470 inhabitants. The most important settlement and the municipal seat had 874 inhabitants in 2000. [2] [3]
Industry is the most important economic activity together with agriculture and cattle raising. There was one maquiladora in 2000. The main agricultural crops were wheat, beans, corn, and grasses for cattle fodder. The cattle herd was substantial with over 30,000 head counted in 2000. Almost all were for meat production.

wn.com/Fronteras,_Sonora
Germany
Germany (ⁱ/ˈdʒɜrməni/), officially the Federal Republic of Germany (German: Bundesrepublik Deutschland, pronounced [ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant] ( listen)), is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km² and has a largely temperate seasonal climate. With 81.8 million inhabitants, it is the most populous member state and the largest economy in the European Union. It is one of the major political powers of the European continent and a technological leader in many fields.
A region named Germania, inhabited by several Germanic peoples, was documented before AD 100. During the Migration Period, the Germanic tribes expanded southward, and established successor kingdoms throughout much of Europe. Beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation while southern and western parts remained dominated by Roman Catholic denominations, with the two factions clashing in the Thirty Years' War, marking the beginning of the Catholic–Protestant divide that has characterized German society ever since. Occupied during the Napoleonic Wars, the rise of Pan-Germanism inside the German Confederation resulted in the unification of most of the German states into the German Empire in 1871 which was Prussian dominated. After the German Revolution of 1918–1919 and the subsequent military surrender in World War I, the Empire was replaced by the Weimar Republic in 1918, and partitioned in the Treaty of Versailles. Amidst the Great Depression, the Third Reich was proclaimed in 1933. The latter period was marked by Fascism and World War II. After 1945, Germany was divided by allied occupation, and evolved into two states, East Germany and West Germany. In 1990 Germany was reunified.

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Granados, Sonora
Granados is a municipality and its municipal seat in the northeast of the Mexican state of Sonora. The municipal area is 361.27 km². and the population was 1,235 in 2000 (3.48 inhab./km². By 2005 the population had decreased to 938 due to emigration due to insufficient educational infrastructure and the lack of job opportunities. The population of the municipal seat was 1,228 according to the 2000 census. [1] [2]
The terrain is mountainous and the average annual temperature is 19°C. The rainy season is from July to September and the average annual rainfall is 485.9 mm.
Subsistence agriculture and cattle raising are the main economic activities. The main crops are corn and beans and grasses for fodder. Calves are exported to the United States of America.
The town was named after Don José Joaquín Granados y Gálvez, second bishop of Sonora from 1788 to 1794.

Coordinates: 29°52′N 109°17′W / 29.867°N 109.283°W / 29.867; -109.283

wn.com/Granados,_Sonora
Guadalajara, Mexico
Guadalajara (Spanish pronunciation: [ɡwaðalaˈxaɾa]) is the capital of the Mexican state of Jalisco, and the seat of the municipality of Guadalajara. The city is located in the central region of Jalisco in the western-pacific area of Mexico. With a population of 1,564,514 it is Mexico's second most populous municipality. The Guadalajara Metropolitan Area includes seven adjacent municipalities with a reported population of 4,328,584 in 2009, making it the second most populous metropolitan area in Mexico, behind Mexico City. The municipality is the second most densely populated area in Mexico; the first being Ciudad Nezahualcóyotl in State of Mexico.
The city's economy is based on industry, especially information technology with a large number of international firms having manufacturing facilities in the Guadalajara Metro Area. Other, more traditional industries, such as shoes, textiles and food processing are also important contributing factors. Guadalajara is the cultural center of Mexico, considered by most to be the home of Mariachi music and host to a number of large-scale cultural events such as the International Film Festival of Guadalajara and the Guadalajara International Book Fair and a number of globally renowned cultural events which draw international crowds. It is also home to the Chivas football/soccer team, one of the two most popular in Mexico. This city was named American Capital of Culture in 2005. Guadalajara hosted the 2011 Pan American Games and is currently bidding to host the 2018 Summer Youth Olympics.

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Guanajuato
Guanajuato (Spanish pronunciation: [gwanaˈxwato], locally: [gwanaˈhwato]), officially Free and Sovereign State of Guanajuato (Spanish: Estado Libre y Soberano de Guanajuato), is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 46 municipalities and its capital city is Guanajuato.
It is located in the North-Central Mexico. It is bordered by the states of Jalisco to the west, Zacatecas to the northwest, San Luis Potosí to the north, Querétaro to the east and Michoacán to the south. It covers an area of 30,608 km².
Guanajuato is located between the arid north of the country and the lusher south, and it is geographically part of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, the Mexican Plateau and the Sierra Madre Oriental. It was initially settled by the Spanish in the 1520s due to mineral deposits found around the now capital city of Guanajuato, but areas such as the Bajío region also became important for agriculture and livestock. Mining and agriculture have been the traditional mainstays of the state's economy, but today, about 30% of the state's GDP is accounted for by industry, which includes metals, automobiles, leather goods, processed foods and more.

wn.com/Guanajuato
Guaymas
Guaymas (Spanish pronunciation: [ˈɡwajmas]) is a city and municipality located in the southwest part of the state of Sonora in northwestern Mexico. The city is located 117 km south of the state capital of Hermosillo, and 242 miles from the U.S. border, and is the principal port for the state. The municipality is located in the Sonora Desert and has a hot, dry climate and 117 km of beaches. The municipality’s formal name is Guaymas de Zaragoza and the city’s formal name is the Heróica Ciudad de Guaymas.
The city proper is mostly an industrial port, with nearby San Carlos being the major tourist attraction for its beaches. The city also has a well-attended annual carnival, which has been held since 1888.
Before the arrival of the Europeans, the areas now known as Guaymas was dominated by the Guaymas, Seri and Yaqui tribes. In 1539, two Spanish ships, the Santa Agueda and El Trinidad, arrived to Guaymas Bay. They were commanded by Francisco de Ulloa, who called the area “the port of ports.”
Some small Jesuit missions in the area were founded in the 1610s and 1620s, when Jesuits founded eight mission villages with the Yaqui. The Seri strongly opposed the settlement of Europeans and resisted fiercely until 1769.

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Guerrero
Guerrero (Spanish pronunciation: [ɡeˈreɾo]), officially Free and Sovereign State of Guerrero (Spanish: Estado Libre y Soberano de Guerrero), is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 81 municipalities and its capital city is Chilpancingo.
It is located in Southwestern Mexico. It is bordered by the states of Michoacán to the north and west, México and Morelos to the north, Puebla to the northeast and Oaxaca to the east.
The state was named after Vicente Guerrero, one of the most prominent leaders in the Mexican War of Independence and the second President of Mexico. It is the only Mexican state named after a president. The modern entity did not exist until 1849, when it was carved out of territories from the states of Mexico, Puebla and Michoacán.
In addition to the capital city, the state's largest cities include Acapulco, Petatlan, Ciudad Altamirano, Taxco, Iguala, Ixtapa, Zihuatanejo, and Santo Domingo. Today, it is home to a number of indigenous communities, including the Nahuas, Mixtecs and Amuzgos. It is also home to communities of Afro-Mexicans in the Costa Chica region.

wn.com/Guerrero
Gulf of California
Coordinates: 28°0′N 112°0′W / 28°N 112°W / 28; -112
The Gulf of California (also known as the Sea of Cortez or Sea of Cortés or Vermilion Sea; locally known in the Spanish language as Mar de Cortés or Mar Bermejo or Golfo de California) is a body of water that separates the Baja California Peninsula from the Mexican mainland. It is bordered by the states of Baja California, Baja California Sur, Sonora, and Sinaloa with a coastline of approximately 4,000 km (2,500 mi). Rivers which flow into the Gulf of California include the Colorado, Fuerte, Mayo, Sinaloa, Sonora, and the Yaqui. The gulf's surface area is about 160,000 km² (62,000 sq mi).
The Gulf is thought to be one of the most diverse seas on the planet, and is home to more than 5,000 species of macro-invertebrates. Home to over a million people, Baja California is one of the longest peninsulas in the world, second only to the Malay Peninsula in Southeast Asia. The Gulf of California is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
The International Hydrographic Organization defines the southern limit of the Gulf of California as: "A line joining Piastla Point (23°38'N) in Mexico, and the Southern extreme of Lower California".

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Hermosillo
Hermosillo (Spanish pronunciation: [eɾmoˈsiʎo], formerly called Santísima Trinidad del Pitic and Presidio del Pitic) is a city and municipality located centrally in the northwestern Mexican state of Sonora. It is the capital and main economic center for the state and region. It contains almost all of the state's manufacturing and has thirty percent of its population. The major manufacturing sector is automobiles, which was begun in the 1980s, when Ford built the Hermosillo Stamping & Assembly Plant. The municipality is large, encompassing over 3,800 other communities and reaching to the shores of the Gulf of California. Here, Bahía Kino (Kino Bay) is a major tourism draw for the municipality with plans to expand its tourism infrastructure.
Evidence of the area's first inhabitants date back 3,000 years, much of which are from a site called the San Dieguito Complex, located in the El Pinacate Zone. Evidence of agriculture dates back 2,500 years. In the pre-Hispanic era, this area was inhabited by the Seri, Tepoca, and Pima peoples.

wn.com/Hermosillo
Hidalgo (state)
Hidalgo (Spanish pronunciation: [iˈðalɣo]), officially Free and sovereign State of Hidalgo (Spanish: Estado Libre y Soberano de Hidalgo), is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 84 municipalities and its capital city is Pachuca de Soto.
In 1869, Benito Juárez created the State of Hidalgo. He appointed as capital of the state the city of Pachuca to which was added the name "de Soto" in recognition of Manuel Fernando Soto, who is considered the most important driving force in creating the state. The state was named after Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, the initiator of the Mexican War of Independence.
It is located in Eastern Mexico. Hidalgo is bordered by San Luis Potosí and Veracruz on the north, Puebla on the east, Tlaxcala and México on the south and Querétaro on the west.
The state has a number of relatively intact native cultures such as the Otomi. There are also two notable immigrant cultures, those of the descendents of Cornish miners in the 19th century and a small Jewish enclave which claims to be descended from Sephardi Jews which came to New Spain in the 16th century.

wn.com/Hidalgo_(state)
Huachinera
Huachinera is a municipality and its municipal seat in the northeast of the Mexican state of Sonora. The municipal area is 1,184.86 km², with a population of 1,147 registered in 2000. [1] The population of the municipal seat was 732 in 2000.
It was founded with the name Juan Evangelista de Huachinera, in 1645, by the Spanish missionary Cristóbal García. The land now occupied by the municipality was once the home of the Ópata Indians.
The land is mainly mountainous and the main settlement lies at an elevation of 814 meters. Peaks reach the height of 2,700 meters. The average annual temperature is 16.9°C and the average annual rainfall is 427.0 mm.
Agriculture and cattle raising are the two main economic activities. Corn and beans are raised for subsistence while grasses are grown for cattle fodder. The cattle herd had 15,457 head in 2000 [2] and calves are exported to the United States of America. There is one mine, Santa Gertrudis, which has brought employment to the region.

Coordinates: 30°12′N 108°57′W / 30.2°N 108.95°W / 30.2; -108.95

wn.com/Huachinera
Huásabas
Huásabas is a municipality and its municipal seat in the northeast of the Mexican state of Sonora. The municipal area is 711.17 km² (274.58 mi²) with a population of 966 registered in 2000. Most of the inhabitants live in the municipal seat.
Neighboring municipalities are Villa Hidalgo, Granados, Bacadehuachi, Cumpas, and Moctezuma. Huásabas is connected to Moctezuma by a paved road; the distance being 47 km. The state capital, Hermosillo, lies at a distance of 215 km.
It was founded in 1645 by the Jesuit missionary Marcos del Río, with the name of "San Francisco de Huásaca". The land was occupied at the time by the Ópata Indians. In the Ópata language, Huásaca has two meanings: place of grassy lands or place of lands full of trash carried by the river.
The land is mountainous and the main settlement lies at an elevation of 850 meters (2,790 ft). The average annual temperature is 20.3 °C (68.5 °F) and the average annual rainfall is 490.8 mm (19.32 in).
The region is crossed by the Río Bavispe, which is a tributary of the Río Yaqui.

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Huépac
Huepac is a municipality and a municipal seat in the center of the Mexican state of Sonora. The municipal area is 317.37 km² with a population of 1,142 registered in 2000. [1] Most of the inhabitants live in the municipal seat.
Neighboring municipalities are Banámichi, Cumpas, Aconchi and San Felipe de Jesús. Huépac is connected to Banámichi and Aconchi by a paved highway.
Huépac was founded in 1644 by the Jesuit missionary Gerónimo de la Canal with the name of San Lorenzo de Güepaca. Its name comes from the Ópata Indian word, Güepaca, which means big valley ; from Güe big and paca, valley in Ópata. [2]
The land is hilly with valleys and the main settlement lies at an elevation of 304 meters. The average annual temperature is 21.4°C and the average annual rainfall is 424.0 mm. [3]
The region is crossed by the Rio Sonora, which receives the waters of the El Gavilán, Güevarachi and Triunfo.
Agriculture and cattle raising are the two main economic activities. Corn and beans are raised for subsistence while grasses are grown for cattle fodder. The cattle herd numbered 15,000 head in 2000. [4] The economically active population in 2000 was only 340 workers. [5]

wn.com/Huépac
Idaho
Idaho (ⁱ/ˈaɪdəhoʊ/) is a state in the Rocky Mountain area of the United States. Idaho is the 14th most expansive, the 39th most populous, and the 7th least densely populated of the 50 United States. The state's largest city and capital is Boise. Residents are called "Idahoans". Idaho was admitted to the Union on July 3, 1890, as the 43rd state.
Idaho is a mountainous state with an area larger than that of all of New England. It is landlocked, surrounded by the states of Washington, Oregon, Nevada, Utah, Wyoming, Montana and the Canadian province of British Columbia. However, the network of dams and locks on the Columbia River and Snake River make the city of Lewiston the farthest inland seaport on the Pacific coast of the contiguous United States.
Idaho's nickname is the Gem State, because nearly every known type of gemstone has been found there. In addition, Idaho is one of only two places in the world where star garnets can be found (the other is the Himalaya Mountains, in India)^{[citation needed]}, and is the only place six-pointed star garnets have been found^{[citation needed]}. Additionally Idaho is sometimes called the Potato State owing to its popular crop. The state motto is Esto Perpetua (Latin for "Let it be forever").

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Imuris
Imuris is a municipality and a municipal seat in the north of the Mexican state of Sonora.
The municipal area is 1,710.3 km² with a population of 9,988 registered in 2000. [1] Most of the inhabitants live in the municipal seat, which had a population of 5,767 in 2000. The municipal population has increased greatly with the installation of maquiladoras and is now estimated to be around 14,000. [2]
Neighboring municipalities are Nogales, Santa Cruz, Cananea, Arizpe, Cucurpe, and Magdalena de Kino.
Imuris is located along Federal Highway 15 - the long highway between Nogales at the USA/Mexico border and Mexico City - and the railroad line connecting Nogales and the USA into the Mexican railroad network. It is also the intersection with the eastbound section of Federal Highway 2, which heads to the state of Chihuahua and the city of Ciudad Juárez (across the Río Grande from El Paso, Texas).
The land was once occupied by the Pimas Altos. In 1687 the Jesuit missionary Eusebio Francisco Kino established the town of "San José de Imuris". The toponym of Imuris is Pima and a possible meaning is "Plateau between rivers" or "hills shaped like flint". [3]

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Isla Tiburón
Coordinates: 28°59′20″N 112°22′23″W / 28.98889°N 112.37306°W / 28.98889; -112.37306
Tiburón Island (Spanish: Isla del Tiburón or Isla Tiburón; Seri: Tahejöc (pronounced [taˈʔɛxʷk], with stress on the second syllable) is both the largest island in the Gulf of California and the largest island in Mexico, with an area of 464 sq mi (1,200 km²). It was made a nature reserve in 1963 by President Adolfo López Mateos.Tiburón is Spanish for shark. The etymology of the Seri name is unknown. The Seri name was first recorded by the Alphonse Pinart in 1879.
Tiburón Island is part of the state of Sonora, as well as the municipality of Hermosillo, and is located at approximately the same latitude as the city of Hermosillo. It is located along the eastern shore of the Gulf of California, opposite Isla Ángel de la Guarda. It is part of the chain of islands known as the Midriff Islands or Islas Grandes.
Tiburón Island is part of the traditional homeland of some bands (or clans) of the Seri people, probably for many centuries if not millennia. In 1975 the Mexican government, through a decree by President Echeverría, gave the Seris recognition and title of communal property ("reconocimiento y titulación de terrenos comunales") with respect to Tiburón Island.

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Italy
Italy ⁱ/ˈɪtəli/ (Italian: Italia [iˈtaːlja]), officially the Italian Republic or the Republic of Italy (Italian: Repubblica italiana), is a unitary parliamentary republic in south-central Europe. To the north, it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and Slovenia along the Alps. To the south, it consists of the entirety of the Italian Peninsula, Sicily, Sardinia–the two largest islands in the Mediterranean Sea–and many other smaller islands. The independent states of San Marino and the Vatican City are enclaves within Italy, while Campione d'Italia is an Italian exclave in Switzerland. The territory of Italy covers some 301,338 km² (116,347 sq mi) and is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. With 60.6 million inhabitants, it is the fifth most populous country in Europe, and the 23rd most populous in the world.
Rome, the capital of Italy, was for centuries a political and religious centre of Western civilisation as the capital of the Roman Empire and site of the Holy See. After the decline of the Roman Empire, Italy endured numerous invasions by foreign peoples, from Germanic tribes such as the Lombards and Ostrogoths, to the Byzantines and later, the Normans, among others. Centuries later, Italy became the birthplace of Maritime republics and the Renaissance, an immensely fruitful intellectual movement that would prove to be integral in shaping the subsequent course of European thought.

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Jalisco
Jalisco (Spanish pronunciation: [xaˈlisko]), officially Free and Sovereign State of Jalisco (Spanish: Estado Libre y Soberano de Jalisco), is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is located in Western Mexico and divided in 125 municipalities and its capital city is Guadalajara. It is one of the more important states in Mexico because of its natural resources as well as its history. Many of the characteristic traits of Mexican culture, particularly outside Mexico, are originally from Jalisco, such as mariachi, ranchera music, tequila, jaripeo, etc. Economically, it is ranked third in the country, with industries centered in the Guadalajara metropolitan area, the second largest metropolitan area in Mexico. The state is home to two significant indigenous populations, the Huichols and the Nahuas. There is also a significant foreign population, mostly retirees from the United States and Canada, living in the Lake Chapala and Puerto Vallarta areas.

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La Colorada
La Colorada is a small town and municipality in the Mexican state of Sonora. In 2005, the population of the municipality was 1,754, with 288 living in the municipal seat. Formerly known as Minas Prietas, La Colorada became a municipality on June 28, 1934. As an important mining camp in Mexico, La Colorada boasted a population that topped 5,604 in 1895. The municipality is situated 45 km (29 mi) southeast of Hermosillo.
Other small towns located within the municipality include Tecorípa, Cobachi, Estación Torres, and San José de Pimas.
Coordinates: 28°48′00″N 110°34′00″W / 28.8°N 110.5666667°W / 28.8; -110.5666667

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Lebanon
Lebanon (ⁱ/ˈlɛbənɒn/ or /ˈlɛbənən/; Arabic: لبنان‎ Libnān or Lubnān, Lebanese Arabic: [lɪbˈneːn]), officially the Lebanese Republic (Arabic: الجمهورية اللبنانية‎ al-Jumhūrīyah al-Libnānīyah, Lebanese Arabic: [elˈʒʊmhuːɾɪjje l.ˈlɪbneːnɪjje]), is a country in the East Mediterranean. It is bordered by Syria to the north and east, and Israel to the south. Lebanon's location at the crossroads of the Mediterranean Basin and the Arabian hinterland has dictated its rich history, and shaped a cultural identity of religious and ethnic diversity.
The earliest evidence of civilization in Lebanon dates back more than 7,000 years—predating recorded history. Lebanon was the home of the Phoenicians, a maritime culture that flourished for nearly 2,500 years (3000–539 BC). Following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire after World War I, the five provinces that comprise modern Lebanon were mandated to France. The French expanded the borders of Mount Lebanon, which was mostly populated by Maronite Catholics and Druze, to include more Muslims. Lebanon gained independence in 1943, and established a unique political system, known as confessionalism, a power-sharing mechanism based on religious communities – Bechara El Khoury who became independent Lebanon's first President and Riad El-Solh, who became Lebanon's first prime minister, are considered the founders of the modern Republic of Lebanon and are national heroes for having led the country's independence. French troops withdrew from Lebanon in 1946.

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Magdalena de Kino
Magdalena de Kino is a city and surrounding municipality located in the Mexican state of Sonora covering approximately 560 square miles (1,460 square kilometers). According to the 2005 census, the city's population was 23,101, and the municipality's population was 25,500. Magdalena de Kino is in the northern section of Sonora 50 miles (80 kilometers) from the Mexico-U.S. border. To the north the city abuts Nogales; to the south, the municipality of Santa Ana; to the east, Imuris and Cucurpe; and to the west, the municipalities of Tubutama and Sáric. Its main sectors include San Ignacio, San Isidro, Tacicuri, and Sásabe. The city was named after the Italian, Roman Catholic missionary, Father Eusebio Francisco Kino, who worked in the area, as well as in the present-day US state of Arizona.
Originally, the territory was populated by the Papagos (Tohono O'odham) and Pimas (Akimel O'odham). The first missions were established in 1687, with the arrival of Father Eusebio Francisco Kino. The municipal seat was founded at the beginning of 17th century by Lieutenant Juan Bautista Escalante. Magdalena de Kino suffered two massacres, one in 1757 and another in 1776. The city was founded by decree in December, 1923.^{[citation needed]} At first the city was called "Santa María Magdalena de Buquivaba", but was changed in 1966 to its present name.^{[citation needed]}

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Mazatán, Sonora
Mazatán is a municipality and a municipal seat in the center of the Mexican state of Sonora.
The municipal area is 649.27 km² with a population of 4,187 registered in 2000. [1] The municipal seat had a population of 1,499 in 2000. It is located at an elevation of 450 meters.
Neighboring municipalities are Ures, Villa Pesqueira, La Colorada, and Hermosillo.
The settlement of Mazatán was founded in the seventeenth century by the Jesuit Juan Nentuig. Its name comes from the Opata language and means "place of deer". During the nineteenth century Mazatán belonged to the district of Ures. It became a municipality on 10 December 1907. [2]
The region is part of the valleys of the center of the state. The average annual temperature is 21.7°C and the average annual rainfall is 508.8 mm. [3]
The region is crossed by the Rio Mazatán, which has an extension of 160 kilometers and flows into the Punta de Agua reservoir near Guaymas.
Agriculture and cattle raising are the main economic activities.
Corn and beans are raised for subsistence while grasses (sorghum, alfalfa, rye grass) are grown for cattle fodder.

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Mexico
Mexico (ⁱ/ˈmɛksɨkoʊ/; Spanish: México, IPA: [ˈmexiko] ( listen)), officially the United Mexican States (Spanish: Estados Unidos Mexicanos (help·info)), is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States of America; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of Mexico. Covering almost two million square kilometres (over 760,000 sq mi), Mexico is the fifth largest country in the Americas by total area and the thirteenth largest independent nation in the world. With an estimated population of over 113 million, it is the eleventh most populous country and the most populous Spanish-speaking country. Mexico is a federation comprising thirty-one states and a Federal District, the capital city.
In Pre-Columbian Mexico many cultures matured into advanced civilizations such as the Olmec, the Toltec, the Teotihuacan, the Zapotec, the Maya and the Aztec before the first contact with Europeans. In 1521, Spain conquered and colonized the territory from its base in México-Tenochtitlan, which was administered as the Viceroyalty of New Spain. This territory would eventually become Mexico as the colony's independence was recognized in 1821. The post-independence period was characterized by economic instability, the Mexican-American War and territorial cession to the United States, a civil war, two empires and a domestic dictatorship. The latter led to the Mexican Revolution in 1910, which culminated with the promulgation of the 1917 Constitution and the emergence of the country's current political system. Elections held in July 2000 marked the first time that an opposition party won the presidency from the Institutional Revolutionary Party.

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Mexico City
Mexico City ( /ˈmɛksɨkoʊ ˈsɪti/; Spanish: Ciudad de México [sjuˈðað ðe ˈmexiko], also known as México D.F., or simply D.F.) is the Federal District (Distrito Federal), capital of Mexico and seat of the federal powers of the Mexican Union. It is a federal entity within Mexico which is not part of any one of the 31 Mexican states but belongs to the federation as a whole. Mexico City is the country's largest city as well as its most important political, cultural, educational and financial center.
As an "alpha" global city Mexico City is one of the most important financial centers in North America. It is located in the Valley of Mexico (Valle de México), a large valley in the high plateaus at the center of Mexico, at an altitude of 2,240 metres (7,350 ft). The city consists of sixteen boroughs.
The 2009 estimated population for the city proper was around 8.84 million people, and has a land area of 1,485 square kilometres (573 sq mi). According to the most recent definition agreed upon by the federal and state governments, the Mexico City metropolitan area population is 21.2 million people, making it the largest metropolitan area in the western hemisphere and the fifth largest agglomeration in the world.

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Michoacán
Michoacán, formally Michoacán de Ocampo (Spanish pronunciation: [mitʃoaˈkan ðe oˈkampo]), officially Free and Sovereign State of Michoacán de Ocampo (Spanish: Estado Libre y Soberano de Michoacán de Ocampo), is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 113 municipalities and its capital city is Morelia (formerly called Valladolid). The city was named after José María Morelos, hero of the Mexican War of Independence.
Michoacán is located in Western Mexico. It is bordered by the states of Colima and Jalisco to the northwest, Guanajuato and Querétaro to the north, México to the east, Guerrero to the southeast. To the southwest, Michoacán has a stretch of coastline on the Pacific Ocean.
The name Michoacán is from Nahuatl: Michhuahkan from michhuah (“possessor of fish”) and -kan (place of) and means "place of the fishermen" referring to those who fish on Lake Pátzcuaro. In pre-Hispanic times, the area was the home of the P'urhépecha (Tarascan) Empire, which rivaled the Aztec Empire at the time of Spanish encounter. After the Spanish conquest, the empire became a separate province which became smaller over the colonial period. The state and several of its residents played a major role in the Mexican War of Independence. Today, the state is still home to a large population of P'urhépecha people as well as Otomi and Nahua. The economy is based on agriculture, fishing, mining and some industry. The major tourism draw for the state is the Lake Pátzcuaro-Tzintzuntzan-Quiroga area, which was the center of the P'urhépecha empire.

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Moctezuma, Sonora
Moctezuma is a municipio (municipality) of the Mexican state of Sonora, located in the state's central region. It is also the name of its largest settlement and cabecera municipal (municipal seat).
The municipal area is 1,763.39 km², with a population of 4,187 registered in 2000. [1] The municipal seat had a population of 3,798 in 2000. It is located at an elevation of 677 meters.
Neighboring municipalities are Cumpas in the north, Huásabas, Granados and Divisaderos in the east, Tepache, San Pedro de la Cueva Villa Pesqueira, and Baviácora in the west.
Moctezuma is 140 kilometers on Federal Highway 14 from Hermosillo passing through Ures, and Mazocahui. From Agua Prieta on Federal Highway 17 the distance is 204 km passing through Fronteras, Esqueda, and Nacozari. See maps at [2] or [3].
When the Spanish arrived the land was occupied by the Opata Indians. The settlement is believed to have been established by the Jesuit missionary Marcos del Río.
San Miguel Arcángel de Oposura, a large burnt brick church with vaulted ceiling, side bays, and an octagonal chapel with a wooden roof, was built by unidentified maestros brought to the site at great expense by Father Daniel Janusque sometime before his death in 1724. It continued under two of his successors until it was finished in February 1738.

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Montana
Montana (ⁱ/mɒnˈtænə/) is a state in the Western United States. The western third of Montana contains numerous mountain ranges. Smaller "island ranges" are found in the central third of the state, for a total of 77 named ranges that are part of the Rocky Mountains. This geographical fact is reflected in the state's name, derived from the Spanish word montaña (mountain). Montana has several nicknames, none official, including: "Big Sky Country" and "The Treasure State", and slogans that include "Land of the Shining Mountains" and more recently, "The Last Best Place". Montana is the 4th-most extensive, but the 7th-least populous and the 3rd-least densely populated of the 50 United States. The economy is primarily based on services, with ranching, wheat farming, oil and coal mining in the east, and lumber, tourism, and hard rock mining in the west. Millions of tourists annually visit Glacier National Park, the Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument, and three of the five entrances to Yellowstone National Park.

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Morelos
Morelos (Spanish pronunciation: [moˈɾelos]), officially Free and Sovereign State of Morelos (Spanish: Estado Libre y Soberano de Morelos), is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 33 municipalities and its capital city is Cuernavaca.
It is located in South-Central Mexico. It is bordered by the states of México to the north-east and north-west, Puebla to the east and Guerrero to the southwest. Mexico City is situated north of Morelos.
Morelos is the second-smallest state in the nation, just after Tlaxcala. It was part of the very large province then State of Mexico until 1869, when Benito Juárez decreed that its territory would be separated and named in honor of José María Morelos y Pavón, who defended the city of Cuautla from royalist forces during the Mexican War of Independence. Most of the state enjoys a warm climate year-round, which is good for the raising of sugar cane and other crops. Morelos has attracted visitors from the Valley of Mexico since Aztec times. Today, many people from Mexico City spend weekends in the state or own second homes there, especially in the Cuernavaca area.

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Naco (municipality)
Naco (municipality) is a municipality in Sonora in north-western Mexico.

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Naco, Sonora
Naco is a Mexican town and municipality located in the northeast part of Sonora state on the border with the United States. It is directly across from the unincorporated town of Naco, Arizona. The name Naco comes from the Opata language and means nopal cactus. The town saw fighting during the Mexican Revolution and during a rebellion led by General José Gonzalo Escobar in 1929. During the second conflict, an American pilot by the name of Patrick Murphy volunteered to bomb federal forces for the rebels, but mistakenly bombed Naco, Arizona instead. Today, the town has been strongly affected by the smuggling of drugs, people and weapons across the international border.
Before the arrival of Europeans, the area was dominated by the Nahua and Opata peoples. Naco, Sonora, along with Naco, Arizona, came into being in 1897 as a border crossing to connect copper mines on both sides. Naco, Sonora was officially founded in 1900 with the construction of the Naco-Cananea rail line. Until 1901, the area was part of the municipality of Fronteras, then part of the municipality of Cananea. It became an independent municipality in 1937.

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Nacozari
Nacozari de García is a small mining town surrounded by its municipal area in the northeast of the Mexican state of Sonora.
The municipal area is 3,069.52 km² with a population of 14,363 registered in 2000. [1] The municipal seat had a population of 11,193 in 2000. It is located at an elevation of 1,040 meters.
Neighboring municipalities are: Agua Prieta to the north, Bavispe to the east, Bacerac to the southeast, Villa Hidalgo and Cumpas to the south, Arizpe to the west, and Bacoachi and Fronteras to the northwest. See detailed map of the municipality at [2]
The municipal seat and main settlement is on Federal Highway 17, which connects Agua Prieta with Hermosillo. The distance to Agua Prieta is 123 kilometers. It is also on the railroad that connects with Agua Prieta. There is a small airport for light aircraft.
The land is mountainous and is part of the spurs of the Sierra Madre Occidental mountains. There is a reservoir La Angostura, which dams up the Río Bavispe.
Nacozari began with the discovery of mines in 1660. The first settlement was called Nuestra Señora del Rosario de Nacozari.

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Nacozari de García
Nacozari de García is a small mining town surrounded by its municipal area in the northeast of the Mexican state of Sonora.
The municipal area is 3,069.52 km² with a population of 14,363 registered in 2000. [1] The municipal seat had a population of 11,193 in 2000. It is located at an elevation of 1,040 meters.
Neighboring municipalities are: Agua Prieta to the north, Bavispe to the east, Bacerac to the southeast, Villa Hidalgo and Cumpas to the south, Arizpe to the west, and Bacoachi and Fronteras to the northwest. See detailed map of the municipality at [2]
The municipal seat and main settlement is on Federal Highway 17, which connects Agua Prieta with Hermosillo. The distance to Agua Prieta is 123 kilometers. It is also on the railroad that connects with Agua Prieta. There is a small airport for light aircraft.
The land is mountainous and is part of the spurs of the Sierra Madre Occidental mountains. There is a reservoir La Angostura, which dams up the Río Bavispe.
Nacozari began with the discovery of mines in 1660. The first settlement was called Nuestra Señora del Rosario de Nacozari.

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Navojoa
Navojoa is the fifth-largest city in the northern Mexican state of Sonora and is situated in the southern part of Sonora, 608 kilometers (378 mi) south of the state's border with the U.S. state of Arizona. It is the administrative seat of a large municipality, located in the Mayo River Valley.
The city name derives from the native Mayo language meaning "Cactus House" ("Navo"= Cactus, "Jova"= House). The valley has been continuously inhabited since pre-Hispanic times by the Mayo people.
In September 1536, Diego de Guzmán, a Spaniard, became the first known European to reach the valley and the first Jesuit missionaries started settling in the region in 1614. Several geoglyphs from the Mayo tribe can be found along the Mayo River.
Due to the city's distant location from Mexico City, the difficult times of Mexico's independence in the early 19th century were largely absent from the region. However, the city had some importance after the Mexican Revolution of 1910. The Mexican Revolutionary Álvaro Obregón was born in Hacienda Siquisiva, a small town near Navojoa. Álvaro Obregón became president of Mexico after the revolt and initiated an agricultural revolution in the Mayo/Yaqui Valley, introducing modern agricultural techniques and making this valley one of the most prosperous agricultural regions in Mexico.

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Nayarit
Nayarit (Spanish pronunciation: [naʝaˈɾit]), officially Free and Sovereign State of Nayarit (Spanish: Estado Libre y Soberano de Nayarit), is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, make up the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 20 municipalities and its capital city is Tepic.
It is located in Western Mexico. It is bordered by the states of Sinaloa to the northwest, Durango to the north, Zacatecas to the northeast and Jalisco to the south. To the west, Nayarit has a significant share of coastline on the Pacific Ocean.
Besides the mainland, the islands Marias, Isabel, Tres Marietas and Farallón La Peña in the Pacific Ocean are part of its territory.
Nayarit covers 27,815 square kilometers (10,739 sq mi), making it one of the smaller states of Mexico. Nayarit is located between latitude lines 23°05' north and 20°36' south and longitude lines 103°43' east and 105°46' west. Its terrain is broken up by the western ends of the Sierra Madre Occidental mountains. Its highest mountains are: San Juan, Sanguangüey, El Ceboruco, Cumbre de Pajaritos and Picachos. Nayarit has two volcanoes, Ceboruco and Sangangüey. In the northeast are broad, tropical plains watered by the Río Grande de Santiago, a continuation of the Lerma River. The main state rivers are the Río Grande de Santiago, San Pedro, Acaponeta, Ameca and Las Cañas. The last two also form natural boundaries with the states of Jalisco and Sinaloa, respectively. Nayarit also has several lagoons such as pito the Santa María del Oro, San Pedro Lagunillas and Agua Brava.

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Nevada
Nevada (ⁱ/nəˈvædə/ or /nəˈvɒdə/) is a state in the western, mountain west, and southwestern regions of the United States. Nevada is the 7th most extensive, the 35th most populous, and the 9th least densely populated of the 50 United States. Over two-thirds of Nevada's people live in one single county, Clark County, which contains the Las Vegas–Paradise metropolitan area, where the state's three largest incorporated cities are located. Nevada's capital is Carson City.
Nevada is largely desert and semiarid, with much of it located within the Great Basin. Areas south of the Great Basin are located within the Mojave Desert, while Lake Tahoe and the Sierra Nevada mountains lie on the western edge. Approximately 86% of the state's land is owned by the US government under various jurisdictions, both civilian and military.
The name Nevada is derived from the nearby Sierra Nevada mountains, which means "snow-capped mountain range" in Spanish. The land comprising the modern state was inhabited by Native Americans of the Paiute, Shoshone, and Washoe tribes prior to European contact. It was subsequently claimed by Spain as a part of Alta California until the Mexican War of Independence brought it under Mexican control. The United States gained the territory in 1848 following its victory in the Mexican-American War and the area was eventually incorporated as part of Utah Territory in 1850. The discovery of silver at the Comstock Lode in 1859 led to a population boom that was an impetus to the creation of Nevada Territory out of western Utah Territory in 1861. Nevada became the 36th state on October 31, 1864.

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New Mexico
New Mexico (ⁱ/nuː ˈmɛksɨkoʊ/) is a state located in the southwest and western regions of the United States. New Mexico is also usually considered one of the Mountain States. New Mexico is the 5th most extensive, the 36th most populous, and the 6th least densely populated of the 50 United States.
Inhabited by Native American populations for many centuries, New Mexico has also been part of the Imperial Spanish viceroyalty of New Spain, part of Mexico, and a U.S. territory. Among U.S. states, New Mexico has the highest percentage of Hispanics, including descendants of Spanish colonists and recent immigrants from Latin America. It also has the second-highest percentage of Native Americans, after Alaska, and the fourth-highest total number of Native Americans after California, Oklahoma, and Arizona. The tribes in the state consist of mostly Navajo and Pueblo peoples. As a result, the demographics and culture of the state are unique for their strong Hispanic and Native American influences. The flag of New Mexico is represented by the red and gold colors, which represent Spain, as well as the Zia symbol, an ancient Native American symbol for the sun.

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Nogales, Sonora
Heroica Nogales (Spanish pronunciation: [eˈɾoika noˈɣales]), more commonly known as Nogales, is a city and its surrounding municipality on the northern border of the Mexican State of Sonora. The municipality covers an area of 1,675 km² and is abutted on its north by the city of Nogales, Arizona, United States, across the U.S.-Mexico border. As of 2000^[update], the census reported that Nogales had a population of 159,103 people, representing approximately 50% growth from 1990. By the 2005 census the official population of the city was 189,759, and that of the municipality was 193,517. At the latest census in 2010, the official numbers were 212,533 for the city, and 220,292 for the municipality. The city and the municipality both rank third in the state in population, after Hermosillo and Ciudad Obregón. The municipality includes many outlying but small rural communities. The only other localities with over 1,000 inhabitants are La Mesa (2,996) 31°09′35″N 110°58′28″W / 31.15972°N 110.97444°W / 31.15972; -110.97444 and Centro de Readaptación Social Nuevo (2,203) 31°11′04″N 110°58′04″W / 31.18444°N 110.96778°W / 31.18444; -110.96778. Nogales is served by Nogales International Airport.

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Nuevo León
Nuevo León (Spanish pronunciation: [ˈnweβo leˈon]), officially Free and Sovereign State of Nuevo León (Spanish: Estado Libre y Soberano de Nuevo León), is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 51 municipalities and its capital city is Monterrey.
It is located in Northeastern Mexico. It is bordered by the states of Tamaulipas to the north and east, San Luis Potosí to the south, and Coahuila to the west. To the north, Nuevo León has a 15 kilometer (9 mi) stretch of the U.S.-Mexico border adjacent to the U.S. state of Texas.
The state was named after the New Kingdom of León, an administrative territory of the Viceroyalty of New Spain.
Besides its capital, other important cities are Guadalupe, Santa Catarina, San Nicolás de los Garza, and San Pedro Garza García, all of which are part of the Monterrey Metropolitan area.
Nuevo León was originally founded by Alberto del Canto, although frequent raids by Chichimecas, the natives of the north, prevented the establishment of almost any permanent settlements. Subsequent to the failure of del Canto to populate Luis Carvajal y de la Cueva, at the head of Portuguese and Spanish settlers, requested permission from the Spanish King to attempt to repopulate the area which would be called the New Kingdom of León, it eventually became (along with the provinces of Coahuila, Nuevo Santander and Texas) one of the Eastern Internal Provinces in Northern New Spain.

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Nácori Chico
Nácori Chico is a small town surrounded by its municipal area in the east of the Mexican state of Sonora.
The municipal area is 2,748.67 km² (1,061.27 mi²) with a population of 2,236 registered in 2000. [1] The municipal seat had a population of 999 in 2000. It is located at an elevation of 900 meters.
Neighboring municipalities are: Huachinera to the north, Sahuaripa to the south, Bacadéhuachi to the west, and the state of Chihuahua to the east. Nácori Chico is connected by a dirt road to Bacadéhuachi
The land is mountainous and is part of the spurs of the Sierra Madre Occidental mountains. There are only small streams which are tributaries of the Rio Yaqui.
The region now occupied by the municipality was once the land of the Opata people. The name of Nácori comes from the Opata language and means place of the nopal cactus.
It was founded in 1665 by the Spanish missionary Cristóbal García with the name of Nuestra Señora de Nácori Chico; it became a municipality in its own right in 1934.
In 1886, Mexican Army militia fought Americans and Apaches sixty miles southeast of the town in an incident known as the Crawford Affair. During the battle, American Captain Emmet Crawford was killed and his death nearly sparked a war between Mexico and the United States.

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Oaxaca
Oaxaca (English /wəˈhɑːkə/ wə-HAH-kə, Spanish: [waˈxaka] ( listen), from Nahuatl: Huaxyacac [waːsʃakak]), officially Free and Sovereign State of Oaxaca (Spanish: Estado Libre y Soberano de Oaxaca), is one of the 31 states which, along with the Federal District, comprise the 32 federative entities of Mexico. It is divided into 571 municipalities; of which 418 (almost three quarters) are governed by the system of Usos y costumbres (customs and traditions) with recognized local forms of self governance. Its capital city is Oaxaca de Juárez.
It is located in Southwestern Mexico. It is bordered by the states of Guerrero to the west, Puebla to the northwest, Veracruz to the north, Chiapas to the east. To the south, Oaxaca has a significant coastline on the Pacific Ocean.
The state is best known for its indigenous peoples and cultures. The most numerous and best known are the Zapotecs and the Mixtecs, but there are sixteen that are officially recognized. These cultures have survived better than most others in Mexico due to the state’s rugged and isolating terrain. Most live in the Central Valleys region, which is also an important area for tourism, attracting people for its archeological sites such as Monte Albán, native culture and crafts. Another important tourist area is the coast, which has the major resort of Huatulco. Oaxaca is also one of the most biologically diverse states in Mexico, ranking in the top three, along with Chiapas and Veracruz, for numbers of reptiles, amphibians, mammals and plants.

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Onavas
Onavas is a small town surrounded by its municipal area in the southeast of the Mexican state of Sonora.
The municipal area is 529.48 km² with a population of 479 registered in 2000. INEGI Most of this population lives in the small municipal seat. It is located at an elevation of 180 meters. The municipal population has been decreasing since 1980 when it was 586.
Neighboring municipalities are Soyopa to the north, Yécora to the east, Suaqui Grande to the southwest, and San Javier to the west. Onavas is crosses by the Río Yaqui, which rises in Chihuahua and flows into the Pacific Ocean
The name Onavas comes from the Cahita language and means salty water.
It was founded in 1622 by two Jesuit missionaries: Diego Vandersipe and Blas Paredes.
Agriculture covered 2,227 hectares (2000), most of which were not irrigated. Main crops are alfalfa, beans, corn and the production of fodder for the cattle industry. Sonora Turismo
Cattle raising was carried out by sixty percent of the work force (2000) and there were 6,614 head of cattle. Sonora Turismo

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Opodepe
Opodepe is a municipality and a municipal seat in the north of the Mexican state of Sonora. The municipal area is 2,804.25 km² with a population of 2,842 registered in 2000. [1] The main settlement and the municipal seat had a population of 346 in 2000. [2]
The settlement of Querobabi, located near Federal Highway 15 (four-lane toll), has seen an increase in population from 900 in 1980 to 3,900 in 2005 while the municipal seat, located in the hill lands has seen a decrease from over 1,000 to its present population of less than 500. [3] The land now occupied by Opodepe was once the land of the Opata Indians. The name of Opodepe comes from the Opata language, from the roots "opo", which means iron wood, "det" flat, and "pa" place, "in the plain of the ironwood". [4]
In 1704, Father Kino founded the misssion settlement of Nuestra Señora de la Asunción de Opodepe in this town.
Neighboring municipalities are Benjamín Hill, Santa Ana, Cucurpe, Arizpe, Banámichi, San Felipe de Jesús, Carbó, Rayón and Trincheras. The municipal seat of Odopepe is connected to Mex 15 by a road that was gravel in 2005.

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Oquitoa
Oquitoa is a small town surrounded by its municipal area in the northwest of the Mexican state of Sonora.
The municipal area is 636.64 km² with a population of 402 registered in 2000. [1] Most of this population lives in the small municipal seat. It is located at an elevation of 579 meters.
Neighboring municipalities are Atil to the northeast; Trincheras to the southeast, and Altar to the west.
It was founded in 1689 by the Jesuit missionary: Eusebio Kino. One theory is that the name Oquitoa means "white woman" in the Piman language. Another, taken from the 1910 publication "New Trails in Mexico" by Karl Lumholtz is that the name Oquitoa is taken from the O'odham or Piman Phrase, Hukit'o, "next to" or "nearby"(Lumholtz, p. 391, 1990) in reference to the nearby San Ignacio river. Louis Alphonse Pinart's Vocabulario de la Lengua Papaga, 1897, collected in Pitiquito Sonora Mexico from Trinidad Peralta and the Papago governor, Mattias Parra of the Papago community of Pitiquito corroborates Lumholtz's definition of Oquitoa as "hukit'o" Oks Toha, or Oquitoa as defined by the first theory as white woman, literally means 'woman white' that even in the structure of Piman grammar is awkward and is therefore highly unlikely.

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Pitiquito
Pitiquito is both a small town and its surrounding municipal area in the northwest of the Mexican state of Sonora.
The municipal area is 11,979.96 km² which makes up 6.46% of the state total. The municipal population counted in 2000 was 9,160. [1] The population of the main settlement and municipal seat was 4,862 in 2000. It is located at an elevation of 305 meters.
Neighboring municipalities are Altar to the northwest, Hermosillo to the south, Trincheras to the east, and Caborca and the Gulf of California to the west. The town of Pitiquito is located in the north of the municipality on Federal Highway 2.
Puerto Libertad (Sonora)
In this region the climate is hot and dry with rainfall between 75 and 200 mm a year. Between December and February nighttime temperatures can drop to 8.5°C below zero while from June to August they can reach 49.5°C. [2]
When the Spanish arrived the area was populated by various sedentary tribes settled along the banks of the Altar and Magdalena rivers. It was founded by Fr. Eusebio Francisco Kino in 1694 with the name of Natividad del Señor de Pitiquin. In 1768 the Franciscans took over the churches and the name was changed to San Antonio de Pitiquito. According to local tradition the town took the name of an Indian chief called "Piti or Pitic". It became a municipality in 1914.

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Puebla
Puebla (Spanish pronunciation: [ˈpweβla]), officially Free and Sovereign State of Puebla (Spanish: Estado Libre y Soberano de Puebla), is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 217 municipalities and its capital city is Puebla.
It is located in East-Central Mexico. It is bordered by the states of Veracruz to the north and east, Hidalgo, México, Tlaxcala and Morelos to the west, Guerrero and Oaxaca to the south.
The origins of the state lie in the city of Puebla, which was founded by the Spanish in this valley in 1531 to secure the trade route between Mexico City and the port of Veracruz.
By the end of the 18th century, the area had become a colonial province with its own governor, which would become the State of Puebla, after the Mexican War of Independence in the early 19th century. Since that time, the area, especially around the capital city, has continued to grow economically, mostly through industry, despite being the scene of a number of battles, the most notable of which being the Battle of Puebla. Today, the state is one of the most industrialized in the country, but since most of its development is concentrated in Puebla and other cities, many of its rural areas are very poor, forcing many to migrate away to places such as Mexico City and the United States.

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Punta Chueca
Punta Chueca (the name in the Seri language is Socaaix) is a Seri town located on the Gulf of California in the Mexican state of Sonora. It is located 16 miles north of the fishing and tourist town of Bahía de Kino. Both of these towns are part of the Municipality of Hermosillo. One of the two villages on the Seri Indian communal property (the other being El Desemboque (Haxöl Iihom)), it has small stores, a primary school and a small satellite-fed secondary school (telesecundaria). It is one of the closest points on the mainland to Tiburón Island, separated from it by the Canal del Infiernillo (Xepe Coosot). According to the Mexican census of 2010, the town (officially a locality, or localidad), had a population of 520 inhabitants.
"Corita" basket from Punta Chueca on display at the UABC cultural museum in Mexicali
Coordinates: 29°0′54″N 112°9′42″W / 29.015°N 112.16167°W / 29.015; -112.16167

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Querétaro
Querétaro (Spanish pronunciation: [keˈɾetaɾo]), officially Free and Sovereign State of Querétaro (Spanish: Estado Libre y Soberano de Querétaro), is one of 31 states that, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided into 18 municipalities. Its capital city is Santiago de Querétaro.
It is located in North-Central Mexico, in a region known as Bajío. It is bordered by the states of San Luis Potosí to the north, Guanajuato to the west, Hidalgo to the east, México to the southeast and Michoacán to the southwest.
The state is one of the smallest in Mexico, but it is also one of the most heterogeneous geographically, with ecosystems varying from deserts to tropical rainforest, especially in the Sierra Gorda, which is filled with microecosystems. The area of the state was located on the northern edge of Mesoamerica, with both the P’urhépecha and Aztec empires having influence in the extreme south, but neither really dominated it. The area, especially the Sierra Gorda, had a number of small city-states, but by the time the Spanish arrived, these had all been abandoned, with only small agricultural villages and seminomadic peoples inhabiting the area. Spanish conquest was focused on the establishment of the Santiago de Querétaro, which still dominates the state culturally, economically and educationally.

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Quintana Roo
Quintana Roo (Spanish pronunciation: [kinˈtana ˈro]), officially Free and Sovereign State of Quintana Roo (Spanish: Estado Libre y Soberano de Quintana Roo), is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 10 municipalities and its capital city is Chetumal.
It is located in Southeastern Mexico, on the eastern part of the Yucatán Peninsula. It is bordered by the states of Yucatán to the northwest and Campeche to the west. To the north, Quintana Roo borders the Gulf of Mexico and to the south, Belize. It also claims territory which gives it a small border with Guatemala in the southwest of the state, although this disputed area is also claimed by Campeche.
Quintana Roo is home of the world famous city of Cancún, the islands of Cozumel and Isla Mujeres, the towns of Bacalar, Playa del Carmen and Akumal, as well as the ancient Maya ruins of Chacchoben, Coba, Kohunlich, Muyil, Tulum, Xel-Há, and Xcaret. The Sian Ka'an Biosphere Reserve is also in the state.

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Quiriego
Quiriego is a small town and municipality in the southeast of the Mexican state of Sonora.
The municipal area is 2,705.72 km². The municipal population counted in 2005 was 3,335. The population of the main settlement and municipal seat was 994 in 2000. The municipal population has been decreasing steadily since 1980 when it was 4,474. [1] The main settlement is located at an elevation of 822 meters.
Neighboring municipalities are Rosario to the north, Álamos to the east, Navojoa and the state of Chihuahua to the south and Cajeme to the west.
Quiriego is located east of Ciudad Obregón and is connected by dirt road with the main Federal Highway 15 at the village of Funcición. Sonora Map
The name Quiriego comes from the Latin words in the liturgy of the mass "kirie" lord and "ego" I.
Located in this region are the ruins of the ancient Real de Minas y Villa de Baroyeca, which was one of the most important settlements in Sonora during the colonial period and beginning of the post-independence era.

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Rayón (municipality)
Rayón (municipality) is a municipality in Sonora in north-western Mexico.

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Rayón, Sonora
Rayón is a small town surrounded by its municipal area in the center of the Mexican state of Sonora at a distance of 110 kilometers from the state capital Hermosillo
The municipal area is 1,106.54 km² with a population of 1,591 registered in 2000. [1] The population of the municipal seat was 1,273 in 2000. It is located at an elevation of 618 meters.
Neighboring municipalities are:
There are highway connections with Ures (41 kilometers), Carbó (48 kilometers), and Opodepe (26 kilometers).
Rayón was founded in 1638, by the Jesuit missionary Pedro Pantoja, who gave it the name of Nuestra Señora del Rosario de Nacameri; the area had been inhabited by the Pima Bajos. In 1825 the name was changed to Rayón to honor General Ignacio López Rayón. In 1850 it was given the category of villa and in the middle of the nineteenth century it was a municipality belonging to the district of Ures. An important date is the beginning of the construction of the church which still is in use today.
There were 7 schools and one doctor in 2000. Gobierno de Sonora

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Rosario de Tesopaco
Rosario de Tesopaco (often abbreviated to Rosario) is a small town surrounded by its municipal area in the southeast of the Mexican state of Sonora.
The municipal area is 3,301.90 km² with a population of 5,432 registered in 2000. [1] The population of the municipal seat was 2,649 in 2000. It is located at an elevation of 450 meters.
Neighboring municipalities are:
The municipal seat was originally a cattle ranch called San Salvador Tesopaco. In 1622 the Jesuit missionary Diego Vandersipe founded the settlements of Santa Ana de Moras and San Joaquín de Nuri, which were seats of their respective municipalities belonging to the larger municipality of Rosario. In 1866 in the village of Movas there was a skirmish between the liberal troops of Coronel Asunción Correa and an Imperialist group commanded by Joaquín Monge; the liberals won. In 1879 it acquired the category of municipality and annexed the former municipalities of Movas and Nuri.
There were 23 schools and a small health clinic in 2000. Enciclopedia de los Municipios

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Russia
Russia ⁱ/ˈrʌʃə/ or /ˈrʊʃə/ (Russian: Россия, tr. Rossiya; IPA: [rɐˈsʲijə] ( listen)), also officially known as the Russian Federation (Russian: Российская Федерация, tr. Rossiyskaya Federatsiya; IPA: [rɐˈsʲijskəjə fʲɪdʲɪˈratsɨjə] ( listen)), is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects. From northwest to southeast, Russia shares borders with Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland (both via Kaliningrad Oblast), Belarus, Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia, and North Korea. It also has maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, and the US state of Alaska by the Bering Strait. At 17,075,400 square kilometres (6,592,800 sq mi), Russia is the largest country in the world, covering more than one eighth of the Earth's inhabited land area. Russia is also the eighth most populous nation with 143 million people. It extends across the whole of northern Asia and 40% of Europe, spanning nine time zones and incorporating a wide range of environments and landforms. Russia has the world's largest reserves of mineral and energy resources and is the largest producer of oil and natural gas globally. Russia has the world's largest forest reserves and its lakes contain approximately one-quarter of the world's fresh water.

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Sahuaripa
Sahuaripa is a town and municipality in the Mexican state of Sonora. The area is 5,694.4 km². with a population of 5,792 in 2005. The town and municipal seat had a population of 3,807 in 2000.
The municipal seat is located in the east of the state at 29°03′N 109°14′W / 29.05°N 109.233°W / 29.05; -109.233 at an elevation of 1,165 meters above sea level. Municipal boundaries are with Nácori Chico in the north, Yécora and Onavas in the south, Soyopa in the southwest, Bacanora in the west, San Pedro de la Cueva in the northwest, and the state of Chihuahua in the east. See detailed map at Maps of Sonora
In the Opata language Sahuaripa means "Yellow Ant". It is first referenced by name during one of the initial Spanish incursions in June 1567 by Francisco de Ibarra as "Zaguaripa". Based on descriptions there is historical speculation that Alvar Nuñez Cabeza de Vaca may have passed through the Sahuaripa Valley in 1536. Andres Perez de Ribas, SJ entered the valley in 1617 and recorded the encounter with the Opata chief Sisibotari in his work, "Historia de los Triunfos de Nuestra Santa Fe". The first inhabitants were the Opata, among whom was the great chief Sisibotárit, who was lord of 70 villages. The Spanish founded a settlement in 1641 with the name of "Nuestra Señora de los Angeles de Sahuaripa".

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San Felipe de Jesús
San Felipe de Jesús is a municipality and a municipal seat in the center of the Mexican state of Sonora. The municipal area is 152.8 km², with a population of 416 registered in 2000. [1] Most of the inhabitants live in the municipal seat. The population has been decreasing steadily since 1980. At the 2010 census there were 392 inhabitants in the town (locality) out of a 396 total for the municipality. It is the least populous municipality in Mexico outside the State of Oaxaca (where there are 22 less populous).
San Felipe was founded in 1657, when Captain Juan Munguía Villela claimed the lands to establish a ranch for the extraction of minerals.
Neighboring municipalities are Banámichi, Aconchi, Opodepe, and Huépac. San Felipe is connected to Huépac and Aconchi by a two lane paved road, which links Mazocahui and Cananea.
The land is hilly with valleys and the main settlement lies at an elevation of 853 meters. The average annual rainfall is 468.8 mm. [2]
The region is crossed by the Río Sonora.

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San Javier, Sonora
San Javier is a town, and the surrounding municipality of the same name, in the Mexican state of Sonora. The elevation is 650 meters. The area of the municipality is 793.27 km². and the population was 279 in 2000. Surrounding municipalities are Soyopa to the north, Onavas, to the east, Suaqui Grande, to the south, and Colorada, to the west.
Most of the small population is involved in animal raising and subsistence farming.
Coordinates: 28°36′00″N 109°44′00″W / 28.60000001°N 109.733333343°W / 28.60000001; -109.733333343

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San Luis Potosí
San Luis Potosí (Spanish pronunciation: [ˈsan ˈlwis potoˈsi]), officially Free and Sovereign State of San Luis Potosí (Spanish: Estado Libre y Soberano de San Luis Potosí), is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 58 municipalities and its capital city is San Luis Potosí.
It is located in North-Central Mexico. It is bordered by the states of Coahuila to the north, Nuevo León to the northeast, Tamaulipas and Veracruz to the east, Hidalgo, Querétaro, and Guanajuato to the south, Zacatecas to the northwest, and Jalisco to the west.
In addition to the capital city, the state's largest cities include Ciudad Valles, Matehuala, and Rioverde.
The state and its capital are both named after Louis IX of France (also known in Mexico as San Luis Rey de Francia, Saint Louis, King of France), its patron saint. The Potosí was added in reference to the fabulously rich mines of Potosí, Bolivia, believed to have enough gold to build a bridge between Bolivia and Spain. Thereafter, upon the development of Cerro de San Pedro near the capital city, they found such gold wealth that they compared it to that of Potosi and thus they named it as such. The wealth of these mines is thought to be comparable to that of the local mines at Cerro de San Pedro.

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Santa Ana, Sonora
Santa Ana is a small city and municipal seat of the municipality of the same name in the Mexican state of Sonora. It is located 168 kilometers north of state capital Hermosillo and 100 kilometers south of Nogales on the United States border. The area of the municipality is 1,620.65 kms2 and the population was 14,638 in 2005. The town had a 2005 census population of 10,593 inhabitants. [1]
This settlement originated when the Pimas (indigenous people in northwest Mexico) settled in the area now called Santa Ana Viejo attracted by the mission established by the Jesuits. The present town of Santa Ana was founded by Diego A. Moreno in the year 1883, when the Sonoran Railroad was being built in this area of the state. Santa Ana achieved the status of a municipality in 1935. 2008 The movie Fast and The Furious was being filmed throughout the months of June and July in Santa Ana as well as Magdalena de Kino, Sonora.
The main tourist attraction in Santa Ana is the Neo-Gothic styled Church built in the 1900s to honor Our Lady of Saint Ana. Every year during the month of July, the whole town celebrates the day of their Saint with a fair and dances.

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Santa Cruz, Sonora
Santa Cruz is a town in Santa Cruz Municipality, in the northern region of the Mexican state of Sonora.

Coordinates: 31°14′01″N 110°35′43″W / 31.23361°N 110.59528°W / 31.23361; -110.59528

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Senate of Mexico
The Senate of the Republic, (Spanish: Senado de la República) constitutionally Chamber of Senators of the Honorable Congress of the Union (Spanish: Cámara de Senadores del H. Congreso de la Unión, is the upper house of Mexico's bicameral Congress.
After a series of reforms during the 1990s, it is now made up of 128 senators:
In a senatorial race, each party nominates two candidates who run and are elected together by direct vote. The party of the two candidates that won the second highest vote within the state or the Federal District then assigns a senator to occupy the third seat (first minority seat), according to the list of candidates that the party registered with the Federal Electoral Institute (IFE).
Senators serve six-year terms, running concurrently with the President of Mexico. Special elections are rare, as substitutes are chosen at every election.
The Senate is completely renewed every six years, since senators are barred from immediate reelection.
In Spanish, it is conventional to refer to each Legislature of the Senate by the Roman numeral of its term.

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Sinaloa
Sinaloa (Spanish pronunciation: [sinaˈloa]), officially Free and Sovereign State of Sinaloa (Spanish: Estado Libre y Soberano de Sinaloa), is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 18 municipalities and its capital city is Culiacán Rosales.
It is located in Northwestern Mexico. It is bordered by the states of Sonora to the north, Chihuahua and Durango to the east (separated from them by the Sierra Madre Occidental) and Nayarit to the south. To the west, Sinaloa has a significant share of coastline on the Gulf of California.
The state covers an area of 57,377 square kilometers (22,153 sq mi), and includes the Islands of Palmito Verde, Palmito de la Virgen, Altamura, Santa María, Saliaca, Macapule and San Ignacio.
In addition to the capital city, the state's important cities include Mazatlán and Los Mochis.
Prior to the coming of the Spaniards, much of Sinaloa was inhabited by the Cáhita.
In 1531 Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán with a force of over 10,000 defeated a force of 30,000 Cáhita at the site of Culiacan. Beltran de Guzman established a Spanish and allied Indian outpost at Culiacan. Over the next decade, the Cáhita suffered severe depopulation from smallpox and other diseases the Spanish brought.

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Sonora
Sonora (Spanish pronunciation: [so̞ˈno̞ɾa]), officially Free and Sovereign State of Sonora (Spanish: Estado Libre y Soberano de Sonora), is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided into 72 municipalities; the capital city is Hermosillo. Sonora is located in Northwest Mexico, bordered by the states of Chihuahua to the east, Baja California to the northwest and Sinaloa to the south. To the north, it shares the U.S.–Mexico border with the states of Arizona and New Mexico, and on the west has a significant share of the coastline of the Gulf of California.
Sonora's natural geography is divided into three parts: the Sierra Madre Occidental in the east of the state; plains and rolling hills in the center; and the coast on the Gulf of California. It is primarily arid or semi-arid deserts and grasslands, with only the highest elevations having sufficient rainfall to support other types of vegetation.
Sonora is home to eight indigenous peoples, including the Mayo, the Yaqui and the Seri. It has been economically important for its agriculture, livestock (especially beef) and mining since the colonial period, and for its status as a border state since the Mexican–American War. After the Gadsden Purchase, Sonora lost more than a quarter of its territory. From the 20th century to the present, industry, tourism and agribusiness have dominated the economy, attracting migration from other parts of Mexico.

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Sonora Desert
The Sonoran Desert is a North American desert which covers large parts of the Southwestern United States in Arizona, California, Northwest Mexico in Sonora, Baja California, and Baja California Sur. It is one of the largest and hottest deserts in North America, with an area of 311,000 square kilometers (120,000 sq mi). The western portion of the United States-Mexico border passes through the Sonoran Desert.
In phytogeography, the Sonoran Desert is within the Sonoran Floristic Province of the Madrean Region in southwestern North America, part of the Holarctic Kingdom of the northern Western Hemisphere. The desert contains a variety of unique and endemic plants and animals, such as the Saguaro (Carnegiea gigantea) and Organ Pipe cactus (Stenocereus thurberi).
The Sonoran desert wraps around the northern end of the Gulf of California, from Baja California Sur (El Vizcaíno Biosphere Reserve in central and Pacific west coast, Central Gulf Coast subregion on east to southern tip), north through much of Baja California, excluding the central northwest mountains and Pacific west coast, through southeastern California and southwestern and southern Arizona to western and central parts of Sonora.

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Sonoran Desert
The Sonoran Desert is a North American desert which covers large parts of the Southwestern United States in Arizona, California, Northwest Mexico in Sonora, Baja California, and Baja California Sur. It is one of the largest and hottest deserts in North America, with an area of 311,000 square kilometers (120,000 sq mi). The western portion of the United States-Mexico border passes through the Sonoran Desert.
In phytogeography, the Sonoran Desert is within the Sonoran Floristic Province of the Madrean Region in southwestern North America, part of the Holarctic Kingdom of the northern Western Hemisphere. The desert contains a variety of unique and endemic plants and animals, such as the Saguaro (Carnegiea gigantea) and Organ Pipe cactus (Stenocereus thurberi).
The Sonoran desert wraps around the northern end of the Gulf of California, from Baja California Sur (El Vizcaíno Biosphere Reserve in central and Pacific west coast, Central Gulf Coast subregion on east to southern tip), north through much of Baja California, excluding the central northwest mountains and Pacific west coast, through southeastern California and southwestern and southern Arizona to western and central parts of Sonora.

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Sonoyta
Sonoyta, Sonora is a town in the northern Mexican state of Sonora. It stands on the U.S.-Mexico border, facing Lukeville, Arizona, in the United States. It is the municipal seat of the municipality of Plutarco Elías Calles.
According to the 2010 census, the city had 12,849 inhabitants while the surrounding municipality had 15,652 inhabitants. There were 6,613 male inhabitants and 6,236 female. 76.1 percent of the population over five years of age are Roman Catholic, 13.0 percent are Evangelicals, and the remaining 10.9 percent belong to other religions.
The first inhabitants of this region were the Tohono O'odham, who lived in the regions of Pinacate, Quitovac, and Sonoyta. The arrival of Jesuit missionaries to this zone changed their way of life. Therefore, compact communities were formed mainly on the banks of lakes and of the river. At the foothills of a spot known as Loma Alta, sprouted water from a fountain, called by the naturals Ṣon Oidag, O'odham for "base of the water". A missionary community was founded in Sonoyta in 1693 by Father Kino. It was called Nuestra Senora de Loreto y San Marcelo de Sonoyta.

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Soyopa
Soyopa (Yaqui: "hot land") is a town, and the surrounding municipality of the same name, in the eastern region of the Mexican state of Sonora. The elevation is 350 meters. The municipal area is 846.33 km². and the population was 1,649 in 2000.
Neighboring municipalities are:
The main economic activities are cattle raising (16,000 head in 2000), agriculture (rye, sorghum, wheat), and mining.
Silver was mined here beginning in the eighteenth century and the town had its economic heyday around 1880. After that the silver mines ran out and the population declined.
Coordinates: 28°46′00″N 109°37′59″W / 28.7667°N 109.633°W / 28.7667; -109.633

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State of Mexico
Mexico (Spanish: México, pronounced: [ˈmexiko] ( listen)), officially Free and Sovereign State of Mexico (Spanish: Estado Libre y Soberano de México), is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of the United Mexican States. It is the most populous, as well as the densest in population. It is divided into 125 municipalities and its capital city is Toluca de Lerdo.
The State of Mexico is often abbreviated to "Edomex" from Estado de México in Spanish. It is located in South-Central Mexico. It is bordered by the states of Querétaro and Hidalgo to the north, Morelos and Guerrero to the south, Michoacán to the west, Tlaxcala and Puebla to the east and surrounds the Federal District.
The state’s origins are in the territory of the Aztec Empire, which remained a political division of New Spain during the colonial period. After Independence, Mexico City was chosen as the capital of the new nation, its territory was separated out the state. Years later, parts of the state were broken off to form the states of Hidalgo, Guerrero and Morelos. These territorial separations have left the state with the size and shape it has today, with the Toluca Valley to the west of Mexico City and a panhandle that extends around the north and east of this entity.

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Suaqui Grande
Suaqui Grande is a town, and the surrounding municipality of the same name, in the eastern region of the Mexican state of Sonora. It was founded in 1620 by the missionary Martín Burgencio.
The municipal area is 889.28 km². and the population was 1,102 in 2000. The main economic activities are cattle raising, growing of grass for cattle feed and subsistence agriculture.
Coordinates: 28°24′N 109°54′W / 28.4°N 109.9°W / 28.4; -109.9

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Syria
Syria (/ˈsɪriə/ ( listen) SIRR-ee-ə; Arabic: سورية‎ Sūriyya or سوريا Sūryā; Syriac: ܣܘܪܝܐ; Kurdish: Sûrî), officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic: الجمهورية العربية السورية‎ al-Jumhūriyyah al-‘Arabīyah as-Sūriyyah Arabic pronunciation (help·info)), is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the West, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south, and Israel to the southwest.
In English, the name Syria was formerly synonymous with the Levant, known in Arabic as Sham, while the modern state encompasses the sites of several ancient kingdoms and empires, including the Eblan civilization of the third millennium BC. In the Islamic era, its capital city, Damascus, the oldest continuously inhabited city in the world, was the seat of the Umayyad Caliphate, and a provincial capital of the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt.
The population of Syria is 74% Sunni, 12% Alawi, 10% Christian, and 3% Druze. Combined, 87% of the Syrian population is Muslim, while the other 10% is Christian, which includes mainly Arab Christians but also Assyrians and Armenians. Major ethnic minorities in Syria include Kurds (9%), Assyrians, Armenians, Turkmens and Circassians. The majority of the population is Arab (90%).

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Sáric
Sáric (O'odham: Ṣaʼalk) is a small town and the municipal area (municipio) around it, located in the extreme north of the Mexican state of Sonora. Its northern boundary is the U.S. state of Arizona. The population of the municipality (urban and rural areas) was 2,703 in 2010 living in an area of 1,676.23 square kilometers. The elevation is around 800 meters. At the municipal seat it is 780 meters.
Boundaries are with Pima County and Santa Cruz County in the U.S. state of Arizona to the north; Nogales, Sonora, to the east; Tubutama to the south; Altar to the west; and Magdalena de Kino to the southeast.
The only settlements of over 100 population were Sáric (892) 31°06′11″N 111°22′40″W / 31.10306°N 111.37778°W / 31.10306; -111.37778, El Sásabe (1,295) 31°28′19″N 111°32′39″W / 31.47194°N 111.54417°W / 31.47194; -111.54417, and Cierro Prieto (353) 31°01′13″N 111°23′43″W / 31.02028°N 111.39528°W / 31.02028; -111.39528, as enumerated in the 2010 census. There is an international border crossing leading to Sasabe, Arizona.

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Sáric (municipality)
Sáric (municipality) is a municipality in Sonora in north-western Mexico.

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Tabasco
Tabasco (Spanish pronunciation: [taˈβasko]), officially Free and Sovereign State of Tabasco (Spanish: Estado Libre y Soberano de Tabasco), is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 17 municipalities and its capital city is Villahermosa. It is located in the southeast of the country along the Gulf of Mexico bordering the states of Campeche, Chiapas and Veracruz, as well as the country of Guatemala. Most of the state is covered in rainforest as, unlike most other areas of Mexico, it has plentiful rainfall year round. For this reason, it is also covered in small lakes, wetlands and rivers. The state is subject to major flooding events, with the last occurring in 2007, which affected eighty percent of the state. The state is also home to La Venta, the major site of the Olmec civilization, considered to be the origin of later Mesoamerican cultures. Even though it produces significant quantities of petroleum and natural gas, poverty is still a concern. The state is also the origin of the cacao bean, from which chocolate is made.

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Tamaulipas
Tamaulipas (Spanish pronunciation: [tamauˈlipas]) officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Tamaulipas (English: Free and Sovereign State of Tamaulipas) is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 43 municipalities and its capital city is Ciudad Victoria. The capital city was named after Guadalupe Victoria, the first President of Mexico.
It is located in Northeastern Mexico. It is bordered by the states of Veracruz to the southeast, San Luis Potosí to the southwest and Nuevo León to the west. To the north, it has a 370 km (142.9 mi) stretch of the U.S.-Mexico border along the state of Texas.
The name Tamaulipas is derived from Tamaholipa, a Huastec term in which the tam- prefix signifies "place where." As yet, there is no scholarly agreement on the meaning of holipa, but "high hills" is a common interpretation. Another explanation of the state name is Ta ma ho'lipam – “place, where the Lipan prey”.
In addition to the capital city, Ciudad Victoria, the state's largest cities include Reynosa, Matamoros, Nuevo Laredo, and Tampico.

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Tepache, Sonora
Tepache is a small town and municipality in the east of the Mexican state of Sonora.
The municipal area is 752.85 km². The municipal population counted in 2000 was 1,539, of which 779 were male and 760 were female. The population of the main settlement and municipal seat was 1,448 in 2000. The population has been decreasing steadily since 1980. The main settlement is located at an elevation of 1,250 meters.
Neighboring municipalities are Divisaderos and Moctezuma to the north, Nácori Chico to the east, Sahuaripa to the west and San Pedro de la Cueva to the southwest.
Tepache was founded in 1678 with the name of Santa Ana de Tepache. The word Tepache comes from the Opata language and means, according to some, "place of beautiful women". It was incorporated as a municipality in 1932.
Agriculture and cattle raising are the main economic activities. There were 13,016 head of cattle in 2000.^{[dead link]}
Coordinates: 29°31′N 109°31′W / 29.517°N 109.517°W / 29.517; -109.517

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Tlaxcala
Tlaxcala (Spanish: [tɬa(k)sˈkala], Nahuatl: [tɬaʃˈkalːan]), officially Free and Sovereign State of Tlaxcala (Spanish: Estado Libre y Soberano de Tlaxcala), is one of the 31 states which along with the Federal District comprise the 32 federative entities of Mexico. It is divided into 60 municipalities and its capital city is Tlaxcala.
It is located in East-Central Mexico, in the altiplano region, with the eastern portion dominated by the Sierra Madre Oriental. It is bordered by the states of Puebla to the north, east and south, México to the west and Hidalgo to the northwest. It is the smallest state of the republic, accounting for only 0.2% of the country’s territory.
The state is named after its capital, Tlaxcala, which was also the name of the pre-Hispanic city and culture. The Tlaxcalans allied themselves with the Spanish to defeat the Aztecs, with concessions from the Spanish that allowed the territory to remain mostly intact throughout 300 years of colonial period. After Mexican Independence, Tlaxcala was declared a federal territory, until 1857 when it was admitted as a state of the federation.

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Trincheras
Trincheras is a town, and the surrounding municipality of the same name, in the north-west of the Mexican state of Sonora. It was founded in 1775 by Bernardo de Urrea. The municipal area is 3,764.26 sq. km. and the population in 2000 was 1,788. The main economic activities are cattle raising (21,000 head in 2000) and subsistence farming.
Trincheras was named for El Cerro de Trincheras, a nearby archaeological site. This site is also the namesake of a distinctive type of archaeological site found in the desert basins of the southwest United States and northwest Mexico. Remains of hillside terraces and walls reminded early explorers of "trincheras," the Spanish term for entrenchments or fortifications .

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Tubutama
Tubutama is a town, and the surrounding municipality of the same name, in the north-west of the Mexican state of Sonora. It was founded in the late 17th century by Fr. Francisco Eusebio Kino. It was the headquarters of religious administration for the entire Pimeria Alta during much of the Jesuit and Franciscan period of Spanish colonial rule.
The municipal area is 1,351.60 km² (521.86 sq mi) and the population was 1,798 in 2005. The main economic activities are cattle raising (11,000 head in 2005) and subsistence farming.
Tourists can visit the Mission of San Pedro and San Pablo, built by Jesuit missionary Eusebio Francisco Kino at the end of the eighteenth century. The arched entrance is Mudéjar and in the interior the transept is dedicated to the Passion of Christ and the altarpiece has sculptured instruments of the Passion: crown of thorns, scourge, nails, tongs, ladder, and lances. A sculptured serpent crawls beneath an upper niche in the same altarpiece. This recess now holds a carved statue of Our Lady of Aránzazu, an image of the Virgin Mary as she appeared at Aránzazu in the autonomous community of the Basque Country, in northern Spain.

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Tucson
Tucson ( /ˈtuːsɒn/ TOO-son) is the county seat of Pima County, Arizona, United States, and is the home to University of Arizona. The 2010 United States Census puts the city's population at 520,116, while the 2011 estimated population of the entire Tucson metropolitan area was 989,569. Tucson is the second-largest populated city in Arizona behind Phoenix, which both anchor the Arizona Sun Corridor. The city is located 118 miles (188 km) southeast of Phoenix and 60 miles (98 km) north of the U.S.-Mexico border. Tucson is the 32nd largest city and 52nd largest metropolitan area in the United States. Roughly 150 Tucson companies are involved in the design and manufacture of optics and optoelectronics systems, earning Tucson the nickname Optics Valley.
Major incorporated suburbs of Tucson include Oro Valley and Marana northwest of the city, Sahuarita south of the city, and South Tucson in an enclave south of downtown. Communities in the vicinity of Tucson (some within or overlapping the city limits) include Casas Adobes, Catalina Foothills, Flowing Wells, Tanque Verde, Tortilita, New Pascua, Sahuarita and Vail. Towns outside the Tucson metro area include Benson to the southeast, Catalina and Oracle to the north, and Green Valley to the south.

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Ures
Ures is a small city and a municipality in the Mexican state of Sonora.
It has an area of 2,618.56 square kilometers. This is 1.41% of the total area of the state, and 0.13 percent of the national area of Mexico. Besides the seat, the most important localities are Guadalupe de Ures, San Pedro, Pueblo de Alamos and El Sauz.
In the year 2000, the total population was 9,553 residents. New figures from 2005 reported 8,420, meaning a considerable decline in population due to immigration. The municipal seat had a population of 3,959 in 2000.
The municipality is in the basin of the Sonora River. As the river crosses the area, the river receives waters from Los Alamos, Bamuco, Nava, San Pedro, Cañada de Agua, and Los Cochis. Also, it receives runoff from washes as El Carrizo, Zuribate, Palo Parado, La Ladrillera, Santiago, and El Pescado. It has a reservoir that was recently built called Teópari.
The municipality is nestled within the mountains, hills, and valleys that form the edge of the Western Sierra Madre. The elevation of the administrative seat was 420 meters above sea level.

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Utah
Utah (/ˈjuːtɔː/ or ⁱ/ˈjuːtɑː/) (Arapaho: Wo'tééneihí' ) is a state in the Western United States. It became the 45th state admitted to the Union on January 4, 1896. Utah is the 13th-most extensive, the 34th-most populous, and the 10th-least-densely populated of the 50 United States. Approximately 80% of Utah's 2,817,222 people live along the Wasatch Front, centering on Salt Lake City. This leaves vast expanses of the state nearly uninhabited, making the population the sixth most urbanized in the U.S. The name "Utah" is derived from the name of the Ute tribe and means "people of the mountains" in the Ute language. Utah is bordered by Arizona on the south, Colorado on the east, Wyoming on the northeast, Idaho on the north and Nevada on the west. It also touches a corner of New Mexico.
Utah is the most religiously homogeneous state in the Union. It is home to the Salt Lake Temple, and approximately 60% of Utahns are reported to be members of LDS Church which greatly influences Utah culture and daily life.

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Veracruz
Veracruz, formally Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave (Spanish pronunciation: [beɾaˈkɾuz ðe iɣˈnasjo ðe la ˈʎaβe]), officially Free and Sovereign State of Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave (Spanish: Estado Libre y Soberano de Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave), is one of the 31 states that, along with the Federal District, comprise the 32 federative entities of Mexico. It is divided in 212 municipalities and its capital city is Xalapa-Enríquez.
It is located in Eastern Mexico. It is bordered by the states of Tamaulipas to the north, San Luis Potosi and Hidalgo to the west, Puebla to the southwest, Oaxaca and Chiapas to the south and Tabasco to the southeast. To the east, Veracruz has a significant share of coastline on the Gulf of Mexico.
The state is noted for its mixed ethnic and large indigenous populations. Its cuisine reflects the many cultural influences that have come through the state because of the importance of the port of Veracruz.
In addition to the capital city, the state's largest cities include Veracruz, Coatzacoalcos, Córdoba, Minatitlán, Poza Rica, Boca Del Río and Orizaba.

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Villa Juárez, Sonora
Benito Juárez is one of the 72 municipalities (municipios) of the Mexican state of Sonora. It borders with the municipio of Cajeme. The municipal seat is Villa Juárez.
The region was settled in the 1940s after the construction of the La Angostura dam and 151 members of the government division of irrigation were given land in the Mayo Valley in place of what would have been compensation with cash.
In 1943 the ex-employees settled in a place they later appropriately named "Colonia Irrigación" ("Irrigation Colony") and later it became dependent on the town (comisaría) Bacobampo until it itself became a town in 1947. In 1957 "Colonia Irrigación" was renamed as Villa Juárez (after president Benito Juárez). Another settlement in the region was called "Sube y Baja" ("up and down") populated by indigenous inhabitants.
In 1996 the region incorporated into a municipio with the name of Benito Juárez. Before this time the town was part of the municipio of Etchojoa.
The presidents of the municipio have been:

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Yucatán
Yucatán (Spanish pronunciation: [ʝukaˈtan]), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Yucatán (Spanish: Estado Libre y Soberano de Yucatán), is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 106 municipalities, and its capital city is Mérida.
It is located in Southeastern Mexico, on the north part of the Yucatán Peninsula. It is bordered by the states of Campeche to the southwest, Quintana Roo to the northeast and the Gulf of Mexico lies off its north coast.
Before the arrival of Spaniards to the Yucatán Peninsula, the name of this region was el Mayab. In Mayan language, "ma' ya'ab" is translated as "a few". It was a very important region for the Mayan civilization, which reached the peak of its development on this place, where they founded the cities of Chichen Itza, Izamal, Motul, Mayapan, Ek' Balam and Ichcaanzihóo (also called T'Hó), now Mérida.
After the Spanish conquest, Yucatán Peninsula was a single administrative and political entity, the Captaincy General of Yucatán. Following independence and the breakup of the Mexican Empire in 1823, the first Republic of Yucatán was proclaimed which then was voluntarily annexed to the Federal Republic of United Mexican States on December 21, 1823. Later on March 16, 1841, as result of cultural and political conflicts around the federal pact, Yucatán declared independence from Mexico to form a second Republic of Yucatán, but eventually on July 14, 1848, Yucatán was definitely rejoined to Mexico. In 1858, in the middle of the caste war, the state of Yucatan was divided for the first time, establishing Campeche as separate state (officially in 1863). During the Porfiriato, in 1902, the state of Yucatan was divided again to form the Federal territory that later became the present state of Quintana Roo.

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Yucatán Peninsula
The Yucatán Peninsula, in southeastern Mexico, separates the Caribbean Sea from the Gulf of Mexico, with the northern coastline on the Yucatán Channel. The peninsula lies east of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, a northwestern geographic partition separating the region of Central America from the rest of North America.
The peninsula comprises the Mexican states of Yucatán, Campeche, and Quintana Roo; the northern part of the nation of Belize; and Guatemala's northern El Petén Department.
The proper derivation of the word Yucatán is widely debated. Hernan Cortes, in the first of his letters to Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor, claimed that the name Yucatán comes from a misunderstanding. In this telling, the first Spanish explorers asked what the area was called, and the response they received, "Yucatan," was a Yucatec Maya word meaning "I don't understand what you're saying." Others claim that the source of the name is the Nahuatl (Aztec) word Yokatlān, "place of richness."
The Yucatán Peninsula comprises a significant proportion of the ancient Maya Lowlands (although the Maya culture extended south of the Yucatán Peninsula, through present Guatemala and into Honduras and highland Chiapas). There are many Maya archaeological sites throughout the peninsula; some of the better-known are Chichen Itza, Tulum and Uxmal.Indigenous Maya and Mestizos of partial Maya descent make up a sizable portion of the region's population, and Mayan languages are widely spoken there.

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Yécora, Sonora
Yécora is a small town, and its surrounding municipality of the same name, in the Mexican state of Sonora, located at Latitude = 28.3710, Longitude = -108.9269 with an elevation of 5,173 feet (1,576 m). The town is bordered on the east by the state of Chihuahua, to the north by the municipalities of Sahuaripa and Southeast Rosario, to the west by the municipality Suaqui Grande, and the northwest by the municipality of Onavas. Yécora has an area of 1,279 square miles (3,312 square kilometers), accounting for 1.79 percent of total state. An approximate population for Yécora is 317.
In 1673, the Jesuit missionary Alonso Victoria founded the town of San Idelfonso of Yécora. San Idelfonso of Yécora was later named La Trinidad, a Judicial District in the municipality of Sahuaripa. The municipality held this name until August 28, 1916 when Governor of Sonora Adolfo de la Huerta changed the town's name to Yécora.
The name Yécora is derived from an identically named town and municipality located in the province of Álava, in the Basque Country (autonomous community), northern Spain. In the Basque language, the name translates to Iekora.

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Zacatecas
Zacatecas (Spanish pronunciation: [sakaˈtekas]), officially Free and Sovereign State of Zacatecas (Spanish: Estado Libre y Soberano de Zacatecas), is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 58 municipalities and its capital city is Zacatecas.
It is located in North-Central Mexico. It is bordered by the states of Durango to the northwest, Coahuila to the north, Nayarit to the west, San Luis Potosí and Nuevo León to the east, and Jalisco, Guanajuato and Aguascalientes to the south.
The state of Zacatecas is best known for its rich deposits of silver and other minerals, its colonial architecture and its importance during the Mexican revolution. Its main economic activities are mining, agriculture and tourism.
"Zacatecas" is the Nahuatl-derived name for one of the indigenous peoples who inhabited the region before the arrival of the Spanish. The name ultimately derives from the Nahuatl word for a type of grass common in the region, zacatl. The region where this grass grew was originally called Zacatlan, and its inhabitants, Zacateca, pluralized in Mexican Spanish to Zacatecas.

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Álamos
The town and municipality of Álamos in the Mexican state of Sonora was founded in the late 17th century following discoveries of silver in the region. It was named by the conquistador Francisco Vásquez de Coronado, and became the capital of the surrounding region. Alamos is the northern-most 'Silver City' in Mexico and although it has much in common, architecturally, with Mexico's other 'Silver Cities' it has not succumbed to large-scale commercialism and has managed to retain the charm and pace of earlier times. Many writers and artists have quietly claimed Alamos for their own.
Álamos is located in the southeastern part of Sonora, and 396 km (246 mi) from state capital Hermosillo, 54 km (34 mi) from Navojoa via Sonora State Highway 162, and 663 km (412 mi) from the northern border town of Nogales. It is adjoined by the State of Chihuahua on the east, and the State of Sinaloa on the south. The population of the municipality is 24,493 and its area 6,947.27 km². Average temperature is about 14 °C (58 °F); maximum 47 °C (117 °F).

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Átil
Atil (also Átil) is a small town in Atil Municipality in the northwest of the Mexican state of Sonora. The total area is 400.43 km² and the population of the municipality was 734 in 2005, of whom 699 lived in the municipal seat (2000). Neighboring municipalities are Tubutama, Trincheras, Oquitoa, and Altar.
It was founded in 1751 by the Jesuit missionary Jacobo Sedelmayer as a mission with the name of Atil. The first inhabitants were Pima Alto or Nebome Indians, who before conversion had led a nomadic or semi-nomadic life.
Atil is one of the smallest municipalities in the state. It is said that its name means "Arrow Point", in the Pima language. [1]
The terrain is desert and mostly flat. Summer temperatures average 25.6°C but daytime extremes are frequently above 40°C. The winter average is 12.8°C.
There is one tarmacked road crossing the municipality linking Altar with Tubutama. There are several dirt roads crossing the desert.
The economy is based on agriculture with lands irrigated by the Cuautémoc Reservoir located in the north of the municipality. There is also cattle raising.

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Abrigael Bohórquez
Abrigael Bohórquez was a poet and playwright born in Caborca, Sonora, Mexico in 1936, many of which are social criticisms. He was also one of the first writers to deal with the theme of homosexuality in Mexican poetry. His first book was Ensayos Poéticos in 1955, when he was just nineteen years old with no formal training. He studied the dramatic arts at the Instituto Nacional de Bellas Artes (INBA) and the Instituto Cinematográfico de la Asociación Nacional de Actores. Shortly after, his work began to gain recognitions such as the Primer Concurso Latinoamericano XEW for his poetry and various from the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. He became a professor at the Academia de Arte Dramático of the Universidad de Sonora and director for two theatre groups. Bohórquez died in Hermosillo in 1995 after writing eighteen works of poetry and plays. Some of these include Poesía i teatro, La hoguera en el pañuelo, Canción de amor y muerte por Rubén Jaramillo, and Las amarras terrestres.

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Adolfo de la Huerta
Felipe Adolfo de la Huerta Marcor (26 May 1881 – 9 July 1955) was a Mexican politician and interim President of Mexico from 1 June to 1 December 1920.
As Governor of the northern state of Sonora he led the Revolution of Agua Prieta that put an end to the presidency of Venustiano Carranza who was killed during the revolt. It was then that de la Huerta was appointed interim President by congress.
Pancho Villa and his army surrendered during de la Huerta's presidency. De la Huerta became the Secretariat of Finance and Public Credit, and in that role, negotiated the De la Huerta-Lamont Treaty.
De la Huerta started a failed revolt in 1923 against president Álvaro Obregón- whom he denounced as corrupt- after Obregon endorsed Calles as his successor. Catholics, conservatives and a considerable portion of the army officers, who felt Obregón had reversed Carranza's policy of favoring the army at the expense of the farmer-labor sector, supported de la Huerta. With his superb organizing ability and popular support, Obregón crushed the rebellion and forced De La Huerta into exile. On 7 March 1924, de la Huerta fled to Los Angeles and Obregón ordered the execution of every rebel officer with a rank higher than a major.

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Alfonso Ortiz Tirado
Alfonso Ortiz Tirado was an opera singer and doctor born in Álamos, Sonora, Mexico in 1893. His musical talent was apparent early in life, but he studied at the Escuela Nacional Preparatoria and university to become a doctor. He specialized in gynecology as well as general medicine, and eventually became the personal physician of Frida Kahlo and performed surgery on Agustín Lara. As a musician, he studied under José Pierson and soon afterward had a successful international career as an opera singer due to his sweet and velvety voice, earning the label of “tenor of the Americas.” He was often cast for productions of Elixir de amor and Madame Butterfly. He earned a large sum of money doing this, and decided to use it to establish a children’s hospital in Mexico City. Ortiz died in 1960, and he was laid to rest at the Panteón Frances de la Piedad. He is remembered in the state of Sonora through the Festival de Canto Operístico Tirado, which was named after him.

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Benjamín G. Hill
Gen. Benjamín Hill (Choix, Sinaloa, 31 March 1874 – Mexico City, 14 December 1920) was a military commander during the Mexican Revolution.
Following the call of Francisco I. Madero he joined the revolution in 1910. He was briefly imprisoned in the city of Hermosillo, Sonora, during 1911. Following his release, he took up arms and raised a volunteer army that took Navojoa and was marching on Álamos when the Treaty of Ciudad Juárez was signed. In 1912 he fought against the rebellion led by Pascual Orozco and, following the 1913 coup d'état of Victoriano Huerta, he joined the northwestern corps of the Constitutionalist Army, which would ultimately be commanded by Gen. Álvaro Obregón, alongside whom he fought in the campaigns against Francisco "Pancho" Villa in the Bajío. He served as Governor of Sonora from August 1914 to January 1915.
Following the victory of Venustiano Carranza he was promoted to Divisional General. In 1920 he was one of the main proponents of the Plan of Agua Prieta, fighting in the military rebellions that ensued.

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Cajemé
Cajemé / Kahe'eme (Yoeme or Yaqui Language for "the one who does not stop to drink water"'), born José Maria Bonifacio Leiva Perez (also spelled Leyva, and Leyba) was a Yaqui leader who lived in the Mexican state of Sonora from 1835 to 1887.
José Maria Bonifacio Leiva Perez was born on May 14, 1835 at Pesiou (the Yaqui name), Sonora, also known as Villa de Pitic (Pitic is also derived from the Yaqui word "Pitiahaquím," meaning "place surrounded by streams"), and currently called Hermosillo. Although his foremost biographer, Ramón Corral, had stated that Cajemé was born in 1837 (Corral, 1959 [1900]), and this date had been used by others since then. However, the baptismal record shows that this was incorrect (Iglesia Católica, 1835). Also, in the initial newspaper article released by Ramón Corral in Sonora's official State newspaper La Constitución (Corral, 1887), José Maria Leiva's father is identified as Fernando Leiva (born about 1816 at Huirivis, Sonora), and his mother as Juana Maria Peres (born about 1817 at Potam, Sonora), as does the baptismal record. However, in the biography of Cajemé later published by Corral (1959 [1900]), Corral calls José's father "Francisco," and this name has continued to be used since then.

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Casas Grandes
Casas Grandes (Spanish for Great Houses; also known as Paquimé) is the contemporary name given to a pre-Columbian archaeological zone and its central site, located in northwestern Mexico in the modern-day Mexican state of Chihuahua. It is one of the largest and most complex sites in the region. Developed as multi-storied dwellings about 1350 CE after earlier settlement beginning after 1130 CE, the community was abandoned approximately 1450 CE. Regarded as one of the most significant archaeological zones in the northwestern region, Casas Grandes is located in a wide, fertile valley on the Casas Grandes or San Miguel River, 35 miles (56 km) south of Janos and 150 miles (240 km) northwest of the state capital, the city of Chihuahua. The settlement relied on irrigation to support its agriculture. Casas Grandes has been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
The archaeological zone is contained within the eponymous modern municipio (municipality) of Casas Grandes. The valley and region have been inhabited by indigenous groups for thousands of years.

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China
China (ⁱ/ˈtʃaɪnə/; Chinese: 中国; pinyin: Zhōngguó; see also Names of China), officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is the world's most-populous country, with a population of over 1.3 billion. Covering approximately 9.6 million square kilometres, the East Asian state is the world's second-largest country by land area, and the third- or fourth-largest in total area, depending on the definition of total area.
The People's Republic of China is a single-party state governed by the Communist Party of China. It exercises jurisdiction over 22 provinces, five autonomous regions, four directly controlled municipalities (Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, and Chongqing), and two mostly self-governing special administrative regions (Hong Kong and Macau). Its capital city is Beijing. The PRC also claims Taiwan—which is controlled by the Republic of China (ROC), a separate political entity—as its 23rd province, a claim controversial due to the complex political status of Taiwan and the unresolved Chinese Civil War. The PRC government denies the legitimacy of the ROC.

wn.com/China
Cocopah
The Cocopah or Cocopa are Native American people who live in Baja California and Sonora, Mexico, and in Arizona in the United States. The Cocopah language belongs to the Delta–California branch of the Yuman family. In Spanish, the Cocopah are termed Cucapá. Their self-designation is Xawiƚƚ kwñchawaay or "Those Who Live on the River." As of the 2000 United States Census, the Cocopah Tribe of Arizona's population was 891.
The term Patayan is used by archaeologists to describe the prehistoric Native American cultures that inhabited parts of modern day Arizona, California and Baja California, including areas near the Colorado River Valley, the nearby uplands, and north to the vicinity of the Grand Canyon. The makers of this prehistoric culture may have been ancestral to the Cocopah and other Yuman-speaking groups in the region. The Patayan peoples practiced floodplain agriculture where possible, but they relied heavily on hunting and gathering.
The first significant contact of the Cocopah with Europeans probably occurred in 1540, when the Spanish explorer Hernando de Alarcón sailed into the Colorado River delta. The Cocopah were specifically mentioned by name by the expedition of Juan de Oñate in 1605.

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Cáhita
Cáhita is a group of Indigenous peoples of Mexico, which includes the Yaqui and Mayo people. Numbering approximately 40,000, they live in west coast of the states of Sonora and Sinaloa.
Their language belongs to the Taracahitic family. Cáhita is an agglutinative language, where words use suffix complexes for a variety of purposes with several morphemes strung together.
Drastically reduced by Spanish explorers

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Eusebio Kino
Eusebio Francisco Kino S.J. (August 1645 – 15 March 1711) was a Jesuit priest from a town in what is now northern Italy. For the last 24 years of his life he worked in the region then known as the Pimaria Alta in modern day Sonora Mexico and southern Arizona. He explored the region worked with the indigenous Native American population, including primarily the Sobaipuri and other Upper Piman groups. He proved that Baja California is not an island by leading an overland expedition there. By the time of his death he had established 24 missions and visitas (country chapels or visiting stations).
Kino was born Eusebius Franz Kühn (or Kuehn; the name Kino was the version for use in Spanish-speaking domains). Other sources cite his name as Eusebio Francesco Chini. The exact date of his birth is unknown but he was baptized on 10 August 1645 in Taio, Val di Non, Bishopric of Trent (present-day Italy), which explains why sources differ on the nationality of Kino; political boundaries differed in his day and modern day Italy was not formed until much later. Kino was educated in Innsbruck, Austria, and after recuperating from a serious illness, he joined the Society of Jesus on 20 November 1665. From 1664-69, he received religious training at Freiburg, Ingolstadt, and Landsberg, Bavaria, and took his vows as a priest on 12 June 1677. Although Kino wanted to go to the Orient, he was sent to New Spain. Due to travel delays across Europe he missed the ship on which he was to travel and had to wait a year for another ship. While waiting in Cadiz, Spain, he wrote on his observations of a comet, Exposción Astronómica de el Cometa. This volume was later the subject of a sonnet by Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz.

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Eve Gil
Eve Gil (born 1968) is a Mexican writer and journalist from Hermosillo, Sonora. She is one of the major "NAFTA generation" authors. Her work has won a number of awards such as Premio La Gran Novela Sonorense in 1993, the Premio Nacional de Periodismo Fernando Benítez in 1994, the Concurso de Libro Sonorense in 1994, 1996 and 2006, and the Premio Nacional de Cuento Efraín Huerta in 2006.
Requiem for a Broken Doll tells the story of Moramay, a thirteen-year-old girl growing up in the early 80's in Mexico City. An English translation is underway. Excerpts from the novel have appeared in BorderSenses, Fairy Tale Review, and Words without Borders. http://wordswithoutborders.org/article/damned-spring/

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Father Kino
Eusebio Francisco Kino S.J. (August 1645 – 15 March 1711) was a Jesuit priest from a town in what is now northern Italy. For the last 24 years of his life he worked in the region then known as the Pimaria Alta in modern day Sonora Mexico and southern Arizona. He explored the region worked with the indigenous Native American population, including primarily the Sobaipuri and other Upper Piman groups. He proved that Baja California is not an island by leading an overland expedition there. By the time of his death he had established 24 missions and visitas (country chapels or visiting stations).
Kino was born Eusebius Franz Kühn (or Kuehn; the name Kino was the version for use in Spanish-speaking domains). Other sources cite his name as Eusebio Francesco Chini. The exact date of his birth is unknown but he was baptized on 10 August 1645 in Taio, Val di Non, Bishopric of Trent (present-day Italy), which explains why sources differ on the nationality of Kino; political boundaries differed in his day and modern day Italy was not formed until much later. Kino was educated in Innsbruck, Austria, and after recuperating from a serious illness, he joined the Society of Jesus on 20 November 1665. From 1664-69, he received religious training at Freiburg, Ingolstadt, and Landsberg, Bavaria, and took his vows as a priest on 12 June 1677. Although Kino wanted to go to the Orient, he was sent to New Spain. Due to travel delays across Europe he missed the ship on which he was to travel and had to wait a year for another ship. While waiting in Cadiz, Spain, he wrote on his observations of a comet, Exposción Astronómica de el Cometa. This volume was later the subject of a sonnet by Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz.

wn.com/Father_Kino
Francis of Assisi
Saint Francis of Assisi (born Giovanni Francesco di Bernardone; 1181/1182 – October 3, 1226) was an Italian Catholic friar and preacher. He founded the men's Franciscan Order, the women’s Order of St. Clare, and the lay Third Order of Saint Francis. St. Francis is one of the most venerated religious figures in history.
Francis was the son of a wealthy cloth merchant in Assisi, and he lived the high-spirited life typical of a wealthy young man, even fighting as a soldier for Assisi. While going off to war in 1204, Francis had a vision that directed him back to Assisi, where he lost his taste for his worldly life. On a pilgrimage to Rome, he begged with the beggars at St. Peter's. The experience moved him to live in poverty. Francis returned home, began preaching on the streets, and soon amassed a following. His order was endorsed by Pope Innocent III in 1210. He then founded the Order of Poor Clares, which was an enclosed order for women, as well as the Third Order of Brothers and Sisters of Penance. In 1219, he went to Egypt in an attempt to convert the Sultan. By this point, the Franciscan Order had grown to such an extent that its primitive organizational structure was no longer sufficient. He returned to Italy to organize the order. Once his organization was endorsed by the Pope, he withdrew increasingly from external affairs. In 1223, Francis arranged for the first Christmas manger scene. In 1224, he received the stigmata, making him the first recorded person to bear the wounds of Christ's Passion. He died in 1226 while preaching Psalm 141.

wn.com/Francis_of_Assisi
Francisco de Ibarra
Francisco de Ibarra (1539? – 1575) was a Spanish Basque explorer, founder of the city of Durango, and governor of the Spanish province of Nueva Vizcaya, in present-day Mexico.
Francisco de Ibarra was born about 1539 in Eibar, Guipúzcoa, in the Basque Country of Spain. He went to Mexico as a young man, and upon the recommendation and financing of his uncle, conquistador and wealthy mine owner Diego de Ibarra, Francisco was placed at the head of an expedition to explore northwest from Zacatecas in 1554. The young Ibarra noted silver in the vicinity of present-day Fresnillo, but passed it by. He explored further and founded towns at San Martín and Avino, where the silver mines made him a mine owner in his own right.
In 1562, Ibarra headed another expedition to push farther into northwest Mexico. In particular, he was searching for the fabled golden city of Copala (also called Cibola). He did not find the mythical treasure, but explored and conquered what is now the Mexican state of Durango. Ibarra was appointed governor of the newly formed province of Nueva Vizcaya (New Biscay) in 1562, and the following year he founded the city of Durango to be its capital.

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Hohokam
Hohokam (hə-hō'kəm) is one of the four major prehistoric archaeological Oasisamerica traditions of what is now the American Southwest. Many local residents put the accent on the first syllable (ho'-ho-kahm). Variant spellings in current, official usage include Hobokam, Huhugam and Huhukam. The culture was differentiated from others in the region in the 2000s by archaeologist Harold S. Gladwin, who applied the existing O'odham term, to classify the remains he was excavating in the Lower Gila Valley. According to the U.S. National Park Service Website, Hohokam is a Pima (O'odham) word used by archaeologists to identify a group of people who lived in the Sonoran Desert of North America.
According to local oral tradition, the Hohokam may be the ancestors of the historic Akimel O'odham and Tohono O'odham peoples in Southern Arizona. Recent work among the Sobaipuri, ancient ancestors of the modern Pima, indicates that Pima groups were present in this region at the end of the Hohokam sequence.

wn.com/Hohokam
Iván Figueroa
Iván Figueroa is a poet and novelist from Sahuaripa, Sonora, Mexico, born in 1974. His work has received numerous awards such as the Nacional de Poesía Homenaje a San Juan del Río in 2006, the Concurso de Libro Sonorense in 2002 and 2006, the Premio Nacional de Poesía San Román in 2006, the Premio Nacional de Poesía Juegos Trigales del Valle del Yaqui Bartolomé Delgado León in 2005 and the Concurso Estatal de Poesía Alonso Vidal in 1999. His works include La luz a mediodía, Isocronías temporales, Cielo geográfico, Transitorial, Teorías and The American poems.

wn.com/Iván_Figueroa
José de Urrea
José de Urrea (March 19, 1797 – August 1, 1849) was a noted general for Mexico. He fought under General Antonio López de Santa Anna during the Texas Revolution. Urrea's forces were never defeated in battle during the Texas Revolution. His most notable success was that of the Goliad Campaign, in which James Fannin's 300 soldiers were surrounded and induced to capitulate under terms, but were massacred in Urrea's absence on the orders of Santa Anna.
Urrea was born at El Presidio de San Augustín de Tucson (present day Tucson, Arizona). Despite being born on the northern frontier of Mexico, his family had deep roots in the state of Durango.
In 1807 Urrea entered the Spanish army. In 1824 he rose to the rank of captain, but he resigned from the army and entered private life. In 1829 he rejoined the military as a major and helped to liberate the city of Durango, allying himself with Antonio López de Santa Anna. He was promoted to colonel for his actions. In 1835 he reluctantly took part in Santa Anna's attack on the state of Zacatecas (the state had openly rebelled against his rise to power). He was promoted to Brigadier General for his role in this.

wn.com/José_de_Urrea
Kickapoo people
The Kickapoo (Kickapoo: Kiikaapoa or Kiikaapoi) are an Algonquian-speaking Native American tribe. According to the Anishinaabeg, the name "Kickapoo" (Giiwigaabaw in the Anishinaabe language and its Kickapoo cognate Kiwikapawa) means "Stands here and there". It referred to the tribe's migratory patterns. The name can also mean "wanderer". This interpretation is contested and generally believed to be a folk etymology.
Today there are three federally recognized Kickapoo tribes in the United States: Kickapoo Tribe of Indians of the Kickapoo Reservation in Kansas, the Kickapoo Tribe of Oklahoma, and the Kickapoo Traditional Tribe of Texas. The former two groups are politically associated with the Texas band. Others live in small groups throughout the western United States. Around 3,000 people claim to be tribal members. There is also a small community in Douglas, Arizona. Another band resides in area of Múzquiz, in the Mexican state of Coahuila.
The earliest European contact with the Kickapoo tribe occurred during the La Salle Expeditions into the Illinois Country in the late 17th century, as the French set up remote fur trading posts throughout the region, including on Wabash River. The Kickapoo at that time inhabited a large territory along the Wabash in the area of modern Terre Haute, Indiana. They were confederated with the larger Wabash Confederacy, that included the Piankeshaw to their south, the Wea to their north, and the powerful Miami Tribe, to their east. A subgroup occupied the Upper Iowa River region in northeast Iowa and the Root River region in southeast Minnesota in the late 1600s and early 1700s; this group was probably known by the clan name "Mahouea", derived from the Illinoian word for wolf, m'hwea.

wn.com/Kickapoo_people
Mario Moreno Zazueta
Mario Moreno Zazueta is a painter, etcher and art professor born in Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico in 1942. He received his artistic training at the Academia Artes Plásticas of the Universidad de Sonora and at the Escuela Nacional de Pintura y Escultura La Esmeralda in Mexico City. After this, he also went to San Francisco, California to study as well. Moreno notes that his main artistic influence has been Héctor Martínez Arteche. Moreno’s work has been displayed in numerous shows and galleries in various parts of the world, where is work is known for its abstract experimentation with color, light and shadow. His best known works include Premonición del atardecer, Llovió en alguna parte, El agua del norte nunca llega, Premonición del invierno and Las horas quietas. Today, he is a professor at the Universidad de Sonora.

wn.com/Mario_Moreno_Zazueta
Mary B. Moser
Mary Margaret Beck Moser is an American field linguist and Bible translator who worked on behalf of the Seri people of Mexico for more than fifty years. She authored and co-authored numerous articles and two books (an ethnobotany and a substantive trilingual dictionary) about the language and culture of that group and brought to completion the translation of the New Testament in the Seri language.
Daughter of Robert and Vila Mae Beck, Mary Margaret was born on October 12, 1924 in Lock Haven, Pennsylvania. The name by which people later knew her best, Becky, was also the nickname that her father used. She graduated from high school in Williamsport, Pennsylvania and attended Wheaton College (Illinois) for three years and then taught first grade on a War Emergency Certificate. She met her future husband, Edward W. Moser during her first year of college. They married in 1946, after Edward finished his service in the United States Navy. Both of them studied how to analyze an unwritten language at the Summer Institute of Linguistics at the University of Oklahoma. It was there that they learned about the Seri people of Sonora, Mexico, and made the decision to dedicate their lives to serve them. They became members of Wycliffe Bible Translators in 1950.

wn.com/Mary_B._Moser
Mayo people
The Mayo are a Mexican indigenous people living in the states of Sonora and Sinaloa, originally living near the Mayo River in Sonora. In their own language they call themselves Yoreme.
The Mayo language is an Uto-Aztecan language closely related to Yaqui and it is spoken by approximately 40,000 people (Ethnologue 1995 census).
The Mayo sustain themselves mainly by agriculture and fishing, but also practice traditional artisanry.

wn.com/Mayo_people
Mesoamerica
Mesoamerica (Spanish: Mesoamérica) is a region and cultural area in the Americas, extending approximately from central Mexico to Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and northern Costa Rica, within which a number of pre-Columbian societies flourished before the Spanish colonization of the Americas in the 15th and 16th centuries.
As a cultural area, Mesoamerica is defined by a mosaic of cultural traits developed and shared by its indigenous cultures. Beginning as early as 7000 BC the domestication of maize, beans, squash and chili, as well as the turkey and dog, caused a transition from paleo-Indian hunter-gatherer tribal grouping to the organization of sedentary agricultural villages. In the subsequent formative period, agriculture and cultural traits such as a complex mythological and religious tradition, a vigesimal numeric system, and a complex calendric system, a tradition of ball playing, and a distinct architectural style, were diffused through the area. Also in this period villages began to become socially stratified and develop into chiefdoms with the development of large ceremonial centers, interconnected by a network of trade routes for the exchange of luxury goods such as obsidian, jade, cacao, cinnabar, Spondylus shells, hematite, and ceramics. While Mesoamerican civilization did know of the wheel and basic metallurgy, neither of these technologies became culturally important.

wn.com/Mesoamerica
Mexican Revolution
The Mexican Revolution (Spanish: Revolución mexicana) was a major armed struggle that started in 1910, with an uprising led by Francisco I. Madero against longtime autocrat Porfirio Díaz, and lasted for the better part of a decade until around 1920. Over time the Revolution changed from a revolt against the established order to a multi-sided civil war. This armed conflict is often categorized as the most important sociopolitical event in Mexico and one of the greatest upheavals of the 20th century.
After prolonged struggles, its representatives produced the Mexican Constitution of 1917. The Revolution is generally considered to have lasted until 1920, although the country continued to have sporadic, but comparatively minor, outbreaks of warfare well into the 1920s. The Cristero War of 1926 to 1929 was the most significant relapse into bloodshed.
The Revolution led to the creation of the Partido Nacional Revolucionario ("National Revolutionary Party") in 1929; it was renamed the Partido Revolucionario Institucional (Institutional Revolutionary Party) (PRI) in 1946. Under a variety of leaders, the PRI held power until the general election of 2000.

wn.com/Mexican_Revolution
Miguel de la Madrid
Miguel de la Madrid Hurtado (December 12, 1934 – April 1, 2012) was a Mexican politician affiliated to the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) who served as 52nd President of Mexico from 1982 to 1988.
Miguel de la Madrid graduated with a bachelor's degree in Law from the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) and received a master's degree in Public Administration from the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University, in the United States.
He worked for Mexico's central bank and lectured in law at UNAM before securing a position at the Secretariat of Finance in 1965. Between 1970 and 1972 he was employed by Petróleos Mexicanos, Mexico's state-owned petroleum company, after which he held several other bureaucratic posts in the government of Luis Echeverría. In 1976 he was chosen to serve in José López Portillo's cabinet as secretary of budget and planning.
He was president after López Portillo. He won the elections that took place on 4 July 1982, and took office the following December.

wn.com/Miguel_de_la_Madrid
Pedro Vega Granillo
Pedro Vega Granillo is a pianist born in Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico in 1959. His musical career began at age ten studying under Matilde Katase, than with Emiliana de Zubeldía, when he demonstrated his aptitude. In 1980, he debuted at a concert at the Palacio de Bellas Artes in Mexico City, playing the complicated pieces of Zubeldía and other classical works. His success here prompted his university studies in the piano. In 1987, he received his first recognition at the Segundo Concurso Nacional de Piano, and in 1988, he debuted with the Orquesta Sinfónica del Estado de México. In addition to giving performances, Vega began a classical trio of piano, violin and violoncello at the Universidad de Sonora. Today, he is a professor at the same institution.

wn.com/Pedro_Vega_Granillo
Porfirio Díaz
José de la Cruz Porfirio Díaz Mori (15 September 1830 – 2 July 1915) was a volunteer in the Reform War and then a leader of the successful rebellion against French intervention, an accomplished general and the President of Mexico continuously from 1876 to 1911, with the exception of a brief term in 1876 when he left Juan N. Méndez as interim president, and a four-year term served by his political ally Manuel González from 1880 to 1884. Commonly considered by historians to have been a dictator, he is a controversial figure in Mexican history. The period of his leadership was marked by significant internal stability (known as the "paz porfiriana"), modernization, and economic growth. However, Díaz's regime grew unpopular due to repression and political stagnation, and he fell from power during the Mexican Revolution, after he had imprisoned his electoral rival and declared himself the winner of an eighth term in office. The 35 years in which Díaz ruled Mexico are referred to as the Porfiriato.

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Pre-Columbian era
The pre-Columbian era incorporates all period subdivisions in the history and prehistory of the Americas before the appearance of significant European influences on the American continents, spanning the time of the original settlement in the Upper Paleolithic period to European colonization during the Early Modern period.
While the phrase "pre-Columbian era" literally refers only to the time preceding Christopher Columbus's voyages of 1492, in practice the phrase usually is used to denote the entire history of American indigenous cultures until those cultures were conquered or significantly influenced by Europeans, even if this happened decades or centuries after Columbus's first landing. For this reason the alternative terms of Pre-Colonial Americas or Prehistoric Americas are also in use. In areas of Hispanic America the term usually used is Pre-Hispanic.
Many pre-Columbian civilizations established hallmarks which included permanent settlements, cities, agriculture, civic and monumental architecture, major earthworks, and complex societal hierarchies. Some of these civilizations had long faded by the time of the first permanent European arrivals (c. late 15th–early 16th centuries), and are known only through archaeological investigations. Others were contemporary with the colonial period, and were described in historical accounts of the time. A few, such as the Maya, had their own written records. Because most Christian Europeans of the time viewed such texts as heretical, they destroyed many texts in pyres. Only a few hidden documents have survived, giving modern historians glimpses of ancient culture and knowledge.

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Reform War
The Reform War (Spanish: Guerra de Reforma) in Mexico is one of the episodes of the long struggle between Liberal and Conservative forces that dominated the country’s history in the 19th century. The Liberals wanted a federalist government, limiting traditional Catholic Church and military influence in the country. The Conservatives wanted a centralist government, even a monarchy with the Church and military keeping their traditional roles and powers. This struggle erupted into a full civil war when the Liberals, then in control of the government after ousting Antonio López de Santa Anna, began to implement a series of laws designed to strip the Church and military, but especially the Church, of its rights, powers and property. Conservative resistance to this culminated in the Plan of Tacubaya, which destroyed the government of President Ignacio Comonfort and caused the remaining Liberals to move their government to the city of Veracruz. The Conservatives controlled Mexico City and much of central Mexico, but the rest of the states chose whether to side with the Conservative or Liberal government. Being less experienced militarily, the Liberals lost most of the early battles, but the tide turned when Conservatives twice failed to take Veracruz. Liberal victories accumulated thereafter until Conservative forces surrendered in December 1860. While the Conservative forces lost the war, guerrillas remained active in the countryside for years after, and Conservatives in Mexico would conspire with French forces to install Maximilian I as emperor during the following French Intervention in Mexico.

wn.com/Reform_War
San Dieguito Complex
The San Dieguito Complex is an archaeological pattern left by early Holocene inhabitants of southern California and surrounding portions of the southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico. Radiocarbon dating places a 10,200 BP (Before Present) (8200 BCE) date consideration.
The complex was first identified by Malcolm J. Rogers in 1919 at site SDI-W-240 in Escondido, San Diego County, California (Rogers 1966). He assigned the Paleo-Indian designation of 'Scraper Makers' to the prehistoric producers of the complex, based on the common occurrence of unifacially flaked lithic (stone) tools at their sites.
In an initial synthesis, Rogers (1929) suggested that the Scraper Makers were the region's second inhabitants, following the people of the Shell Midden culture, later known as the La Jolla Complex, whose remains lie closer to the coast. However, his 1938 excavations at the C. W. Harris Site (CA-SDI-149) in Rancho Santa Fe established that the site's San Dieguito component underlay its La Jolla component, at the base of the stratigraphic sequence (Warren 1966).

wn.com/San_Dieguito_Complex
Seri people
The Seris are an indigenous group of the Mexican state of Sonora. The majority reside on the Seri communal property (Spanish, ejido), in the towns of Punta Chueca (Seri Socaaix) and El Desemboque (Seri Haxöl Iihom) on the mainland coast of the Gulf of California. Tiburón Island (Tahejöc) and San Esteban Island (Cofteecöl and sometimes Hast) were part of their traditional territory, but some Seris also lived in various places on the mainland. They were historically seminomadic hunter-gatherers who maintained an intimate relationship with both the sea and the land. It is one of the ethnic groups of Mexico that has most strongly maintained its language and culture during the years after contact with Spanish and Mexican cultures.
The Seri people are not related culturally or linguistically to other groups that have lived in the area, such as the Opata, Yaqui, O'odham, or Cochimí. The Seri language is distinct from all others in the region and is considered a linguistic isolate.
The name Seri is an exonym of uncertain origin. (Claims that it is from Opata or from Yaqui were nineteenth-century speculations based on similarity to words in those languages and not with clear evidence.) Their name for themselves is Comcaac (phonemically /kom'kɑːk/, phonetically [koŋˈkɑːk]); singular: Cmiique (phonemically /'kmiːkɛ/), phonetically [ˈkw̃ĩːkːɛ]).

wn.com/Seri_people
Tarahumara
The Rarámuri or Tarahumara are a Native American people of northwestern Mexico who are renowned for their long-distance running ability. In their language, the term rarámuri refers specifically to the males, females are referred to as mukí (individually) and as omugí or igómale (collectively).
Originally inhabitants of much of the state of Chihuahua, the Rarámuri retreated to the high sierras and canyons such as the Copper Canyon in the Sierra Madre Occidental on the arrival of Spanish explorers in the 16th century. The area of the Sierra Madre Occidental which they now inhabit is often called the Sierra Tarahumara because of their presence.
Current estimates put the population of the Rarámuri in 2006 at between 50,000 and 70,000 people. Most still practice a traditional lifestyle, inhabiting natural shelters such as caves or cliff overhangs, as well as small cabins of wood or stone. Staple crops are corn and beans; however, many of the Rarámuri still practice transhumance, raising cattle, sheep, and goats. Almost all Rarámuri migrate in some form or another in the course of the year.

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Venustiano Carranza
Venustiano Carranza de la Garza (28 December 1859 – 21 May 1920) was one of the leaders of the Mexican Revolution. He ultimately became President of Mexico following the overthrow of the dictatorial Huerta regime in the summer of 1914, and during his administration the current constitution of Mexico was drafted. He was assassinated near the end of his term of office at the behest of a cabal of army generals resentful at his insistence that his successor be a civilian.
Carranza was born in the town of Cuatro Ciénegas, in the state of Coahuila, in 1859, to an upper middle-class cattle-ranching family. His father, Jesús Carranza, had been a rancher and mule driver until the time of the Reform War (1857–1861), in which he fought against the Indians and on the Liberal side. During the Franco-Mexican War (1861–1867), Jesús Carranza became a colonel and was Benito Juárez's main contact in Coahuila. Jesus Carranza's connection to Juarez caught the attention of Venustiano, who would idolize Juarez.

wn.com/Venustiano_Carranza
Vicente Fox
Vicente Fox Quesada (Spanish pronunciation: [biˈsente ˈfoks keˈsaða]; born July 2, 1942) is a Mexican former politician who served as President of Mexico from 1 December 2000 to 30 November 2006 and currently serves as co-President of the Centrist Democrat International, an international organization of Christian democratic political parties.
Fox was elected President of Mexico in the 2000 presidential election, a historically significant election that made him the first president elected from an opposition party since Francisco I. Madero in 1910 and the first one in 71 years to defeat, with 42 percent of the vote, the then-dominant Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI).
After serving as president of Mexico for six years, President Fox returned to his home state of Guanajuato, where he resides with his wife and family. Since leaving the presidency, Vicente Fox has been involved in public speaking and the construction of the Vicente Fox Center of Studies, Library and Museum.
Fox is a member of the Club of Madrid, an independent non-profit organization composed of 81 democratic former Presidents and Prime Ministers from 57 different countries.

wn.com/Vicente_Fox
Álvaro Obregón
General Álvaro Obregón Salido (19 February 1880 – 17 July 1928) was the President of Mexico from 1920 to 1924. He was assassinated in 1928, shortly after winning election to another presidential term.
A successful Sonoran chickpea farmer and municipal president of Huatabampo, Obregón first entered military service in 1912 as a supporter of the regime of Francisco I. Madero against a rebellion in Chihuahua led by Pascual Orozco. Following La decena trágica in 1913, when Madero was assasinated, Obregón offered his military services to the Sonoran government to the regime of Victoriano Huerta, Madero's murderer. He supported Sonora's decision to follow Venustiano Carranza as leader of a revolution against the Huerta regime, and Carranza appointed Obregón commander-in-chief of the revolutionary forces in northwestern Mexico. Following tensions with the caudillo Pancho Villa, Carranza ordered Obregón to fight against troops loyal to both Villa and Emiliano Zapata, both former military allies of Carranza.

wn.com/Álvaro_Obregón

High Places - Sonora

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published: 03 Nov 2011

author: thrilljockeyrecords

Sonora Dinamita - LA SUAVECITA

Cumbias...

published: 08 Feb 2009

author: patricios71

LA SONORA SANTANERA PERFUME DE GARDENIA

...

published: 20 Nov 2009

author: orlandomorrison

San Carlos, Sonora, Mexico

Video produced for San Carlos Marketing a Grupo Caballero company photography, editing, di...

published: 14 May 2010

author: onix3d

sonora baby

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published: 24 Feb 2010

author: LaPuffaInLove

La Sonora Dinamita - La Parabolica

Discos Fuentes / Miami Records is the oldest and largest record label in South America. St...

published: 27 Apr 2012

author: discosfuentestv

Sonora Dinamita - Mi cucu

La sonora dinamita...

published: 30 May 2007

author: saulnehemias

Sonora Acústica - Beatrix e Guilherme de Sá (Rosa de Saron)

Versão acústica da música "Sonora" com a participação do vocalista do Rosa de Saron, Guilh...

published: 05 Apr 2008

author: beatrixband

La Sonora Carruseles - Micaela -

Micaela...

published: 15 Jul 2008

author: olb666

Sonora Dinamita - Que nadie sepa mi sufrir

La Sonora Dinamita...

published: 30 May 2007

author: saulnehemias

sonora dinamita mix

hola amigos aqui algo de lo mas chingon de esta sonora...no se olviden de votar y dejar co...

published: 02 Nov 2011

author: TheDjcarrillo

La Sonora Dinamita-La Cortina

...

published: 26 May 2010

author: teocali1

Starflam - La Sonora

Artistes : Starflam Album : Survivant Titre : La Sonora Année : 2001...

published: 19 Feb 2010

author: DjGetBiz

Sonora Carruseles - La Comay

Video musical de este grupo colombiano....

published: 07 Nov 2006

author: rax2099

One More Beer!

*FOR BEST VIEWING EXPERIENCE, WATCH IN HD AND WITH GOOD SPEAKERS OR HEADPHONES.* One More ...

published: 01 Oct 2012

author: pedro conti

Making of Rio 2016

Produção / Production : Mutante Filmes Fotografia / Photography : Rodrigo Sampaio Trilha s...

published: 31 Dec 2010

author: Tátil Design de Ideias

Refait

"Refait" is a remake of the football WorldCup match between France and Germany (Seville, S...

published: 13 Feb 2010

author: Pied La Biche

SONORA 3" HD STARS OF THE BICENTENNIAL

This project is called STARS OF THE BICENTENNIAL produced by The Mates for the largest spe...

published: 14 Sep 2010

author: David Torres

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photo: UN / Eric Kanalstein

File - In Herat, Afghanistan, women line up to collect bags of split chick pea, wheat, and cooking oil being distributed by the UN World Food Programme (WFP).

Fate of women still tied to arranged marriages in post-Taliban Afghanistan

The Independent

29 Nov 2012

Just before she leapt from her roof into the streets of Kabul, Farima thought of the wedding that would never happen and the man she would never marry. Her fiance would be pleased to see her die, she later recalled thinking. It would offer relief to them both. Farima, 17, had resisted her engagement to Zabiullah since it was ordained by her grandfather when she was 9 ... He ran outside. His daughter's torso was contorted ... Her skin was pallid....(size: 12.8Kb)

photo: AP / Sepahnews

This photo released on Thursday, Dec. 8, 2011, by the Iranian Revolutionary Guards, claims to show US RQ-170 Sentinel drone which Tehran says its forces downed earlier this week, as an unidentified colonel, right, talks to the chief of the aerospace division of Iran's Revolutionary Guards, Gen. Amir Ali Hajizadeh, in an undisclosed location, Iran

American Drones Ignite New Arms Race From Gaza To Iran To China

Huffington Post

27 Nov 2012

WASHINGTON -- The drone wars are here. While President Obama ponders new legal and moral guidelines to govern America's growing use of armed robot aircraft, the world outside the White House is engaged in a revolutionary frenzy of building, arming and flying killer drones ... More than 50 countries operate surveillance drones and, increasingly, are fitting them with weapons. The U.S ... spy drone was shot down last December ... On Oct ... 988 miles ... ....(size: 8.4Kb)

photo: UN / Jan Golinski

UN: methane released from melting ice could push climate past tipping point

The Guardian

27 Nov 2012

Doha conference is warned that climate models do not yet take account of methane in thawing permafrost. Frozen ground in Siberia. Permafrost covers nearly a quarter of the northern hemisphere. Photograph. Francis Latreille/Corbis. The United Nations sounded a stark warning on the threat to the climate from methane in the thawing permafrost as governments met for the second day of climate change negotiations in Doha, Qatar ... ....(size: 5.3Kb)

photo: AP / Jerome Delay

Congolese government soldiers (FARDC) patrol the streets of Minova under their control Sunday Nov. 25, 2012.

DR Congo rebels dispute deal on Goma pullout

Al Jazeera

27 Nov 2012

M23 rebels controlling the eastern city of Goma in the DR Congo have said they are not about to withdraw as demanded by regional leaders. The rebels said on Tuesday there were still in charge of Goma, just hours after General Aronda Nyakairima, the head of the Ugandan military, was quoted by the Reuters news agency as saying that their leader, Sultani Makenga, had told him he would pull out of Goma and Sake ... 276 Source . ... Share ... News ... ;">....(size: 17.7Kb)

photo: AP / Apichart Weerawong

File - Thai riot police officers stand in line at the criminal court building in Bangkok, Thailand, Thursday, Aug. 9, 2012. Hundreds of "Red Shirt" supporters gathered outside a Bangkok court to learn whether their leaders will return to prison.

'Red Shirt' trial delayed in Thailand

Al Jazeera

29 Nov 2012

A Thai court has postponed the start of the terrorism trial of 24 "Red Shirt" protest leaders by one month. Thursday's delay comes in reaction to the illness of one of the defendants in the case, which followed 2010 demonstrations in Bangkok that drew up to 100,000 protesters. "The court will only allow this one postponement," the judge said, as hundreds of police stood guard outside the court. Among the accused are five lawmakers ... AFP ... ....(size: 19.0Kb)

timeline:
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The 10 Most Over-Played Songs at a Mexican Wedding, California Edition

Houston Press

29 Nov 2012

... and the undisputed champ of the genre is La Sonora Dinamita, the legendary Colombian group that probably has more hits per ratio than any group in history not named the Beatles and who produced the most danceable music EVER. I could've picked any Sonora song here, really, but the nod goes to "Capullo y Sorullo," a fine overview of their trademarks....(size: 5.1Kb)

National Park Service Completes Search & Rescue Training

The Examiner

29 Nov 2012

22 students, including NPS Search and Rescue staff (SAR) from around the country, recently graduated from the intensive National Search and Rescue Academy (NSARA) ... It is not open to the public although it lies on Highway 108 (below Sonora Pass) at Pickel Meadows ... Carpe Diem!. Rick Deutsch ... ....(size: 1.5Kb)

El Tigre Reports Exploration Highlights and Progress

Stockhouse

29 Nov 2012

VANCOUVER, BRITISH COLUMBIA--(Marketwire - Nov. 29, 2012) - El Tigre Silver Corp ... El Tigre is located on concessions that are part of the Company's 431 square kilometer concession ownership in Sonora, Mexico ... Meters from entrance Interval ... The Company, through its subsidiaries, holds the rights to 100% of nine mineral concessions, eight comprising of 431 square kilometers located in north-eastern Sonora, Mexico (the "El Tigre Property")....(size: 8.6Kb)

El Tigre Reports Exploration Highlights and Progress (El Tigre Silver Corp)

noodls

29 Nov 2012

El Tigre Reports Exploration Highlights and Progress ... (the "Company" or "El Tigre")(TSXV.ELS) (Frankfurt ... El Tigre is located on concessions that are part of the Company's 431 square kilometer concession ownership in Sonora, Mexico ... 10.0 ... The Company, through its subsidiaries, holds the rights to 100% of nine mineral concessions, eight comprising of 431 square kilometers located in north-eastern Sonora, Mexico (the "El Tigre Property")....(size: 11.0Kb)

Dia Bras Reports More Silver Drill Results and Its Mine Ramp Extension Reaches Silver Disseminated Zone at Its Promontorio Mine, Cusi Property

PR Newswire

29 Nov 2012

... of its most advanced Mexican assets - the Bolivar Property (copper-zinc-silver) and the Cusi Property (silver-lead) and is exploring in several precious metal targets such as gold project at the Bolivar Property, silver project at (Zacatecas State), the silver project (Sonora State), and the gold project at the Batopilas Property (Chihuahua State)....(size: 20.4Kb)

Dia Bras Reports More Silver Drill Results and Its Mine Ramp Extension Reaches Silver Disseminated ...

Canada Newswire

29 Nov 2012

... and the Cusi Property (silver-lead) and is exploring in Mexico several precious metal targets such as La Sidra gold project at the Bolivar Property, Las Coloradas silver project at Melchor Ocampo (Zacatecas State), the Bacerac silver project (Sonora State), and the La Verde gold project at the Batopilas Property (Chihuahua State)....(size: 18.2Kb)

Tech announces fall honors list (Louisiana Tech University)

noodls

29 Nov 2012

Louisiana Tech has announced the names of students on its fall quarter President's and Dean's honor lists. Students whose names are followed by an asterisk earned recognition as members of the President's Honor List. That distinction signifies achievement of at least a 3.8 academic grade point average on a minimum of nine semester hours completed (100-level or higher), with no grade lower than a B ... ST ... Sonora. Cassie Lauren Krieg....(size: 45.6Kb)

Warden Aquarium opens at the Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum on January 5, 2013

The Examiner

28 Nov 2012

Aquariums in the desert? Well, yes. There is an aquarium in Tempe, Arizona and now there is a new aquarium opening in Tucson. But they are very different ... After several years of planning and a year of construction, the Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum’s new Warden Aquarium is readying to open on January 5, 2013. This is the first new major exhibit to open in over 10 years ... The 1,100 sq. ft ... Location. Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum, Tucson, AZ ... ....(size: 2.4Kb)

The Colorado River, Cotton and Insects

Wall Street Journal

28 Nov 2012

23). It does not. The Colorado basin encompasses those states, plus the Mexican states of Baja California and Sonora. The river itself doesn't enter either Wyoming or New Mexico ... Ditto the two Mexican states ... Sort of ... Jim Caprio ... ....(size: 1.1Kb)

Man Arrested For Allegedly Assaulting Centre College Student In Her Dorm Room

MSNBC

28 Nov 2012

Hayden, 20, of Sonora entered her dorm room and assaulted her, then refused to leave for an extended period of time ... Permalink . Comments ... ....(size: 1.3Kb)

Prevention Fund Helps Rural California County Fight Cancer, Promote Health

Forbes

28 Nov 2012

Hikers using ......(size: 0.1Kb)

Two dead in Hollister Highway 156 crash

MSNBC

28 Nov 2012

Rudy R ... The big rig truck driver, Rosario B ... Advertise . AdChoices. Advertise . AdChoices. Advertise . AdChoices. The Mercury driver, Wolfgang Eugen Krismantis, 60, and his passenger, Ladonn Ann Krismantis, 51, both from Sonora, both died from their injuries ... PHOTOS ... ....(size: 1.6Kb)

Hollister Highway 156 crash victims ID'd

MSNBC

28 Nov 2012

Rudy R ... Lopez's failure to stop caused him to slam into the Mercury, which had a green light ... The Mercury driver, Wolfgang Eugen Krismantis, 60, and his passenger, Ladonn Ann Krismantis, 51, both from Sonora, Calif., died from their injuries ... ....(size: 1.7Kb)

timeline:
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For other uses, see Sonora (disambiguation).

Sonora

— State —

Estado Libre y Soberano de Sonora

Flag

Seal

State of Sonora within Mexico

Coordinates: 29°38′46″N 110°52′08″W / 29.64611°N 110.86889°WCoordinates: 29°38′46″N 110°52′08″W / 29.64611°N 110.86889°W

January 10, 1824^[1]

12th^[a]

Government

• Governor

Guillermo Padrés

• Senators^[2]

Emma Lucía Larios Gaxiola

Javier Castelo

Alfonso Elías Serrano

• Deputies^[3]

Federal Deputies

Area^[4]

• Total

179,503 km² (69,306 sq mi)

Ranked 2nd

Highest elevation^[5]

2,620 m (8,600 ft)

Population (2010)^[6]

• Total

2,662,480

• Rank

18th

• Density

15/km² (38/sq mi)

• Density rank

27th

Demonym

Sonorense

MST ^[7] (UTC−7)

83–85

MX-SON

0.858 High Ranked 5th

GDP

US$ 16,416,142.57 th^[b]

Website

Official Web Site

^ a. Joined to the federation under the name of Estado de Occidente (Western State) also recognized as Sonora y Sinaloa.
^ b. The state's GDP was $210,126,625 thousand of pesos in 2008,^[6] amount corresponding to $16,416,142.57 thousand of dollars, being a dollar worth 12.80 pesos (value of June 3, 2010).^[8]

Sonora (Spanish pronunciation: [so̞ˈno̞ɾa]), officially Free and Sovereign State of Sonora (Spanish: Estado Libre y Soberano de Sonora), is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided into 72 municipalities; the capital city is Hermosillo. Sonora is located in Northwest Mexico, bordered by the states of Chihuahua to the east, Baja California to the northwest and Sinaloa to the south. To the north, it shares the U.S.–Mexico border with the states of Arizona and New Mexico, and on the west has a significant share of the coastline of the Gulf of California.

Sonora's natural geography is divided into three parts: the Sierra Madre Occidental in the east of the state; plains and rolling hills in the center; and the coast on the Gulf of California. It is primarily arid or semi-arid deserts and grasslands, with only the highest elevations having sufficient rainfall to support other types of vegetation.

Sonora is home to eight indigenous peoples, including the Mayo, the Yaqui and the Seri. It has been economically important for its agriculture, livestock (especially beef) and mining since the colonial period, and for its status as a border state since the Mexican–American War. After the Gadsden Purchase, Sonora lost more than a quarter of its territory.^[9] From the 20th century to the present, industry, tourism and agribusiness have dominated the economy, attracting migration from other parts of Mexico.

History [link]

Name [link]

There are several theories of the origin of the name "Sonora"'. One theory states that the name was derived from Nuestra Señora, the name given to the territory when Diego de Guzmán crossed the Yaqui River on the day of Nuestra Señora del Rosario ("Our Lady of the Rosary") which falls on 7 October with the pronunciation possibly changing owing to the fact that none of the indigenous languages of the area have the ñ sound. Another theory states that Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca and the crew of the ship Florida, wrecked off the Sonora coast, were forced to cross the arid state from north to south, carrying an image of Nuestra Señora de las Angustias ("Our Lady of Anguish") on a cloth. They encountered the Opata, who could not pronounce "Señora", instead saying Senora or Sonora. A third theory, written by Father Cristóbal de Cañas in 1730, states that the name comes from the word for a natural water well, sonot, which the Spaniards eventually modified to "Sonora". It is not known if any of these theories are even partly correct. The first record of the name Sonora comes from explorer Francisco Vásquez de Coronado, who passed through the state in 1540 and called part of the area the Valle de La Sonora. Francisco de Ibarra also traveled through the area in 1567 and referred to the Valles of Señora.^[10]

Pre-Hispanic period [link]

Evidence of human existence in the state dates back over 10,000 years, with some of the best known remains at the San Dieguito Complex in the El Pinacate Desert. The first humans were nomadic hunter gatherers who used tools made from stones, seashells wood.^[11]^[12] During much of the prehistoric period, the environmental conditions were less severe than they are today, with similar but more dense vegetation spread over a wider area.^[13]

Agriculture first appeared around 400 BCE and 200CE in the river valleys. Remains of ceramics have been found dating from 750 CE with diversification from 800 and 1300 CE^[12] Between 1100 and 1350, the region had socially-complex small villages with well-developed trade networks. The lowland central coast, however, seems never truly to have adopted agriculture.^[13] Because Sonora and much of the northwest does not share many of the cultural traits of that area it is not considered to be part of Mesoamerica. Though there is evidence of trade between the peoples of Sonora and Mesoamerica, Guasave in Sinaloa is the most north-westerly point considered to be Mesoamerican.^[14]

Three archaeological cultures developed in the low flat areas of the state near the coast: the Trincheras tradition, the Huatabampo tradition and the Central Coast tradition. The Trincheras tradition is dated to between 750 and 1450 CE and mostly known from sites in the Altar, Magdalena and Concepción valleys, but its range extended from the Gulf of California into northern Sonora. The tradition is named after trenches found in a number of sites, the best known of which is the Cerro de Trincheras. The Huatabampo tradition is centered south of the Trincheras along the coast, with sites along extinct lagoons, estuaries and river valleys. This tradition has a distinctive ceramic complex. Huatabampo culture shows similarities with the Chametla to the south and the Hohokam to the north. This probably ended around 1000 CE. Unlike the other two tradition, the Central Coast remained a hunter-gatherer culture, as the area lacks the resources for agriculture.^[15]

The higher elevations of the state were dominated by the Casas Grandes and Río Sonora tradition. The Río Sonora culture is located in central Sonora from the border area to modern Sinaloa. A beginning date for this culture has not been determined but it probably disappeared by the early 1300s. The Casas Grandes tradition in Sonora was an extension of the Río Sonora tradition based in the modern state of Chihuahua, which exterted its influence down to parts of the Sonoran coast.^[16]^[17]

Climatic changes in the middle of the 15th century resulted in the increased desertification of northwest Mexico in general. This is the probable cause for the drastic decrease in the number and size of settlements starting around this time. The peoples that remained in the area reverted to a less complex social organization and lifestyle.^[18] Whatever socially complex organization existed in Sonora before the Spaniards were long gone by the 16th century.^[17]

Colonial period [link]

There is little reliable information about the area in the 16th century following the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire. Some state that the first Spanish settlement was founded by Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca in 1530, near Huépac. Others state that Francisco Vázquez de Coronado founded a village on the edge of the Yaqui River in 1540 on his way north...^[16]^[18]^[19] Another source states that the first Spanish presence was not until 1614, by missionaries such as Pedro Méndez and Pérez de Rivas, working with the Mayo.^[20] Unlike in central Mexico, there was no central social or economic centralization in the Sonora area, given the collapse of population centers in the 15th century. The five traditions of the past had broken down to a number of fractured ethnicities. There was no empire or other system for the Spaniards to co-opt for domination purposes.^[16]^[18] In addition, the Yaqui people resisted European intrusion on their lands, effectively keeping the Spaniards out of their area until the 1600s.^[21] While there was exploration of the area through the expeditions of the 16th century, significant permanent Spanish settlement did not become possible until the establishment of the mission system.^[16]^[18]^[22]^[23]

Jesuit priests began to work in Sonora in the 1610s in the lowlands near the coast. Originally, these missionaries worked out a peaceful compromise with the 30,000 Yaquis allowing for the establishment of more than fifty mission settlements in the Sonora river valleys. This broke down when the Jesuits opposed the native shamanic religious tradition. The Opata were more receptive to the missionaries and allied with them. After this, the Jesuits began to move into Pima and Tohono O'odham territories.^[21] Spanish exploration and missionary work was sufficient to consider the territory part of New Spain. An agreement between General Pedro de Perea and the viceroy of New Spain resulted in the general shaping of the province, initially called Nueva Andalucía in 1637, but renamed Sonora in 1648.^[20]

The most famous missionary of Sonora, as well as much of what is now the American Southwest, was Eusebio Kino.^[24] He arrived in Sonora in 1687 and started missionary work in the Pimería Alta area of Sonora and Arizona. He began his first mission at Cucurpe, then established churches and missions in other villages such as Los Remedios, Imuris, Magdalena, Cocóspera, San Ignacio, Tubutama and Caborca. To develop an economy for the natives, Father Kino also taught them European farming techniques.^[19]^[25]

The initial attraction of Sonora for the Spaniards was its fertile farmlands along the river valleys^[26] and its position as part of a corridor linking the central Mexican highlands around Mexico City up the Pacific coast and on into Arizona and points north. This corridor still exists in the form of Federal Highway 15.^[27] After the establishment of the mission system, Spanish colonists followed. Indigenous response was a mixture of accommodation and violence, as different strategies were employed by different groups at different times. The sporadic violence, which would continue throughout the colonial period, resulted in the Spanish building presidios and other fortifications to protect missions and Spanish settlements.^[19]^[21] While the colonization process was not especially violent, the impact on the indigenous of the area was severe, as it almost completely disrupted their formerly very independent lives, forcing them to conform to an alien centralized system. One consequence of this was alcoholism among the native peoples.^[20]

In 1691, what are now the states of Sonora and Sinaloa were joined into an entity called the Provincias de Sonora, Ostimuri y Sinaloa. They would remain as such through the rest of the colonial period until 1823.^[25] At this time, there were about 1,300 Spanish settlers in the area.^[28] Colonization increased in the 18th century, especially from 1700 to 1767, when mineral deposits were discovered, especially in Álamos. This led to the establishment of a number of royally controlled mining camps, forcing many natives off their agricultural lands. Loss of said lands along the Yaqui and Mayo Rivers led to native uprisings during this time.^[20] A major Seri rebellion took place on the coast area in 1725–1726, but the largest uprising was by the Yaquis and Mayos from 1740 to 1742 with the goal of expelling the Spaniards. Part of the reason for the rebellion was that the Jesuits as well as the secular Spaniards were exploiting the indigenous. This rebellion destroyed the reputation of the Jesuit mission system. Another Seri rebellion occurred in 1748, with Pima and Tohono O’otham support and lasted into the 1750s. This kept the settlement situation in disarray. With population of the Mexican north roughly split half indigenous and half Spanish, about one quarter of the indigenous population lived in Sonora alone.^[29] In 1767, the king of Spain expelled the Jesuits from Spanish-controlled territories, ending the mission system.^[30]

Independence [link]

In 1821, the colonial era in Sonora was ended by the Mexican War of Independence which was started in 1810. However, Sonora was not directly involved in the war, as independence came by way of decree. One positive aspect of independence is that it allowed for economic development. The former province of Sonora, Ostimuri y Sinaloa, was divided in 1823 to form the states of Sonora and Sinaloa, with the Sonoran capital in Ures.^[25] However, they were reunited in 1824 and remained so until the 1830s, despite of the fact that Sonora was declared a state by the 1824 Constitution of Mexico.^[24] Sonora became separate again in 1831, when it wrote its first state constitution, which put the capital in Hermosillo. In 1832, the capital was moved to Arizpe.^[25]

The struggles between the Conservatives, who wanted a centralized government, and Liberals, who wanted a federalist system, affected the entire country during the 19th century. In 1835, a centralist government was instituted based on what were called the Bases Constitutionales ("Constitutional Bases"). They were followed by the Siete Leyes Constitutionales ("Seven Constitutional Laws"), which remained in effect until 1837. But in December of the same year, General José de Urrea proclaimed in Arizpe the re-establishment of the Constitution of 1824, initially supported by then Governor Manuel Gándara. However, for the rest of the century, Gándara and succeeding governors would support a centralized government, leading to political instability in the state.^[19]^[25] In 1838, the capital was moved back to Ures.^[19]

The fertile lands of the Mayo and Yaquis continued to attract outsiders during the 19th century. These were now Mexicans rather than Spaniards, and later in the century it was a major draw for North Americans.^[26] By the end of the 19th century, however, the area received large numbers of immigrants from: Europe, especially from Germany, Italy and Russia; Middle East, mainly Lebanon or Syria; and even China,^[31] who brought new forms of agriculture, mining, livestock, industrial processes, ironwork and textiles.^[24]

The Mexican–American War resulted in only one major military confrontation between Mexican and U.S. forces, but its consequences were severe for the state. In October 1847, the warship USS Cyane laid siege to Guaymas bay, resulting in U.S. control of this part of the coast until 1848.^[25]^[32] When the war ended, Sonora lost 339,370 hectares of its territory to the U.S. through the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.Additionally, the war ruined the state's economy.^[25] Sonora lost more territory in the 1850s, through the Gadsden Purchase. Before the war, Sonora was the largest entity in Mexico, but as a result of the Gadsden Purchase the northernmost part of the state became part of the United States. The majority of the area is today's Arizona south of the Gila River and a part of the present day southwestern New Mexico.^[19] The area's political vulnerability immediately after the war made it susceptible to buccaneers such as William Walker, Gaston de Raousset-Boulbon and Henry Alexander Crabb who attacked Sonoran ports such as Guaymas and Caborca. However, most attacks were repelled.^[19] The economy did not begin to recover from the war until the late 1850s, when Ignacio Pesqueira became governor and attracted foreign investment to the state, especially in the mining sector as well as worked to create markets abroad for agricultural products.^[25]

During the French intervention in Mexico, Sonora was invaded by French troops as part of the effort to install Maximilian I as a monarch in Mexico. The port of Guaymas was attacked by forces under Armando Castagny, forcing Mexican forces under Pesqueira and General Patoni to retreat north of the city. French troops attacked the Mexicans again at a place called La Pasión, again resulting in defeat for the Mexican resistance. The French were not defeated in the state until the Battle of Llanos de Ures in 1866 by Pesqueria, Jesús García Morales and Ángel Martínez.^[24]^[33] Shortly after this, the state's current constitution was written in 1871, and its capital was permanently moved to Hermosillo.^[19]^[34]

Cajemé, Yaqui resistance leader

During the regime of Porfirio Díaz from the 1800s to the 1900s, major economic changes occurred. These changes promoted rapid economic growth, which had far-reaching social and political consequences. Sonora and the rest of the northern states rapidly increased in economic importance. Development of a rail system integrated the state's economy into the national, and also allowed greater federal control over all of Mexico's territory. After 1880, this rail system was extended north into the U.S., making it an important part of bi-national economic relations to this day.^[35] However, the changes also permitted foreigners and certain Mexicans to take over very large tracts of land in Mexico. In Sonora, Guillermo Andrade controlled 1,570,000 hectares (15,700 km²; 6,100 sq mi), Manuel Peniche and American William Cornell Green about 500,000 hectares (5,000 km²; 1,900 sq mi). Foreign industry owners also tended to bring in Asian and European workers.^[19] Chinese immigration into Sonora would begin at this time, and the Chinese soon became an economic force as they built small business that spread wherever there was economic development.^[36]

The appropriation of land for both agriculture and mining placed renewed pressure on the Yaquis and other native peoples of Sonora. Previously, active resistance had given the Yaqui fairly autonomous control of a portion of the state, and kept their agricultural system along the Yaqui River. Encroachment on this land led to uprisings and guerilla warfare by the Yaquis after 1887. By 1895, the federal and state governments began to violently repress the Yaquis and began to forcefully relocate captured Yaquis to the plantations in Mexico’s tropical south, especially the henequen plantations in the Yucatán Peninsula. The Yaqui resistance continued into the 1900s, with the expulsions reaching a peak between 1904 and 1908, by which time about one quarter of this population had been deported. Still more were forced to flee into Arizona.^[37]

20th century [link]

The Cananea miners' strike 1906

The policies of the Díaz government not only caused resentment among the Yaquis, but also throughout the country.^[38] One of the preludes to the Mexican Revolution was the 1906 Cananea miner's strike. The approximately 2,000 strikers sought negotiations with American mine owner William Greene, but he refused to meet with them. The strike quickly turned violent when the miners tried to take control of the mine and gunfire was exchanged. Greene requested help from federal troops, but when it was obvious they could not arrive in time, he appealed to the governments of Arizona and Sonora to allow Arizona volunteers to assist him. This increased the scale of the violence. When Mexican federal troops arrived two day later, they put everything to a brutal end, with the suspected leaders of the strike executed. The heavy handed way in which Díaz had handled the strike made resentment against Diaz grow, with more strikes beginning in other areas.^[39]^[40]

In late 1910, the Mexican Revolution began in earnest, and Díaz was quickly deposed. The governor of Coahuila, Venustiano Carranza, sought refuge in Sonora, and became one of the principal political leaders during the rest of the war, with his main base of operations in Hermosillo. A number of the revolutionary leaders who joined Carranza in Sonora did not come from peasant backgrounds, but rather the lower middle class of hacienda-managers, shopkeepers, mill-workers, or schoolteachers, who opposed large-scale landowners and the Porfirian elite.^[41] After Díaz was deposed, Carranza competed for power against Álvaro Obregón and others.^[40] The Yaquis joined with Álvaro Obregón’s forces after 1913.^[38]

By 1920, Carranza had become president of Mexico, but found himself opposed by Obregón and others. Carranza tried to suppress political opposition in Sonora, which led to the Plan of Agua Prieta which was signed to formalize Obregón’s and his allies’ (primarily Abelardo L. Rodríguez, Benjamín Hill and Plutarco Elías Calles) resistance to Carranza. This movement soon came to dominate the political situation, but it caused widespread political instability in doing so.^[42] Obregón would succeed in deposing Carranza and becoming the next president of Mexico. For the 1924 presidential elections, Obregón chose Plutarco Elias Calles to succeed him, who was also a revolutionary leader from Sonora.^[43] This effectively ended the war, but hostilities had again destroyed the Sonoran economy.^[40] From 1920 to the early 1930s, four Sonorans came to occupy the Mexican presidency Adolfo de la Huerta, Obregón, Calles and Rodríguez.^[24]

The Chinese first arrived at Guaymas in the late 19th century and congregated there and in Hermosillo. Over the following decades, they moved into growing communities such as Magdalena and Cananea. Rather than working in the fields, most started their own small businesses, networking among other Chinese.^[31] These business spanned a wide range of industries from manufacturing to retail sales of just about every type of merchandise.^[44] The Chinese in Sonora has not only become successful shopkeepers, they eventually came to control local small businesses in many areas of the state.^[45] By 1910, the Chinese population in Sonora was 4,486 out of a total population of 265,383, making them the largest foreign presence in the state, with only North Americans a close second at 3,164. Almost none were female as there were only 82 Chinese females in the entire country at the time. The Chinese population reached its peak in 1919 with 6,078 people, again with almost no Chinese women.^[45]

Resentment against Chinese success began quickly, but Sinophobia rose sharply during the Mexican Revolution as many Chinese prospered despite the war, and many attacks were targeted against them.^[44] The first organized anti-Chinese campaign in Sonora began in 1916 in Magdalena.^[46] A more serious campaign began in 1925, calling for their expulsion from the state.^[47] Mass expulsions were mostly carried out in Sonora and Sinaloa partly because of their large populations, but the Chinese, often with their Mexican wives and children, were deported from all over the country. Some were returned to China but many others were forced to enter the U.S. through the border with Sonora, even though Chinese exclusion laws were still in effect there.^[48] Sonoran governor Rodolfo Elias Calles was responsible for the expulsion of most Chinese-Mexican families into U.S. territory. Despite the diplomatic problems this caused, Elias Calles did not stop the expulsions until he himself was expelled from Sonora. However, by that time almost all of Sonora’s Chinese-Mexicans had disappeared.^[49] By the 1940 census, only 92 Chinese were still living in Sonora, with more than two-thirds of these having acquired Mexican citizenship. This had the unintended consequence of nearly collapsing the Sonoran economy.^[50]

The efforts at modernization and economic development begun in the Díaz period would continue through the Revolution and on through the rest of the 20th century. In the late 19th and early 20th century, the process of electrification greatly increased the demand for copper, which led to a boom in mining in Sonora and neighboring Arizona. Cananea grew very quickly from a village of 900 to a city of 20,000. It also led to a network of roads, railroads and other connections across the border.^[51] However, organized development of the state’s agriculture was put on hold because of the Revolution, the Great Depression and other political upheavals.^[52]

In the 1930s, Sonora benefitted from a number of national policies aimed at developing the cities on the border with the U.S. and to build a number of dams to help develop agriculture and general water supply.^[53] Major agricultural reform was begun in the 1940s in the Mayo River area, when the delta was cleared of natural vegetation and made into farmland. Water for these farma was secure through the building of the Mocúzari Dam about 15 miles (24 km) from Navojoa. When it was completed in 1951, there was a system of canals, wells and highways to support large scale agriculture for shipment to other places.^[52]

Bridge over the Colorado River in Sonora

In the last half of the 20th century, the state's population has grown and foreign investment has increased due to its strategic location along the border and its port of Guaymas. More than 200 international and domestic enterprises moved into the state, allowing for the development of modern infrastructure such as highways, ports and airports, making the state one of the best connected in the country. A bridge was built over the Colorado River to link Sonora with neighboring Baja California Norte in 1964. One important sector of the economy has been industry, culminating in the Ford automotive plant in Hermosillo and a number of assembly plants called maquiladoras on the border with the U.S. One the fastest growing sectors of the economy has been tourism, now one the most important sectors of the economy, especially along the coast, with the number of visitors there increasing every year. This has led to a surge in hotel infrastructure, especially in Puerto Peñasco.^[53]

For most of the 20th century, Mexico was dominated by the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). Discontent with this one-party system became prominent in the northern states of Mexico, including Sonora. As early as 1967, a competing party, the National Action Party (PAN), won control of the city government of Sonora's capital, Hermosillo.^[54] PAN won important municipal victories in the state in 1983, which President de la Madrid refused to officially recognize but was forced to let stand.^[55] PAN's growing strength by the 1980s forced the PRI to nominate candidates who were similar to PAN, successful business executives who favored economic liberalization over traditional Mexican statism, preferred in the north of the country. Institutional Revolutionary Party won the Sonoran gubernatorial race in 1985, but it was heavily contested with obvious problems of fraud.^[56] By the 1990s, PRI operatives caught manipulating election results were actually prosecuted by the Sonoran state attorney.^[57] This along with other events in the country would eventually lead to the end of the one party system when Vicente Fox was elected president in 2000. PAN has since dominated most of the north of the country, but Sonora would not have its first PAN governor until 2009, which the election of Guillermo Padrés Elías.^[58]

Barrier at the Nogales border

Sonora's border with Arizona has received more attention since 2000, with the increase of illegal border crossings and drug smuggling, especially in rural areas such as around Naco, which is one of the main routes into the U.S.^[59] Starting in the 1990s, increased border patrols and the construction of corrugated metal and chain link fences in California and Texas dramatically cut illegal border crossing in these two states. This forced illegal immigrants into the more dangerous desert areas of Arizona and New Mexico, which have mostly seen rises in illegal crossings since then.^[60]^[61] Many migrants now come to the Arizona border between Agua Prieta and Nogales, with Naco as one of the preferred routes for "coyotes" (also called "polleros" or "enganchadores") or smugglers who offer to take migrants across.^[59]^[62] There are migrant shelters and hotel in border towns which cater to those waiting to the chance to make the crossing into Arizona.^[63] Providing lodging for migrants is a growing business in Naco and other border towns, where the rate is between 200 and 300 pesos per night per person. Many of these lodgings are filled with people who cannot cross the border.^[62] One example is the Hospedaje Santa María, which is a run-down, two-story building.^[61]

Forty-five percent of the deaths of migrants occur on the Arizona side of the border.^[62] According to Arizonan authorities, 2010 was a record year for deaths in Arizona for people crossing illegally from Sonora, with the bodies of 252 crossers found in the deserts between the New Mexico and California borders. This broke the previous record of 234 in 2007, with nearly 2,000 found in this area since 2001.^[64] However, Mexican officials state that the figures are higher, with over four hundred dying in Arizona deserts in 2005 alone. In 2006, Mexican officials began to distribute maps of Arizona to Mexicans gathered in Sonoran border town with the intention of crossing illegally. The Mexican government stated the reason for the maps was to help Mexican avoid dangerous areas that have caused deaths from the desert's heat.^[63]

Migration and drug smuggling problem has affected most border towns. Many people make a living by catering migrants or working as "coyote" guides.^[61] Mexicans and others either looking to cross and those recently deported crowd these the border area.^{[clarification needed]} Some returned home, but many others decide to stay on the Sonoran border, working to earn money for another attempt. These workers put a strain on insufficient municipal medical services.^[62] The walls, which have shut down much of the illegal crossings into Texas and California, have also been built on parts of the Arizona border, especially between towns such as the two Nacos and the two Nogales'. The wall in Naco is four meters high and made of steel. It currently extends 7.4 kilometres (4.6 mi), but there are plans to extend it another 40 kilometres (25 mi). Security here was further tightened after the 2001 September 11 attacks. The U.S. Border Patrol credits the wall and better surveillance technology with cutting the number of captured border crossers near Naco by half in 2006. People on both sides of the wall have mixed feelings about it.^[61]

Violence connected to drug smuggling on the border and in Mexico in general has caused problems with tourism, an important segment of the entire country. Federal troops have been stationed here due to the violence, which has the population divided. While the security they can provide is welcomed, there is concern about the violation of human rights. In 2005, the state began advertising campaigns to reassure Arizonans that it is safe to cross the border.^[65]^[66]

Geography and environment [link]

Political and natural divisions [link]

Hastéecöla peaks near Bahía Kino

Sonora is located in northwest Mexico. It has a territory of 184,934 square kilometres (71,403 sq mi) and is the second largest state of the country.^[34]^[67] It borders the states of Sinaloa, Chihuahua, and Baja California Norte, with the U.S. to its north and the Gulf of California to its west.^[67] Its border with the U.S. is 588 kilometres (365 mi) long.^[34] The state is divided into 21 political districts with 72 municipalities. It is also divided into five hydrolic regions – Río Colorado, Sonora Norte, Sonora Sur, Sinaloa, Cuencas Cerradas del Norte.^[34]^[68]

The state's geography is divided into three regions created by the rise of the Sierra Madre Occidental mountains and the separation of the Baja California peninsula, with all three running roughly north-south. The mountains dominate eastern Sonora, while the center is dominated by plains and rolling hills, which then extend west to the coast on the Gulf of California.^[34]^[69]

The center plains and coast [link]

Valley of Sonora

The center plains and coastline were both created by the tearing away of the Baja California peninsula between ten and twelve million years ago. These plains are between 50 kilometres (31 mi) and 120 kilometres (75 mi) wide, wedged between the Sierra Madre and the Gulf of California, which began to form between 5.5 and 6 million years ago. Climate patterns bring moisture east from the Pacific Ocean, forming rivers and streams that cross the plains area and empty in to the gulf. These rivers have brought down sediment from the volcanic rock of the Sierra Madre and eventually buried most of the mountains and hills of the center of the state, smoothing them into plains. These soils are rich in clays and thousands of feet thick in places, making this region very fertile, only lacking water.^[69]

The state as 816 kilometres (507 mi) of coastline, all of which faces the Gulf of California, with its relatively shallow and very calm waters.^[34] There are beaches along most of this coastline, some of which with fine, white sand.The best known of these are San Carlos, Puerto Peñasco and Bahía Kino. San Carlos, with its Los Algodones Beach is one of the most visited areas on the Sonoran coast. Los Algodones ("The Cottons") is name for its dunes of white sand, which can be compared to cotton balls. San Carlos has a large variety of sea life off its shores, making it popular for sports fishing and scuba diving. A number of Yaquis, Seris and Guaymas on and around the Tetakawi Hill, making a living from fishing.^[70]^[71]

View of San Carlos

Puerto Peñasco is located in the extreme northwest of the state in the Upper Gulf somewhat near where the Colorado River empties. It contains 110 kilometres (68 mi) of beaches on calm seas, located in the Altar Desert near El Pinacate biosphere reserve, some of the driest climates in Mexico. Since the 1990s, it has experienced large-scale development along its 110 kilometres (68 mi) of beaches, which have calm seas. It is located extreme northwest of the state. The area has experience a building boom since the 2000s.^[70]

Bahía Kino is located near San Carlos, with a dock located in the commuty of Kino Viejo. This bay's beaches have white sand, with warm calm waters off of them. For this reason, Bahía Viejo calls itself la perla del Mar de Cortés ("the pearl of the Gulf of California"). The area is popular for scuba diving and sports fishing as its waters are filled with various species of multicolored fish, small invertebrates, large crustaceans, manta rays, sponges and turtles. On the neighboring islands, sea lions can be seen. Off this coast is the Isla Tiburón, Mexico’s largest island and a nature reserve with wild sheep and deer. There are indigenous communities here, especially at Punta Chueca, which still practice hunting, fishing and collecting natural resources, as well as selling crafts to tourists.^[70]^[72]

Lesser known beaches include El Desemboque, El Himalaya and Huatabampito. El Desemboque is a small Seri village with beaches located 370 kilometres (230 mi) northwest of Hermosillo, just south of Puerto Libertad. Activities in the area include scuba diving and swimming in isolated and relatively undeveloped beaches. The current name is from Spanish (disembarkation point), but the Seri name for the area means "where there are clams."^[73] El Himalaya Beach is located forty km from Guaymas. It is a semi virgin beach surrouned by calm waters, mountains, and unusual species of flora and fauna and cave paintings. The area is filled with large stone yellow-red rock formations that were created by a volcanic eruption.^[74] Huatabampito is an area of beaches in the south of the state. The beaches have delicate dune of fine sand and the waters are clear with a green-blue color. Each year, whales arrive to this area to reproduce in the warm waters. This is the main attraction, bringing visitors from Mexico and abroad.^[75]

Sierra Madre Occidental [link]

The east of the state is dominated by the Sierra Madre Occidental, which has less extreme temperatures and, due to the high altitude, relatively more rainfall.^[67] WAs moist air masses move inland from the Pacific and the tropics and are forced against the mountains, they cool and this leads to precipitation, mostly rain but occasional snows in the highest regions. This process takes most of the moisture out of the air and feeds the various rivers and streams, which empty into Gulf as well as underground aquifers that are under the coastal plain.^[76]

Flora and fauna [link]

Laguna Nainari

Habitats and vegetation vary greatly depending on elevation and rainfall.^[77] An estimated 2,230,000 hectares (22,300 km²; 8,600 sq mi) of Sonora is in arid grasslands; 1,200,000 hectares (12,000 km²; 4,600 sq mi) are covered in forests, 301,859 hectares (3,018.59 km²; 1,165.48 sq mi) in rainforest and 1,088,541 hectares (10,885.41 km²; 4,202.88 sq mi) in farmland. Seventy percent of the territory, or 13,500,000 hectares (135,000 km²; 52,000 sq mi), is covered in desert vegetation or arid grasslands.^[34] The Yécora municipality in eastern Sonora has one of the highest grass diversities in Mexico.^[78] There are eight types of desert vegetation, seven of which are native to the Sonora Desert and one in the area that transitions to the Chihuahua Desert. Most are scrubs or small bushes, which generally do not reach over 4 metres (13 ft) in height, most of the rest are cactae, with some mangroves and other halophile plants.^[34] Many plants are rainfall sensitive, with most trees and shrubs growing leaves and flowers just before or during the rainy season, then drop their leaves afterwards. However, there are plants in flower at one time or another throughout the year.^[79] Coastal plants receive less water stress due to lower evaporation rates, and substantial moisture from dew, especially in the cooler months.^[80]

View of Isla Tiburon across the Infiernillo Channel

Most forests are located in the northeast of the state, covering about 6.4% of the state. This is the area with the coolest temperatures.^[34] Deforestation has been a significant problem, especially after 1980, because the rate of cutting trees has increased. In central Sonora, the area covered by Madrean evergreen woodland and Sonoran Desert scrub decreased 28% and 31%, respectively, between 1973 and 1992 (ValdezZamudio et al. 2000). During this same period,^[81] For example, much of the forests of mesquite trees in the lower elevations of the state have disappeared because of the demand for local fuels and the market for mesquite charcoal in Mexico and the U.S.^[82]

Most of northern Mexico suffers from one of the world’s highest rates of desertification due to land degradation in arid and semi arid areas, with the loss of biological and/or economic productivity, but the process is most severe Sonora as neighboring Sinaloa. Land degradation occurs because of clearing land for agriculture, the planting of non-native buffelgrass for grazing, the cutting of forests, overgrazing of natural vegetation and soil salinization from irrigation. A study by A study by Balling in 1998 showed higher soil and air temperatures in areas that have been overgrazed, deforested and otherwised cleared land, likely due to the lack of shading vegetation, which leads to higher soil evaporation and desert conditions. Studies have also indicated that warming trends are higher in Sonora than in neighboring Arizona, into which the Sonora Desert also extends.^[81]

The state contains 139 species and subspecies of native mammals, with the most important being white tailed deer, mule deer, wild sheep, bats, hares, squirrels, moles, beavers, coyotes, wolves, foxes, jaguars, and mountain lions. Amphibians and reptiles include frogs and toads, desert tortoises, chameleons, gila monsters, rattlesnakes and other types of snakes. The number of bird species native to the state is not known, but major species include roadrunners, quail, turkeys, buzzards and doves.^[34]

Climate [link]

Sunset over the desert in Sonora

During the Pliocene, the detachment of Baja California, the development of the Gulf of California and the Subartic California current drastically reduced moisture coming into Sonora leading to severe regional aridity in both this state and neighboring Baja California. This created xeric communities and the development of species endemic only to this region.^[83]

There are four major climate regions in the state: dry desert (Köppen BW), arid lands (BS), semi moist lands, and temperate zones (Cwb).^[84] Ninety percent of the state has desert or arid conditions. The other two climates are restricted to the areas of the state with the highest altitude such as the Yécora area, the mountains north of Cananea and a strip along the southeast of the state on the Chihuahua border.^[34]^[67]

Average high temperatures range from 12.7 °C (54.9 °F) in Yécora to 35 °C (95 °F) in Tesia, municipality of Navojoa. Average low temperatures range from 5.9 °C (42.6 °F) in Yécora to 35.2 in Orégano, municipality of Hermosillo.^[34]^[67] In the winter, cold air masses from the north reach the state, and can produce below freezing temperatures and high winds at night in the higher elevations, but the temperature can then jump back up to over 20C during the day. Freezing temperatures in the lowlands almost never occur.^[77]^[85] In February 2011, the Mexican government recorded a low in Yécora of −12C.^[85]

Snow on a mountain near Magdalena

Precipitation is seasonal and most occurs in the higher elevations. In hot and arid or semi arid lands, evaporation vastly exceeds precipitation.^[86] Mexico’s most arid area, the Altar Desert is located in this state.^[67] The east of the state is dominated by the Sierra Madre Occidental, which has less extreme temperatures and relatively more rainfall due to altitude.^[67] Most moisture comes in from the Pacific Ocean and the tropics, which is pushed against the Sierra Madre. This cools the air masses, leading to rain and occasionally snow in the higher elevations. While most of the rain falls in the mountainous areas, much of this water finds its way back to the western coastal plains in the form of rivers and streams that empty into the Gulf of California and fill underground aquifers.^[76] Most of the year’s precipitation falls during the rainy season, which is locally called “las aguas” (the waters). These last from July to mid September, when monsoon winds bring moist air from southerly tropical waters. Most of this is from the Pacific Ocean west of Central America but can also come from Gulf of Mexico as well. This moister flow results in nearly daily afternoon thunderstorms. After the las aguas, there may be additional moisture brought in by hurricanes, which generally move west along the Pacific coast of Mexico and occasionally come inland, especially in southern Sonora. However, these storms tend to drop large quantities of rain in a short time, causing flooding and destruction.^[80]

In the winter, from November to February, there are light rains called equipatas ("horse hoofs", named after the sound the rain makes). These rains come in from the north from the southern extensions of frontal storms that originate in the northern Pacific Ocean. These end by March or April when the fronts are no longer strong enough to reach this far south. They end even earlier in the extreme south of the state as the storm systems retreat, with the dry season lasting eight or nine months in this part of the state. In the north these rains support a wide variety of spring annuals and wildflowers, but the water they supply in the south of the state is still important to help replenish wells.^[80]

Hydrology [link]

Satellite photo of the Colorado River delta in Sonora

With the exception of the Colorado River, river and aquifer systems in Sonora are a result of rains from incoming clouds squeezed against the Sierra Madre Occidental. This water runs down the west side of the mountains along the canyons and valleys towards the plains and coast and into the Gulf of California,^[76] Sonora has seven major rivers – the Colorado River, the Concepción River, the San Ignacio River, the Sonora River, the Mátepe River, the Yaqui River and the Mayo River. Dams, such as Alvaro Obregon, Adolfo Ruiz Cortines, Plutarco Elias Calles, Abelardo Rodriguez and Lazaro Cardenas, have been built along some of these rivers, at least two of them where natural lakes existed.^[34]^[84] Some of the dams formed large deltas, such as that of the Mayo River.^[26] The largest aquifers are mostly found between Hermosillo and coast, the Guaymas Valley and the area around Caborca. Most of these are having problems due to overpumping for agricultural irrigation.^[34]

Protected areas [link]

Sonora has 18,463 square kilometres (7,129 sq mi) of protected wildlife areas.^[87] Protected natural areas in the state are of three types: biosphere reserves, areas for the protection of flora and fauna and areas for the protection of natural resources.^[88] The El Pinacate biosphere reserve is located between Puerto Peñasco and the U.S. border in the Altar Desert. The reserve consists of an area with a series of gigantic dormant volcanic craters, which are covered with flora and fauna. It is frequently visited by foreign tourists, researchers and photographers. The reserve has a site museum, which displays the area history from its formation to the present. The craters are named Badillo, Molina or El Trébol, Cerro Colorado, Volcan Grande, Caravajales and the largest, Mc Dougal.^[89]

The Cañón las Barajitas ("Barajitas Canyon") is a protected natural area which consists of three different ecosystems, located 31 kilometres (19 mi) north of San Carlos. It contains a kilometer of beaches and a canyon which has two distinct microclimates, one arid and desert-like and the other subtropical. The area was a wide variety of fauna including whales, dolphins and manta rays that can be seen off the coast depending on the season. Activities for visitors include kayaking, paddleboats, scuba diving and fishing. There are also caves as well as a solor observatory.^[90]

The Alto Golfo y Delta ("Upper Gulf and Delta") biosphere reserve encompasses is in the northwest of Sonora and northeast of Baja California Norte at the northernmost part of the Gulf of California and the delta of the Colorado River. The area is home to a very large number of marine species. There are also rocky beaches along with those with fine sand. Some of these are home to groups of seals and sea lions. The reserve was created in 1993 and encompasses an area of 934,756 hectares. On land, there are arid scrubbrush, coastal dunes and an estuary. It extends into the far upper part of the Gulf of California.^[91]

The Bahía e islas de San Jorge ("Bay and Islands of San Jorge"), covering 130 square kilometres (50 sq mi), are located on Sonora’s northern coast between Caborca and Puerto Peñasco. The islands were first made a federal reserve in 1978 due to its important to migratory birds. They are especially important to species such as the Sterna antillarum, colonies of Sula leucogaster, Myotis vivesi and Zalophus californianus. The islands are large rocks and are white from guano. The beaches extend for ten km and end at the bay of San Jorge on the south end. The area is home to sea lions and a type of bat that fishes. There are sand dunes with arid zone vegetation as well as a small estuary. The climate is very arid and semi hot with an average temperature of between 18 and 22 °C (64 and 72 °F).^[92]

The Isla Tiburón is an ecological resereve with about 300 species of plants with desert and marine wildlife. The island used to be inhabited by the Seris and they still consider it as their territory.^[93]

The La Mesa el Campanero-Arroyo El Reparo reserve is found in the municipality of Yécora. It is a mesa with mountains which cover 43,000 hectares (430 km²; 170 sq mi), containing pine and tropical forests, rivers, arroyos, rock formations and dirt roads. Due to its altitude of between 700 and 2100 masl, its temperatures are temperate for the state. It is part of the Sierra Madre Occidential bio region and in the upper basins of the Yaqui and Mayo rivers.^[94]

The border [link]

Aerial photograph of the United States-Mexican border at Nogales (diagonally from left to right), and Nogales, Sonora, Mexico (upper right).

Sonora's border with the U.S. is 588 kilometres (365 mi) long,^[34] and runs through desert and mountains, from the western Chihuahuan Desert, through an area of grasslands and oak mountain areas to the Sonoran Desert west of Nogales. The area gets drier from here west and the last third of the border is generally uninhabited. There are six official border crossings. From east to west these at Agua Prieta, Naco, Nogales, Sasabe, Sonoyta and San Luis Río Colorado. In populated areas, much of the border is marked by corregated metal walls, but most of the rest is marked by barbed wire fence and border monuments.^[95]

Like others in the world, the border is a culture onto itself, not 100% belonging to either country culturally. Interaction between the peoples on both sides is a part of both the culture and the economy. In the 1980s, an international volleyball game was regularly held near Naco, with the chain link border fence serving as the net. Much of Arizona and Sonora share a cuisine based on the wheat, cheese and beef that was introduced to the region by the Spaniards, with wheat tortillas being especially large on both sides of the border. This diet is reinforced by the vaquero/cowboy tradition which continues in both states.^[95] The six border crossings are essential to the existence and extent of the communities that surround them, as most of them function as ports for the passage of goods between the two countries.^[96] People regularly shop and work on the other side, taking advantage of opportunities there.^[95] The economic opportunities of the border are not equal on both sides. Most of the population along this border lives on the Sonoran side, many of which have moved here for the opportunities created by the maquiladoras and other businesses. These are lacking on the Arizona side.^[96]

The border crossing at Sonoyta

The border has separated the region’s indigenous populations, such as the Tohono O’odham the Yaquis and the Pimas. While members of the Tohono O’odham have special border crossing privileges, these have become endangered as Mexican farmer encroach on tribal lands in Sonora, which a vulnerable to drug smugglers. Yaquis in Arizona travel south to the Yaqui River area for festival, especially Holy Week, and Yaquis travel north to Arizona for cultural reasons as well. When Father Kino arrived in this area, he named much of it the Pimería Alta, as Pima territory extends from the highlands of eastern Sonora up towards Tucson.^[95]

Authorities on each side work to keep out from the other that which is undesirable. For the U.S., this mostly involves drugs and illegal immigrants. For Mexico, this mostly involves struggling against the importation of untaxed goods, especially automobiles. Smuggling people and drugs into the U.S. is big business in Mexico, but while it affects everyone living on the border, it is generally not seen, except for occasional newspaper headlines, occasional violent crime and religious articles geared to those in the trade. Illegal crossings taking place through tunnels, hidden cars and trucks or most commonly, simply passing through a gap in the fence, especially in the more remote areas. In 1990, a tunnel linking two warehouses in Agua Prieta and Douglas, AZ was discovered. It was sophisticated with hydraulic equipment and means to move large quantities of goods. At least three corridos have been written about this tunnel.^[95]

Demographics [link]

General population [link]

Economic growth in the state since the Mexican Revolution has led to steady population growth. However, this population growth has been concentrated on the arid coastline due to the dominant agriculture and fishing industries. Eight five percent of Sonora’s population growth since 1970 has been in this area.^[97] Another area where there have been gains are municipalities with industry, such as in Hermosillo and along the U.S. border. However, those municipalities with none of these economic advantages do not see population growth and some see population decreases.^[98] Despite population growth, Sonora is still one of the least densely populated states in the country.^[97] About 90% of the state’s population is Catholic, with about 5% belonging to Evangelical or Protestant groups and over 7% professing some other faith.^[98]

Indigenous population [link]

Performance of the Deer Dance

The most numerous indigenous groups in the state are the Mayo, the Yaquis and the Seris; however there are a number of other groups which have maintained much of their way of life in territory in which they have live in for centuries.^[99] There were at least nine tribes, eight of which remain today. Seven are indigenous to Sonora, with one migrating to the state over a century ago from the U.S.^[100] These cultures generally hold in reverence the deserts, mountains, riverbeds and Gulf of California with which they have contact. Many of these beliefs have been adapted to Catholicism. There are efforts to preserve indigenous languages, but with groups of diminished size, this has been a challenge.^[99] As of 2000, there were 55,609 people, or 2.85% of the population, who spoke an indigenous language in the state. The indigenous population is concentrated in fourteen municipalities, which are home to 91% of the total indigenous population of the state. The municipalities with the greatest presence include Etchojoa with 19% of the municipal population, Guaymas with 8.34%, Huatabampo with 11.8%, Navojoa with 5.92%, Hermosillo with 1.1%, Cajeme with 1%, Bácum with 9.26%, Benito Juárez with 5.2%, San Ignacio Río Muerto with 7.4%, Nogales with 1.2%, Álamos with 3.9%, San Miguel de Horcasitas with 13.7%, Yécora with 6.8% and San Luis Río Colorado with 5.1%.^[98]

The Mayos are the most numerous indigenous ethnic group in the state with more than 75,000 who have maintained their language and traditions. These people, who call themselves Yoreme, are descended from ancient Huatabampo culture.^[101]^[102] They are concentrated along the Mayo River. Most are found in the municipalities of Álamos, Quiriego and others in the south of the state, as well as in some parts of the coast near the Isla Tiburón. There is also a notable community in the northwest of Sonora.^[101]^[102] Their religion is a mix of Catholicism and traditional beliefs, which they assimilated along with European farming and livestock knowledge. Mayo houses often have a cross made of ironwood to protect against evil. Ethnically pure Mayos tend to segregate themselves from mestizos and other ethnicities.^[101]^[102] The Mayos make their living from subsistence farming, working on larger farms and combing wild area for herbs, fruits and other resources. They also work making crafts in wood making utensils and decorative items.^[26]

The Yaquis are the indigenous group mostly closely associated with the state of Sonora.^[103] These people are second most numerous in the state with about 33,000 members traditionally located along the Yaqui River. They are found principally in the communities of Pótam, Huíviris, Torim, Cocorit, Bácum, Vícam, Rahúm and Belem, which have semi autonomous government. The Yaqui have been able to maintain most of their traditions including ancestor worship, original language, and many of their traditional rites and dances, with the Deer Dance the best known among outsiders. The Yaquis call themselves and the Mayos the “Yoreme” or "Yoeme". The Yaqui and Mayo languages are mutually intelligible, and the two peoples are believed to have been united until relatively recently. One of the Yaqui religious celebrations which is best known among outsiders is Holy Week, along with rituals associated with Lent and Day of the Dead. As they consider the soul to be immortal, funerals are not a somber occasion but rather celebrations with banquets and music.^[101] The preservation of history is important to the Yaqui, especially the struggles they have had to maintain their independence.^[103]

Punta Chueca, Sonora

The Seris call themselves the Comcáac,^[104] which means “the people” in the Seri language. The name Seri comes from the Opata language and means “men of sand.”^[105] There are about 650 Seri people today. They are well known among outsiders in the state because of their culture and the crafts they produce in ironwood. For centuries they have inhabited the central coast of the state, especially in Punta Chueca, El Desemboque and Kino Viejo as well as a number of islands in the Gulf of California in and around the Isla Tiburón. Generally, the Seris are the tallest of the indigenous peoples of the region, and the first Spaniards to encounter them described them as "giants."^{[citation needed]} Their traditional diet almost entirely consisted of hunted animals and fish. However, this diet changed after the arrival of the Spaniards, when the use of firearms led to the extinction of many food animals. The Seris' traditional beliefs are based on the animals in their environment, especially the pelican and the turtle, with the sun and moon playing important roles as well.^[105]^[106] Rituals are now based on Catholicism,^[105]^[106] especially those related to birth, puberty and death, but they include traditional chants about the power of the sea, the shark and great deeds of the past. They are also known for the use of face paint during rituals which is applied in lines and dots of various colors.^[105]^[106]

The Tohono O’odham, still referred to as the Pápago by Spanish speakers, have inhabited the most arid areas of the state, and are mostly found in Caborca, Puerto Peñasco, Sáric, Altar and Plutarco Elías Calles in the north of the state. However, most people of this ethnicity now live in neighboring Arizona. The Tohono O’odham have as a principle deity the “Older Brother,” who dominates the forces of nature. Among their most important rituals is one called the Vikita, which occurs in July, with dances and song to encourage rainfall during the area’s short rainy season. In July, during the full moon, a dance called the Cu-cu is performed, which is to ask for favors from Mother Nature so that there will be no drought and the later harvests will be abundant. The dance is performed during a large festival with brings together not only the Tohono O’odham from Sonora, but from Arizona and California as well. The feast day of Francis of Assisi is also important. Many of these people are known as skilled carpenters, making furniture as well as delicate figures of wood. There are also craftspeople who make ceramics and baskets, especially a type of basket called a “corita.”.^[107]^[108]

The Opatas are location in a number of communities in the center and northwest of the state, but have been disappearing as a distinct ethnicity. This group has lost its traditional rituals, and the language died out in the 1950s. The name means “hostile people” and was given to them by the Pimas, as the Opatas were generally in conflict with their neighbors. They were especially hostile to the Tohono O’odham, who they depreciatingly refer to as the Papawi O’otham, or “bean people.” Today’s Opatas have completely adopted the Catholic religion with Isidore the Laboror as the ethnicity’s patron saint.^[109]^[110]

The Pimas occupy the mountains of the Sierra Madre Occidental in eastern Sonora and western Chihuahua state. The Pimas call themselves the O’ob, which means "the people." The name Pima was given to them by the Spaniards because the word pima would be said in response to most questions asked to them in Spanish. This word roughly means “I don’t know” or “I don’t understand.” The traditional territory of this ethnicity is known as the Pimería, and it is divided into two regions: the Pimería Alta and the Pimería Baja. The principle Pima community in Sonora is in Maycoba, with other communities in Yécora and its vicinity as well as the community of San Diego, where there is a center selling Pima handcrafts. Pima religion is a mix of traditional beliefs and Catholicism. One of the most important celebrations is the feast of Francis of Assisi, who has been adopted as the patron saint of the Pima. Another important festival is called the Yúmare, which has a variable date with the purpose of asking for an abundant harvest, especially corn. Festivals generally last four days and consist of chants and dances such as the Pascola, accompanies by a fermented corn drink called tesguino.^[109]^[111]

The Guarijíos are one of the least understood groups in the state, and are mostly restricted to an area called the Mesa del Matapaco in the southeast. The Guarijíos are related to the Tarahumaras and the Cáhitas. This was the first group to be encountered by the Jesuits in 1620. Initially, they lived in the area around what is now Álamos, but when the Spaniards arrived, they were dispossessed of their lands. They also did not intermarry with the newcomers, isolating themselves. For this reason, people of this group have very distinct facial features, and have keep their traditions almost completely intact. They remain isolated but are known for their handcrafts. In the 1970s, there was oppression of this group, which was not formally recognized until 1976. In this year, they were granted an ejido.^[109]^[112]

The Cocopah is the smallest native indigenous group to Sonora with about 170 members, who live mostly in San Luis Río Colorado, along the U.S. border, in addition to nearby communities in Arizona and Baja California. Their own name for themselves, Kuapak, means “which comes” and possibly refers to the frequent changes in the course of the Colorado River.^[113] Traditional native dress is in disuse. It is characterized by the use of feathers and necklaces made of bones, and include nose rings and earrings with colorful belts for the men. The women used to wear skirts made of feathers. They still practice a number of traditional rituals such as cremation upon death so that the soul can pass on to the afterlife without the body encumbering it. Another traditional practice is the use of tattoos.^[113]^[114]

The Kickapoos are not native to Sonora, but migrated here from the U.S. over a century ago. Today, they are found in the communities of El Nacimiento in the state of Coahuila, Tamichopa in the municipality of Bacerac, as well as on several different reservations in the U.S. However, the Kickapoo community in Sonora is in danger of disappearing. In the 1980s, there were attempts to gather these disparate groups into one community. Eighty members remain in Sonora and they have lost their ancestral language, which was part of the Algonquin family, with the last speaker dying in 1996, although the language is still widely spoken in other Kickapoo communities, especially in Coahuila. The Kickapoo community in Sonora has also lost much of their traditional culture.^[113]^[115]

Economy [link]

General profile [link]

Interchange in Santa Ana near the border with trucks in view

Despite a rough terrain and a harsh climate, Sonora, like the rest of the northern Mexico, is rich in mineral resources. This has led to a history of self reliance, and many see themselves as the heirs to a pioneering tradition.^[116] A large part of this is linked to the vaquero or cowboy tradition, as much of the state’s economy has traditionally been linked to livestock.^[117] Sonorans and other norteños (northerners) have a reputation for being hard working and frugal, and being more individualistic and straightforward than other Mexicans.^[116] Although most people in the state are employed in industry and tourism, the trappings of the cowboy, jeans, cowboy hats and pickup trucks, are still very popular.^[117]

In 2000, the gross domestic product (GDP) of the state was 40,457 million pesos, accounting for 2.74% of the country's total.^[118] In 2008, Moody’s Investor’s Service gave the state a A1.mx (Mexico) and Ba1 (global) ratings, based mostly on its strong economic base. The state has a highly skilled labor force, and strong ties to the U.S. economy, mostly due to its shared border with Arizona. This links affects various sectors of the state’s economy. Sonora is one of Mexico’s wealthier states with the GDP per capita about 15% higher than average, and GDP growth generally outpaces the rest of the country, with a growth of 8.4% in 2006 as compared to the national average of 4.8%.^[119] The economic success of the state, especially its industrial and agricultural sectors, as well as the border, have attracted large numbers of migrants to the state, from the central and southern parts of Mexico.^[120]

Agriculture and livestock [link]

Agriculture is the most important economic activity in the state, mostly with the production of grains. The major agricultural regions include the Yaqui Valley, the Mayo Valley, the Guaymas Valley, the coast near Hermosillo, the Caborca coast and the San Luis Río Colorado Valley. These areas permit for large scale irrigation to produce large quantities of crops such as wheat, potatoes, watermelons, cotton, corn, melons, sorghum, chickpeas, grapes, alfalfa, oranges and more. In 2002, agricultural production included 1,533,310 tonnes (3.3804×10⁹ lb) of wheat, 172,298 tonnes (379,850,000 lb) of potatoes, 297,345 tonnes (655,530,000 lb) of wine grapes (both red and white), 231,022 tonnes (509,320,000 lb) of alfalfa, 177,430 tonnes (391,200,000 lb) of oranges and 155,192 tonnes (342,140,000 lb) of watermelon.^[118]^[121] Sonora and Baja California Norte are Mexico's two largest wheat-producing states,^[122] with Sonora alone producing 40% of Mexico’s wheat.^[123]

There is some small scale farming done in the state, especially in the highlands areas, growing corn and other staples mostly for auto consumption, highly dependent on the rainy season in the late summer as there is no irrigation. If these rains fail, the area suffers.^[79] However, most of the agriculture continues to shift away from small farms producing for local markets to largescale commercial agro-industry.^[123] Many of the country’s largest agribusiness farms are located in Sonora.^[116] This agricultural production is concentrated in the lowlands areas, with much of the production exported to the U.S. This includes non-traditional crops such as fruits, nuts and winter vegetables such as tomatoes, especially since NAFTA.^[123]

Irrigation is essential for reliable agriculture on the coastal lowlands of the state,^[124] and large scale irrigation infrastruction is needed for large scale production. After the Mexican Revolution, the federal government took control of Sonora’s irrigation infrastructure and after World War II, began extensive dam and reservoir construction. From the 1940s to the 1970s, advanced in agricultural techniques were pioneered by the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) based in Ciudad Obregón. This combined new varieties of wheat, with irrigation, fertilizers and pesticides to greatly increase production. Mexico went from a wheat importer in the 1940s to a wheat exporter in the 1960s.^[123]

However, such intensive agriculture in such an arid area has had a significant negative impact of water supplies. Eighty-eight percent of all water taken from above and below the surface is used for agriculture. One third of aquifers are overdrafted, especially in Caborca, Guaymas and the coast near Hermosillo.^[125] There have been water disputes in the state, notablely between officials from Hermosillo and the relatively water-rich Ciudad Obregón.^[126] The overpumping has drastically lowered water tables and has increaseds soil salinity in many areas. In some areas, the tables have dropped by as much as one or two meters per year, making fresh water increasing unavailable and forcing the abandonment of croplands. For this reason, in the last quarter of the 20th century area under cultivation in Sonora dropped by more than 24%.^[123]

The state still maintains its traditional livestock industry, especially in beef cattle, which as a national reputation for quality. In 2001, the state produced 1,477,686 heads of cattle, 1,229,297 pigs, 38,933 sheep, 33,033 goats, 83,260 horses and 11,988,552 heads of domestic fowl.^[118] The availablily of relatively inexpensive semiarid land, along with proximity to U.S. markets, concentrates livestock production in Sonora and other northern states.^[127]

Fishing [link]

Sonora is a major producer of seafood in Mexico with a developed fishing infrastructure.^[118] The Gulf of California contains a large quantity of fish and shellfish, but major fishing did not begin in Sonora and neighboring Sinaloa until the mid 20th century. Today, some of Mexico’s largest commercial fisheries are in the state.^[128] Sonora is one of Mexico’s leading fish producing states, with 70% of Mexico’s total coming from the Pacific coast, including the Gulf of California.^[129]

Much of the catch is shrimp and sardines, with about three quarters exported to the U.S.^[118]^[128] In 2002, the catch totaled 456,805 tons of seafood with a value of about 2,031 million pesos. In addition to what is caught at sea, there is active fish farming which raises mostly oysters and shrimp.^[118] Much of the commercial and sports fishing is essentially unregulated and has had a very pronounced impact on the Gulf of California, with commercially important species such as shrimp, groupers, snappers,^{[disambiguation needed ]} corvinas, yellowtail,^{[disambiguation needed ]} billfishes have been harvested well above sustainability. Two species which have been particularly hard hit are sharks and manta rays. In addition, shrimp trawling catches a large amount of non target species, which are discarded, and have destroyed large areas of the Gulf’s seafloor. All this has led to rapidly declining harvests.^[128]

Industry and mining [link]

Aerial view of mines in Cananea

Most of the industry of the state is related to agriculture and fishing, in food processing and packing.^[118] In the 1980s, the state gained a large number of industrial plants called “maquiladoras,” mostly situated along the border and int the capital of Hermosillo.^[118] These are assembly plants run by mostly U.S. companies, which have certain duty and tax breaks. By the end of the 20th century, these enterprises had a large influence on the expansion and modernization of the border area, including Sonora. They not only introduced new sources of employment, their U.S. management styles have had influence on business in the state and the rest of the north. However, maquiladoras peaked in 2001, and now many U.S. companies are moving production facilities to China. The number of maquiladoras has declined, but the value of their output has increased as those that remain shift to higher value-added goods and automation. In addition, many of the plants abandoned by U.S. companies have been taken over by Mexican firms. Despite the decline of maquiladoras, exports from them have risen 40%.^[130]

In addition to livestock, mining is another traditional element of Sonora’s economy, beginning with a major find near the city of Álamos. While the silver of that area has mostly been depleted, Sonora still plays a large part in Mexico’s standing as one of the top fifteen producers of minerals in the world, leading in silver, celestite and bismuth. Sonora is the leading producer of gold, copper, graphite, molybdenum, and wollastonite. There are still deposits of silver in the Sierra Madre Occidental. Sonora also has one of the largest coal reserves in the country.^[131] The state has the largest mining surface in Mexico,^[131] and three of the country’s largest mines: La Caridad, Cananea and Mineria María. It is also home to North America’s oldest copper mine, located in Cananea.^[132] Grupo México, with one of its principle mining operations in Cananea, is the world’s third-largest copper producer in the world.^[133] In 2002, mines produced 6,634.5 kilograms of gold, 153,834 kilograms of silver, five tons of lead, 267,171 tons of copper, three tons of zinc, 18,961 tons of iron, 7,176 tons barium sulphate. However, annual production is heavily dependent on world market prices.^[118]

Mexico’s mining industry was mostly dominated by the Spaniards during the colonial period, and then by foreign enterprises after Independence. In the 1960s and 1970s, the government forced out most foreign interests in Mexican mining, beginning with the increasing restriction of ownership in Mexican mining companies.^[131] These restrictions were relaxed starting in 1992, with the only restriction that the operating company be Mexican. Within three years of the change, more than seventy foreign companies, mostly U.S. and Canadian enterprises, opened offices in Hermosillo.^[132]

Major mining operations have had severe environmental impact, especially in the areas surrounding it, with Cananea as the primary example. Mining has been functioning here for over a century, with mining and smelter wastes polluting the San Pedro and Sonora Rivers near the mine, threatening both watersheds. Mining operations also destroy nearby forests due to the demand for building materials and fuel. Few old trees stand near the city of Cananea and the town of San Javier in central Sonora.^[132]

Tourism [link]

Hotel zone in Puerto Peñasco

Business and leisure visitors to the state primarily come from Mexico (over 60%), with the majority of foreign visitors coming from the U.S., especially the states of Arizona, California and New Mexico. The four most important destinations in the state for leisure and business travelers include Nogales, Hermosillo, Guaymas and Puerto Peñasco, with beach destinations preferred by most leisure travelers. One advantage that Sonora has is its proximity to the U.S., from which come most of the world’s travelers. In second place are tourists from Canada, many of which visit as part of cruises. U.S. tourists mostly visit Puerto Peñasco, San Carlos and Navajoa and prefer areas which are considered to be friendly to them, with no “anti-U.S.” sentiment. Most leisure visitors from the U.S. tend to be between 40 and 65 years of age, married or in a relationship, educated at the university level or higher with about thirty days of vacation time and primarily research travel options on the Internet. Most visit to relax and experience another culture. Most domestic visitors also use the Internet, with about half having a university education or higher and about half are married or with a partner. Most domestic visitors are on vacation with their families. The busiest domestic travel times are Holy Week, summer and Christmas, with the overall busiest months being January, April, July, August and December.^[134]

In 2009, the state received 7,024,039 visitors, which added 20,635 million pesos to the economy. Most visitors are domesticspending an average of 742 pesos. Foreign visitors spend on average of 1,105 pesos. Most stay on average 3.3 nights. Just over half of toursts in the state arrive to their destinations by private automoble, followed by airplane and commercial bus.^[134]

During the 2000s, Sonora has increased its tourism infrastructure. In the last half of the 2000s, Sonora has increased its network of highways from 3,600 kilometres (2,200 mi) to 4,500 kilometres (2,800 mi), accounting for 6.7% of all highways in Mexico. It ranks second in four lane highways, surpassed only by Chihuahua. From 2003 to 2009 the number of hotels in the state has increased from 321 to 410 and the number of rooms from 13,226 to 15,806, over 20%. Most of these hotels and rooms are in Hermosillo (57 hotels/3232 rooms) followed by Puerto Peñasco (40/3158), Ciudad Obregón (41/1671), Guaymas/San Carlos (28/1590), Nogales (24/1185), Navojoa (15/637) and Magdalena de Kino (10/284).^[134] The cities of Hermosillo, Ciudad Obregón, Guaymas, Nogales, San Luis Río Colorado, Puerto Peñasco, Bahía Kino and Álamos all have 5-star hotels.^[118] There are 2,577 restaurants in the state with 1288 in Hermosillo.^[134]

Hotel occupation went from 45% in 2003 to 57.7% in 2006 but dropped to 36% in 2009. The state’s tourism suffered in 2008 and 2009, mostly due to the economic downturn and the AHN1 influenza crisis, which brought hotel occupancy rates down about 30%.^[134]

Sonora’s major tourist attraction is its beaches, especially San Carlos, Puerto Peñasco, Bahía Kino and the Gulf of Santa Clara in San Luis Río Colorado.^[118] San Carlos has a large variety of sea life off its shores, making it popular for sports fishing and scuba diving. One of its main attractions is the Playa de los Algodones, called such because its sand dunes look like cotton balls. On one of hills behind it, there is a lookout point which allows for views of the area. A number of Yaquis, Seris and Guaimas on and around the Tetakawi Hill, making a living from fishing. Puerto Peñasco has recently experienced large scale development along its 110 kilometres (68 mi) of beaches, which have calm seas. It is located extreme northwest of the state. Some of the available activities include jet skiing, boating, sailing, sports fishing, scuba diving and snorkeling. It is located near El Pinacate biosphere reserve. There is also an aquarium called the Acuario de Cer-Mar, which is a research center open to the public. The aquarium has a number of species such as marine turtles, octopus, seahorses and many varieties of fish. Bahía Kino is named after the Jesuit missionary, who visited the area in the 17th century. In the 1930s, a group of fishermen established a village in what is now known as Kino Viejo. This bay’s beaches have white sand, with warm calm waters off of them. For this reason, Kino Viejo calls itself la perla del Mar de Cortés (the pearl of the Gulf of California). Available activities include horseback riding, scuba diving and sports fishing. The Isla Tiburón is 28 kilometres (17 mi) from Bahia Kino in the Gulf of California. It is the largest island of Mexico, measuring 50 by 20 kilometres (31 by 12 mi). It has been declared an ecological reserve to protect its flora and fauna, such as the wild rams and deer that live here.^[70]

Mission at Cocospera founded by Padre Kino

To enhance tourism in areas away from the primary beaches, the state of Sonora has set up several tourist routes for promotion as well as gained "Pueblo Mágico" status for one of its smaller cities. The Ruta de las Missiones ("Missions Route") covers the principle stops of Jesuit missionary Eusebio Kino, as the worked to establish the many religious institutions which are part of the state’s identity. These include the churches and missions in Caborca, Pitiquito, Oquitoa, Átil, Tubutama, Imuris, Cucurpe and Magdalena. In Magdalena, Father Kino remains are at the Padre Kino mausoleum.^[135] The Ruta del Río (River Route) follows a seriers of villages and towns along the Sonora River. The state recommends this route in the fall when the chili pepper and peanut harvest occurs. The route includes the settlements of Ures, Baviácora, Aconchi, San Felipe de Jesús, Huépac, Banámichi, Arizpe, Bacoachi and Cananea.^[136] The Ruta de la Sierra Alta ("High Mountain Route") winds its way through the highlands of the Sierra Madre Occidental to see the significant peaks and towns of the area. Destinations include the towns Moctezuma, Villa Hidalgo, Huásabas, Granados, Huachinera, Bavispe, Nácori Chico, Fronteras, Nacozari and Cumpas, which have other attractions such as old haciendas, streams, forests and other forms of nature.^[137]

Main plaza in Álamos

The Ruta Sierra Mar ("Mountain Sea Route") is located in the south of the state among the towns around Álamos, Navojoa and Huatabampo, which contain a large number of colonial era constructions. Attractions include the above mentioned cities along with the Adolfo Ruiz Cortínez, Tetajiosa and El Venadito dams and the town of Etchojoa, which are surrounded by areas of desert and areas with tropical vegetation, around the Mayo River. The route begins in the mountains of Álamos and ends at the beaches of Huatabampo. Travelers can engage in a number of activities such as hunting, birdwatching, boating, kayaking and photography.^[138] The Ruta Yécora (Yécora Route) leaves from the capital of Hermosillo and makes its way to the town of Yécora, which is one of the highest communities in the mountains of the state. The Yécora area is known for its hunting and the area contains species which can only be found in this part of the state. From Hermosillo to Yécora, there are 280 kilometres (170 mi) of highway, which pass through a number of towns and natural vistas. These include La Colorado mine, San José de Pima on the Mátape River, Tecoripa, San Javier which is surrounded by various hills, Tónichi, Ónavas, Tepoca, San Nicolás and the Mesa de Campanero forest.^[139]

Sonora has one Pueblo Mágico, which is Álamos, which was called Ostimuri by the native population. This town was founded in 1683, when a mineral deposit by the name of La Europea was discovered. The silver found here made it one of the richest towns in the region. The mines gave out in the 19th century and the town declined. Today, many of the old mansions and other buildings have been restored.^[140]

There are also a number of natural reserve areas that are open to visitors and promoted for tourism. These include El Pinacate in the Altar Desert and the Colorado Delta and Upper Gulf of California biosphere reserve. Both of these are near the major resort area of Puerto Peñasco and are some of the driest areas of Mexico.^[118]^[141]

The border [link]

Much of the state’s economic activity is related to its border with the U.S. state of Arizona. People from both countries regularly cross the border to shop.^[95] The border crossings are essential to many of the communities that straddle the border, not only in the main crossings in Nogales and Agua Prieta, but also in the smaller ones such as San Luis Río Colorado and Naco.^[96] On each side of the border, there is a fifteen km strip, which is designated as a commercial trade zone, where both Mexicans and U.S. citizens can enter with limited visa requirements.^[142] Many Arizonans travel and cross one of the crossings to eat and shop, mostly to experience something different from doing the same at home. Most spend only the day. The most popular of these border crossings is Nogales, which is just over an hour south from Tucson by highway. The main shopping street in Nogales is Avenida Obregón, which is crowded with pharmacies with lower prices than in the U.S., stores selling knock offs of designer names such as Louis Vuitton, Cuban cigars, tequila, cheaper cigarettes and Mexican handcrafts, including some of the best work from artisans from Puebla, Guadalajara, Michoacán and Oaxaca. Although these stores cater mostly to Americans crossing the border, it is still possible to negotiate prices. Many of these communities on the Mexican side also have bars close to the port of entry, taking advantage of Mexico’s lower drinking age of 18.^[143]

The more important aspect of the border crossing is the commercial shipping that goes through, especially the Nogales port. There are two crossings at Nogales, one which connects the downtowns of the two cities, mostly for non-commercial traffic, and the Mariposa Port of Entry outside of the twin cities for trucks and commercial traffic.^[144] NAFTA increased cross border shipping. Counting traffic going both north and south, the Nogales port handles about three quarters of all border crossing between Sonora and Arizona. Nogales is a major port of entry for Mexican agricultural products heading to the U.S. and Canada.^[145] In 2005, 268,163 commercial trucks moved through the port, up from 242,435 in 2004,^[144] handling about 7.6% of all U.S.-Mexico truck traffic. Most of the merchandise that passes through Sonora on its way to the U.S. winds up in western states such as Arizona, Utah, Nevada, Idaho and Montana, as well as into Canada.^[145]

The volume of traffic, along with new security measures which have been put into place since 2001, create traffic jams of trucks and other vehicles, especially during the winter when demand for products grown in Mexico’s warm climates peaks. These jams can result in lines about eight miles long. For trucks moving into Sonora and south, inspection stations at Vícam and near the Sinaloa border also cause delays. Delays in shipping causes more produce to rot before it can get to the consumer.^[144]

The last reason for the importance of the border is the maquiladora industries, which have made areas such as Nogales grow significantly.^[142] Many of Sonora’s incoming migrants from other parts of Mexico come to work at these factories.^[120]

Handcrafts [link]

There are a number of different crafts made in the state, which are often distinguished by the use of certain materials and of certain designs. The best known of these is the carving of figures from ironwood (palo fierro in Spanish), which is a very dense, almost black wood that sinks in water. This wood was often used in braziers in the past because it would burn for a very long time. This carving is the specialty of the Yaquis and the Seris. In order to carve this wood, it must be absolutely dry, a process that can take up to five years. If this is not done, the wood will take on an ochre color, rather than its characteristic shiny near black. Objects made from this wood are almost always decorative in nature in a wide variety of shapes such as sahuaro and other cacti, eagles, turtles, dolphins and other flora and fauna of the state, along with crosses. The last is popular among indigenous groups as it is believed that such guard against the envy of others and other ills. Objects made of this wood are very much in demand on the international market, but indigenous craftsmen cannot compete with factory made pieces.^[146]

The higher elevations of the state and riverbanks contain large quantities of trees. Aconchi is one of the villages of the state with a well established tradition of making furniture, with almost forty workshops. Many of these are in rustic or colonial style. In Arizpe and Álamos, they specialize in a type of chair made by bending and combining long flexible branches of willow and “guásima” (Guazuma ulmifolia) In the town of Tubutama, they make clocks of mesquite wood.^[147] Basketmaking is still widely practiced in the state, with hand made wares available in local markets such as in Bahía Kino, Punta Chueca and El Desemboque. Those made near the ocean often have marine designs. Baskets made of reeds are made in Ures along with hats. In Aconchi, palm fronds are used to make hats and baskets called guaris, used for food storage. In various locations, a basket variety called “caritas" are made in a globe shape and have a lid. This is a specialty of the Seris. These are typically made by women, with small baskets taking a month to make. Larger ones can take up to two years. Most coritas are bought by foreigners as the work needed to create them makes them expensive.^[147]

Leather goods such as belts, shoes, jackets, wallets and more in made in locations such as Nácori Chico, Moctezuma, Pitiquito, Bacoachi, Banámichi, Huásbas, Arivechi and Ures. This craft is a result of the state’s history of cattle ranching. The mining industry gave rise to the working of metals, especially copper in Cananea. Items include pots, pans, plates and decorative items. Álamos is known for items made in brass and wrought iron.^[148] Jewelry such as necklaces, bracelets and earrings are often made using materials from the sea such as various types of shells and spines from marine animals. This is a specialty in Puerto Peñasco and of the Seris. The latter also use materials such as the tails of rattlesnakes and animal teeth. Some of the Seris’ best work is located in a museum in Bahia Kino. There is also jewelry, especially necklaces made with various seeds, small twigs and river stones. In Oquitoa, they made ceremonial crowns of glass in various colors. These are most often used to decorate the tombs of loved ones on Day of the Dead. The Yaquis make unique belts using the paws of deer as well as elaborate masks for ceremonies. However, these people generally do not commercialize their wares, with the exception of cloth dolls in local markets.^[149]

Culture [link]

The most prolific art of the state is literature, which includes poetry, novels, plays and essays. To promote the state’s talent, the state government sponsors a number of literary competitions, the most prestigious of which is the Libro de Sonora. It also sponsors scholarships to universities and other institutions. Important contemporary writers from the state include poet and playwright Abrigael Bohórquez, novelist Gerardo Cornejo Murrieta, writer and musician Armando Zamora, writer and literary critic Ignacio Mondaca Romero, narrator César Gándara, essayist and journalist Eve Gil, short story and novel writer Sylvia Aguilar Zéleny and poet and novelist Iván Figueroa.^[150]

Eminent painters include Manuel Romo Rodríguez, Héctor Martínez Arteche and Mario Moreno Zazueta.^[151]

The major indigenous dances include the Deer Dance, the Pascola and the Matachines, which is mostly performed in Huatabampo.^[152] Herbal medicine is still widely practiced, especially in rural areas.^[153]

Musicians include waltz composer Rodolfo Campodónico, opera singer Alfonso Ortiz Tirado, Arturo Márquez and classical music composer Pedro Vega Granillo.^[154]

The Orquesta Filharmonica de Sonora (Sonora Philharmonic Orchestra) is a state-sponsored institution which offers concerts in all of the entity’s major cities. Since its creation, it has been accompanied by artists such as Olivia Gorra, Carlos Prieto, Martha Félix, Felipe Chacón and Fernando de la Mora. It has also participated in numerous events such as the 23rd anniversary of Radio Sonora, the Noche de Arte at the ITESM Sonora campus, the Festival Tetabiakte and the Dr. Alfonso Ortiz Festival. There is also an organization for minors called the Orquesta Juvenil de Sonora.^[155]

The most important museums in the state re the Museo de Sonora, the Museo Costumbrista de Sonora, Museo Étnico de los Yaquis, Museo Étnico de los Seris, Museo de la Lucha Obrera, Museo de la Casa del General and the Museo del Niño la Burbuja, which are visited by over 180,000 people per year.^[152]

Since colonial times, much of the economy of the state has traditionally been linked to livestock, especially cattle, with vaqueros, or cowboys, being an important part of the state's identity. Today, most are employed in industry and tourism, but the dress and folklore of the vaquero is still important. Jeans and cowboy hats are still extremely popular, especially with men. The cowboy lifestyle is associated with the pickup truck. This influence extends into popular music.^[117]^[156]

The most popular musical styles of the area is norteño ("northern"), which includes Banda.^[152] norteño music developed from the late 19th until the beginning of the 20th century, all along the borderlands of northern Mexico and southwestern U.S., with the influence of waltz, polkas, mazurkas and corridos. One important instrument for the genre is the accordion, introduced to the area by German immigrants.^[157] Sonoran versions of this music developed from the 1920s to the 1960s. Many of the best known early works have anonymous composers. In the 1950s, with the widespread use of radio, the popularity of the genre rose as the norteño music of Nuevo León, Durango and other states were heard. These versions often included music written by Sonoran composers such as Amor de Madre by Jesús “El Chito” Peralta, Cuatro Milpas, Mundo Engañoso, El Venadito, La Higuerita and El Tarachi by Aristeo Silvas Antúnez and La Barca de Guaymas by José López Portillo. The music especially resonated with youth which worked in fields and on ranches.^[158]

The first formal norteño group from Sonora was Los Cuatreros de Sonora, formed by the Carvajal brothers. In contrast to bands from other states, which were duets, Sonoran bands were trios before becoming quartets and quintets with the addition of more musical instruments. Lyrics most often deal with the important moments of everyday life which are celebrated and embellished. Only recently has norteño music been accepted by social classes outside those with which it developed. Norteño groups of Sonora, often referred to as taca-tacas, can now be heard a social events at all socioeconomic levels.^[158]

Archaeology [link]

Cerro de Trincheras

The region has been an area of study for archeologists, anthropologists and historians, who have worked on prehispanic ruins and fossilized bones.^[24] However, much of the research in this area is still in its initial descriptive stage with many basic questions still unanswered. Sonora is considered to be a cultural zone separate from Mesoamerica, although there may have been some Mesoamerican influence. The major differences between Sonoran cultures and Mesoamerica include dry climate farming, although the same basics of corn, squash and beans are produced. There is also a heavier reliance on wild resources. More important was the lack of true cities during this area’s prehispanic history, with small settlements clustered around water sources and weak hierarchical systems. The cultures here also share some traits with those of the U.S. Southwest, but are distinct from these as well.^[159]

The Cerro de Trincheras ("Trench Hill") is an archeological site, with petroglyphs, plazas and astronomical observatories. The exact purpose of the area has been disputed, but the area reached its height between 1300 and 1450 CE, when it had population of about 1,000, which made its living growing corn, squash, cotton and agave. Its largest structure is called La Cancha ("The Ballcourt"), which is at the base of the north side of the hill. It is a rectangular patio marked by rocks piled on its edges, measuring 51 by 13 metres (167 by 43 ft). Some researchers believe it was some kind of ball court and others believe it was a kind of open air theater. On the hill itself is an observatory, which gives views of the area. Most of the area’s artifacts of stone and shell were found here. The Plaza de Caracol (Snail Plaza) is marked by a meter and a half high stone wall in an open spiral, most likely used for ceremonies.^[160]

Gastronomy [link]

A very large flour tortilla made in Sonora

Like in other parts of Mexico, Sonoran cuisine is basically a mixture of indigenous and Spanish influences. When the Spaniards moved north from the Mexico City area, they found that the diet of the area was simpler, with the basics of corn, beans and squash, but without the further variety as existed in the lusher south. For this reason, these Spaniards impacted on how the diet developed. They brought to Sonora European staples of wheat, beef, dairy products, pork and more, as well as dishes and ingredients from the center and south of Mexico, such as tortillas, more varieties of chili peppers and tamales.^[161] The cowboy/vaquero culture has been an important aspect of Sonora's culture since the colonial period and much of the cuisine is based on what cowboys ate on the range, even though most Sonorans no longer work outdoors.^[156] Sonoran cuisine is not limited to the present state. Arizona, especially in southern border area, has a cuisine which is also heavy on wheat, cheese and beef introduced by the Spaniards, back when the area was part of Sonora. Both states continue the cowboy tradition.^[95] Since Sonora is a border state, its cuisine has also received significant influence from the U.S. as well.^[161]

Two important staples in the diet are seafood and beef, the latter playing a larger role in the cuisine of Sonora than in the rest of Mexico. Beef is often cooked over an open flame, and Sonorans prefer robust cuts such as brisket and skirt steak. Machaca, or carne seca, is still enjoyed, although refrigeration has eliminated the need to dry meat. Sonora also has a reputation for producing fine cuts of beef, but the lean Spanish cattle of the colonial period have been replaced by Angus, Herefords and Holsteins. Dishes based on or usually containing beef include carne desebrada, carne con rajas verdes, burritos, carne con Chile Colorado, beef chorizo, carne seca, machaca, menudo, gorditas and meatballs.^[162]^[163] Seafood is an important staple, especially along the coast as there is a large variety of fish and shellfish in the Gulf of California. Seafood is generally cooked in very simple dishes, such as fish tacos, seafood soups, rice with shrimp or squid and shrimp meatballs. Favored fish include cabrilla, flounder, marlin, sardines, manta rays and various types of jacks.^[164]

Grilling carne asada

Tortillas are the base of the diet, but they are made from wheat, rather than corn. In Sonora, these tortillas are much larger than those prepared elsewhere and paper thin. Dairy products are common in dishes with chili peppers playing a smaller role.^[163] However, one important native chili pepper is the chiltepines (Capsicum annuum var. aviculare), which continue to be wild harvested in the mountains of northwestern Mexico. In a dry year, about 20 tonnes (44,000 lb) can be harvested in Sonora, with as much as 50 tonnes (110,000 lb) during a wet year.^[165]

The cuisine contains a number of soups and stews, which combine native ingredients with Mexico-wide staples of beef, pork and corn. Seafood soups are popular along the coast. These dishes include pozole de trigo, pozole de res, menudo con pata, verdolagas (Portulaca oleracea) broth, sopa de elote, caldo de calabazas and sopa de camarón.^[166] Tamales are made with cornmeal dough and fillings such as beans, vegetables, potatoes, Chile Colorado and other ingredients, wrapped in dried corn husks and steamed. Tamale fillings vary in the state but the most popular include fresh corn with cream, green Chile strips with cheese, beef with Chile Colorado and seafood.^[167]

The various cultures that have come through the state have influenced the development of breads, desserts and sweets. Most sweets are made from cow's milk, sugar cane, peanuts, rice, nuts, sesame seeds and piloncillo. These include pipitoria, jamoncillo, cubierto de viznaga, cubiertos de calabaza, cubiertos de camote, squash in honey, piloncillo, pitahaya ice cream, crystallized oranges and limes, cakes made from corn and rice pudding.^[168]

Bacanora is a local liquor which has been made for decades in the town of the same name, located in the center of the state. Its base is and agave plant (agave lechuguilla or agave angustifolia), like mezcal and tequila and it comes in various styles including aged. It has a distinct flavor.^[121]^[169] It is estimated that half a million plants are harvested from the wilds to make this beverage each year, leading to concerns of over exploitation.^[170]

Education [link]

Dean's office at the University of Sonora

Public education is offered from preschool to university level studies. Development of the educational system has lowered the rates of illiteracy. The state has 1,475 preschools, 1,847 primary schools, 623 middle schools, 92 technical high schools and 203 high schools.^[171] Sonora sponsors a number of scholarships for low income students through the Instituto de Crédito Educativo del Estado de Sonora.^[172] and it also sponsors scholarships for students in the arts.^[150]

The main public institution of higher education in the state is the Universidad de Sonora, whose main campus is in Hermosillo.^[173] Founded in 1938 by state decree, the university has grown while retaining its identity. In 1953, students and professors were given more say in operations. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, there were occasional student protests which disrupted operations. In 1973, the institution undertook reorganization in response to the student strikes.^[174] The instuition offers degrees in over forty specialites through six divisions. Masters and doctorates are mostly offered in science and technology.^[175]

The Instituto Tecnológico de Sonora (ITSON, Sonora Technology Institute) has about 17,000 students and offers twenty-three bachelors’ degrees, eight masters programs, and three doctorate programs among its six campuses.^[176] The institiution was formed through the initiative of the Cajemense Society in Ciudad Obregón in 1955, but received its current name in 1962. Originally it was a technical training school, but it was reorganized as a university in 1973. Today,^[when?] it is the largest technological institution in the state.^[177]

Transportation [link]

Entrance to the Hermosillo Airport

Sonora lies on the corridor which as connected the central Mexican highlands (Mexico City) north into the U.S. along the Pacific Coast at least since the colonial period, and there is evidence this corridor existed in the pre-Hispanic period as well. Today, it is still a major corridor for travel and shipping, with rail lines and Federal Highway 15 following it.^[27] The state contains a total of 24,396 km of highways. Rail lines mostly consist of those which lead into the U.S. The major commercial port is in Guaymas, with smaller ones, mostly for tourism located in San Carlos, Puerto Peñasco and Bahia Kino.^[171] The state has four airports in the cities of Hermosillo, Puerto Peñasco, Ciudad Obregón and Nogales. These airports connect the state with 112 other locations both in Mexico and abroad. Airlines that operate out of them include Aeromexico, Mexicana, Volaris, Interjet, Vivaaerobus, US Airways and Aero Calafia.^[134]

Notes [link]

^ "Las Diputaciones Provinciales" (in Spanish). p. 15. http://biblio.juridicas.unam.mx/libros/6/2920/11.pdf.
^ "Senadores por Sonora LXI Legislatura". Senado de la Republica. http://www.senado.gob.mx/legislatura.php?entidad=27. Retrieved October 21, 2010.
^ "Listado de Diputados por Grupo Parlamentario del Estado de Sonora". Camara de Diputados. http://sitl.diputados.gob.mx/LXI_leg/listado_diputados_gpnp.php?tipot=Edo&edot=26. Retrieved October 20, 2010.
^ "Resumen". Cuentame INEGI. http://cuentame.inegi.gob.mx/monografias/informacion/son/default.aspx?tema=me&e=26. Retrieved October 20, 2010.
^ "Relieve". Cuentame INEGI. http://cuentame.inegi.gob.mx/monografias/informacion/son/territorio/relieve.aspx?tema=me&e=26. Retrieved October 20, 2010.
^ ^a ^b "Mexico en Cifras". INEGI. http://www.inegi.org.mx/sistemas/mexicocifras/default.aspx?ent=25. Retrieved April 6, 2011.
^ Miriam de Regil. Inicia el domingo el Horario de Verano. El Financiero, Viernes, 31 de marzo de 2006.
^ "Reporte: Jueves 3 de Junio del 2010. Cierre del peso mexicano.". www.pesomexicano.com.mx. http://www.pesomexicano.com.mx/archivo/2010/junio/03/reporte-jueves-3-de-junio-del-2010--cierre-del-peso-mexicano.htm#leermas. Retrieved August 10, 2010.
^ "Sonora, Navojoa". Modulo de Planeacion Estrategica. http://modulodeplaneacionestrategica.files.wordpress.com/2010/08/sonora-navojoa.pdf. Retrieved April 7, 2010.
^ "Nomenclatura [Nomenclature]" (in Spanish). Enciclopedia de Los Municipios y Delegaciones de México Estado de Sonora. Mexico: Instituto para el Federalismo y el Desarrollo Municipal. 2010. http://www.e-local.gob.mx/wb2/ELOCAL/EMM_sonora. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ Gonzalez, pp. 36–37
^ ^a ^b Foster, p. 242
^ ^a ^b Foster, p. 243
^ Foster, p. 150
^ Foster, p. 18
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Foster, p. 19
^ ^a ^b Foster, p. 251
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Foster, p. 252
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ "Historia [History]" (in Spanish). Enciclopedia de Los Municipios y Delegaciones de México Estado de Sonora. Mexico: Instituto para el Federalismo y el Desarrollo Municipal. 2010. http://www.e-local.gob.mx/wb2/ELOCAL/EMM_sonora. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Gonzalez, p. 37
^ ^a ^b ^c Hamnett, p. 105
^ Foster
^ Foster, p. 241
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f "Historia de Sonora [History of Sonora]" (in Spanish). Sonora Mexico: Government of Sonora. http://www.sonoraturismo.gob.mx/conoce-sonora/historia-de-sonora/. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Gonzalez, p. 38
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Yetman, p. 4
^ ^a ^b Foster, p. 139
^ Hamnett, p. 107
^ Hamnett, p. 108
^ Gonzalez, pp. 37–38
^ ^a ^b Lee, p. 92
^ "Acerca del puerto [About the Port]" (in Spanish). Guaymas, Mexico: Administraction Portuaria Integral de Guaymas, SA de C V. http://www.puertodeguaymas.com/acerca-del-puerto. Retrieved January 13, 2011.
^ Gonzalez, p. 39
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o "Medio Físico [Geography]" (in Spanish). Enciclopedia de Los Municipios y Delegaciones de México Estado de Sonora. Mexico: Instituto para el Federalismo y el Desarrollo Municipal. 2010. http://www.e-local.gob.mx/wb2/ELOCAL/EMM_sonora. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ Hamnett, p. 184
^ Lee, pp. 89–92
^ Hamnett, p. 191
^ ^a ^b Hamnett, p. 192
^ Kirkwood, Burton (2000). History of Mexico. Westport, CT, USA: Greenwood Press. p. 127. ISBN [[Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-6258-6|978-1-4039-6258-6]].
^ ^a ^b ^c Gonzalez, pp. 39–40
^ Hamnett, p. 220
^ Kirkwood, Burton (2000). History of Mexico. Westport, CT, USA: Greenwood Press. p. 152. ISBN [[Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-6258-6|978-1-4039-6258-6]].
^ Kirkwood, Burton (2000). History of Mexico. Westport, CT, USA: Greenwood Press. p. 161. ISBN [[Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-6258-6|978-1-4039-6258-6]].
^ ^a ^b Lee, p. 94
^ ^a ^b Lee, p. 89
^ Lee, p. 98
^ Lee, p. 103
^ Schiavone Camacho, Julia Maria (November 2009). "Crossing Boundaries, Claiming a Homeland: The Mexican Chinese Transpacific Journey to Becoming Mexican, 1930s–1960s". Pacific Historical Review (Berkeley) 78 (4): 546.
^ Maria Enriqueta Beatriz Guajardo Peredo (1989). Immigraciones chinas a Mexico durante el periodo Obregon-Calles (1920–1928) (B.A. thesis). Escuela Nacional de Antropolgía e Historia INAH-SEP. p. 75.
^ Augustine-Adams, Kif (Spring 2009). "Making Mexico: Legal Nationality, Chinese Race, and the 1930 Population Census". Law and History Review (University of Illinois) 27 (1). http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/lhr/27.1/adams.html.
^ Truett, Samuel; William P. Clements (2006). Fugitive Landscapes : The Forgotten History of the U.S.-Mexico Borderlands. New Haven, CT, USA: Yale University Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-300-11091-3.
^ ^a ^b Yetman, p. 5
^ ^a ^b Gonzalez, p. 40
^ Hamnett, p. 268
^ Eisenstadt, p. 171
^ Eisenstadt, p. 54
^ Eisenstadt, p. 178
^ "Por vez primera PAN gobernará Sonora [PAN will govern Sonora for the first time]" (in Spanish). El Siglo de Torreon (Torreon, Mexico). July 7, 2009. http://www.elsiglodetorreon.com.mx/noticia/445126.html. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ ^a ^b Flores, Nancy (Mayo 2007). "Narcotráfico en Sonora [Drugtrafficing in Sonora]" (in Spanish). Revista Contralínea. http://www.contralinea.com.mx/archivo/2007/mayo2/htm/Narco_Sonora.htm. Retrieved December 17, 2009.
^ "Illegal migrant crossings rise in Arizona". AZ Central. Associated Press. May 18, 2010. http://www.azcentral.com/news/articles/2010/05/18/20100518arizona-has-more-migrants-crossing-from-mexico.html. Retrieved February 11, 2011.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d "U.S.-Mexico Border". National Geographic. May 2007. http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/05/us-mexican-border/bowden-text.html.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Gonzalez Velazquez, Eduardo (February 25, 2008). "Naco, punto de confluencia de coyotes en busca de migrantes, a quienes extorsionan una y otra vez [Naco, gathering point of coyotes looking for migrants, who they extort again and again]" (in Spanish). La Jornada de Jalisco (Guadalajara, Mexico). http://www.lajornadajalisco.com.mx/2008/02/25/index.php?section=politica&article=010n1pol. Retrieved December 17, 2009.
^ ^a ^b Dellios, Hugh (January 25, 2006). "Mexican map shows perils of crossing: But some in U.S. fear handouts will encourage migrants". Knight Ridder Tribune Business News: p. 1.
^ McCombs, Brady (October 5, 2010). "AZ border saw record 252 deaths in fiscal '10". Arizona Daily Star. http://azstarnet.com/news/local/border/article_c50f048f-acf9-52a9-8863-6e5969360091.html. Retrieved February 11, 2011.
^ Steller, Tim (February 19, 2005). "Mexico campaigns to counter U.S. travel advisory". Knight Ridder Tribune Business News: p. 1.
^ Cruz, Gregorio (October 30, 2009). "Acribillan a dos Cajemenses en Naco [Shot two from Cajeme in Naco]" (in Spanish). El Regional de Sonora (Hermosillo, Sonora). http://www.elregionaldesonora.com.mx/acribillan-a-dos-cajemenses-en-naco.html. Retrieved December 17, 2009.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g "Sonora" (in Spanish). Sonora Mexico: Gobierno de Sonora. 2011. http://www.gobierno.com.mx/estado/sonora/. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ "Regionalización [Regions]" (in Spanish). Enciclopedia de Los Municipios y Delegaciones de México Estado de Sonora. Mexico: Instituto para el Federalismo y el Desarrollo Municipal. 2010. http://www.e-local.gob.mx/wb2/ELOCAL/EMM_sonora. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ ^a ^b Yetman, pp. 13–15
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Mota, Heriberto (November 2009). Díaz Robles, David. ed. "Puerto Peñasco-San Carlos-Bahía de Kino" (in Spanish). Dónde ir de Viaje:79 Playas de México (Mexico City: Quebecor World México): 16–17.
^ "Playa los Algodones" (in Spanish). Sonora Mexico: Government of Sonora. http://www.sonoraturismo.gob.mx/destinos/playas/playa-los-algodones/. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ "Bahía de Kino [Bahía Kino]" (in Spanish). Sonora Mexico: Government of Sonora. http://www.sonoraturismo.gob.mx/destinos/playas/bahia-de-kino/. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ "El Desemboque" (in Spanish). Sonora Mexico: Government of Sonora. http://www.sonoraturismo.gob.mx/destinos/playas/el-desemboque/. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ "El Himalaya" (in Spanish). Sonora Mexico: Government of Sonora. http://www.sonoraturismo.gob.mx/destinos/playas/el-himalaya/. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ "Playas de Huatabampito" (in Spanish). Sonora Mexico: Government of Sonora. http://www.sonoraturismo.gob.mx/destinos/playas/playas-de-huatabampito/. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ ^a ^b ^c Yetman, p. 15
^ ^a ^b Yetman, p. 10
^ Cartron, p. 3
^ ^a ^b Yetman, p. 12
^ ^a ^b ^c Yetman, p. 11
^ ^a ^b Cartron, p. 70
^ Cartron, p. 64
^ Cartron, p. 44
^ ^a ^b Cartron, p. 19
^ ^a ^b "Sonora registra 12 grados bajo cero [Sonora registes 12 degrees below zero]" (in Spanish). El Economista. Notimex (Mexico). February 5, 2011. http://eleconomista.com.mx/estados/2011/02/05/sonora-registra-12-grados-bajo-cero. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ Yetman, p. 9
^ Cartron, p. 74
^ "Reservas Ecológicas [Ecological Reserves]" (in Spanish). Sonora Mexico: Government of Sonora. http://www.sonoraturismo.gob.mx/destinos/reservas/. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ "El Pinacate y Gran Desierto de Altar [El Pinacate and the Altar Desert]" (in Spanish). Sonora Mexico: Government of Sonora. http://www.sonoraturismo.gob.mx/destinos/reservas/el-pinacate/. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ "Cañón las Barajitas [Barajitas Canyon]" (in Spanish). Sonora Mexico: Government of Sonora. http://www.sonoraturismo.gob.mx/destinos/playas/canon-las-barajitas/. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ "Alto Golfo y Delta [Upper Gulf and Delta]" (in Spanish). Sonora Mexico: Government of Sonora. http://www.sonoraturismo.gob.mx/destinos/reservas/alto-golfo-y-delta/. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ "Bahía e islas de San Jorge [Bay and islands of San Jorge]" (in Spanish). Sonora Mexico: Government of Sonora. http://www.sonoraturismo.gob.mx/destinos/reservas/bahia-e-islas-de-san-jorge/. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ "Isla del Tiburón" (in Spanish). Sonora Mexico: Government of Sonora. http://www.sonoraturismo.gob.mx/destinos/reservas/isla-del-tiburon/. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ "Mesa del Campanero [Campanero Mesa]" (in Spanish). Sonora Mexico: Government of Sonora. http://www.sonoraturismo.gob.mx/destinos/reservas/mesa-del-campanero/. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Griffith, James S.. "The Arizona-Sonora Border: Line, Region, Magnet, and Filter". Borders and Identity. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. http://www.smithsonianeducation.org/migrations/bord/azsb.html. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ ^a ^b ^c "Arizona-Sonora Region – Population". Tucson, AZ: Eller College of Management University of Arizona. 2011. http://ebr.eller.arizona.edu/arizona_border_region/AZ_demographic.asp. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ ^a ^b Cartron, p. 53
^ ^a ^b ^c "Perfil Sociodemográfico [Sociodemographic profile]" (in Spanish). Enciclopedia de Los Municipios y Delegaciones de México Estado de Sonora. Mexico: Instituto para el Federalismo y el Desarrollo Municipal. 2010. http://www.e-local.gob.mx/wb2/ELOCAL/EMM_sonora. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ ^a ^b Gonzalez, pp. 23–24
^ "Etnias de Sonora [Ethnicities of Sonora]" (in Spanish). Sonora Mexico: Government of Sonora. http://www.sonoraturismo.gob.mx/conoce-sonora/etnias-de-sonora/. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Gonzalez, p. 24
^ ^a ^b ^c "Mayos [Mayo people]" (in Spanish). Sonora Mexico: Government of Sonora. http://www.sonoraturismo.gob.mx/conoce-sonora/etnias-de-sonora/mayos/. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ ^a ^b "Yaquis [Yaqui people]" (in Spanish). Sonora Mexico: Government of Sonora. http://www.sonoraturismo.gob.mx/conoce-sonora/etnias-de-sonora/yaquis/. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ Moser, Mary B.; Stephen A. Marlett (2005) (in Spanish and English) (PDF). Comcáac quih yaza quih hant ihíip hac: Diccionario seri-español-inglés. Hermosillo, Sonora: Universidad de Sonora and Plaza y Valdés Editores. http://lengamer.org/admin/language_folders/seri/user_uploaded_files/links/File/DiccionarioSeri2005.pdf.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d "Seris [Seri people]" (in Spanish). Sonora Mexico: Government of Sonora. http://www.sonoraturismo.gob.mx/conoce-sonora/etnias-de-sonora/seris/. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ ^a ^b ^c <Gonzalez, pp. 24–25
^ Gonzalez, p. 25
^ "Pápagos [Papago]" (in Spanish). Sonora Mexico: Government of Sonora. http://www.sonoraturismo.gob.mx/conoce-sonora/etnias-de-sonora/papagos/. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ ^a ^b ^c Gonzalez, p. 26
^ "Opatas [Opata people]" (in Spanish). Sonora Mexico: Government of Sonora. http://www.sonoraturismo.gob.mx/conoce-sonora/etnias-de-sonora/opatas/. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ "Pimas [Pima people]" (in Spanish). Sonora Mexico: Government of Sonora. http://www.sonoraturismo.gob.mx/conoce-sonora/etnias-de-sonora/pimas/. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ "Guarijíos [Guarijío people]" (in Spanish). Sonora Mexico: Government of Sonora. http://www.sonoraturismo.gob.mx/conoce-sonora/etnias-de-sonora/guarijios/. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ ^a ^b ^c Gonzalez, p. 27
^ "Cucapá [Cocopah people]" (in Spanish). Sonora Mexico: Government of Sonora. http://www.sonoraturismo.gob.mx/conoce-sonora/etnias-de-sonora/cucapa/. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ "Kikapú [Kickapoo people]" (in Spanish). Sonora Mexico: Government of Sonora. http://www.sonoraturismo.gob.mx/conoce-sonora/etnias-de-sonora/kikapu/. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ ^a ^b ^c Malat, Randy, ed. (2008). Passport Mexico : Your Pocket Guide to Mexican Business, Customs and Etiquette (3rd Edition). Szerlip, Barbara (Editor).. Petaluma, CA, USA: World Trade Press. p. 27. ISBN 978-1-885073-91-4.
^ ^a ^b ^c Gonzalez, pp. 27–28
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l "Actividad Económica [Economic activity]" (in Spanish). Enciclopedia de Los Municipios y Delegaciones de México Estado de Sonora. Mexico: Instituto para el Federalismo y el Desarrollo Municipal. 2010. http://www.e-local.gob.mx/wb2/ELOCAL/EMM_sonora. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ Info – Prod Research (Middle East) (May 27, 2008). Moody's assigns a1.mx rating to the state of sonora (Report). Ramat-Gan.
^ ^a ^b Cartron, p. 52
^ ^a ^b "Bebidas [Drinks]" (in Spanish). Sonora Mexico: Government of Sonora. http://www.sonoraturismo.gob.mx/conoce-sonora/cocina-regional-en-sonora/bebidas/. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ Randall, Laura, ed. (2006). Changing Structure of Mexico : Political, Social, and Economic Prospects. Armonk, NY, USA: M.E. Sharpe, Inc.. p. 350. ISBN 978-0-7656-1405-6.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Cartron, p. 59
^ Yetman, p. 7
^ Randall, Laura, ed. (2006). Changing Structure of Mexico : Political, Social, and Economic Prospects. Armonk, NY, USA: M.E. Sharpe, Inc.. p. 347. ISBN 978-0-7656-1405-6.
^ Yetman, pp. 7–8
^ Cartron, p. 60
^ ^a ^b ^c Cartron, p. 67
^ Walden Publishing Ltd (2005). Mexico Business Intelligence Report (2005/February). Cambridge, England: World of Information. p. 21.
^ Malat, Randy, ed. (2008). Passport Mexico : Your Pocket Guide to Mexican Business, Customs and Etiquette (3rd Edition). Szerlip, Barbara (Editor).. Petaluma, CA, USA: World Trade Press. p. 28. ISBN 978-1-885073-91-4.
^ ^a ^b ^c Cartron, p. 56
^ ^a ^b ^c Cartron, p. 57
^ "Grupo Mexico wants to avoid strike at its Cananea mine with wage offer". NoticiasFinancieras: p. 1. August 11, 2004.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Gobierno del Estado de Sonora, Investigación y Desarrollo de Contenidos and Instituto Tecnológico de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey. Plan Estratégico de Desarrollo Turístico Sustenible del Estado de Sonora (Report). 2010–2015. http://www.sonoraturismo.gob.mx/wp-content/uploads/Plan-Estrategico-de-Desarrollo-Turistico-Sustentable-del-Estado-de-Sonora.pdf. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ "Ruta de las Misiones [Mission Route]" (in Spanish). Sonora Mexico: Government of Sonora. http://www.sonoraturismo.gob.mx/destinos/rutas/ruta-de-las-misiones/. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ "Ruta Río Sonora [Sonora River Route]" (in Spanish). Sonora Mexico: Government of Sonora. http://www.sonoraturismo.gob.mx/destinos/rutas/ruta-rio-sonora/. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ "Ruta Sierra Alta [Sierra Alta Route]" (in Spanish). Sonora Mexico: Government of Sonora. http://www.sonoraturismo.gob.mx/destinos/rutas/ruta-sierra-alta/. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ "Ruta Sierra Mar [Mountain Sea Route]" (in Spanish). Sonora Mexico: Government of Sonora. http://www.sonoraturismo.gob.mx/destinos/rutas/ruta-sierra-mar/. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ "Ruta Yécora [Yécora Route]" (in Spanish). Sonora Mexico: Government of Sonora. http://www.sonoraturismo.gob.mx/destinos/rutas/ruta-yecora/. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ 397 Quintanar Hinojosa, Beatriz, ed. (February 2008). "Alamos:La ciudad de los portales [Alamos:the city of portals]" (in Spanish). Mexico Desconocido:Pueblos Mágicpos (Mexico City: Impresiones Aereas SA de CV): 14–15. ISSN 9419 1870 9419.
^ Gonzalez, pp. 57–60
^ ^a ^b Symington, Fife (May 20, 1991). "Arizona and Sonora—Where Free Trade Already Works". . Wall Street Journal: p. A18.
^ Solomon, Alan (March 16, 2008). "A borderline experience with Nogales". McClatchy – Tribune Business News (Washington, DC): p. 1.
^ ^a ^b ^c Stauffer, Thomas (January 11, 2006). "Mexico-U.S. border clogged with shipments of fresh produce". Knight Ridder Tribune Business News: p. 1.
^ ^a ^b Banchero, Paola (March 1, 2002). "Arizona Studies Options for Redesigning Mariposa Port of Entry in Nogales". Knight Ridder Tribune Business News: p. 1.
^ Gonzalez, pp. 48–49
^ ^a ^b Gonzalez, p. 49
^ Gonzalez, p. 50
^ Gonzalez, pp. 50–51
^ ^a ^b Gonzalez, pp. 13–17
^ Gonzalez, pp. 19–20
^ ^a ^b ^c "Atractivos Culturales y Turísticos [Cultural and Tourist Attractions]" (in Spanish). Enciclopedia de Los Municipios y Delegaciones de México Estado de Sonora. Mexico: Instituto para el Federalismo y el Desarrollo Municipal. 2010. http://www.e-local.gob.mx/wb2/ELOCAL/EMM_sonora. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ Gonzalez, p. 28
^ Gonzalez, pp. 21–23
^ "Orquesta Filarmónica de Sonora [Philharmonic Orchestra of Sonora]" (in Spanish). Sonora Mexico: Instituto Sonorense de Cultura. http://www.isc.gob.mx/acerca-isc/grupos-artisticos/orquesta-filarmonica.htm. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ ^a ^b Jamison, Cheryl Alters; Bill Jamison (1995). The Border Cookbook. Boston, MA: The Harvard Common Press. p. 9. ISBN 1-55832-102-0.
^ Pena, Manuel. "The Texas-Mexican Conjunto". Borders and Identity. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Insitute. http://www.smithsonianeducation.org/migrations/bord/txmxcon.html. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ ^a ^b Lucero Andrade, Juan. "Sonoran Folk Music and I ts Expression in the "Norteño" Musical Genre" (in English/Spanish). Mexico: Secretaria de Educacion y Cultura Government of Sonora Instituto de Educaciòn Sonora-Arizona. http://www.iesa.gob.mx/sonarida/22/musica-sonorense.htm. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ Foster, pp. 241–242
^ 397 Quintanar Hinojosa, Beatriz, ed. (March 2010). "La Trinchera de los Dioses [The Trench of the Gods]" (in Spanish). Mexico Desconocido (Mexico City: Impresiones Aereas SA de CV): 82–87. ISSN 9397 1870 9397.
^ ^a ^b Jamison, Cheryl Alters; Bill Jamison (1995). The Border Cookbook. Boston, MA: The Harvard Common Press. pp. 4–6. ISBN 1-55832-102-0.
^ "Las carnes de Sonora [The meats of Sonora]" (in Spanish). Sonora Mexico: Government of Sonora. http://www.sonoraturismo.gob.mx/conoce-sonora/cocina-regional-en-sonora/guisos-con-carne/. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ ^a ^b Jamison, Cheryl Alters; Bill Jamison (1995). The Border Cookbook. Boston, MA: The Harvard Common Press. pp. 10–11. ISBN 1-55832-102-0.
^ "Los mariscos en la cocina sonorense [Seafood in Sonoran cooking]" (in Spanish). Sonora Mexico: Government of Sonora. http://www.sonoraturismo.gob.mx/conoce-sonora/cocina-regional-en-sonora/mariscos/. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ Cartron, p. 66
^ "Los caldos y sopas [Broths and soups]" (in Spanish). Sonora Mexico: Government of Sonora. http://www.sonoraturismo.gob.mx/conoce-sonora/cocina-regional-en-sonora/caldos-y-sopas/. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ "Los tamales sonorenses [Sonoran tamales]" (in Spanish). Sonora Mexico: Government of Sonora. http://www.sonoraturismo.gob.mx/conoce-sonora/cocina-regional-en-sonora/tamales/. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ "Pan, dulces, postres sonorenses [Sonoran bread, sweets and desserts]" (in Spanish). Sonora Mexico: Government of Sonora. http://www.sonoraturismo.gob.mx/conoce-sonora/cocina-regional-en-sonora/postres/. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ Gonzalez, p. 51
^ Cartron, p. 65
^ ^a ^b "Infraestructura social y de comunicaciones [Social and Communications infrastructure]" (in Spanish). Enciclopedia de Los Municipios y Delegaciones de México Estado de Sonora. Mexico: Instituto para el Federalismo y el Desarrollo Municipal. 2010. http://www.e-local.gob.mx/wb2/ELOCAL/EMM_sonora. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ Kuznetsov, Yevgeny, ed. (2008). Mexico's Transition to a Knowledge-Based Economy : Challenges and Opportunities. Dahlman, Carl J. (Editor).. Herndon, VA, USA: World Bank Publications. p. 74. ISBN 978-0-8213-6922-7.
^ "Historia [History]" (in Spanish). Sonora Mexico: University of Sonora. 2006. http://www.uson.mx/la_unison/. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ "Sinopsis Histórica de la Universidad de Sonora [Synapsis of the History of the University of Sonora]" (in Spanish). Sonora Mexico: University of Sonora. 2006. http://www.uson.mx/la_unison/sinopsis.htm. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ "Campus Hermosillo [Hermosillo Campus]" (in Spanish). Sonora Mexico: University of Sonora. 2006. http://www.uson.mx/oferta_educativa/. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ "Acerca de la Universidad [About the University]" (in Spanish). Sonora Mexico: Instituto Tecnológico de Sonora. http://www.itson.mx/universidad/Paginas/Universidad.aspx. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
^ "Historia [History]" (in Spanish). Sonora Mexico: Instituto Tecnológico de Sonora. http://www.itson.mx/Universidad/Paginas/Historia.aspx. Retrieved February 15, 2011.

References [link]

Cartron, Jean-Luc E; Ceballos, Gerardo and Felger, Richard Stephen (2005). Biodiversity, Ecosystems, and Conservation in Northern Mexico. Cary, NC, USA: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-515672-0.
Eisenstadt, Todd A (2003). Courting Democracy in Mexico : Party Strategies and Electoral Institutions. West Nyack, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-82001-1.
Foster, Michael S and Gorenstein, Shirley, ed. (2000). Greater Mesoamerica : The Archaeology of West & Northwest Mexico. Salt Lake City, UT, USA: University of Utah Press. ISBN 0-87480-950-9.
Jimenez Gonzalez, Victor Manuel, ed. (2010) (in Spanish). Sonora: Guía para descubrir los encantos del estado [Sonora: Guide to discover the charms of the state]. Mexico City: Editorial Océano de Mexico SA de CV. ISBN 978-607-400-319-2.
Hamnett, Brian R (1999). Concise History of Mexico. Port Chester, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press. p. 105. ISBN 978-0-521-58916-1.
Lee, Robert G., ed. (2011). Displacements and Diasporas : Asians in the Americas. Anderson, Wanni Wibulswasdi (Editor). New Brunswick, NJ, USA: Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-3611-8.
Yetman, David; Van Devender, Thomas R.. Mayo (2002). Ethnobotany : Land, History, and Traditional Knowledge in Northwest Mexico. Ewing, NJ, USA: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-22721-7.

External links [link]

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Municipalities and (municipal seats)	Aconchi (Aconchi) Agua Prieta (Agua Prieta) Álamos (Álamos) Altar (Altar) Arivechi (Arivechi) Arizpe (Arizpe) Atil (Atil) Bacadéhuachi (Bacadéhuachi) Bacanora (Bacanora) Bacerac (Bacerac) Bacoachi (Bacoachi) Bácum (Bácum) Banámichi (Banámichi) Baviácora (Baviácora) Bavispe (Bavispe) Benito Juárez (Villa Juárez) Benjamín Hill (Benjamín Hill) Caborca (Heroica Caborca) Cajeme (Ciudad Obregón) Cananea (Cananea) Carbó (Carbó) Cucurpe (Cucurpe) Cumpas (Cumpas) Divisaderos (Divisaderos) Empalme (Empalme) Etchojoa (Etchojoa) Fronteras (Fronteras) Granados (Granados) Guaymas (Guaymas) Hermosillo (Hermosillo) Huachinera (Huachinera) Huásabas (Huásabas) Huatabampo (Huatabampo) Huépac (Huépac) Imuris (Imuris) La Colorada (La Colorada) Magdalena de Kino (Magdalena de Kino) Mazatán (Mazatán) Moctezuma (Moctezuma) Naco (Naco) Nácori Chico (Nácori Chico) Nacozari de García (Nacozari de García) Navojoa (Navojoa) Nogales (Nogales) Onavas (Onavas) Opodepe (Opodepe) Oquitoa (Oquitoa) Pitiquito (Pitiquito) Puerto Peñasco (Puerto Peñasco) Plutarco Elías Calles (Sonoyta) Quiriego (Quiriego) Rayón (Rayón) Rosario de Tesopaco (Rosario de Tesopaco) Sahuaripa (Sahuaripa) San Felipe de Jesús (San Felipe de Jesús) San Ignacio Río Muerto (San Ignacio Río Muerto) San Javier (San Javier) San Luis Río Colorado (San Luis Río Colorado) San Miguel de Horcasitas (San Miguel de Horcasitas) San Pedro de la Cueva (San Pedro de la Cueva) Santa Ana (Santa Ana) Santa Cruz (Santa Cruz) Sáric (Sáric) Soyopa (Soyopa) Suaqui Grande (Suaqui Grande) Tepache (Tepache) Trincheras (Trincheras) Tubutama

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