Casus belli is a Latin expression meaning the justification for acts of war. Casus means "incident", "rupture" or indeed "case", while belli means bellic ("of war"). It is usually distinguished from casus foederis, where casus belli refers to offenses or threats directly against a nation, and casus foederis refers to offenses or threats to another, allied, nation with which the justifying nation is engaged in a mutual defense treaty, such as NATO.^[1][2]

The term came into wide usage in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries with the writings of Hugo Grotius (1653), Cornelius van Bynkershoek (1707), and Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui (1732), among others, and the rise of the political doctrine of jus ad bellum or "just war theory".^[3][4] Informal usage varies beyond its technical definition to refer to any "just cause" a nation may claim for entering into a conflict. As such, it has been used both retroactively to describe situations in history before the term came into wide usage and in the present day when describing situations when war has not been formally declared.

Formally, a government would lay out its reasons for going to war, as well as its intentions in prosecuting it and the steps that might be taken to avert it. In so doing, the government would attempt to demonstrate that it was going to war only as a last resort (ultima Ratio) and that it in fact possessed "just cause" for doing so. In theory international law today allows only three situations as legal cause to go to war: out of self-defense, defense of an ally under a mutual defense pact, or sanctioned by the UN.

Proschema (plural proschemata) is the Greek equivalent term. The stated reasons may or may not be the actual reason for waging the war (prophasis, πρὸφασις). The term was first popularized by Thucydides in his History of the Peloponnesian War, who identified fear, honor, and interest as the three primary real reasons that wars are waged, while proschemata commonly play up nationalism or fearmongering (as opposed to rational or reasonable fears).

Reasons for use[link]

Countries need a public justification for attacking another country. This justification is needed to galvanize internal support for the war, as well as gain the support of potential allies.

In the post World War Two era, the UN Charter prohibits signatory countries from engaging in war except 1) as a means of defending themselves against aggression, or 2) unless the UN as a body has given prior approval to the operation. The UN also reserves the right to ask member nations to intervene against non-signatory countries which embark on wars of aggression.^{[citation needed]} In effect, this means that countries in the modern era must have a plausible casus belli for initiating military action, or risk UN sanctions or intervention.^{[improper synthesis?]}

Historical examples[link]

This section outlines a number of the more famous or controversial cases of casus belli which have occurred in modern times.

Spanish-American War[link]

The casus belli for the Spanish-American War was the sinking of the USS Maine.

There have been several alternative explanations to the explosion such as that proposed by Mr. Evans, the senior editor of Newsweek. In his book, he states that the USS Maine was designed incorrectly because the boiler room was right next to the gunpowder storage room and that an overheating in the boiler room may have heated the adjacent metal wall, causing the powder to explode.^{[citation needed]}

World War I[link]

A political assassination provided the trigger that led to the outbreak of World War I. In June 1914, the refusal of two points in the July Ultimatum offered to Serbia, was used by Austria-Hungary as a casus belli for declaring war on Serbia. The Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria at Sarajevo in Austria-Hungary by Gavrilo Princip, a Serbian nationalist from Bosnia, Austrian subject and member of Young Bosnia, was the reason why this ultimatum was made.

The Russian Empire started to mobilise its troops in defence of its ally Serbia, which resulted in the German Empire declaring war on Russia in support of its ally Austria-Hungary. Very quickly, after the involvement of France, the Ottoman Empire and the British Empire, five of the six great European powers became involved in the first European general war since the Napoleonic Wars.

World War II[link]

In his autobiography Mein Kampf, Adolf Hitler had in the 1920s advocated a policy of lebensraum ("living space") for the German people, which in practical terms meant German territorial expansion into Eastern Europe.

In August 1939, in order to implement the first phase of this policy, Germany's Nazi government under Hitler's leadership staged the Gleiwitz incident, which was used as a casus belli for the invasion of Poland the following September. Poland's allies, the UK and France, honoured their alliance and subsequently declared war on Germany.

In 1941, acting once again in accordance with the policy of lebensraum, Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union, using the casus belli of pre-emptive war to justify the act of aggression.

The Soviet Union also employed a manufactured casus belli against Finland during World War II on its part. In November 1939, shortly after the outbreak of hostilities between Germany, Britain and France, the Soviet Union staged the shelling of the Russian village of Mainila, which it blamed on the Finns. This manufactured incident was then used as a casus belli for the Winter War. In 1998, Russian President Boris Yeltsin admitted that the invasion had in fact constituted a Soviet war of aggression.

Six-Day War[link]

A casus belli played a prominent role during the Six-Day War of 1967. The Israeli government had a short list of casūs bellorum, acts that it would consider provocations justifying armed retaliation. The most important was a blockade of the Straits of Tiran leading into Eilat, Israel's only port to the Red Sea, through which Israel received much of its oil. After several border incidents between Israel and Egypt's allies Syria and Jordan, Egypt expelled UNEF peacekeepers from the Sinai Peninsula, established a military presence at Sharm el-Sheikh, and announced a blockade of the straits, prompting Israel to cite its casus belli in opening hostilities against Egypt.

Vietnam War[link]

Many historians have suggested that the Gulf of Tonkin Incident was a manufactured pretext for the Vietnam War. North Vietnamese Naval officials have publicly stated that the USS Maddox was never fired on by North Vietnamese naval forces.^[5][6] In the movie "The Fog of War", then US Defense Secretary Robert McNamara concedes the attack did not happen, though he says that he and President Johnson believed it did so at the time.^[7]

Some people^[who?] confuse the first Gulf of Tonkin Incident (the 2nd of August) and the second Gulf of Tonkin Incident (the 4th of August). The North Vietnamese claimed that on August 2 US destroyer USS Maddox was hit by one torpedo, and one of the American aircraft had been shot down in North Vietnamese territorial waters. The PAVN Museum in Hanoi displays "Part of a torpedo boat... which successfully chased away the USS Maddox August, [sic] 2nd 1964".

The casus belli for the Vietnam War was the second incident. On August 4 USS Maddox was launched to the North Vietnamese coast in order to "show the flag" after the first incident. The U.S. authorities claimed that two Vietnamese boats tried to attack USS Maddox and were sunk. The government of North Vietnam denied the second incident completely. Deniability played favorably into the propaganda efforts of North Vietnam throughout the war, and for some years to follow.

1982 Israeli invasion of Lebanon[link]

The casus belli cited by Israel for its June 1982 invasion of Lebanon was the attempted assassination of the Israeli Ambassador in London, which the Israeli government blamed on the Palestinian Liberation Organization.^[8] A possible invasion plan had been prepared in advance by Israel.^[9]

Greece and Turkey[link]

In 1995, The Turkish Parliament issued a casus belli against Greece in reaction to an enacted extension of Greek territorial waters from 6 nautical miles (11 km) to 12 nautical miles (22 km) from the coast.^[10]

War on Terror[link]

The casus belli for the Bush administration's conceptual War on Terror, which resulted in the 2001 Afghanistan war and the 2003 Iraq war, was the September 11 attacks in 2001 on the World Trade Center in New York City, The Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia and the apparently intended attack on the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C.^{[citation needed]}

2003 Invasion of Iraq[link]

When the United States invaded Iraq in 2003, it cited Iraq's non-compliance with the terms of cease-fire agreement for the 1990-1991 Gulf War, as well as planning in 1993 attempted assassination of former President George H. W. Bush and firing on coalition aircraft enforcing the no-fly zones as its stated casus belli.^[11]

Cited by the George W. Bush administration was Saddam Hussein's weapons of mass destruction (WMD) program. The administration claimed that Iraq had not conformed with its obligation to disarm under past UN Resolutions, and that Saddam Hussein was actively attempting to acquire a nuclear weapons capability as well as enhance an existing arsenal of chemical and biological weapons. Secretary of State Colin Powell addressed a plenary session of the United Nations Security Council on February 5, 2003 citing these reasons as justification for military action.^[12] It has subsequently been found that there were no weapons of mass destruction found in Iraq after the war.

See also[link]

• Jus ad bellum
• Casus foederis
• List of Latin phrases
• Status quo

References[link]

• Vidal, Gore. Imperial America: Reflections on the United States of Amnesia. Hardcover ed. Avalon Group.

Fabri Fibra
Background information
Birth name	Fabrizio Tarducci
Born	(1976-10-17) October 17, 1976 (age 35)
Origin	Senigallia, Marche, Italy
Genres	Hip hop, pop rap
Years active	1996–present
Website	http://www.fabrifibra.it

Fabri Fibra (born Fabrizio Tarducci on 17 October 1976) is an Italian rapper.

Biography[link]

Tarducci was born in Senigallia, Marche. He became interested in music from a young age; he wrote and performed his first piece when he was 17 years old.

In 1995 he recorded his first demo. He created the tandem Uomini di Mare with DJ Lato, beatmaker and deejay, and in 1996 they produced the underground CD Dei del mare quest'el gruv. In 1999 Fabri and Lato produced and distributed the LP Sindrome di fine millennio ("End of the Millennium Syndrome"), with collaborations from El Presidente (also known as Esa), Inoki, Joe Cassano and his brother Nesli.

Following his underground success, Fabri Fibra began performing around Italy. In 2000 he established his label and group Teste Mobili Records (Bobbing Head Records), and collaborated with various Italian rap groups, lending vocals as well as lyrics to the mixtape circuit.

Solo career[link]

[edit] Turbe Giovanili (2002)

In 2002 Fabri released his first solo album, titled Turbe giovanili (Juvenile Troubles), for which he wrote and recorded his lyrics under the production and arrangement of Neffa. A year later Fabri distributed Lato e Fabri Fibra which brought a close to the partnership with Lato and the Uomini di mare project with aky il grande.

Nesli's Home and Fabri Fibra's Mr. Simpatia were released simultaneously on 1 September 2004.

[edit] Mr. Simpatia (2004)

Released in 2004, Mr. Simpatia (Mr. Sympathy) is Fibra's second solo album. All the instrumental bases were made by his younger brother, the rapper Nesli Rice, with the exceptions of "Non Ti Invidio" ("I Don't Envy You") (made by Bassi Maestro) and the album's bonus track (by Bosca).

The album cover shows Fibra's head lying on its side with a gruesome injury. Mr. Simpatia is an ironic title; the tracks' main themes are the Italian hip hop scene, contempt for society, relationships with girls, and Fibra's frustration about his job.

[edit] Tradimento (2006)

Fabri Fibra Live in Florence, in 2006

Fabri Fibra Live in Udine, in 2006

After splitting from his recording company contract at Vibrarecords, Fabri went underground and went unheard from for a year, until he resurfaced with a new deal at major recording company Universal Music Italia. Under the production of Fish and brother Nesli Fabri created his most commercially and artistically successful album, Tradimento ("Betrayal"). His first single, released in Europe 4 April 2006, was "Applausi per Fibra" ("Applause for Fibra"). The single discussed Fibra's personal and life experiences overcome by Fabri himself, with a certain emphasis on self-praise.

Only a week after the official launch (6 June 2006) the album reached the number one spot in album sales. However it was criticized^[who?] for its use of expletives, indifference in its presentation of provocative themes, and its misogynist views of women, all of which were found across the album.

Following the success of "Applausi per Fibra", the second, more urban-themed single, "Su le mani" ("On Your Hands"), was released. This was followed by the release of "Mal di stomaco" ("Stomachache"), which gained instant infamy, most notably for the originality of its music video (a fabricated broadcast of SKY TG24 - a Satellite news station) that reports on the death of Fabri Fibra in a car accident. The authenticity is sealed with "live coverage" reports, interviews from famous stars such as Fernanda Lessa, Eva Henger, Jimmy Ghione, producer Fish, rapper Vacca and brother Nesli. The video ends with Fabri's body disappearing from the morgue.

The last single is "Idee stupide" ("Stupid Ideas"), with a black and white video which, whilst not as original as the former video, uses a Rocky-style montage that compliments Fabri's underdog lyrics.

In 2010, Tradimento came second in a newspaper poll, making it the second most important album of the decade in Italy^{[citation needed]}. Tradimento is the biggest selling album in Italian music history.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Bugiardo (2008)

Fabri Fibra and Vacca during a live show in 2008

Fabri Fibra's next album, Bugiardo (Liar), came out on 9 November 2007, after the release of the street-single "Questo è il nuovo singolo" ("This is the new single"). The first official single, "Bugiardo", came out on 15 October 2007 and the second official single being "La Soluzione" ("The Solution"), which came out on 9 November 2007. On 25 April 2008, Fibra released the single “In Italia” featuring singer Gianna Nannini. The song became a massive summer hit, being the most watched music video in Italy of 2008^{[citation needed]} and earning a nomination at the MTV Europe Music Awards for Best Italian Act.

[edit] Chi Vuole Essere Fabri Fibra? (2009)

On 10 April 2009, Fibra released his fifth album, entitled Chi Vuole Essere Fabri Fibra? (Who Wants To Be Fabri Fibra?) He released two songs from the album, entitled "Incomprensioni" ("Incomprehension") (featuring Federico Zampaglione) and "Speak English", which discusses the cultural differences between Italy and England; the video for "Speak English" was shot in Brighton, where Fibra lived and worked for four years. A track off the album, entitled "Donna Famosa" ("Famous Woman"), is featured in the soundtrack of the FIFA 10 football video game.

[edit] Controcultura (2010)

Fabri Fibra in Cesena (2010)

Fabri Fibra in Rimini (2011)

From 18 February 2010, MTV Italia broadcast a program on Thursday nights entitled Fabri Fibra: Italy. The program was defined as a docu-drama, and included five episodes showing the lives of young people living in socially disadvantaged situations. On 4 May 2010, Fibra released a remastered album of Turbe giovanilili, entituled Turbe giovanili Remaster. On 20 July 2010, Fibra also released his first web-album, entitled Quorum, which is available in his website.

The album Controcultura (Counterculture) was released on 7 September 2010 and reached #1 in the Italian albums chart. The album has so far spawned three singles named "Vip In Trip", "Tranne Te" ("Except for You") (both peaking at #2 in the Italian singles chart), "Qualcuno Normale" ("Somebody Normal") featuring the artist Marracash and "Le Donne" ("The Women"). Fibra said that "Le Donne" music was a response to the bales of misogyny that he had to face for years, mainly because of "Mrs. Simpatia".

On 1 March 2011, Fibra released the "Tranne Te: Rap Futuristico EP", a extended-play which had remixes of Tranne Te with other artists, like Redman, the French rapper Soprano and old friends from Fibra like Marracash and Dargen D'Amico. At the same month, Fibra released a online mixtape named "Venerdì 17" ("Friday 17"), available to download for free on his website. It contains many freestyles and remixes of some of his earlier work including many remixes of some of his more recent work.

The year of 2011 was also remarkable for Fibra, which he has won four consecutives awards: the platinum disc for "Controcultura", a multiplatinum disc for "Tranne Te", a "Superman" award from the TRL Awards 2011 and a "Wind Music" award.

In the Summer of 2011 Fibra launched his own record label named "Tempi Duri Records" (Hard Times Records). Young rappers Entics and Clementino have been signed to the label.

[edit] Rapstar-Non é gratis (2012)

Fabri Fibra met Clementino in the summer of 2011 at his Controcultura Tour in Naples, and immediately they began to record together. The initial idea, as stated by Clementino in an interview, was simply to make a mixtape. Subsequently, however, both changed their minds and decided to produce a whole album under the name of Rapstar. On January 9, 2012 out double single: Ci rimani male/Chimica Brother, single opening of Non é gratis, debut album of the band, released on January 31, 2012.^[1]

Discography[link]

With Uomoni di Mare[link]

• 1996 - Del mare quest'el gruv
• 1999 - Sindrome di fine millenio

Solo career[link]

• 2002 - Turbe giovanili
• 2004 - Mr. Simpatia
• 2005 - Mr. Simpatia (Live)
• 2005 - Mr. Simpatia (Gold Edition)
• 2006 - Tradimento
• 2006 - Tradimento + Pensieri scomodi
• 2007 - Bugiardo
• 2009 - Chi vuole essere Fabri Fibra? (Gold)
• 2010 - Turbe giovanili Remaster
• 2010 - Quorum
• 2010 - Controcultura (Platinum)
• 2011 - Tranne Te: Rap Futuristico EP (EP)
• 2011 - Venerdì 17 (Mixtape)

With Rapstar[link]

• 2012 - Non é gratis

Singles[link]

Solo career[link]

• Applausi per Fibra (2006)
• Mal Di Stomaco (2006)
• Su Le Mani (2006)
• Idee Stupide (2006)
• Questo è Il Nuovo Singolo (Street Single) (2007)
• Bugiardo (2007)
• La soluzione (2008)
• In Italia featuring Gianna Nannini (2008)
• Incomprensioni featuring Federico Zampaglione (2009)
• Speak English (2009)
• Festa Festa featuring Crookers & Dargen D'Amico (2010)
• Vip in Trip (2010)
• Tranne Te (2010)
• Qualcuno Normale featuring Marracash (2011)
• Le Donne (2011)

With Rapstar[link]

• Ci rimani male/Chimica Brother (2012)

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Fabri Fibra

• Official website
• Fabri Fibra on Myspace
• Fabri Fibra's channel on YouTube