- published: 03 Aug 2011
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- author: mrgrayhistory101
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- 1980s in Morocco
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- Abbasid Caliphate
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Achaemenid Empire
The Achaemenid Empire (/ækəˈmɛnɪˌdi/; Old Persian: Parsā, name of ruling dynasty: Haxāmanišiya) (c. 550–330 BCE), sometimes known as First Persian Empire, was an Iranian empire in Southwest Asia, founded in the 6th century BCE by Cyrus the Great who overthrew the Median confederation. It expanded to eventually rule over significant portions of the ancient world which at around 500 BCE stretched from the Indus Valley in the east, to Thrace and Macedon on the northeastern border of Greece making it the biggest empire the world had yet seen. The Achaemenid Empire would eventually control Egypt as well. It was ruled by a series of monarchs who unified its disparate tribes and nationalities by constructing a complex network of roads.
Calling themselves the Parsa after their original Aryan tribal name Parsua, Persians settled in a land which they named Parsua, bounded on the west by the Tigris River and on the south by the Persian Gulf. This became their heartland for the duration of the Achaemenid Empire. It was from this region that eventually Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II of Persia) would advance to defeat the Median, the Lydian, and the Babylonian Empires, opening the way for subsequent conquests into Egypt and Asia minor.
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Aeolian Islands
The Aeolian Islands or Lipari Islands (Italian: Isole Eolie, pronounced [ˈiːzole eˈɔːlje], Sicilian: Ìsuli Eoli) are a volcanic archipelago in the Tyrrhenian Sea north of Sicily, named after the demigod of the winds Aeolus. The locals residing on the islands are known as Eolians (Italian: Eoliani). The Aeolian Islands are a popular tourist destination in the summer, and attract up to 200,000 visitors annually.
The largest island is Lipari. The other islands include Vulcano, Salina, Stromboli, Filicudi, Alicudi, Panarea and Basiluzzo.
The present shape of the Aeolian Islands is the result of volcanic activity over a period of 260,000 years. There are two active volcanoes - Stromboli and Vulcano. The volcanic activity of steaming fumaroles and thermal waters are on most of the islands. Only the one on Stromboli, the northernmost island, is still active.
Scientifically the archipelago is defined as a "volcanic arc". Geology explains the origin of the Aeolian Islands is due to movement of the Earth's crust as a result of plate tectonics. The African continental shelf is in constant movement towards Europe. The resulting collision has created a volcanic area with ruptures in the Earth's crust with consequent eruptions of magma. The "Eolian Arc" extends for more than 140 kilometres, but the area of geological instability caused by the collision of Africa and Europe is very much larger. It includes Sicily, Calabria, Campania together with Greece and the Aegean islands.
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Aghmat
Aghmāt was an important medieval Berber town in southern Morocco which is today an archaeological site known as "Joumâa Aghmat". It is situated approximately 30 km east of Marrakech on the Ourika road. The initial "A" of the name may be unvocalized, and the name may sometimes be spelled "Ghmat" or even "Rhmate" (as it appears in the Michelin Guide).
According to a Berber legend, Aghmāt was populated by Christian Berbers when it was conquered[citation needed] by the Muslim conqueror of North Africa Uqba ibn Nafi in 683. However, this story first surfaces almost 700 years after that date, and many historians give it no credibility. It is directly contradicted by one of the earliest Persian historians, al-Baladhuri. who states that Musa bin Nusair conquered the Sous and erected the mosque at Aghmāt.
After the death of Idris II in 828, Morocco was divided among his sons. Aghmāt became capital of the Sous region under the Idrisid prince Abd Allah.
When the Almoravids invaded from the Sahara Desert under Abd Allah ibn Yasin, Aghmāt was defended by Laqūt, leader of the Maghrawa tribe. Laqūt was defeated and the Almoravid army entered the city on 23 Rabi II 450 (27 June 1058). One of the wealthiest of Aghmāt's citizens was Laqūt's widow, Zaynab an-Nafzawiyyat, who married the Almoravid leader Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar and placed her considerable wealth at his disposal. After Abu-Bakr returned to the Sahara Desert in 1071, Zaynab married his successor Yusuf ibn Tashfin.
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Akkadian Empire
Coordinates: 33°6′N 44°6′E / 33.1°N 44.1°E / 33.1; 44.1
The Akkadian Empire (Akkadian URUAkkad KI, Hittite KUR A.GA.DÈ.KI "land of Akkad"; Biblical Hebrew אַכַּד Akkad) was an empire centered in the city of Akkad (Sumerian: Agade) and its surrounding region in Mesopotamia.
During the 3rd millennium BC, there developed a very intimate cultural symbiosis between the Sumerians and the Akkadians, which included widespread bilingualism.Akkadian gradually replaced Sumerian as a spoken language somewhere around the turn of the 3rd and the 2nd millennium BC (the exact dating being a matter of debate).
The Akkadian Empire reached its political peak between the 24th and 22nd centuries BC, following the conquests of its founder Sargon of Akkad (2334–2279 BC). Under Sargon and his successors, Akkadian language was briefly imposed on neighboring conquered states such as Elam. Akkad is sometimes regarded as the first empire in history, though there are earlier Sumerian claimants.[citation needed]
The precise archaeological site of the city of Akkad has not yet been found.[citation needed] The form Agade appears in Sumerian, for example in the Sumerian King List; the later Assyro-Babylonian form Akkadû ("of or belonging to Akkad") was likely derived from this. The etymology and meaning of Akkad (written a.ga.dèKI or URIKI) are unknown. Centuries later, the neo-Babylonian king Nabonidus mentioned in his archaeological records that Ishtar's worship in Agade was later superseded by that of the goddess Anunit, whose shrine was at Sippar—suggesting proximity of Sippar and Agade. Despite numerous searches, the city has never been found. One theory holds that Agade was situated opposite Sippar on the left bank of the Euphrates, and was perhaps the oldest part of the city of Sippar. Another theory is that the ruins of Akkad are to be found beneath modern Baghdad. Reputedly it was destroyed by invading Gutians with the fall of the Akkadian Empire.
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Al-Andalus
Al-Andalus (Arabic: الأندلس, trans. al-ʼAndalus; Spanish: Al-Ándalus; Portuguese: Al-Andalus; Catalan: Al-Àndalus), also known as Moorish Iberia, was a medieval Muslim state in parts of what are today Spain, Portugal, and France. The name more generally describes parts of the Iberian Peninsula and Septimania governed by Muslims (given the generic name of Moors), at various times between 711 and 1492 CE, though the boundaries changed constantly in wars with Christian kingdoms.
Following the Muslim conquest of Hispania, Al-Andalus was divided into five administrative units, corresponding roughly to modern Andalusia, Galicia and Portugal, Castile and León, Aragon and Catalonia, and Septimania. As a political domain, it successively constituted a province of the Umayyad Caliphate, initiated by the Caliph Al-Walid I (711–750); the Emirate of Córdoba (c. 750–929); the Caliphate of Córdoba (929–1031); and the Caliphate of Córdoba's taifa (successor) kingdoms. Rule under these kingdoms saw a rise in cultural exchange and cooperation between Muslims and Christians. Under the Caliphate of Córdoba, al-Andalus was a beacon of learning, and the city of Córdoba became one of the leading cultural and economic centres in both the Mediterranean Basin and the Islamic world.
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Algeciras
Algeciras (Spanish pronunciation: [alxeˈθiɾas]) is a port city in the south of Spain, and is the largest city on the Bay of Gibraltar (in Spanish, the Bahía de Algeciras). Port of Algeciras is one of the largest ports in Europe and in the world in three categories: container, cargo and transhipment. It is situated 20 km north-east of Tarifa on the Río de la Miel, which is the southernmost river of the Iberian peninsula and continental Europe. It has a population in 2009 of 116,209 people.
It is the biggest city among its metropolitan area, that also includes the municipalities of Los Barrios, La Línea de la Concepción, Castellar de la Frontera, Jimena de la Frontera, San Roque and Tarifa, with a population of 263,739.
The site of Roman cities called Portus Albus, Caetaria (current Getares) and Iuliua Tracta, the current name of Algeciras comes from the Arab period of the Iberian Peninsula: AlJazīra AlKhadrā' Arabic الجزيرة الخضراء or Green Island.
The area of the city has been populated since prehistory, and the earliest remains belong to Neanderthal populations from the Paleolithic.
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Algeria
Coordinates: 28°N 2°E / 28°N 2°E / 28; 2
Algeria
i/ælˈdʒɪəriə/ (Arabic: الجزائر, al-Jazā'ir; Berber: ⴷⵣⴰⵢⴻⵔ Dzayer), officially the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria (الجمهورية الجزائرية الديمقراطية الشعبية, al-Jumhūriyyah al-Jazāʾiriyyah ad-Dīmuqrāṭiyyah ash-Shaʿbiyyah), also formally referred to as the Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria, is a large country in the Maghreb region of Northwest Africa with Algiers as its capital.
When referring to its land area, Algeria is the largest country in Africa, Maghreb and the Arab World. It is also the largest of the countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea; it is also the tenth-largest country in the world. The country is bordered in the northeast by Tunisia, in the east by Libya, in the west by Morocco, in the southwest by Western Sahara, Mauritania, and Mali, in the southeast by Niger, and in the north by the Mediterranean Sea. Its size is almost 2,400,000 square kilometres (926,645 sq mi) with an estimated population of 37.1 million as of 2012. Algeria is a member of the African Union, the Arab League, OPEC and the United Nations. The country is also a founding member of the Arab Maghreb Union.
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Algiers
Algiers (Arabic: الجزائر, al-Jazā’ir; Algerian Arabic: دزاير, Berber: Dzayer / ⴷⵣⴰⵢⴻⵔ) is the capital and largest city of Algeria. According to the 1998 census, the population of the city proper was 1,519,570 and that of the urban agglomeration was 2,135,630. In 2009, the population was about 3,500,000. An estimate puts the population at about 3,574,000 as of 2010.
Called El-Behdja (البهجة) or alternatively Alger la Blanche ("Algiers the White") for the glistening white of its buildings as seen rising up from the sea, Algiers is situated on the west side of a bay of the Mediterranean Sea. The modern part of the city is built on the level ground by the seashore; the old part, the ancient city of the deys, climbs the steep hill behind the modern town and is crowned by the casbah or citadel, 122 metres (400 ft) above the sea. The casbah and the two quays form a triangle.
The city name is derived (via French Alger and Catalan Alger) from the Arabic name الجزائر al-Jazā’ir, which translates as "The Islands", referring to the four islands which lay off the city's coast until becoming part of the mainland in 1525. Al-Jazā’ir is itself a truncated form of the city's older name جزائر بني مازغان Jazā’ir Banī Mazghannā, "The Islands of the Sons of Mazghanna", used by early medieval geographers such as al-Idrisi and Yaqut al-Hamawi.
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Anti-Atlas
The Anti-Atlas (Arabic: الأطلس الصغير) or Lesser Atlas or Little Atlas, is a mountain range in Morocco, a part of the Atlas mountains in the northwest of Africa. The Anti-Atlas extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the southwest toward the northeast, to the heights of Ouarzazate and further east to the city of Tafilalt, altogether a distance of approximately 500 km. The range borders on the Sahara to the south.
The easternmost point of the Anti-Atlas is the Djebel Sarhro mountains, and its eastern boundary is set by sections of the High Atlas range. On the heights of Ouarzazate, the massif is cut through by the Draa valley, opening towards the south. In this world of rocks, the contrasts are extreme. Most of the land is dry and barren, but water gathers and runs in some remote places, forming clear basins. Most villages are limited to a few small houses surrounded by palm trees.
In some contexts, the Anti-Atlas are considered separate from the Atlas mountains, as the term "anti" implies.
The base rock of Africa (the African plate) was formed in the Precambrian (approximately 4,500 to 550 million years ago), and is much older than the Atlas mountains. The Anti-Atlas range developed even later.
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Aoudaghost
Aoudaghost (also known as Awadaghust, Awdughast, Awdaghusht and Awdhaghurst) was an important oasis town at the southern end of a trans-Saharan caravan route that is mentioned in a number of early Arabic manuscripts. The archaeological ruins at Tegdaoust in southern Mauritania are thought to be the remains of mediaeval Aoudaghost.
The earliest mention of Aoudaghost is by al-Yaqubi in his Kitab al-Buldan completed in 889-890 in which he described the town as being controlled by a tribe of the Sanhaja and situated 50 stages south of Sijilmasa across the Sahara desert. "It is the residence of their king who has no religion or law. He raids the land of the Sudan who have many kingdoms." From Ibn Hawqal writing in around 977 we learn that the distance from Aoudaghost to Ghana (presumably the capital of the Empire) was 10 days' journey for a lightly loaded caravan. Ibn Hawqal wrote that the "king of Awdaghurst maintains relations with the ruler of Ghana" which suggests that at that time Aoudaghost was not part of the Ghana Empire. He also mentions the trade in gold and writes that the king of Ghana is very rich because of his stocks of gold but that the kings of Ghana and Kugha "stand in pressing need of [the goodwill of] the king of Awdaghust because of the salt which comes to them from the lands of Islam."
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Austrian Empire
The Austrian Empire (German: Kaiserthum Oesterreich, modern spelling Kaisertum Österreich) was a modern era successor empire, which was centered on what is today's Austria and which officially lasted from 1804 to 1867. It was followed by the Empire of Austria-Hungary, whose proclamation was a diplomatic move that elevated Hungary's status within the Austrian Empire as a result of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867. The Austro-Hungarian Empire (1867 to 1918) was itself dissolved by the victors at the end of World War I and broken into separate new states.
The term "Austrian Empire" is also used for the Habsburg possessions before 1804, which had no official collective name, although Austria is more frequent; the term of Austria-Hungary has also been used.[citation needed]
The Austrian Empire was founded by the Habsburg monarch Holy Roman Emperor Francis II (who became Emperor Francis I of Austria), as a state comprising his personal lands within and outside of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation.
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Awdaghust
Aoudaghost (also known as Awadaghust, Awdughast, Awdaghusht and Awdhaghurst) was an important oasis town at the southern end of a trans-Saharan caravan route that is mentioned in a number of early Arabic manuscripts. The archaeological ruins at Tegdaoust in southern Mauritania are thought to be the remains of mediaeval Aoudaghost.
The earliest mention of Aoudaghost is by al-Yaqubi in his Kitab al-Buldan completed in 889-890 in which he described the town as being controlled by a tribe of the Sanhaja and situated 50 stages south of Sijilmasa across the Sahara desert. "It is the residence of their king who has no religion or law. He raids the land of the Sudan who have many kingdoms." From Ibn Hawqal writing in around 977 we learn that the distance from Aoudaghost to Ghana (presumably the capital of the Empire) was 10 days' journey for a lightly loaded caravan. Ibn Hawqal wrote that the "king of Awdaghurst maintains relations with the ruler of Ghana" which suggests that at that time Aoudaghost was not part of the Ghana Empire. He also mentions the trade in gold and writes that the king of Ghana is very rich because of his stocks of gold but that the kings of Ghana and Kugha "stand in pressing need of [the goodwill of] the king of Awdaghust because of the salt which comes to them from the lands of Islam."
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Baghdad
Baghdad (Arabic: بغداد, Baġdād, IPA: [bæɣˈdæːd]) is the capital of Republic of Iraq, as well as the coterminous Baghdad Province. The population of Baghdad as of 2011 is approximately 7,216,040, making it the largest city in Iraq, the second largest city in the Arab World (after Cairo, Egypt), and the second largest city in Western Asia (after Tehran, Iran).
Located along the Tigris River, the city was founded in the 8th century and became the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate. Within a short time of its inception, Baghdad evolved into a significant cultural, commercial, and intellectual center for the Islamic World. This in addition to housing several key academic institutions (e.g. House of Wisdom) garnered the city a worldwide reputation as the "Center of Learning". Throughout the High Middle Ages, Baghdad was considered to be the largest city in the world with an estimated population of 1,200,000 people. The city was largely destroyed at the hands of the Mongol Empire in 1258, resulting in a decline that would linger through many centuries due to frequent plagues and multiple successive empires. With the recognition of Iraq as an independent state (formerly the British Mandate of Mesopotamia) in 1938, Baghdad gradually regained some of its former prominence as a significant center of Arabic culture.
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Bay of Arguin
The Bay of Arguin, or Banc d'Arguin, is a bay on the Atlantic shore of Mauritania. It is south of Cap Blanc, north of Cap Timiris, and contains the islands of Arguin and Tidra.
The bay contains the 12,000 km² Banc d'Arguin National Park.
Coordinates: 20°36′00″N 16°28′00″W / 20.6°N 16.4667°W / 20.6; -16.4667
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British Empire
The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom. It originated with the overseas colonies and trading posts established by England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. At its height, it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power. By 1922 the British Empire held sway over about 458 million people, one-fifth of the world's population at the time, and covered more than 33,700,000 km2 (13,012,000 sq mi), almost a quarter of the Earth's total land area. As a result, its political, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread. At the peak of its power, it was often said that "the sun never sets on the British Empire" because its span across the globe ensured that the sun was always shining on at least one of its numerous territories.
During the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated, England, France and the Netherlands began to establish colonies and trade networks of their own in the Americas and Asia. A series of wars in the 17th and 18th centuries with the Netherlands and France left England (and then, following union between England and Scotland in 1707, Great Britain) the dominant colonial power in North America and India. The loss of the Thirteen Colonies in North America in 1783 after a war of independence deprived Britain of some of its oldest and most populous colonies.
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Draa
The Draa (Arabic: درعا) (also spelled Dra or Draâ, in older sources mostly Darha or Dara) is Morocco's longest river (1100 km). It is formed by the confluence of the Dadès River and Imini River. It flows from the High Atlas mountains south-(east)ward to Tagounit and from Tagounit mostly westwards to the Atlantic Ocean somewhat north of Tan-Tan. Most of the year the part of the Draa after Tagounit falls dry.
The water from the Draa is used to irrigate palm groves and small horticulture along the river. The inhabitants of the Draa are called Drawa (an exonym), the most famous Drawi (singular of Drawa) undoubtedly being mawlay Mohammed ash-Sheikh. Outside of the Draa region this name is mostly used to refer to the dark skinned people of Draa which make up the largest portion of its inhabitants.
In the first half of the twentieth century the Draa lowest course marked the boundary between the French protectorate of Morocco and the South Zone of the Spanish one. Presently part of its upper course marks a part of the international boundary between Algeria and Morocco.
wn.com/Draa -
Draa River
The Draa (Arabic: درعا) (also spelled Dra or Draâ, in older sources mostly Darha or Dara) is Morocco's longest river (1100 km). It is formed by the confluence of the Dadès River and Imini River. It flows from the High Atlas mountains south-(east)ward to Tagounit and from Tagounit mostly westwards to the Atlantic Ocean somewhat north of Tan-Tan. Most of the year the part of the Draa after Tagounit falls dry.
The water from the Draa is used to irrigate palm groves and small horticulture along the river. The inhabitants of the Draa are called Drawa (an exonym), the most famous Drawi (singular of Drawa) undoubtedly being mawlay Mohammed ash-Sheikh. Outside of the Draa region this name is mostly used to refer to the dark skinned people of Draa which make up the largest portion of its inhabitants.
In the first half of the twentieth century the Draa lowest course marked the boundary between the French protectorate of Morocco and the South Zone of the Spanish one. Presently part of its upper course marks a part of the international boundary between Algeria and Morocco.
wn.com/Draa_River -
Draa valley
The Draa (Arabic: درعا) (also spelled Dra or Draâ, in older sources mostly Darha or Dara) is Morocco's longest river (1100 km). It is formed by the confluence of the Dadès River and Imini River. It flows from the High Atlas mountains south-(east)ward to Tagounit and from Tagounit mostly westwards to the Atlantic Ocean somewhat north of Tan-Tan. Most of the year the part of the Draa after Tagounit falls dry.
The water from the Draa is used to irrigate palm groves and small horticulture along the river. The inhabitants of the Draa are called Drawa (an exonym), the most famous Drawi (singular of Drawa) undoubtedly being mawlay Mohammed ash-Sheikh. Outside of the Draa region this name is mostly used to refer to the dark skinned people of Draa which make up the largest portion of its inhabitants.
In the first half of the twentieth century the Draa lowest course marked the boundary between the French protectorate of Morocco and the South Zone of the Spanish one. Presently part of its upper course marks a part of the international boundary between Algeria and Morocco.
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Egypt
Egypti/ˈiːdʒɪpt/ (Arabic: مصر, Miṣr, Egyptian Arabic: [mɑsˤɾ] ; Coptic: Ⲭⲏⲙⲓ, Kīmi ; Sahidic Coptic: ⲕⲏⲙⲉ, Kēme), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: 
جمهوريّة مصر العربيّة (help·info), is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world. Covering an area of about 1,010,000 square kilometers (390,000 sq mi), Egypt is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Red Sea to the east, Sudan to the south and Libya to the west.
Egypt is one of the most populous countries in Africa and the Middle East. The great majority of its over 81 million people live near the banks of the Nile River, in an area of about 40,000 square kilometers (15,000 sq mi), where the only arable land is found. The large areas of the Sahara Desert are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypt's residents live in urban areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria and other major cities in the Nile Delta.
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Empire of Brazil
The Empire of Brazil was a 19th-century state that broadly comprised the territories which form modern Brazil. Its government was a representative parliamentary constitutional monarchy under the rule of Emperors Dom Pedro I and his son Dom Pedro II, both members of the House of Braganza—a branch of the Capetian dynasty. A colony of the Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil became the seat of the Portuguese colonial Empire in 1808, when the Portuguese Prince regent, later King Dom João VI (John VI), fled from Napoleon I's invasion of Portugal and established himself and his government in the Brazilian city of Rio de Janeiro. João VI later returned to Portugal, leaving his eldest son and heir, Pedro, to rule Brazil as regent.
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Fes
Fes or Fez (Arabic: فاس Arabic pronunciation: [fɛs]) is the second largest city of Morocco, with a population of approximately 1 million (2010). It is the capital of the Fès-Boulemane region.
Fez, the former capital, is one of the country's four "imperial cities," the others being Rabat, Marrakech and Meknes. It comprises three distinct parts, Fes el Bali (the old, walled city), Fes-Jdid (new Fes, home of the Mellah) and the Ville Nouvelle (the French-created, newest section of Fes).
"Fas el Bali" is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Its medina, the larger of the two medinas of Fes, is believed to be the world's largest contiguous car-free urban area. The University of Al-Karaouine, founded in AD 859, is the oldest continuously functioning university in the world. The city has been called the "Mecca of the West" and the "Athens of Africa".
Until the Almoravid rule in the 11th century, Fes consisted of two separate cities or medinas: Madinat Fas and Al-'Aliya. The former being founded by Idris I, the latter by his son, Idris II. During Idrisid rule the capital city was known as Al-'Aliya, with the name Fas being reserved for the separate site on the other side of the river: no Idrisid coins have been found with the name Fes, only al-'Aliya and al-'Aliya Madinat Idris. It is not known whether the name al-'Aliya was ever used to refer to both medinas. It wasn't until 1070 that the two agglomerations were united and the name Fas was used for both sites.
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Figuig
Figuig - Ifiyey is a town in eastern Morocco near the Atlas Mountains, on the border with Algeria.
The town is built around an oasis of date palms, called Tazdayt in the Berber languages, surrounded by rugged, mountainous wilderness. Modernisation has both raised the standard of living, and drawn much of the town's population away, so that it is now struggling to reach stability.
The town has a population of some 13,000.
Figuig consists of seven different communities (Ighermawen in Amazigh): At-Wadday, At-Amar, At-Lamiz, At-Sliman, At-aNaj, At-Addi, Iznayen. A community territory is called an Agram (the word the Berber use to describe themselves in their tongue; plural Igramawan), usually made up of a fortified group of houses. Many Agrams are designed with defensive measures like watch-towers and heavy doors on the main entrances, which are closed at night, as well as a mazelike layout, called an Abrid, which makes navigation for the unwanted extremely difficult.
Homes, or Tidriwin, are extended by building rooms over the alleyways; these extensions are referred to as Askif. Houses are built mainly with soil, though palm trunks (tizidin) and leaf-heads (tikachba, taratta) are used in roof construction. The arrival of electricity, plumbing, and concrete construction has not essentially altered the nature of Aghram building. However, modern age buildings are being built more and more in the newly appointed area's at the edge of each "Agram".
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Geography of Morocco
The geography of Morocco spans from the Atlantic Ocean, to mountainous areas, to the Sahara (desert). Morocco is a Northern African country, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea.
A large part of Morocco is mountainous. The Atlas Mountains are located mainly in the center and the south of the country. The Rif Mountains are located in the north of the country. Both ranges are mainly inhabited by the Berber people.
Geography statistics Coordinates: 32°00′N 5°00′W / 32°N 5°W / 32; -5
Map references: Africa
Area:
total: 446,550 km²
land: 446,550 km²
water: 250 km²
Area - comparative: slightly larger than California
Land boundaries:
total: 2 017.9 km
border countries: Algeria 1 559 km, Mauritania (de facto) 1561 km, Spain (Ceuta) 6.3 km, Spain (Melilla) 9.6 km
Coastline: 1 835 km
Maritime claims:
contiguous zone: 24 nmi (44.4 km; 27.6 mi)
continental shelf: 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
exclusive economic zone: 200 nmi (370.4 km; 230.2 mi)
territorial sea: 12 nmi (22.2 km; 13.8 mi)
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German Empire
The German Empire (German: Deutsches Kaiserreich) is the common name given to the state officially named the Deutsches Reich (literally: "German Realm"), designating Germany from the unification of Germany and proclamation of Wilhelm I as German Emperor on 18 January 1871, to 1918, when it became a federal republic after defeat in World War I and the abdication of the Emperor, Wilhelm II.
The German Empire consisted of 27 constituent territories (most of them ruled by royal families). While the Kingdom of Prussia contained most of the population and most of the territory of the Reich; the Prussian leadership became supplanted by German leaders and Prussia itself played a lesser role. As Dwyer (2005) points out, Prussia's "political and cultural influence had diminished considerably" by the 1890s. Its three largest neighbors were rivals Imperial Russia to the east and France to the west and ally Austria-Hungary to the south.
After 1850, Germany industrialized rapidly, with a foundation in coal, iron (and later steel), chemicals and railways. From a population of 41 million people in 1871, it grew to 68 million in 1913. From a heavily rural nation in 1815, it was now predominantly urban. During its 47 years of existence, the German Empire operated as an industrial, technological and scientific giant, receiving more Nobel Prizes in science than Britain, France, Russia and the United States combined.
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Gibraltar
Gibraltar ( /dʒɨˈbrɒltər/) is a British overseas territory located on the southern end of the Iberian Peninsula at the entrance of the Mediterranean. It has an area of 6.8 square kilometres (2.6 sq mi) and a northern border with Andalusia, Spain. The Rock of Gibraltar is the major landmark of the region. At its foot is the densely populated city area, home to almost 30,000 Gibraltarians and other nationalities.
An Anglo-Dutch force captured Gibraltar from Spain in 1704 during the War of the Spanish Succession. The territory was subsequently ceded to Britain "in perpetuity" under the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713. It was an important base for the Royal Navy; today its economy is based largely on tourism, financial services, and shipping.
The sovereignty of Gibraltar is a major point of contention in Anglo-Spanish relations as Spain asserts a claim to the territory. Gibraltarians rejected proposals for Spanish sovereignty in a 1967 referendum and again in 2002. Under the Gibraltar constitution of 2006, Gibraltar governs its own affairs, though some powers, such as defence and foreign relations, remain the responsibility of the UK Government.
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Gurjara-Pratihara
The Gurjara Pratihara (Sanskrit: गुर्जर प्रतिहार, Gurjara Pratihâra), often simply called Pratihara Empire, was an imperial Indian dynasty that ruled much of Northern India from the 6th to the 11th centuries. At its peak of prosperity and power (c. 836–910), the Gurajara-Pratihara Empire rivaled or even exceeded the Gupta Empire in the extent of its territory.
Kannauj was the capital of imperial Gurjara Pratiharas. The Gurjara Pratihara rulers in the tenth century was entitled as Maharajadhiraja of Āryāvarta (i.e. Lords of Northern India).
The word "Pratihara" means protector or "who takes over the enemy/opponent" and was used by the Gurjara-Pratihara rulers as self-designation.It is derived mainly from buddhist term "Pratiharya" wich is quoted in many buddhist sutra, as title awarded to them for defending the vedic realm of Aryavarta . The Pratihara rulers claim descent from the Hindu mythological character Lakshmana, who had performed the duty of a gaurdian ("pratihara") for his elder brother Rama. They were thus Suryavansh dynasty according to traditional Indology.
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Han Dynasty
The Han Dynasty (simplified Chinese: 汉朝; traditional Chinese: 漢朝; pinyin: Hàn Cháo; Wade–Giles: Han Ch'ao; IPA: [xân tʂʰɑ̌ʊ̯]) (206 BCE – 220 CE) was an imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty (221–207 BCE) and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms (220–280 CE). It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han. It was briefly interrupted by the Xin Dynasty (9–23 CE) of the former regent Wang Mang. This interregnum separates the Han into two periods: the Western Han (206 BCE – 9 CE) and Eastern Han (25–220 CE). Spanning over four centuries, the period of the Han Dynasty is considered a golden age in Chinese history. To this day, China's majority ethnic group refers to itself as the "Han people" and Chinese characters are referred to as "Han characters".
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Iberian Peninsula
The Iberian Peninsula (Asturian, Galician, Leonese, Mirandese, Portuguese and Spanish: Península Ibérica, Catalan: Península Ibèrica, Aragonese and Occitan: Peninsula Iberica, French: Péninsule Ibérique, Basque: Iberiar Penintsula), sometimes called Iberia, is a peninsula located in the extreme southwest of Europe and includes the modern-day sovereign states of Spain, Portugal and Andorra, as well as the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar. It is the westernmost of the three major southern European peninsulas—the Iberian, Italian, and Balkan peninsulas. It is bordered on the southeast and east by the Mediterranean Sea, and on the north, west and southwest by the Atlantic Ocean. The Pyrenees form the northeast edge of the peninsula, separating it from the rest of Europe. In the south, it approaches the northern coast of Africa. It is the second-largest peninsula in Europe, with an area of approximately 582,000 km2 (225,000 sq mi).
The English word Iberia was adapted from the use of the Ancient Greek word Ιβηρία (Ibēría) by the Greek geographers under the Roman Empire to refer to what is known today in English as the Iberian Peninsula. At that time the name did not describe a single political entity or a distinct population of people. Strabo's Iberia was delineated from Keltikē by the Pyrenees and included the entire land mass south-west (he named it "west") of there.
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Idrisid Dynasty
The Idrisids (Arabic: الأدارسة al-Idārisah, Berber: Idrisiyen) were a Zaydi-Shia dynasty of Morocco, ruling from 788 to 985. It was named after its founder Idriss I, the great grandchild of Hasan ibn Ali. Idrisids are traditionally regarded as the founders of the Moroccan state.
The founder of the dynasty was Idris ibn Abdallah (788–791), who traced his ancestry back to Ali ibn Abi Talib and his wife Fatimah, daughter of the Prophet Muhammad. After the battle of Fakh, near Mecca, between the Abbasids and a Shiite party, he fled to the Maghreb. He first arrived in Tangier, at that time the most important city of Morocco, and by 788 he had settled in Volubilis.
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Idrisid dynasty
The Idrisids (Arabic: الأدارسة al-Idārisah, Berber: Idrisiyen) were a Zaydi-Shia dynasty of Morocco, ruling from 788 to 985. It was named after its founder Idriss I, the great grandchild of Hasan ibn Ali. Idrisids are traditionally regarded as the founders of the Moroccan state.
The founder of the dynasty was Idris ibn Abdallah (788–791), who traced his ancestry back to Ali ibn Abi Talib and his wife Fatimah, daughter of the Prophet Muhammad. After the battle of Fakh, near Mecca, between the Abbasids and a Shiite party, he fled to the Maghreb. He first arrived in Tangier, at that time the most important city of Morocco, and by 788 he had settled in Volubilis.
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Idrissid
The Idrisids (Arabic: الأدارسة al-Idārisah, Berber: Idrisiyen) were a Zaydi-Shia dynasty of Morocco, ruling from 788 to 985. It was named after its founder Idriss I, the great grandchild of Hasan ibn Ali. Idrisids are traditionally regarded as the founders of the Moroccan state.
The founder of the dynasty was Idris ibn Abdallah (788–791), who traced his ancestry back to Ali ibn Abi Talib and his wife Fatimah, daughter of the Prophet Muhammad. After the battle of Fakh, near Mecca, between the Abbasids and a Shiite party, he fled to the Maghreb. He first arrived in Tangier, at that time the most important city of Morocco, and by 788 he had settled in Volubilis.
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Iran
Coordinates: 32°N 53°E / 32°N 53°E / 32; 53
Iran (i/ɪˈrɑːn/ or /aɪˈræn/;Persian: ایران [ʔiˈɾɒn] (
listen)), officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (Persian: جمهوری اسلامی ایران Jomhuri-ye Eslāmi-ye Irān), is a country in Southern and Western Asia. The name "Iran", which in Persian means "Land of the Aryans", has been in use natively since the Sassanian era. It came into use internationally in 1935, before which the country was known to the Western world as Persia ( /ˈpɜrʒə/ or /ˈpɜrʃə/). Both "Persia" and "Iran" are used interchangeably in cultural contexts; however, "Iran" is the name used officially in political contexts.
The 18th-largest country in the world in terms of area at 1,648,195 km2 (636,372 sq mi), Iran has a population of around 79 million. It is a country of particular geopolitical significance owing to its location in the Middle East and central Eurasia. Iran is bordered on the north by Armenia, Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan. As Iran is a littoral state of the Caspian Sea, which is an inland sea, Kazakhstan and Russia are also Iran's direct neighbors to the north. Iran is bordered on the east by Afghanistan and Pakistan, on the south by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman, on the west by Iraq and on the northwest by Turkey. Tehran is the capital, the country's largest city and the political, cultural, commercial and industrial center of the nation. Iran is a regional power, and holds an important position in international energy security and world economy as a result of its large reserves of petroleum and natural gas. Iran has the second largest proven natural gas reserves in the world and the fourth largest proven petroleum reserves.
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Italian Empire
The Italian Empire (Italian: Impero Italiano) was created after the Kingdom of Italy joined other European powers in establishing colonies overseas during the "scramble for Africa". Modern Italy as a unified state only existed from 1861. By this time France, Spain, Portugal, Britain, and the Netherlands, had already carved out large empires over several hundred years. One of the last remaining areas open to colonisation was on the African continent.
By the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Italy had annexed Eritrea and Somalia, and had wrested control of portions of the Ottoman Empire, including Libya, though it was defeated in its attempt to conquer Ethiopia. The Fascist government under Italian dictator Benito Mussolini which came to power in 1922 sought to increase the size of the empire further. Ethiopia was successfully taken, four decades after the previous failure, and Italy's European borders were expanded. An official "Italian Empire" was proclaimed on 9 May 1936 following the conquest of Ethiopia. Italy sided with Nazi Germany during World War II and initially enjoyed successes. However, Allied forces eventually captured Italian overseas colonies and by the time Italy itself was invaded in 1943, its empire had all but ceased to exist.
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Italy
Italyi/ˈɪtəli/ (Italian: Italia [iˈtaːlja]), officially the Italian Republic or the Republic of Italy (Italian: Repubblica italiana), is a unitary parliamentary republic in south-central Europe. To the north, it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and Slovenia along the Alps. To the south, it consists of the entirety of the Italian Peninsula, Sicily, Sardinia–the two largest islands in the Mediterranean Sea–and many other smaller islands. The independent states of San Marino and the Vatican City are enclaves within Italy, while Campione d'Italia is an Italian exclave in Switzerland. The territory of Italy covers some 301,338 km2 (116,347 sq mi) and is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. With 60.6 million inhabitants, it is the fifth most populous country in Europe, and the 23rd most populous in the world.
Rome, the capital of Italy, was for centuries a political and religious centre of Western civilisation as the capital of the Roman Empire and site of the Holy See. After the decline of the Roman Empire, Italy endured numerous invasions by foreign peoples, from Germanic tribes such as the Lombards and Ostrogoths, to the Byzantines and later, the Normans, among others. Centuries later, Italy became the birthplace of Maritime republics and the Renaissance, an immensely fruitful intellectual movement that would prove to be integral in shaping the subsequent course of European thought.
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Kairouan
Kairouan (Arabic: القيروان Al Qairawān), also known as Kirwan or al-Qayrawan, is the capital of the Kairouan Governorate in Tunisia. Referred to as the Islamic Cultural Capital, it is a UNESCO World Heritage site. The city was founded by the nomads of Tunisia around 200 to 250 BC and soon Romans occupied it and built a huge Claussium which is still standing and is one of the most complete of its kind around the Mediterranean sea, The word Qir is in fact Persian and means Bitumen which at those days used to be a center for import and export of this material for ship making and has nothing to do with Caravan. Arabs later on demolished the central temple and made a mosque instead. Some of the stones are still visible with Roman alphabets hacked on them. Arabs around 670. In the period[citation needed] of Caliph Mu'awiya (reigned 661-680), it became an important centre for Islamic and Quranic learning, and thus attracting a large number of Muslims from various parts of the world, next only to Mecca and Medina. The holy Mosque of Uqba is situated in the city. It is considered by many Muslims to be Islam's fourth holiest city.
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Kingdom of Aksum
The Kingdom of Aksum or Axum, also known as the Aksumite Empire and Abyssinia, was an important trading nation in northeastern Africa, existing from approximately 100–940 AD. It grew from the proto-Aksumite Iron Age period ca. 4th century BC to achieve prominence by the 1st century AD, and was a major player in the commerce between the Roman Empire and Ancient India. The Aksumite rulers facilitated trade by minting their own currency, the state established its hegemony over the declining Kingdom of Kush and regularly entered the politics of the kingdoms on the Arabian peninsula, eventually extending its rule over the region with the conquest of the Himyarite Kingdom.
Under Ezana (fl 320–360), Aksum became the first major empire to convert to Christianity, and was named by Mani (216–276) as one of the four great powers of his time along with Persia, Rome, and China. In the 7th century the Muslims, who originated in Mecca, sought refuge from Quraysh persecution by travelling to Aksum (Abyssinia), a journey famous in Islamic history as the First Hijra. Aksum's ancient capital is found in northern Ethiopia. The Kingdom used the name "Ethiopia" as early as the 4th century. It is also the alleged resting place of the Ark of the Covenant and the purported home of the Queen of Sheba.[citation needed].
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Kingdom of León
The Kingdom of León (Asturian: Reinu de Llión, Spanish: Reino de León, Galician: Reino de León, Portuguese: Reino de Leão, Latin: Regnum Legionense) was an independent kingdom situated in the northwest region of the Iberian Peninsula. It was founded in AD 910 when the Christian princes of Asturias along the northern coast of the peninsula shifted their capital from Oviedo to the city of León. The County of Portugal separated to become the independent Kingdom of Portugal in 1139 and the eastern, inland part of León was joined to the Kingdom of Castile in 1230.
From 1296 to 1301, the Kingdom of León was again independent and after the re-union with Castile remained a kingdom until 1833, but as part of a united Spain. In the Royal Decree of 30 November 1833, the Kingdom of León was considered one of the Spanish regions and divided into the provinces of León, Zamora and Salamanca. In 1978, these three provinces of the region of León were included along with six provinces of the historic region of Old Castile to create the autonomous community of Castile and León.
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Korean Empire
The Korean Empire (Hangul: 대한제국; Hanja: 大韓帝國; Daehan Jeguk; literally Great Korean Empire) is the name of the state of Korea that existed from the Proclamation of the Korean Empire in October 1897 to the Annexation of Korea by Japan on August 20, 1910. It succeeded the Joseon Dynasty.
In October 1897, Emperor Gojong proclaimed the new entity at Gyeongungung Palace and oversaw the partially successful modernization of the military, economy, land system, education system, and various industries. Japan became terrified by the speed of the modernisation the Korean Empire was having and decided to speed up its plans for annexation. This was further speeded by the assassination of Ito Hirobumi. On August 22, 1910, Korea was annexed by Imperial Japan, which defeated the Russian Empire in 1905.
The Sino-Japanese War marked the rapid decline of any power the Joseon Dynasty of Korea had managed to hold against foreign interference, as the battles of the conflict itself had been fought on Korean soil and the surrounding seas. With its newfound preeminence over the waning and weak Qing Dynasty, Japan had delegates negotiate the Treaty of Shimonoseki with the Qing emissaries, through which Japan wrested control over the Liaodong Peninsula from the Qing (a move designed to prevent the southern expansion of Japan's new rival, Russia), and, more importantly over Korea. However, Russia recognized this agreement as an act against its interests in northeastern China and eventually brought France and Germany to its side in saying that the Liaodong Peninsula should be repatriated to the Qing China.
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Mali
Mali
i/ˈmɑːli/, officially the Republic of Mali (French: République du Mali, French pronunciation: [maˈli]), is a landlocked country in Western Africa. Mali borders Algeria on the north, Niger on the east, Burkina Faso and the Côte d'Ivoire on the south, Guinea on the south-west, and Senegal and Mauritania on the west. Its size is just over 1,240,000 km² with a population of 14.5 million. Its capital is Bamako. Mali consists of eight regions and its borders on the north reach deep into the middle of the Sahara, while the country's southern part, where the majority of inhabitants live, features the Niger and Sénégal rivers. The country's economic structure centers around agriculture and fishing. Some of Mali's natural resources are gold, uranium, livestock, and salt. About half the population live below the international poverty line of US$1.25 a day.
Present-day Mali was once part of three West African empires that controlled trans-Saharan trade: the Ghana Empire, the Mali Empire (from which Mali is named), and the Songhai Empire. In the late 19th century, during the Scramble for Africa, France seized control of Mali making it a part of French Sudan. French Sudan (then known as the Sudanese Republic) joined with Senegal in 1959, achieving independence in 1960 as the Mali Federation. Shortly thereafter, following Senegal's withdrawal from the federation, the Sudanese Republic declared itself the independent Republic of Mali. After a long period of one-party rule, a 1991 coup led to the writing of a new constitution and the establishment of Mali as a democratic, multi-party state. On 22 March, 2012, a group of junior soldiers seized control of the country's presidential palace and declared the government dissolved and its constitution suspended. On 6 April, 2012, rebels from the National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad (MNLA) declared the secession of a new state, Azawad, from Mali.
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Marrakech
Coordinates: 31°38′N 8°0′W / 31.633°N 8°W / 31.633; -8
Marrakech or Marrakesh (Berber: ⵎⴻⵕⵕⴰⴽⴻⵛ Merrakec or Murakuc, Arabic: مراكش Murrākuš, local pronunciation: Mərrakəš), known as the "Ochre City", with a population of over 1,000,000 inhabitants is the most important former imperial city in Morocco's history. The city of Marrakesh is the capital of the mid-southwestern economic region of Marrakech-Tensift-Al Haouz, near the foothills of the snow-capped Atlas Mountains, being also the third largest city in Morocco according to the 2004 census.
Like many Moroccan cities, the city of Marrakesh comprises both an old fortified city (the medina) and modern neighborhoods, the most prominent of which is Gueliz, for a total population of 794,620 and 1,063,415 in the metropolitan area (2004 census). It is served by Ménara International Airport (IATA code: RAK) and a rail link to Casablanca and the north.
Marrakesh has the largest traditional Berber market (souk) in Morocco and also has one of the busiest squares in Africa and the world, Djemaa el Fna. The square bustles with acrobats, story-tellers, water sellers, dancers and musicians. By night food stalls open in the square turning it into a huge busy open-air restaurant.
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Marrakesh
Coordinates: 31°38′N 8°0′W / 31.633°N 8°W / 31.633; -8
Marrakech or Marrakesh (Berber: ⵎⴻⵕⵕⴰⴽⴻⵛ Merrakec or Murakuc, Arabic: مراكش Murrākuš, local pronunciation: Mərrakəš), known as the "Ochre City", with a population of over 1,000,000 inhabitants is the most important former imperial city in Morocco's history. The city of Marrakesh is the capital of the mid-southwestern economic region of Marrakech-Tensift-Al Haouz, near the foothills of the snow-capped Atlas Mountains, being also the third largest city in Morocco according to the 2004 census.
Like many Moroccan cities, the city of Marrakesh comprises both an old fortified city (the medina) and modern neighborhoods, the most prominent of which is Gueliz, for a total population of 794,620 and 1,063,415 in the metropolitan area (2004 census). It is served by Ménara International Airport (IATA code: RAK) and a rail link to Casablanca and the north.
Marrakesh has the largest traditional Berber market (souk) in Morocco and also has one of the busiest squares in Africa and the world, Djemaa el Fna. The square bustles with acrobats, story-tellers, water sellers, dancers and musicians. By night food stalls open in the square turning it into a huge busy open-air restaurant.
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Mauritania
Mauritaniai/mɔrɪˈteɪniə/ (Arabic: موريتانيا Mūrītānyā; Berber: Muritanya / Agawej; Wolof: Gànnaar; Soninke: Murutaane; Pulaar: Moritani; French: Mauritanie), officially the Islamic Republic of Mauritania, is a country in West Africa and in the Maghreb. It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean in the west, by Western Sahara (controlled by Morocco) in the north, by Algeria in the northeast, by Mali in the east and southeast, and by Senegal in the southwest. It is named after the ancient Berber Kingdom of Mauretania, which later became a province of the Roman Empire, even though the modern Mauritania covers a territory far to the south of the old Berber kingdom that had no relation with it. The capital and largest city is Nouakchott, located on the Atlantic coast.
The government of Mauritania was overthrown on 6 August 2008, in a military coup d'état led by General Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz. On 16 April 2009, General Aziz resigned from the military to run for president in the 19 July elections, which he won. In Mauritania about 20% of the population live on less than US$1.25 per day.
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Mecca
Mecca ( /ˈmɛkə/; Arabic: مكة, Makkah, pronounced [ˈmækːɐ]) is a city in the Hejaz and the capital of Makkah province in Saudi Arabia. The city is located 70 km (43 mi) inland from Jeddah in a narrow valley at a height of 277 m (909 ft) above sea level. Its resident population in 2012 was 2 million, although visitors more than triple this number every year during Hajj period held in the twelfth Muslim lunar month of Dhu al-Hijjah.
As the birthplace of Muhammad and a site of the composition of the Quran, Mecca is regarded as the holiest city in the religion of Islam and a pilgrimage to it known as the Hajj is obligatory upon all able Muslims. The Hijaz was long ruled by Muhammad's descendants, the sharifs, either as independent rulers or as vassals to larger empires. It was absorbed into Saudi Arabia in 1925. In its modern period, Mecca has seen tremendous expansion in size and infrastructure. Because of this Mecca has lost many thousand years old buildings and archaeological sites. Today, more than 15 million Muslims visit Mecca annually, including several million during the few days of the Hajj. As a result, Mecca has become one of the most cosmopolitan and diverse cities in the Muslim world, although non-Muslims remain prohibited from entering the city.
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Medes
The Medes (/midz/) (from Old Persian Māda-) were an ancient Iranian people who lived in Iran in an area known as Media and spoke a northwestern Iranian language referred to as the Median language. Their arrival to the region is associated with the first wave of Iranian tribes in the late second millennium BCE (the Bronze Age collapse) through the beginning of the first millennium BCE.
In the 7th century BCE a unified Median state was formed which together with Babylonia, Lydia, and Egypt became one of the four major powers of the ancient Near East. An alliance with the Babylonians helped the Medes to capture Nineveh in 612 BCE which resulted in the collapse of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. The Medes were subsequently able to establish their Median kingdom (with Ecbatana as their royal centre) beyond their original homeland (central-western Iran) and had eventually a territory stretching roughly from northeastern Iran to the Halys River in Anatolia. The Median kingdom was conquered in 550 BCE by Cyrus the Great who established the next Iranian dynasty—the Achaemenid Empire.
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Ming Dynasty
The Ming Dynasty, also Empire of the Great Ming, was the ruling dynasty of China for 276 years (1368–1644) following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty. The Ming, described by some as "one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history", was the last dynasty in China ruled by ethnic Han Chinese. Although the Ming capital Beijing fell in 1644 to a rebellion led by Li Zicheng (who established the Shun Dynasty, soon replaced by the Manchu-led Qing Dynasty), regimes loyal to the Ming throne—collectively called the Southern Ming—survived until 1662.
Ming rule saw the construction of a vast navy and a standing army of one million troops. Although private maritime trade and official tribute missions from China had taken place in previous dynasties, the tributary fleet under the Muslim eunuch admiral Zheng He in the 15th century far surpassed all others in size. There were enormous construction projects, including the restoration of the Grand Canal and the Great Wall and the establishment of the Forbidden City in Beijing during the first quarter of the 15th century. Estimates for the late-Ming population vary from 160 to 200 million.
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Morocco
Morocco (Arabic: المغرب al-Maghrib ; Berber: ⵍⵎⴻⵖⵔⵉⴱ / ⴰⵎⴻⵔⵔⵓⴽElmeɣrib / Amerruk), officially the Kingdom of Morocco, is a country located in North Africa. It has a population of about 32 million and an area of 710,850 km², including the disputed region of the Western Sahara, seen by and mostly administered by Morocco as the Southern Provinces. Morocco is part of the Maghreb region, in addition to Tunisia, Algeria, Mauritania, and Libya, with which it shares cultural, historical and linguistic ties.
Morocco is a constitutional monarchy with an elected parliament. The King of Morocco holds vast executive powers, including the power to dissolve the parliament. Executive power is exercised by the government but more importantly by the king himself. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of parliament, the Assembly of Representatives and the Assembly of Councillors. The king can also issue decrees called dahirs which have the force of law. The latest Parliamentary elections were held in November 25, 2011, and were considered by some neutral observers to be mostly free and fair. Voter turnout in these elections was estimated to be 43% of registered voters, but only about 25% of Moroccan adult citizens actually voted. The rest either chose not to vote or they were not registered as voters. The political capital is Rabat, but the largest city is Casablanca; other main cities include Marrakesh, Tetouan, Tangier, Salé, Fes, Agadir, Meknes, Oujda, Kenitra, and Nador.
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Mughal Empire
The Mughal Empire, Shahan-e-Gurkhani, Shahan-e-Mughal, Sultanate-e-Mughliya, Daulat-e-Mughliya (Persian: شاهان گورکانی Shāhān-e Gūrkānī; Urdu: مغلیہ سلطنت; self-designation: گوركانى Gūrkānī ), or Mogul (also Moghul) Empire in traditional English usage, was an imperial power from the Indian Subcontinent. The Mughal emperors were direct descendants of Genghis Khan through Chagatai Khan and Timur. The Mughal Empire began in 1526; at the height of their power in the late 17th and early 18th centuries, they controlled most of the Indian Subcontinent—extending from Bengal in the east to Balochistan in the west, Kashmir in the north to the Kaveri basin in the south. According to "Babur-Nama", Kazakh tribal aristocracy along with number of other Turkic soldiers participated actively in the campaign of Babur, which made great influence over the development of Mughal Empire. Its population at that time has been estimated as between 110 and 150 million, over a territory of more than 3.2 million square kilometres (1.2 million square miles).
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Nazi Germany
The Third Reich, also Nazi Germany, is the common name for Germany when it was a totalitarian state ruled by Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP). On 30 January 1933 Hitler became chancellor of Germany, quickly eliminating all opposition to rule as sole leader. The state idolized Hitler as its Führer ("leader"), centralizing all power in his hands. Historians have emphasized the hypnotic effect of his rhetoric on large audiences, and of his eyes in small groups. Kessel writes, "Overwhelmingly...Germans speak with mystification of Hitler's 'hypnotic' appeal..." Under the "leader principle", the Führer's word was above all other laws. Top officials reported to Hitler and followed his policies, but they had considerable autonomy. The government was not a coordinated, cooperating body, but rather a collection of factions struggling to amass power and curry favor with the Führer. In the midst of the Great Depression, the Nazi government restored prosperity and ended mass unemployment using heavy military spending and a mixed economy of free-market and central-planning practices. Extensive public works were undertaken, including the construction of the Autobahns. The return to prosperity gave the regime enormous popularity; the suppression of all opposition made Hitler's rule mostly unchallenged.
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Neo-Assyrian Empire
The Neo-Assyrian Empire was an empire in Mesopotamian history which began in 934 BC and ended in 605 BC. During this period, Assyria assumed a position as the most powerful nation on earth, successfully eclipsing Babylonia, Egypt, Urartu/Armenia and Elam for dominance of the Near East, Asia Minor, Caucasus, North Africa and east Mediterranean, though not until the reforms of Tiglath-Pileser III in the 8th century BC did it become a vast empire. Assyria was originally an Akkadian kingdom which evolved in the 25th to 24th Centuries BC. The earliest Assyrian kings such as Tudiya were relatively minor rulers, and after the founding of the Akkadian Empire, which lasted from 2334 BC to 2154 BC, these kings became subject to Sargon of Akkad, who united all the Akkadian and Sumerian speaking peoples of Mesopotamia under one rule.
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Niger river
The Niger River ( /ˈnaɪdʒər/ NY-jər) is the principal river of western Africa, extending about 4,180 km (2,600 mi). Its drainage basin is 2,117,700 km2 (817,600 sq mi) in area. Its source is in the Guinea Highlands in southeastern Guinea. It runs in a crescent through Mali, Niger, on the border with Benin and then through Nigeria, discharging through a massive delta, known as the Niger Delta or the Oil Rivers, into the Gulf of Guinea in the Atlantic Ocean. The Niger is the third-longest river in Africa, exceeded only by the Nile and the Congo River (also known as the Zaïre River). Its main tributary is the Benue River.
The Niger is called Jeliba or Joliba "great river" in Manding; Orimiri or Orimili "great water" in Igbo; Egerew n-Igerewen "river of rivers" in Tuareg; Isa Ber "big river" in Songhay; Kwara in Hausa; and Oya in Yoruba. The origin of the name Niger, which originally applied only to the middle reaches of the river, is uncertain. The likeliest possibility is an alteration, by influence of Latin niger "black", of the Tuareg name egerew n-igerewen, which is used along the middle reaches of the river around Timbuktu. As Timbuktu was the southern end of the principal Trans-Saharan trade route to the western Mediterranean, it was the source of most European knowledge of the region.
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Oran
Oran (Arabic: وهران, Wahrān) is a major city on the northwestern Mediterranean coast of Algeria, and the second largest city of the country.
It is the capital of the Oran Province (wilaya). The city has a population of 759,645 (2008), while the metropolitan area has a population of approximately 1,500,000, making it the second largest city in Algeria. Oran is a major port, and since the 1960s has been the commercial, industrial, and educational centre of western Algeria.
Oran was founded in 903 by Moorish Andalusi traders but was captured by the Spanish under Cardinal Cisneros in 1509. Spanish sovereignty lasted until 1708, when the city was conquered by the Ottomans. Spain recaptured the city in 1732. However, its value as a trading post had decreased greatly, so King Charles IV sold the city to the Turks in 1792. Ottoman rule lasted until 1831, when it fell to the French.
During French rule over Algeria, Oran was the capital of a département of the same name (number 92). In July 1940, the British navy shelled French warships in the port after they refused a British ultimatum to surrender which was designed to ensure the fleet would not fall into German hands. The action increased the hatred of the Vichy regime for Britain but convinced the world that the British would fight on alone against Nazi Germany and its allies. The Vichy government held Oran during World War II until its capture by the Allies in late 1942, during Operation Torch.
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Parthian Empire
The Parthian (pronounced /ˈpɑrθiən/) Empire (247 BC – 224 AD), also known as the Arsacid (/ˈɑrsəsɪd/) Empire (Modern Persian: اشکانیان Ashkāniān), was a major Iranian political and cultural power in ancient Persia. Its latter name comes from Arsaces I of Parthia who, as leader of the Parni tribe, founded it in the mid-3rd century BC when he conquered the Parthia region in Iran's northeast, then a satrapy (province) in rebellion against the Seleucid Empire. Mithridates I of Parthia (r. c. 171–138 BC) greatly expanded the empire by seizing Media and Mesopotamia from the Seleucids. At its height, the Parthian Empire stretched from the northern reaches of the Euphrates, in what is now south-eastern Turkey, to eastern Iran. The empire, located on the Silk Road trade route between the Roman Empire in the Mediterranean Basin and Han Empire of China, became a center of trade and commerce.
The Parthians largely adopted the art, architecture, religious beliefs, and royal insignia of their culturally heterogeneous empire, which encompassed Persian, Hellenistic, and regional cultures. For about the first half of its existence, the Arsacid court adopted elements of Greek culture, though it eventually saw a gradual revival of Iranian traditions. The Arsacid rulers were titled the "King of Kings", as a claim to be the heirs to the Achaemenid Empire; indeed, they accepted many local kings as vassals where the Achaemenids would have had centrally appointed, albeit largely autonomous, satraps. The court did appoint a small number of satraps, largely outside Iran, but these satrapies were smaller and less powerful than the Achaemenid potentates. With the expansion of Arsacid power, the seat of central government shifted from Nisa, Turkmenistan to Ctesiphon along the Tigris (south of modern Baghdad, Iraq), although several other sites also served as capitals.
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Portugal
Portugali/ˈpɔrtʃʉɡəl/ (Portuguese: Portugal, IPA: [puɾtuˈɣaɫ]), officially the Portuguese Republic (Portuguese: República Portuguesa) is a country situated in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula . Portugal is the westernmost country of mainland Europe, and is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the West and South and by Spain to the North and East. The Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira are part of Portugal. The country is named after its second largest city, Porto, whose Latin name was Portus Cale.
The land within the borders of the current Portuguese Republic has been continuously settled since prehistoric times: occupied by Celts like the Gallaeci and the Lusitanians, integrated into the Roman Republic and later settled by Germanic peoples such as the Suebi, Swabians, Vandals and the Visigoths. In the 8th century most of the Iberian Peninsula was conquered by Moorish invaders professing Islam, which were later expelled by the Knights Templar under the Order of Christ. During the Christian Reconquista, Portugal established itself as an independent kingdom from León in 1139, claiming to be the oldest European nation state.
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Portuguese Empire
The Portuguese Empire (Portuguese: Império Português), also known as the Portuguese Overseas Empire (Ultramar Português) or the Portuguese Colonial Empire (Império Colonial Português), was the first global empire in history. In addition, it was the longest-lived of the modern European colonial empires, spanning almost six centuries, from the capture of Ceuta in 1415 to the handover of Macau in 1999 or the grant of sovereignty to East Timor in 2002. The empire spread throughout a vast number of territories that are now part of 53 different sovereign states.
Portuguese sailors began exploring the coast of Africa in 1419, using recent developments in navigation, cartography and maritime technology such as the caravel, in order that they might find a sea route to the source of the lucrative spice trade. In 1488, Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and in 1498, Vasco da Gama reached India. In 1500, either by an accidental landfall or by the crown's secret design, Pedro Álvares Cabral discovered Brazil on the South American coast. Over the following decades, Portuguese sailors continued to explore the coasts and islands of East Asia, establishing forts and factories as they went. By 1571, a string of outposts connected Lisbon to Nagasaki along the coasts of Africa, the Middle East, India, and Asia. This commercial network brought great wealth to Portugal.
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Qing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was the last imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China.
The dynasty was founded by the Jurchen Aisin Gioro clan in contemporary Northeastern China. The Aisin Gioro leader, Nurhachi, who was originally a vassal of the Ming emperors, began unifying the Jurchen clans in the late sixteenth century. By 1635, Nurhachi's son Hong Taiji could claim they constituted a single and united Manchu people and began forcing the Ming out of Liaoning in southern Manchuria. In 1644, the Ming capital Beijing was sacked by a peasant revolt led by Li Zicheng, a former minor Ming official who became the leader of the peasant revolt, who then proclaimed the Shun dynasty. The last Ming ruler, the Chongzhen Emperor, committed suicide when the city fell. When Li Zicheng moved against Ming general Wu Sangui, the latter made an alliance with the Manchus and opened the Shanhai Pass to the Manchurian army. Under Prince Dorgon, they seized control of Beijing and overthrew Li Zicheng's short-lived Shun Dynasty. Complete pacification of China was accomplished around 1683 under the Kangxi Emperor.
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Sahara
The Sahara (Arabic: الصحراء الكبرى, Aṣ-Ṣaḥrā´ al-Kubrā, "The Great Desert") is the world's largest hot desert and second largest desert, after Antarctica. At over 9,400,000 square kilometres (3,600,000 sq mi), it covers most of Northern Africa, making it almost as large as China or the United States. The Sahara stretches from the Red Sea, including parts of the Mediterranean coasts, to the outskirts of the Atlantic Ocean. To the south, it is delimited by the Sahel, a belt of semi-arid tropical savanna that composes the northern region of central and western Sub-Saharan Africa.
Some of the sand dunes can reach 180 metres (590 ft) in height. The name comes from the Arabic word for desert: (صَحراء ṣaḥrāʾ [sˤɑħrɑːʔ] (
listen)).
The Sahara's boundaries are the Atlantic Ocean on the west, the Atlas Mountains and the Mediterranean Sea on the north, the Red Sea on the east, and the Sudan (region) and the valley of the Niger River on the south. The Sahara is divided into western Sahara, the central Ahaggar Mountains, the Tibesti Mountains, the Air Mountains (a region of desert mountains and high plateaus), Ténéré desert and the Libyan desert (the most arid region). The highest peak in the Sahara is Emi Koussi (3,415 m/11,204 ft) in the Tibesti Mountains in northern Chad.
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Sahara desert
The Sahara (Arabic: الصحراء الكبرى, Aṣ-Ṣaḥrā´ al-Kubrā, "The Great Desert") is the world's largest hot desert and second largest desert, after Antarctica. At over 9,400,000 square kilometres (3,600,000 sq mi), it covers most of Northern Africa, making it almost as large as China or the United States. The Sahara stretches from the Red Sea, including parts of the Mediterranean coasts, to the outskirts of the Atlantic Ocean. To the south, it is delimited by the Sahel, a belt of semi-arid tropical savanna that composes the northern region of central and western Sub-Saharan Africa.
Some of the sand dunes can reach 180 metres (590 ft) in height. The name comes from the Arabic word for desert: (صَحراء ṣaḥrāʾ [sˤɑħrɑːʔ] ( listen)).
The Sahara's boundaries are the Atlantic Ocean on the west, the Atlas Mountains and the Mediterranean Sea on the north, the Red Sea on the east, and the Sudan (region) and the valley of the Niger River on the south. The Sahara is divided into western Sahara, the central Ahaggar Mountains, the Tibesti Mountains, the Air Mountains (a region of desert mountains and high plateaus), Ténéré desert and the Libyan desert (the most arid region). The highest peak in the Sahara is Emi Koussi (3,415 m/11,204 ft) in the Tibesti Mountains in northern Chad.
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Second French Empire
The Second French Empire (French: Le Second Empire Français) was the Imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1870, between the Second Republic and the Third Republic, in France.
Although the machinery of government was almost the same under the Second Empire as it had been under the First, its founding principles were different. The function of the Empire, as Emperor Napoleon III often repeated, was to guide the people internally towards justice and externally towards perpetual peace. Holding his power by universal male suffrage, and having frequently, from his prison or in exile, reproached previous oligarchical governments with neglecting social questions, he set out to solve them by organising a system of government based on the principles of the "Napoleonic Idea", i.e. of the emperor, the elect of the people as the representative of the democracy, and as such supreme; and of himself, the representative of the great Napoleon I of France, "who had sprung armed from the French Revolution like Minerva from the head of Jove", as the guardian of the social gains of the revolutionary period.
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Senegal river
The Sénégal River (French: Fleuve Sénégal) is a 1,790 km (1,110 mi) long river in West Africa that forms the border between Senegal and Mauritania.
The Sénégal's headwaters are the Semefé (Bakoye) and Bafing rivers which both originate in Guinea; they form a small part of the Guinean-Malian border before coming together at Bafoulabé in Mali. From there, the Senegal river flows west and then north through Talari Gorges near Galougo and over the Gouina Falls, then flows more gently past Kayes, where it receives the Kolimbiné. After flowing together with the Karakoro, it prolongs the former's course along the Mali-Mauritanian border for some tens of kilometers till Bakel where it flows together with the Falémé River, which also has its source in Guinea, subsequently runs along a small part of the Guinea-Mali frontier to then trace most of the Senegal-Mali border up to Bakel. The Senegal further flows through semi-arid land in the north of Senegal, forming the border with Mauritania and into the Atlantic. In Kaedi it accepts the Gorgol from Mauritania. Flowing through Bogué it reaches Richard Toll where it is joined by the Ferlo coming from inland Senegal's Lac de Guiers. It passes through Rosso and, approaching its mouth, around the Senegalese island on which the city of Saint-Louis is located, to then turn south. It is separated from the Atlantic Ocean by a thin strip of sand called the Langue de Barbarie before it pours into the ocean itself.
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Seville
Seville ( /səˈvɪl/; Spanish: Sevilla, IPA: [seˈβiʎa], locally: [seˈβiʝa]; see also different names) is the capital of the autonomous community of Andalusia and of the province of Seville, Spain. It is situated on the plain of the River Guadalquivir, with an average elevation of 7 metres (23 ft) above sea level. The inhabitants of the city are known as sevillanos (feminine form: sevillanas) or hispalenses, following the Roman name of the city, Hispalis.
Seville is the fourth largest city of Spain with a municipal population of about 703 thousand as of 2011, and a metropolitan population (including satellite towns) of about 1.5 million, making it the 31st most populous municipality in the European Union. Its old town is the largest in Spain (covering almost four square kilometers), and is one of the three largest in Europe along with Venice and Genoa. The Seville harbor, located about 80 km from the Atlantic Ocean, is the only river port in Spain.
The University of Seville was founded in 1505. Recently ranked the third university in Spain (and 190th in the world), it currently has over 50,000 students.[citation needed]
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Sijilmasa
Sijilmasa (also Sijilmassa, Sidjilmasa, Sidjilmassa and Sigilmassa) was a medieval Berber city and trade entrepôt at the northern edge of the Sahara Desert in Morocco. The ruins of the town lie along the River Ziz in the Tafilalt oasis near the town of Rissani. The town's history was marked by several successive invasions by Berber dynasties during the Golden Age of Berber Islam. Up until the 14th century, it was, as the northern terminus for the western trans-Sahara trade route, one of the most important trade centres in the Maghreb during the "Golden Age" of the Berber dynasties.
According to al-Bakri's Book of Routes and Places, a Miknasa Berber from Spain by the name of Abu 'l-Qasim Samgu bin Wasul al-Miknasi founded the town in or around the middle of the 8th century. The story al-Bakri relates says that others, probably Berbers, joined him in residence there, until they numbered around forty, at which point they laid the groundwork for the city. They elected a leader, ‘Isa bin Mazid the Black, to handle their affairs during the earliest first few years after the town’s establishment. However, he did not last long as a leader, and was blamed by his companions of corruption. He was summarily executed, and Abu al-Qasim became the leader of the town. According to Ibn Hawqal's account in Kitab Surat al-Ard, the city quickly grew in economic power due to shifting trade routes; previously, trade came into this area from Egypt, but harsh conditions made that route to sub-Saharan Africa and Morocco proper extremely difficult.
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Sijilmassa
Sijilmasa (also Sijilmassa, Sidjilmasa, Sidjilmassa and Sigilmassa) was a medieval Berber city and trade entrepôt at the northern edge of the Sahara Desert in Morocco. The ruins of the town lie along the River Ziz in the Tafilalt oasis near the town of Rissani. The town's history was marked by several successive invasions by Berber dynasties during the Golden Age of Berber Islam. Up until the 14th century, it was, as the northern terminus for the western trans-Sahara trade route, one of the most important trade centres in the Maghreb during the "Golden Age" of the Berber dynasties.
According to al-Bakri's Book of Routes and Places, a Miknasa Berber from Spain by the name of Abu 'l-Qasim Samgu bin Wasul al-Miknasi founded the town in or around the middle of the 8th century. The story al-Bakri relates says that others, probably Berbers, joined him in residence there, until they numbered around forty, at which point they laid the groundwork for the city. They elected a leader, ‘Isa bin Mazid the Black, to handle their affairs during the earliest first few years after the town’s establishment. However, he did not last long as a leader, and was blamed by his companions of corruption. He was summarily executed, and Abu al-Qasim became the leader of the town. According to Ibn Hawqal's account in Kitab Surat al-Ard, the city quickly grew in economic power due to shifting trade routes; previously, trade came into this area from Egypt, but harsh conditions made that route to sub-Saharan Africa and Morocco proper extremely difficult.
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Spain
Spain (i/ˈspeɪn/ SPAYN; Spanish: España, pronounced: [esˈpaɲa] ( listen)), officially the Kingdom of Spain (Spanish: Reino de España), is a sovereign state and a member of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Its mainland is bordered to the south and east by the Mediterranean Sea except for a small land boundary with the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar; to the north and north east by France, Andorra, and the Bay of Biscay; and to the northwest and west by the Atlantic Ocean and Portugal.
Spanish territory also includes the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean, the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean off the African coast, and two autonomous cities in North Africa, Ceuta and Melilla, that border Morocco. Furthermore, the town of Llívia is a Spanish exclave situated inside French territory. With an area of 504,030 square kilometres (194,610 sq mi), it is the second largest country in Western Europe and the European Union after France, and the fourth largest country in Europe after Russia, Ukraine and France.
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Spanish Empire
The Spanish Empire (Spanish: Imperio Español) comprised territories and colonies administered by Spain in Europe, the Americas, Africa, Asia and Oceania. It originated during the Age of Exploration and was one of the first global empires. At the time of Habsburgs, Spain reached the peak of its political and economic power when it became the foremost global power. Its establishment in the 15th century ushered in the modern global era and five centuries of European dominance of global affairs. Spain's territorial reach beyond Europe spanned six centuries, from the first voyages to the Americas in 1492 until the independence of its last African colonies in the 1970s.
After the War of the Castilian Succession (1475–1479), Spain had emerged with a personally unified monarchy, with the marriage of the Catholic Monarchs or los Reyes Catolicos between the Queen of Castile and the King of Aragon: the internal and foreign policy was coordinated although the rule was separate. In 1492, the Spanish monarchs completed the Reconquista with the incorporation of Granada to the Kingdom of Castile. That same year Christopher Columbus commanded the first Spanish exploratory voyage west across the Atlantic Ocean, leading to the Discovery of America and Europe's eventual colonial engagement in the New World. The Americas thereby became the focus of Spanish exploration and colonization.
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Tagus
The Tagus (Spanish: Tajo [ˈtaxo]; Portuguese: Tejo [ˈtɛʒu]; Latin: Tagus; Ancient Greek: Τάγος Tagos) is the longest river on the Iberian Peninsula. It is 1,038 km (645 mi) long, 716 km (445 mi) in Spain, 47 km (29 mi) along the border between Portugal and Spain and 275 km (171 mi) in Portugal, where it empties into the Atlantic Ocean near Lisbon. It drains an area of 80,100 square kilometers (30,927 sq mi) (the second largest in the Iberian peninsula after the Douro). The Tagus is highly utilized for most of its course. Several dams and diversions supply drinking water to most of central Spain, including Madrid, and Portugal, while dozens of hydroelectric stations create power. Between dams it follows a very constricted course, but after Almourol it enters a vast alluvial valley prone to flooding. At its mouth is a large estuary on which the port city of Lisbon is situated.
The source of the Tagus is the Fuente de García, in the Montes Universales, Sistema Ibérico, Sierra de Albarracín Comarca. All its major tributaries enter the Tagus from the right (north) bank. The main cities it passes through are Aranjuez, Toledo, Talavera de la Reina and Alcántara in Spain, and Abrantes, Santarém, Almada and Lisbon in Portugal.
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Teotihuacan
Coordinates: 19°41′33″N 98°50′37.68″W / 19.6925°N 98.8438°W / 19.6925; -98.8438
Teotihuacan – also written Teotihuacán, with a Spanish orthographic accent on the last syllable – is an enormous archaeological site in the Basin of Mexico, just 30 miles (48 km) northeast of Mexico City, containing some of the largest pyramidal structures built in the pre-Columbian Americas. Apart from the pyramidal structures, Teotihuacan is also known for its large residential complexes, the Avenue of the Dead, and numerous colorful, well-preserved murals. Additionally, Teotihuacan produced a thin orange pottery style that spread through Mesoamerica.
The city is thought to have been established around 100 BC and continued to be built until about 250 AD. The city may have lasted until sometime between the 7th and 8th centuries AD. At its zenith, perhaps in the first half of the 1st millennium AD, Teotihuacan was the largest city in the pre-Columbian Americas, with a population of perhaps 125,000 or more, placing it among the largest cities of the world in this period. Teotihuacan began as a new religious center in the Mexican Highland around the first century AD. This city came to be the largest and most populated center in the New World. Teotihuacan was even home to multi-floor apartment compounds built to accommodate this large population. The civilization and cultural complex associated with the site is also referred to as Teotihuacan or Teotihuacano.
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Tiznit
Tiznit or Tiznet (Arabic: تزنيت, Amazigh: ⵜⵉⵣⵏⵉⵜ) is a town in the southern Moroccan economic region of Sous-Massa-Draa (#13), founded in 1881 by the sultan Hassan I. It has a population of approximately 50,000. Tiznit is well known for its silver jewelry, daggers and sabres.
Located near the coast, Sultan Moulay Hassan settled in the area in 1881 to exert his control over dissident Berber tribes of the Souss. In 1912, Ahmed al-Hiba (El Hib), a populist rebel overthrew the French government and proclaimed himself sultan of Tiznit in the town's mosque. He conquered the Sous by uniting the tribes of the Anti Atlas Mountains and the Tuareg. He went on to attack Marrakech but was suppressed by the French.
Coordinates: 29°43′N 9°43′W / 29.717°N 9.717°W / 29.717; -9.717
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Tlemcen
Coordinates: 34°52′58″N 1°19′00″W / 34.8827758°N 1.3166696°W / 34.8827758; -1.3166696
Tlemcen (Arabic: تلمسان) is a town in Northwestern Algeria, and the capital of the province of the same name. It is located inland in the center of a region known for its olive plantations and vineyards. The city has developed leather, carpet, and textile industries, which it ships to the port of Rashgun for export.
Its population is about 140,000, while the province had 949,135 inhabitants in the 2008 census, and should reach about 1,200,000 by 2011.
The word Tlemcen (Arabic: تلمسان) comes from Berber Tala Imsan (
in Tifinagh) which means "the dry spring". The name is sometimes spelled Tlemsen, Tlemsan, or Tilimsen.
Its centuries of rich history and culture have made the city a center of a unique blend of music and art. Its textiles and handcrafts, its elegant blend of Islamic, Berber, Andalucian and French cultures, and its cool climate in the mountains have made it an important center of tourism in Algeria. It is home to a beautiful tomb - that of Sidi Boumédiène, whose tomb adjoins to a mosque. The Great Mosque at Tlemcen was completed in 1136 and is said to be the most remarkable remaining example of Almoravid architecture.
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Tortosa
Tortosa (Catalan pronunciation: [turˈtozə], locally: [toɾˈtoza]. Latin: Dertusa or Dertosa, Arabic: طرطوشة Ṭurṭūšah) is the capital of the comarca of Baix Ebre, in the province of Tarragona, in Catalonia, Spain.
Tortosa is located at 12 metres above sea level, by the Ebre river, protected on its northern side by the mountains of the Cardó Massif, of which Buinaca, one of the highest peaks, is located within Tortosa's municipal term.
Before Tortosa, across the river, rise the massive Ports de Tortosa-Beseit mountains. The area around Mont Caro and other high summits are ofen covered with snow in the winter.
Tortosa is probably identical to the ancient Hibera, capital of Ilercavonia. This may be the ancient settlement the remains of which have been found on the hill named Castillo de la Zuda. In Roman times, the town adopted the name Dertosa. After more than 400 hundred years of Muslim rule, the city was conquered by the Count Ramon Berenguer IV of Barcelona in 1148, as part of the Second Crusade. Because of the crusading appeal made by Pope Eugene III and his representative Nicholas Brakespear (the future Pope Hadrian IV), the siege received the aid of crusaders from multiple nationalities (Genovese, Anglo-Normans, Normans, Southern-French, Germans, Flemish and Dutch), who were on their way to the Holy Land. The siege of Tortosa was narrated by the Genovese chronicler and diplomat Caffaro.
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Tunisia
Tunisia (USi/tuːˈniːʒə/ two-NEE-zhə or UK /tjuːˈnɪziə/ tew-NIZ-iə; Arabic: تونس Tūnis pronounced [ˈtuːnɪs]), officially the Republic of Tunisia (Arabic: الجمهورية التونسية al-Jumhūriyyah at-Tūnisiyyah), is the northernmost country in Africa. It is an Arab Maghreb country and is bordered by Algeria to the west, Libya to the southeast, and the Mediterranean Sea to the north and east. Its area is almost 165,000 square kilometres (64,000 sq mi), with an estimated population of just under 10.7 million. Its name is derived from the capital Tunis located in the northeast.
Tunisia is the smallest country in North Africa. The south of the country is composed of the Sahara desert, with much of the remainder consisting of particularly fertile soil and 1,300 kilometres (810 mi) of coastline.
Tunisia has relations with both the European Union—with whom it has an association agreement—and the Arab world. Tunisia is also a member of the Arab Maghreb Union, the Arab League, and the African Union. Tunisia has established close relations with France in particular, through economic cooperation, industrial modernization, and privatisation programs.
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Valencia, Spain
Valencia (Spanish: [baˈlenθja]) or València (Valencian: [vaˈlensia]) is the capital of the autonomous community of Valencia and the third largest city in Spain after Madrid and Barcelona, with around 809,000 inhabitants in the administrative centre. It is the 15th most populous municipality in the European Union. Valencia is also Spain's third largest metropolitan area, with a population ranging from 1.7 to 2.3 million. The Port of Valencia is the 5th busiest container port in Europe and the largest on the Mediterranean Sea, with a trade volume of 4.21 million TEU's.
Valencia was founded as a Roman colony in 138 BC. The city is situated on the banks of the Turia, on the east coast of the Iberian Peninsula, fronting the Gulf of Valencia on the Mediterranean Sea. Its historic centre is one of the largest in Spain, with approximately 169 acres; this heritage of ancient monuments, views and cultural attractions makes Valencia one of the country's most popular tourist destinations. Major monuments include Valencia Cathedral, the Torres de Serranos, the Torres de Quart, the Llotja de la Seda (declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1996), and the Ciutat de les Arts i les Ciències (City of Arts and Sciences), an entertainment-based cultural and architectural complex designed by Santiago Calatrava and Félix Candela. The Museu de Belles Arts de València houses a large collection of paintings from the 14th to the 18th centuries, including works by Velázquez, El Greco, and Goya, as well as an important series of engravings by Piranesi. The Institut Valencià d'Art Modern (Valencian Institute of Modern Art) houses both permanent collections and temporary exhibitions of contemporary art and photography.
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Warsangali Sultanate
The Warsangali Sultanate (Somali: Saldanadda Warsangeli, Arabic: سلطنة الورسنجلي) was a Somali imperial ruling house centered in northeastern and in some parts of southeastern Somalia. It was one of the largest sultanates ever established in the territory, and, at the height of its power, included the Sanaag region and parts of the northeastern Bari region of the country, an area historically known as Maakhir or the Maakhir Coast. The Sultanate was founded in the late 13th century in northern Somalia by a group of Somalis from the Warsangali branch of the Darod clan, and was ruled by the descendants of the Gerad Dhidhin. In the late 19th century, the influential Sultan Mohamoud Ali Shire governed the Sultanate, assuming control during some of its most turbulent years. The Akil Dhahar ruled south of Sanaag and some portions of the Bari region. In 1884, the United Kingdom established the protectorate of British Somaliland through various treaties with the northern Somali sultanates, including the Warsangali Sultanate.
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Western Sahara
Coordinates: 25°N 13°W / 25°N 13°W / 25; -13
Western Sahara (USi/ˌwɛstərn səˈhærə/, UK /ˌwɛstən səˈhɑrə/; Arabic: الصحراء الغربية Aṣ-Ṣaḥrā’ al-Gharbīyah; Spanish: Sahara Occidental), is a disputed territory in North Africa, bordered by Morocco to the north, Algeria to the northeast, Mauritania to the east and south, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. Its surface area amounts to 266,000 square kilometres (103,000 sq mi). It is one of the most sparsely populated territories in the world, mainly consisting of desert flatlands. The population is estimated at just over 500,000, many of whom live in El Aaiún (also called Laâyoune), the largest city in Western Sahara.
A colony of Spain since the late 19th century, the Western Sahara has been on the United Nations list of non-self-governing territories since 1963. In 1965, the UN General Assembly adopted its first resolution on Western Sahara, asking Spain to decolonise the territory. One year later, a new resolution was passed by the General Assembly requesting that a referendum be held by Spain on self-determination. In 1975, Spain relinquished the administrative control of the territory to a joint administration by Morocco, which had formally claimed the territory since 1957, and Mauritania. A war erupted between those countries and the Sahrawi national liberation movement Polisario Front, which proclaimed the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR) (exiled government in Tindouf, Algeria). Mauritania withdrew in 1979 and Morocco eventually secured effective control of most of the territory, including all the major cities and natural resources.
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Yuan Dynasty
The Yuan Dynasty (Chinese: 元朝, p Yuán Cháo; Mongolian: Их Юань улс) was the branch of Mongol Borjigin dynasty established by Kublai Khan. Although the Mongols had ruled northern China for decades, it was not until 1271 that Kublai Khan officially proclaimed the dynasty in the traditional Chinese style. His realm – the Great Yuan Empire (t 大元帝國, s 大元帝国, p Dà Yuán Dìguó) – was by this point isolated from the other khanates and controlled only most of present-day China and its surrounding areas including modern Mongolia. It was the first non-Han dynasty to rule all of China and lasted until 1368, after which its remnants in Mongolia were known as the Northern Yuan.
The Yuan is considered both a successor to the Mongol Empire and as an imperial Chinese dynasty. In official Chinese histories, the Yuan Dynasty bore the Mandate of Heaven, following the Song Dynasty and preceding the Ming Dynasty. Although the dynasty was established by Kublai Khan, he placed his grandfather Genghis Khan on the imperial records as the official founder of the dynasty as Taizu.
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Zaragoza
Zaragoza (Spanish pronunciation: [θaɾaˈɣoθa]), also called Saragossa in English, is the capital city of the Zaragoza province and of the autonomous community of Aragon, Spain. It is situated on the Ebro river and its tributaries, the Huerva and the Gállego, near the centre of the region, in a valley with a variety of landscapes, ranging from desert (Los Monegros) to thick forest, meadows and mountains.
On 1 September 2010 the population of the city of Zaragoza was 701,090, within its administrative limits on a land area of 1,062.64 km2 (410.29 sq mi), ranking fifth in Spain. It is the 35th most populous municipality in the European Union. The population of the metropolitan area was estimated in 2006 at 783,763 inhabitants. The municipality is home to more than 50 percent of the Aragonese population. The city lies at an elevation of 199 metres.
Zaragoza hosted Expo 2008 in the summer of 2008, a world's fair on water and sustainable development. It was also candidate for the European Capital of Culture in 2016.
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Abu Imran al-Fasi
Abu Imran Yaqub al-Fasi (974-1039) was a Moroccan, Maliki writer born near Fes to a Zenata family.
He is regarded a saint by later Sufi mystics. He played an important role in the history of the Almoravid dynasty. It was his teaching in Qayrawan (Tunisia) that first stirred the Sanhaja. He wrote a commentary on the Mudawana of Sahnun. Sidi Kadi Abul Fadl Iyyad (d. 544/1129), author of the Kitab Shifa bitarif huquq al-Mustapha (The Antidote in knowing the rights of the Chosen Prophet), hagiographied Abu Imran al-Fasi in his Tadrib a-Madarik (Exercising Perception), an encyclopaedia of Maliki scholars.
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Afonso I of Portugal
Afonso I (c. 1109, Guimarães or Viseu – 6 December 1185, Coimbra), more commonly known as Afonso Henriques (Portuguese pronunciation: [ɐˈfõsu ẽˈʁikɨʃ]), nicknamed "the Conqueror" (Portuguese: o Conquistador), "the Founder" (o Fundador) or "the Great" (o Grande) by the Portuguese, and El-Bortukali ("the Portuguese") and Ibn-Arrik ("son of Henry", "Henriques") by the Moors whom he fought, was the first King of Portugal. He achieved the independence of the southern part of the Kingdom of Galicia, the County of Portugal, from Galicia's overlord, the King of León, in 1139, establishing a new kingdom and doubling its area with the Reconquista, an objective that he pursued until his death, in 1185, after forty-six years of wars against the Moors.
Afonso I was the son of Henry of Burgundy and Theresa of León, the natural daughter of King Alfonso VI of León. The pair reigned jointly as Count and Countess of Portugal until Henry's death, after which Theresa reigned alone.
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Al-Bakri
Abū ʿUbayd ʿAbd Allāh ibn ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz al-Bakrī, or simply Al-Bakri (Arabic: أبو عبيد عبدالله بن عبد العزيز البكري) (c. 1014–1094) was an Andalusian-Arab geographer and historian.
Al-Bakri was born in Huelva, the son of the sovereign of the short lived principality of Huelva. When his father was deposed by al-Mu'tadid he moved to Córdoba where he studied with the geographer al-Udri and the historian Ibn Hayyan. He spent his entire life in Al-Andalus, most of it in Seville and Almeria. He never travelled to the locations of which he wrote.
Al-Bakri wrote about Europe, North Africa, and the Arabian peninsula. Only two of his works have survived. His Mu'jam mā ista'jam contains a list of place names mostly within the Arabian peninsular with an introduction giving the geographical background. His most important work is his Kitāb al-Masālik wa-al-Mamālik ("Book of Highways and of Kingdoms"). This was composed in 1068, based on literature and the reports of merchants and travellers, including Muhammad ibn Yusuf al-Warraq (904-973) and Abraham ben Jacob. It is one of most important sources for the history of West Africa and gives crucial information on the Ghana Empire, the Almoravid dynasty and the trans Saharan trade. Although the material borrowed from Yusuf al-Warraq dated from the 10th century, he also included information on events that occurred close to the time that he wrote.
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Alfonso VI of León
Alfonso VI (before June, 1040 – June 29/July 1, 1109), nicknamed the Brave (El Bravo) or the Valiant, was King of León from 1065, King of Castile and de facto King of Galicia from 1072. After the conquest of Toledo he also self-proclaimed victoriosissimo rege in Toleto, et in Hispania et Gallecia. Much romance has gathered around his name.
As the middle of three sons of King Ferdinand I of León and Sancha of León, Alfonso was allotted León when the kingdom was divided following his father's death, while Castile was given to his elder brother Sancho, Galicia to younger brother García, and sisters Urraca and Elvira given the cities of Zamora and Toro respectively. Each of the brothers was also assigned a sphere of influence among the Taifa states. Alfonso appears to have taken the first step in violating this division, in 1068 invading the Galician client Taifa of Badajoz and extorting tribute. In response, Sancho attacked and defeated Alfonso at Llantada but three years later in 1071 they joined forces against García. Sancho over-marched Alfonso's León to conquer García's northern lands, while Alfonso himself is found issuing charters in the southern part of the Galician realm. García fled to taifa Seville, and the remaining brothers then turned on each other. This conflict culminated in the Battle of Golpejera in early January, 1072. Sancho proved victorious and Alfonso himself was forced to flee to his client Taifa of Toledo. Later that year as Sancho was mopping up the last of the resistance, besieging his sister Urraca at Zamora in October, he was assassinated, opening the way for Alfonso to return to claim Sancho's crown. García, induced to return from exile, was imprisoned by Alfonso for life, leaving Alfonso in uncontested control of the reunited territories of their father. In recognition of this and his role as the preeminent Christian monarch on the peninsula, in 1077 Alfonso proclaimed himself "Emperor of all Spain".
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Ali ibn Yusuf
Ali ibn Yusuf (Arabic: علي بن يوسف) (died 26 January 1143) was the 5th Almoravid king he reigned 1106–1143.
Ali was recognized as the heir of his father Yusuf ibn Tashfin in 1102. He succeeded his father upon his death in 1106. Ali ruled from Morocco and appointed his brother Tamin ibn Yusuf as governor of Al-Andalus. Ali expanded his territories in the Iberian Peninsula by capturing Zaragoza in 1110, but eventually lost it again to Alfonso I, King of Aragon, in 1118. Cordoba rebelled against the Almoravids in 1121. Ali was succeeded by his son Tashfin ibn Ali in 1143.
Ali was the son of Yusuf ibn Tashfin. He had at least two sons:
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Almohad
The Almohad Dynasty (Berber: Imweḥḥden, from Arabic الموحدون al-Muwaḥḥidun, "the monotheists" or "the Unitarians"), was a MoroccanBerber-Muslim dynasty founded in the 12th century that established a Berber state in Tinmel in the Atlas Mountains in roughly 1120.
The movement was started by Ibn Tumart in the Masmuda tribe, followed by Abd al-Mu'min al-Gumi between 1130 and his death in 1163, the Almohads defeated the ruling Almoravids, extending their power over all of the Maghreb. Al-Andalus, Moorish Iberia (modern Portugal and southern Spain) under the Almoravid dynasty, followed the fate of Africa.
The Almohad dominance of Iberia continued until 1212, when Muhammad III, "al-Nasir" (1199–1214) was defeated at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in the Sierra Morena by an alliance of the Christian princes of Castile, Aragon, Navarre, and Portugal. Nearly all of the Moorish dominions in Iberia were lost soon after, with the great Moorish cities of Córdoba and Seville falling to the Christians in 1236 and 1248 respectively.
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Almohad Caliphate
The Almohad Dynasty (Berber: Imweḥḥden, from Arabic الموحدون al-Muwaḥḥidun, "the monotheists" or "the Unitarians"), was a MoroccanBerber-Muslim dynasty founded in the 12th century that established a Berber state in Tinmel in the Atlas Mountains in roughly 1120.
The movement was started by Ibn Tumart in the Masmuda tribe, followed by Abd al-Mu'min al-Gumi between 1130 and his death in 1163, the Almohads defeated the ruling Almoravids, extending their power over all of the Maghreb. Al-Andalus, Moorish Iberia (modern Portugal and southern Spain) under the Almoravid dynasty, followed the fate of Africa.
The Almohad dominance of Iberia continued until 1212, when Muhammad III, "al-Nasir" (1199–1214) was defeated at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in the Sierra Morena by an alliance of the Christian princes of Castile, Aragon, Navarre, and Portugal. Nearly all of the Moorish dominions in Iberia were lost soon after, with the great Moorish cities of Córdoba and Seville falling to the Christians in 1236 and 1248 respectively.
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Almohad Dynasty
The Almohad Dynasty (Berber: Imweḥḥden, from Arabic الموحدون al-Muwaḥḥidun, "the monotheists" or "the Unitarians"), was a MoroccanBerber-Muslim dynasty founded in the 12th century that established a Berber state in Tinmel in the Atlas Mountains in roughly 1120.
The movement was started by Ibn Tumart in the Masmuda tribe, followed by Abd al-Mu'min al-Gumi between 1130 and his death in 1163, the Almohads defeated the ruling Almoravids, extending their power over all of the Maghreb. Al-Andalus, Moorish Iberia (modern Portugal and southern Spain) under the Almoravid dynasty, followed the fate of Africa.
The Almohad dominance of Iberia continued until 1212, when Muhammad III, "al-Nasir" (1199–1214) was defeated at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in the Sierra Morena by an alliance of the Christian princes of Castile, Aragon, Navarre, and Portugal. Nearly all of the Moorish dominions in Iberia were lost soon after, with the great Moorish cities of Córdoba and Seville falling to the Christians in 1236 and 1248 respectively.
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Almohad dynasty
The Almohad Dynasty (Berber: Imweḥḥden, from Arabic الموحدون al-Muwaḥḥidun, "the monotheists" or "the Unitarians"), was a MoroccanBerber-Muslim dynasty founded in the 12th century that established a Berber state in Tinmel in the Atlas Mountains in roughly 1120.
The movement was started by Ibn Tumart in the Masmuda tribe, followed by Abd al-Mu'min al-Gumi between 1130 and his death in 1163, the Almohads defeated the ruling Almoravids, extending their power over all of the Maghreb. Al-Andalus, Moorish Iberia (modern Portugal and southern Spain) under the Almoravid dynasty, followed the fate of Africa.
The Almohad dominance of Iberia continued until 1212, when Muhammad III, "al-Nasir" (1199–1214) was defeated at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in the Sierra Morena by an alliance of the Christian princes of Castile, Aragon, Navarre, and Portugal. Nearly all of the Moorish dominions in Iberia were lost soon after, with the great Moorish cities of Córdoba and Seville falling to the Christians in 1236 and 1248 respectively.
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Almohads
The Almohad Dynasty (Berber: Imweḥḥden, from Arabic الموحدون al-Muwaḥḥidun, "the monotheists" or "the Unitarians"), was a MoroccanBerber-Muslim dynasty founded in the 12th century that established a Berber state in Tinmel in the Atlas Mountains in roughly 1120.
The movement was started by Ibn Tumart in the Masmuda tribe, followed by Abd al-Mu'min al-Gumi between 1130 and his death in 1163, the Almohads defeated the ruling Almoravids, extending their power over all of the Maghreb. Al-Andalus, Moorish Iberia (modern Portugal and southern Spain) under the Almoravid dynasty, followed the fate of Africa.
The Almohad dominance of Iberia continued until 1212, when Muhammad III, "al-Nasir" (1199–1214) was defeated at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in the Sierra Morena by an alliance of the Christian princes of Castile, Aragon, Navarre, and Portugal. Nearly all of the Moorish dominions in Iberia were lost soon after, with the great Moorish cities of Córdoba and Seville falling to the Christians in 1236 and 1248 respectively.
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Almoravid dynasty
The Almoravids (Berber: ⵉⵎⵕⴰⴱⴹⴻⵏ Imṛabḍen, Arabic: المرابطون Al-Murābiṭūn) were a Berber dynasty of Morocco, who formed an empire in the 11th-century that stretched over the western Maghreb and Al-Andalus. Their capital was Marrakesh, a city which they founded in 1062 CE. The dynasty originated amongst the Lamtuna and the Gudala, which were nomadic Berber tribes of the Sahara traversing the territory between southern Morocco, the Niger river and the Senegal river.
The Almoravids were crucial in avoiding a precipitated fall of Al-Andalus to the Iberian Christian kingdoms, when they decisively beat a coalition of the Castilian and Aragonese armies at the Battle of Sagrajas. This enabled them to control an empire that stretched 3,000 kilometers north to south. However, the rule of the dynasty was relatively short-lived and the Almoravids fell - at the height of their power - when they failed to quell the Masmuda-led rebellion initiated by Ibn Tumart. As a result, their last king Ishaq ibn Ali was killed in Marrakesh in April 1147 CE by the Almohads who replaced them as a ruling dynasty both in Morocco and Al-Andalus.
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Ayyubid dynasty
The Ayyubid dynasty (Arabic: الأيوبيون) was a Muslim dynasty of Kurdish origin, founded by Saladin and centered in Egypt. The dynasty ruled much of the Middle East during the 12th and 13th centuries CE. The Ayyubid family, under the brothers Ayyub and Shirkuh, originally served as soldiers for the Zengids until they supplanted them under Saladin, Ayyub's son. In 1174, Saladin proclaimed himself Sultan following the death of Nur al-Din. The Ayyubids spent the next decade launching conquests throughout the region and by 1183, the territories under their control included Egypt, Syria, northern Mesopotamia, Hejaz, Yemen, and the North African coast up to the borders of modern-day Tunisia. Most of the Kingdom of Jerusalem and beyond Jordan River fell to Saladin after his victory at the Battle of Hattin in 1187. However, the Crusaders regained control of Palestine's coastline in the 1190s.
After the death of Saladin, his sons contested control over the sultanate, but Saladin's brother al-Adil eventually established himself as Sultan in 1200. In the 1230s, the Ayyubid rulers of Syria attempted to assert their independence from Egypt and remained divided until Egyptian Sultan as-Salih Ayyub restored Ayyubid unity by taking over most of Syria, excluding Aleppo, by 1247. By then, local Muslim dynasties had driven out the Ayyubids from Yemen, the Hejaz, and parts of Mesopotamia. After repelling a Crusader invasion of the Nile Delta, as-Salih Ayyub's Mamluk generals overthrew al-Mu'azzam Turanshah who succeeded Ayyub as Sultan after his death in 1250. This effectively ended Ayyubid power in Egypt and a number of attempts by the rulers of Syria, led by an-Nasir Yusuf of Aleppo, to recover it failed. In 1260, the Mongols sacked Aleppo and wrested control of what remained of the Ayyubid territories soon after. The Mamluks, who forced out the Mongols after the destruction of the Ayyubid dynasty, maintained the Ayyubid principality of Hama until deposing its last ruler in 1341.
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Berber people
Berbers (Berber: ⵉⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⴻⵏ Imazighen / Imaziɣen) are the indigenous ethnic group of North Africa west of the Nile Valley. They are continuously distributed from the Atlantic to the Siwa oasis, in Egypt, and from the Mediterranean to the Niger River. Historically they spoke the Berber language or varieties of it, which together form a branch of the Afro-Asiatic linguistic family. Today, varieties of Maghrebi colloquial Arabic are spoken by a large portion of Berbers besides the Berber language itself. Foreign languages like French are used by the educated in Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria. Spanish is also known by some Berbers in Morocco and in the annexed Western Sahara and Italian in Libya. This presence of European languages was due to Europe's occupation and colonization of the Berber world. Today, most Berber-speaking people live in Morocco and Algeria, smaller Berber-speaking populations are scattered throughout Tunisia, Libya, Mauritania, Mali and Niger, as well as various diasporas living in Europe.
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Carolingian Empire
Carolingian Empire (800–888) is a historiographical term which has been used to refer to the realm of the Franks under the Carolingian dynasty in the Early Middle Ages. This dynasty is seen as the founders of France and Germany, and its beginning date is based on the crowning of Charlemagne, or Charles the Great, and ends with the death of Charles the Fat. Depending on one's perspective, this Empire can be seen as the later history of the Frankish Realm or the early history of France and of the Holy Roman Empire.
The term refers to the coronation of Charlemagne by Pope Leo III in 800. Because Charles and his ancestors had been rulers of the Frankish realm earlier (his grandfather Charles Martel had essentially founded the empire during his lifetime), the coronation did not actually constitute a new empire. Most historians prefer to use the term "Frankish Kingdoms" or "Frankish Realm" to refer to the area covering parts of today's Germany and France from the 5th to the 9th century.
Though Charles Martel chose not to take the title King, as his son Pepin III the Short would, or Emperor, as his grandson Charlemagne would be titled, he was absolute ruler of virtually all of today's continental Western Europe north of the Pyrenees. Only the remaining Saxon realms, which he partly conquered, Lombardy, and the Marca Hispanica north of the Pyrenees were significant additions to the Frankish realms after his death.
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Chagatai Khanate
The Chagatai Khanate (Mongolian: Tsagadai Khan Uls/Цагадайн улс) was a Turko-Mongolkhanate that comprised the lands ruled by Chagatai Khan, second son of Genghis Khan, and his descendents and successors. Initially it was considered a part of the Mongol Empire, but it later became fully independent.
At its height in the late 13th century, the Khanate extended from the Amu Darya south of the Aral Sea to the Altai Mountains in the border of modern-day Mongolia and China.
The khanate lasted in one form or another from 1220s until the late 17th century, although the western half of the khanate was lost to Tamerlane in the 1360s. The eastern half remained under Chagatai khans who were, at times, allied or at war with Timur's successors. Finally, in the 17th century, the remaining Chagatai domains fell under the theocratic regime of Apaq Khoja and his descendants, the Khojijans, who ruled East Turkestan under Dzungar and Manchu overlordships consecutively.
Genghis Khan's empire was inherited by his third son, Ögedei, the designated Great Khan who personally controlled the lands east of Lake Balkash as far as Mongolia. Tolui, the youngest, the keeper of the hearth, was accorded the northern Mongolian homeland. Chagatai, the second son, received Transoxania, between the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers in modern Uzbekistan, and the area around Kashgar. He made his capital at Almalik near what is now Kulja in northwestern China. Apart from problems of lineage and inheritance, the Mongol Empire was endangered by the great cultural and ethnic divide between the Mongols themselves and their mostly Islamic Turkic subjects.
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Great Seljuq Empire
The Great Seljuq Empire (Turkish: Büyük Selçuklu Devleti, Persian: دولت سلجوقیان) was a medieval Persianate,Turko-PersianSunni Muslim empire, originating from the Qynyq branch of Oghuz Turks. The Seljuq Empire controlled a vast area stretching from the Hindu Kush to eastern Anatolia and from Central Asia to the Persian Gulf. From their homelands near the Aral sea, the Seljuqs advanced first into Khorasan and then into mainland Persia before eventually conquering eastern Anatolia.
The Seljuq empire was founded by Tughril Beg in 1037 after the efforts by the founder of the Seljuq dynasty, Seljuq Beg, back in the first quarter of the eleventh century. Seljuq Beg's father was in a higher position in the Oghuz Yabgu State, and gave his name both to the state and the dynasty. The Seljuqs united the fractured political scene of the Eastern Islamic world and played a key role in the first and second crusades. Highly Persianized in culture and language, the Seljuqs also played an important role in the development of the Turko-Persian tradition, even exporting Persian culture to Anatolia. The Seljuqs conquest gave impetus to the progressive Turkicization of parts of Anatolia, Iran and the Caucasus.
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Hassan II of Morocco
HM King Hassan II (Arabic: الحسن الثاني, class. pron. (a)l-ḥasan aṯ-ṯānī, dial. (Mar.) el-ḥasan ett(s)âni); July 9, 1929 – July 23, 1999) was King of Morocco from 1961 until his death in 1999. He was the eldest son of Mohammed V, Sultan, then King of Morocco (1909–1961) and his wife Lalla Abla bint Tahar (1889–1992).
King Hassan was educated at the Imperial College at Rabat and earned a law degree from the University of Bordeaux.
He was exiled to Corsica by French authorities on 20 August 1953, together with his father Sultan Mohammed V. They were transferred to Madagascar in January 1954. Prince Moulay Hassan acted as his father's political advisor during the exile. Mohammed V and his family returned from exile on 16 November 1955.
Prince Moulay Hassan participated in the February 1956 negotiations for Morocco's independence with his father, who later appointed him Chief of Staff of the newly founded Royal Armed Forces in April 1956. In the unrest of the same year, he led army contingents battling rebels in the mountains of the Rif. Mohammed V changed the title of the Moroccan sovereign from Sultan to King in 1957. Hassan was proclaimed Crown Prince on 19 July 1957, and became King on 26 February 1961, after his father's death. U.S. Ambassador Charles W. Yost saw King Mohammed V hours before his death and was among those who suspected that Hassan II had a hand in his father's sudden death.
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History of Germany
The concept of Germany as a distinct region in central Europe can be traced to Roman commander Julius Caesar, who referred to the unconquered area east of the Rhine as Germania, thus distinguishing it from Gaul (France), which he had conquered. The victory of the Germanic tribes in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest (AD 9) prevented annexation by the Roman Empire. Following the fall of the Roman Empire, the Franks conquered the other West Germanic tribes. When the Frankish Empire was divided among Charlemagne's heirs in 843, the eastern part became East Francia. In 962, Otto I became the first emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, the medieval German state.
In the High Middle Ages, the dukes and princes of the empire gained power at the expense of the emperors. Martin Luther led the Protestant Reformation against the Catholic Church after 1517, as the northern states became Protestant, while the southern states remained Catholic. They clashed in the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), which was ruinous to the twenty million civilians. 1648 marked the effective end of the Holy Roman Empire and the beginning of the modern nation-state system, with Germany divided into numerous independent states, such as Prussia, Bavaria and Saxony.
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Hunnic Empire
The Hunnic empire was formed under the reign of Attila, centered in present-day Hungary; its territory included parts of Germany, the Balkans, and Ukraine. It bordered the Eastern Roman Empire to the southeast and the Western Roman Empire to the west and southwest; its other boundaries are uncertain. The empire dissolved after Attila's death in 453 as a result of struggles over succession and leadership, finally disappearing around 469.
The origins of the Huns that swept through Europe during the 4th Century remain unclear; they may have been connected with the Xiongnu and the later Northern Xiongnu, defeated and dispersed by China some three centuries before. However, most mainstream historians consider them as a group of nomadic tribes from Central Asia with mixed origin.[citation needed] There was a Hunnic language, and Gothic seems also to have been used as a lingua franca.
European accounts first mention the Huns in the lands north-west of the Caspian Sea about 370, when they conquered a tribe of Alans to their west. Pushing further westward, the Huns subjugated many Ostrogoths. In 395, a Hun raid across the Caucasus mountains devastated Armenia, then captured Erzurum, besieged Edessa and Antioch, and even reached Tyre.
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Ibn Khaldun
Ibn Khaldūn or Ibn Khaldoun (full name, Arabic: أبو زيد عبد الرحمن بن محمد بن خلدون الحضرمي , Abū Zayd ‘Abdu r-Raḥmān bin Muḥammad bin Khaldūn Al-Ḥaḍrami, May 27, 1332 AD/732 AH – March 19, 1406 AD/808 AH) was a Muslim historiographer and historian who is often viewed as one of the forerunners of modern historiography,sociology and economics.
He is best known for his Muqaddimah (known as Prolegomenon in English), which was discovered, evaluated and fully appreciated first by 19th century European scholarship, although it has also had considerable influence on 17th-century Ottoman historians like Ḥajjī Khalīfa and Mustafa Naima who relied on his theories to analyze the growth and decline of the Ottoman empire. Later in the 19th century, Western scholars recognized him as one of the greatest philosophers to come out of the Muslim world.
Ibn Khaldun's life is relatively well-documented, as he wrote an autobiography (التعريف بابن خلدون ورحلته غربا وشرقا; Al-Taʻrīf bi Ibn-Khaldūn wa Riħlatuhu Gharbān wa Sharqān) in which numerous documents regarding his life are quoted word-for-word. However, the autobiography has little to say about his private life, so little is known about his family background. Generally known as "Ibn Khaldūn" after a remote ancestor, he was born in Tunis in AD 1332 (732 A.H.) into an upper-class Andalusian family, the Banū Khaldūn. His family, which held many high offices in Andalusia, had emigrated to Tunisia after the fall of Seville to Reconquista forces around the middle of the 13th century. Under the Tunisian Hafsid dynasty some of his family held political office; Ibn Khaldūn's father and grandfather however withdrew from political life and joined a mystical order. His brother, Yahya Ibn Khaldun, was also a historian who wrote a book on the Abdalwadid dynasty, and who was assassinated by a rival for being the official historiographer of the court.
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Ifni War
The Ifni War, sometimes called the Forgotten War in Spain (la Guerra Olvidada), was a series of armed incursions into Spanish West Africa by Moroccan insurgents and Sahrawi rebels that began in October 1957 and culminated with the abortive siege of Sidi Ifni.
The war, which may be seen as part of the general movement of decolonization that swept Africa throughout the latter half of the 20th century, was conducted primarily by elements of the Moroccan Army of Liberation which, no longer tied down in conflicts with the French, committed a significant portion of its resources and manpower to the capture of Spanish possessions.
The city of Sidi Ifni was incorporated into the Spanish colonial empire in 1860. The following decades of Franco-Spanish collaboration resulted in the establishment and extension of Spanish protectorates south of the city, and Spanish influence obtained international recognition in the Berlin Conference of 1884. In 1946, the region's various coastal and inland colonies were consolidated as Spanish West Africa.
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Inca Empire
The Inca Empire, or Inka Empire (Quechua: Tawantinsuyu), was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. The administrative, political and military center of the empire was located in Cusco in modern-day Peru. The Inca civilization arose from the highlands of Peru sometime in the early 13th century.
From 1438 to 1533, the Incas used a variety of methods, from conquest to peaceful assimilation, to incorporate a large portion of western South America, centered on the Andean mountain ranges, including, besides Peru, large parts of modern Ecuador, western and south central Bolivia, northwest Argentina, north and central Chile, and southern Colombia into a state comparable to the historical empires of Eurasia.
The official language of the empire was Quechua, although hundreds of local languages and dialects of Quechua were spoken. The Inca referred to their empire as Tawantinsuyu which can be translated as The Four Regions or The Four United Provinces.
There were many local forms of worship, most of them concerning local sacred "Huacas", but the Inca leadership encouraged the worship of Inti—the sun god—and imposed its sovereignty above other cults such as that of Pachamama. The Incas considered their King, the Sapa Inca, to be the "child of the sun."
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Kutama
The Kotama (Ikutamiyene in Berber) are a Berber tribe inhabiting "Babors" of Kabylia, region of north-eastern Algeria and currently ranked among the confederation of the Bavarians. The tribe was known as Ukutamanorum under the Romans, then Ucutamani under the Byzantines.
The tribe had an important role during the medieval period (909 - 1171) in the center of North Africa. They founded, alongside missionaries and imams such as Abu Abd Allah ash-Chi'i and Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi, the Fatimid dynasty, which eventually replaced the Arab emirate of the Aghlabids, who controlled Ifriqiya (North Africa) 800-909, nominally as vassals of the Abbasid Caliphate. The Kotamas were also the source of the first Islamic dynasty of indigenous Berbers in the Maghreb, the Zirids (972-1148), founded by the Kutama general Buluggin ibn Ziri (also: Bologhine ibn Ziri, Bologhin ibn Ziri), son of the Fatimid governor of the Maghreb, Ziri ibn Manad, who had been rewarded with his position after defeating the Kharijite rebellion of Abu Yazid (943-947).
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Marinid dynasty
The Marinid dynasty or Benemerine dynasty (Arabic: مرينيون Marīniyūn or بنو مرين Banū Marīn) was a Zenata Berber dynasty of Morocco. The Marinid dynasty overtook the Almohads controlling Morocco in 1244. They controlled most of the Maghreb from the mid-14th century to the 15th century and supported the Kingdom of Granada in Al-Andalus in the 13th and 14th centuries. The last Marinid fortress in the Iberian Peninsula fell to Castile in 1344.[citation needed] They were replaced in turn by the Wattasids in 1465.
They were the founders of Fes Jdid and built the most important monuments in Fes.
The Marinids were a nomadic Zenata Berber tribe from the area between Tlemcen and Tahert. They advanced through the Moulouya basin east of Morocco. As early as 1145, the Marinids engaged in several battles with the Almohads, the ruling dynasty at the time, who regularly defeated them until 1169. In that year, the Marinids began a dedicated pursuit to take Morocco from the Almohads. Following their expulsion from the south, the Marinids moved northwards under the command of Abu Yahya ibn Abd al-Haqq and took Fes in 1244, making it their capital. This date marks the beginning of the Marinid dynasty.
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Masmuda
The Masmuda were a Berber tribal confederacy of Morocco and one of the largest in the Maghreb, along with the Zanata and the Sanhaja. They were composed of several sub-tribes: The Berghouatas, Ghumaras (Ghomarids), Hintatas (Hafsids), Tinmelel, Hergha, Genfisa, Seksiwa, Gedmiwa, Hezerdja, Urika, Guerouanes, Bni M'tir, Hezmira, Regraga, Haha les Banou Maghus, Gilawa and others.
The Masmuda settled large parts of Morocco, and were largely sedentary and practised agriculture. The residence of the Masmuda aristocracy was Aghmat in the High Atlas. From the 10th century the Berber tribes of the Sanhaja and Zanata groups invaded the lands of the Masmuda, followed from the 12th century onwards by Arab Bedouins (see Banu Hilal).
Ibn Tumart united the Masmuda tribes at the beginning of the 12th century and founded the Almohad movement, which subsequently unified the whole of the Maghreb and Andalusia. After the downfall of the Almohads, however, the particularism of the Masmuda peoples prevailed once more, as a result of which they lost their political significance.
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Medes
The Medes (/midz/) (from Old Persian Māda-) were an ancient Iranian people who lived in Iran in an area known as Media and spoke a northwestern Iranian language referred to as the Median language. Their arrival to the region is associated with the first wave of Iranian tribes in the late second millennium BCE (the Bronze Age collapse) through the beginning of the first millennium BCE.
In the 7th century BCE a unified Median state was formed which together with Babylonia, Lydia, and Egypt became one of the four major powers of the ancient Near East. An alliance with the Babylonians helped the Medes to capture Nineveh in 612 BCE which resulted in the collapse of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. The Medes were subsequently able to establish their Median kingdom (with Ecbatana as their royal centre) beyond their original homeland (central-western Iran) and had eventually a territory stretching roughly from northeastern Iran to the Halys River in Anatolia. The Median kingdom was conquered in 550 BCE by Cyrus the Great who established the next Iranian dynasty—the Achaemenid Empire.
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Morabit
The Almoravids (Berber: ⵉⵎⵕⴰⴱⴹⴻⵏ Imṛabḍen, Arabic: المرابطون Al-Murābiṭūn) were a Berber dynasty of Morocco, who formed an empire in the 11th-century that stretched over the western Maghreb and Al-Andalus. Their capital was Marrakesh, a city which they founded in 1062 CE. The dynasty originated amongst the Lamtuna and the Gudala, which were nomadic Berber tribes of the Sahara traversing the territory between southern Morocco, the Niger river and the Senegal river.
The Almoravids were crucial in avoiding a precipitated fall of Al-Andalus to the Iberian Christian kingdoms, when they decisively beat a coalition of the Castilian and Aragonese armies at the Battle of Sagrajas. This enabled them to control an empire that stretched 3,000 kilometers north to south. However, the rule of the dynasty was relatively short-lived and the Almoravids fell - at the height of their power - when they failed to quell the Masmuda-led rebellion initiated by Ibn Tumart. As a result, their last king Ishaq ibn Ali was killed in Marrakesh in April 1147 CE by the Almohads who replaced them as a ruling dynasty both in Morocco and Al-Andalus.
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Morabito
MORABITO, is a French Luxury Brand.
Founded in 1905, in Nice, by Jean-Baptiste Morabito. Morabito has been specializing in Handmade Leathergoods made by its skillful Artisans, inheriting the traditional methods for over a century. Atelier of Morabito is still in the heart of Paris. The spirit of the founder, who started his carrier as a jewel artisan, is infused in the premium quality material, as each bag is handmade to excellence while retaining a Jewel-like Elegance. The genuine quality and the novel design have continued to captivate Royal families and VIPs world over.
“Luxury is not exceptional, it is the exceptional which is luxurious.” Jean-Baptiste Morabito often repeated. An inventive esthete, he took pleasure in working the most beautiful materials to create objects in his image. Today, Morabito that still proudly bears its founder’s name returns to its original spirit in the Reborn bag line which exudes both chic and elegance.
1880s : 1885, November 28, Jean-Baptiste Morabito was born in Naples. He was only 20 when he opened a jewelry atelier and boutique in Nice in 1905. In his atelier, he fashioned pieces in tortoiseshell, coral and mother-of-pearl, accenting them with gold and silver. His boutique quickly became a favorite with the European aristocracy and international high society who vacationed on the Côte d’Azur. A myth was born.
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Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire or Turkish Empire or Sublime Ottoman State or sometimes also referred to as Turkey (Ottoman Turkish: دَوْلَتِ عَلِيّهٔ عُثمَانِیّه Devlet-i ʿAliyye-yi ʿOsmâniyye (also عثمانلى دولتى Osmanlı Devleti),Modern Turkish: Osmanlı Devleti or Osmanlı İmparatorluğu) was a Turkish empire which lasted from 27 July 1299 to 1 November 1922, when the Sultanate was abolished.
The Ottoman Empire was one of the largest and longest lasting empires in history; such that the Ottoman State, its politics, conflicts, and cultural heritage in a vast geography provide one of the longest continuous narratives. During the 16th and 17th centuries, in particular at the height of its power under the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, the empire was one of the most powerful states in the world – a multinational, multilingual empire that stretched from the southern borders of the Holy Roman Empire to the outskirts of Vienna, Royal Hungary (modern Slovakia) and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in the north to Yemen and Eritrea in the south; from Algeria in the west to Azerbaijan in the east; controlling much of southeast Europe, Western Asia and North Africa. At the beginning of the 17th century the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states, some of which were later absorbed into the empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy during the course of centuries.
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Qadi Ayyad
Qadi Ayyad ibn Musa (1083-1149)(Arabic: القاضي عياض بن موسى, in French transliteration Qadi Iyad) or Abu al-Fadl Ayyad ibn Amr ibn Musa ibn Ayyad ibn Muhammad ibn Abdillah ibn Musa ibn Ayyad al-Yahsubi al-Sabti (أبو الفضل عياض بن موسى بن عياض بن عمرو بن موسى بن عياض بن محمد بن عبد الله بن موسى بن عياض اليحصبي السبتي ) born in Ceuta (Sabtah), then belonging to the Almoravid Empire, was the great imam of that city and, later, a high judge (qadi) in Granada. He was one of the most famous scholars of Maliki law and author of the well-known Al-Shifa bi-tarif huquq al-Mustafa on the virtues of the prophet and Tartib al-mardarik wa-taqrib al-masalik li-marifat alam madhab Malik, a collection of biographies of eminent Malikis, a.o. Abu Bakr ibn al-Arabi.
He headed a revolt against the coming of the Almohades to Ceuta, but lost and was banished to Tadla and later Marrakech. He was a pupil of Abu Abdillah ibn Isa, of Imam Abu Abdillah ibn Hamdin and Abu al-Hassan ibn Siraj and teacher of imam Abu al-Walid Ibn Rushd (Averroes).
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Rashidun Caliphate
The Rashidun Caliphate (Arabic: الخلافة الراشدية al-khilāfat ar-Rāshidīyah), (c. 632-661) comprising the first four caliphs in Islam's history, was founded after Muhammad's death in 632 (Year 10 A.H. in the Islamic calendar). At its height, the Caliphate extended from the Arabian Peninsula, to the Levant, Caucasus and North Africa in the west, to the Iranian highlands and Central Asia in the east. At its greatest extent it was one of the largest empires in history. It is also known as the Patriarchal Caliphate.
After Muhammad's death in 632, the Medinan Ansar debated which of them should succeed him in running the affairs of the Muslims while Muhammad's household was busy with his burial. Umar (a Quraish) and Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah pledged their loyalty to Abu Bakr, with the Ansar and the Quraish soon following suit. Abu Bakr thus became the first Khalifa Rasul Allah (Successor of the Messenger of God), and embarked on campaigns to propagate Islam. First, though, he would have to subdue the Arabian tribes which had gone back on their oaths of allegiance to Islam and the Islamic community. As a Khalifa or Caliph he was not a monarch and never claimed such a title nor did his three successors do so.
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Sand War
The Sand War or Sands War occurred along the Algerian-Moroccan border in October 1963, and was a Moroccan attempt to claim the Tindouf and the Béchar areas that France had annexed to French Algeria a few decades earlier.
Three factors contributed to the outbreak of this conflict: the absence of a precise delineation of the border between Algeria and Morocco, the discovery of important mineral resources in the disputed area, and the Moroccan irredentism fueled by the Greater Morocco ideology of the Istiqlal Party and Allal al-Fassi.
Before French colonization of the region in the nineteenth century, part of south and west Algeria were under Moroccan influence and no border was defined. In the Treaty of Lalla Maghnia (March 18, 1845), which set the border between French Algeria and Morocco, it is stipulated that "a territory without water is uninhabitable and its boundaries are superfluous" the border is delineated over only 165 km. Beyond that there is only one border area, without limit, punctuated by tribal territories attached to Morocco or Algeria. After the colonization of Morocco in 1912, the French administration set borders between the two territories, but these tracks were often misidentified (Varnier line in 1912, Trinquet line in 1938), and varied from one map to another, since for the French administration these were not international borders and the area was virtually uninhabited. The discovery of large deposits of oil and minerals (iron, manganese) in the region led France to define more precisely the territories, and in 1952 the French decided to integrate Tindouf and Colomb-Bechar to the French departments of Algeria.
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Somali people
Somalis (Somali: Soomaaliyeed, Arabic: الصوماليون) are an ethnic group located in the Horn of Africa, also known as the Somali Peninsula. The overwhelming majority of Somalis speak the Somali language, which is part of the Cushitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family. Ethnic Somalis number around 15-17 million and are principally concentrated in Somalia (more than 10 million), Ethiopia (4.6 million), Yemen (a little under 1 million), Kenya (900,000), Djibouti (464,600), and an unknown but large number live in parts of the Middle East, North America and Europe.
Samaale, the oldest common ancestor of several Somali clans, is generally regarded as the source of the ethnonym Somali. The name "Somali" is, in turn, held to be derived from the words soo and maal, which together mean "go and milk" — a reference to the ubiquitous pastoralism of the Somali people. Another plausible etymology proposes that the term Somali is derived from the Arabic for "wealthy" (dhawamaal), again referring to Somali riches in livestock.
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Tashfin ibn Ali
Tashfin ibn Ali (died 23 March 1145, or 25 March 1145 C.E) was the 6th Almoravid king, he reigned in 1143–1145.
Tashfin ibn Ali was appointed Governor of Granada and Almería in 1129, as well as of Córdoba in 1131, during the reign of his father Ali ibn Yusuf. He succeeded his father in 1143. In 1145, he went to fight the Almohads, under the leadership of Abd al-Mu'min, in the Oran area. He was besieged for several days by the Almohad forces and finally opted for escaping by sea. He subsequently called on a fleet from Almeria, burned his military encampment and while trying to join the port by night on horseback, he fell off a cliff and died in March 1145. He was succeeded first by his son Ibrahim ibn Tashfin, who was still an infant, and soon after by his brother Ishaq ibn Ali.
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Teotihuacan
Coordinates: 19°41′33″N 98°50′37.68″W / 19.6925°N 98.8438°W / 19.6925; -98.8438
Teotihuacan – also written Teotihuacán, with a Spanish orthographic accent on the last syllable – is an enormous archaeological site in the Basin of Mexico, just 30 miles (48 km) northeast of Mexico City, containing some of the largest pyramidal structures built in the pre-Columbian Americas. Apart from the pyramidal structures, Teotihuacan is also known for its large residential complexes, the Avenue of the Dead, and numerous colorful, well-preserved murals. Additionally, Teotihuacan produced a thin orange pottery style that spread through Mesoamerica.
The city is thought to have been established around 100 BC and continued to be built until about 250 AD. The city may have lasted until sometime between the 7th and 8th centuries AD. At its zenith, perhaps in the first half of the 1st millennium AD, Teotihuacan was the largest city in the pre-Columbian Americas, with a population of perhaps 125,000 or more, placing it among the largest cities of the world in this period. Teotihuacan began as a new religious center in the Mexican Highland around the first century AD. This city came to be the largest and most populated center in the New World. Teotihuacan was even home to multi-floor apartment compounds built to accommodate this large population. The civilization and cultural complex associated with the site is also referred to as Teotihuacan or Teotihuacano.
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Tuareg people
The Tuareg (also spelled Twareg or Touareg; endonym Imuhagh) are a Berber people with a traditionally nomadic pastoralist lifestyle. They are the principal inhabitants of the Saharan interior of North Africa.
The Tuareg language, or languages, have an estimated 1.2 million speakers. About half this number is accounted for by speakers of the Eastern dialect (Tamajaq, Tawallammat). Most Tuareg live in the Saharan parts of Niger and Mali but, being nomadic, there is constant movement across national borders, and small groups of Tuareg are also found in southeastern Algeria, southwestern Libya and northern Burkina Faso, and a small community in northern Nigeria.
The name Tuareg is derived from Targa, the Berber name of Libya's Fezzan province. The name Tuareg thus in origin designated the inhabitants of Fezzan from the perspective of the Berbers living closer to the Mediterranean coast, and was adopted from them into English, French and German during the colonial period. The Berber noun targa means "drainage channel" and by extension "arable land, garden". It designated the Wadi al-Haya area between Sabha and Ubari and is rendered in Arabic as bilad al-khayr "good land". There is a widespread Arabic folk etymology of the name, connecting tawariq "abandoned [by God]", reflecting the religious disapproval of residual animist practice among the Tuareg by orthodox Muslims.
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Africa Almoravids
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:06
- Updated: 14 Oct 2012
History Teachers - Buy history resources for your classes including worksheets, homeworks, tests, and presentations at: www.teacherspayteachers.com Find extra credit materials for your own classroom and make a donation at: mrgrayhistory.blogspot.com
http://wn.com/Africa_Almoravids
History Teachers - Buy history resources for your classes including worksheets, homeworks, tests, and presentations at: www.teacherspayteachers.com Find extra credit materials for your own classroom and make a donation at: mrgrayhistory.blogspot.com
Joe Chambers -- The Almoravid
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:54
- Updated: 25 Oct 2012
From: "The Almoravid" 1973
http://wn.com/Joe_Chambers_-_The_Almoravid
The Almoravids and Almohads
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:22
- Updated: 21 Nov 2012
See the two major empires of North-west Africa.
http://wn.com/The_Almoravids_and_Almohads
See the two major empires of North-west Africa.
- published: 04 Feb 2012
- views: 626
- author: EmperorTigerstar
Joe Chambers ~ Jihad ~ The Almoravid
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:25
- Updated: 15 Jun 2012
• Joe Chambers (drums) • Ray Mantilla (congas, percussion) • Walter Booker (Fender bass) • Doug Hawthorn (marimbas, percussion) • Released in 1973
http://wn.com/Joe_Chambers_~_Jihad_~_The_Almoravid
• Joe Chambers (drums) • Ray Mantilla (congas, percussion) • Walter Booker (Fender bass) • Doug Hawthorn (marimbas, percussion) • Released in 1973
- published: 23 May 2012
- views: 84
- author: avivajazz
Joe Chambers - Gazelle Suite
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:41
- Updated: 06 Nov 2012
Gazelle Suite from the album "The Almoravid (1974)"
http://wn.com/Joe_Chambers_Gazelle_Suite
Gazelle Suite from the album "The Almoravid (1974)"
- published: 25 Aug 2011
- views: 761
- author: MsFunkhead
Almoravid Koubba, Marrakech
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:03
- Updated: 18 Apr 2011
http://wn.com/Almoravid_Koubba,_Marrakech
NEW QUR'AN PAGE 547 (TO Najaf Al Aqsa Mosque Dome of the Rock Hassan II Mosque Almoravid Koubba)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:12
- Updated: 25 Mar 2011
Greetings, from the Lord Jesus Christ. May the peace and blessings of God be upon you. I AM the Lord Jesus Christ. ( www.youtube.com ) God has anointed me to be the King of the world. I have come to build the Kingdom of God. The name of it is New Jerusalem. It is a parallel world government that believers in God are asked to join. My plan is to establish a Kingdom that spans the entire globe wherein believers in God are united as one and separated away from the ungodly peoples, governments, economies, and man-made religions of the world all to the glory of God Almighty. The Kingdom of God is a community of believers that has devoted their lives to serving and worshiping God Almighty, and establishing His Kingdom on this earth. If you are a believer, you are encouraged to join us in our efforts to make this dream of ours a reality. The reason I would like you to join us as we take over the world and build the kingdom of God is so that you can be among the believers in the Kingdom and share in the blessings that God has in store for the righteous. In order to help accomplish our goal I have published a JUDEO / CHRISTIAN VERSION of the Qur'an (Operation Firestorm). TO: Najaf Al Aqsa Mosque Dome of the Rock Hassan II Mosque Almoravid Koubba READ 24. At length, when they see (with their own eyes) that which they are promised, - then will they know who it is that is weakest in (his) helper and least important in point of numbers. 25. Say: "I know not whether the (Punishment ...
http://wn.com/NEW_QUR'AN_PAGE_547_TO_Najaf_Al_Aqsa_Mosque_Dome_of_the_Rock_Hassan_II_Mosque_Almoravid_Koubba
Greetings, from the Lord Jesus Christ. May the peace and blessings of God be upon you. I AM the Lord Jesus Christ. ( www.youtube.com ) God has anointed me to be the King of the world. I have come to build the Kingdom of God. The name of it is New Jerusalem. It is a parallel world government that believers in God are asked to join. My plan is to establish a Kingdom that spans the entire globe wherein believers in God are united as one and separated away from the ungodly peoples, governments, economies, and man-made religions of the world all to the glory of God Almighty. The Kingdom of God is a community of believers that has devoted their lives to serving and worshiping God Almighty, and establishing His Kingdom on this earth. If you are a believer, you are encouraged to join us in our efforts to make this dream of ours a reality. The reason I would like you to join us as we take over the world and build the kingdom of God is so that you can be among the believers in the Kingdom and share in the blessings that God has in store for the righteous. In order to help accomplish our goal I have published a JUDEO / CHRISTIAN VERSION of the Qur'an (Operation Firestorm). TO: Najaf Al Aqsa Mosque Dome of the Rock Hassan II Mosque Almoravid Koubba READ 24. At length, when they see (with their own eyes) that which they are promised, - then will they know who it is that is weakest in (his) helper and least important in point of numbers. 25. Say: "I know not whether the (Punishment ...
- published: 24 Mar 2011
- views: 46
- author: newquran
almoravids oeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:02
- Updated: 18 Jul 2010
http://wn.com/almoravids_oeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee
Empires of Early West 7 Africa Overview
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:17
- Updated: 08 Nov 2011
No description yet.
http://wn.com/Empires_of_Early_West_7_Africa_Overview
Joe Chambers - Early Minor
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:51
- Updated: 16 Oct 2012
The Almoravid (1974)
http://wn.com/Joe_Chambers_Early_Minor
ابن الزقاق البلنسي المرثيه Ibn al Zaqqaq poem by Othman wahabi.Al Martia
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:53
- Updated: 07 Dec 2012
my take on a poem by Ali ibn Attiya ibn al-Zaqqaq (علي إبن عطيّة إبن الزقّاق البلنسي) (ca. 1100 Valencia - 1133 or 1134) who was one of the great poets of Al-Andalus during the reign of the Almoravids. He came from a Moroccan, Berber family and was the nephew of Ibn Khafaja. The patrons of Ibn al-Zaqqaq were two Valencian families, a governor, a family of Almoravid dignitaries, probably the supreme Almoravid judge of the East and perhaps the Almoravid ruler Ali ibn Yusuf himself. vocals and production by Othman Wahabi inspired by Luis delgado arrangement for his song Epitafio from the album el sueno de al zaqqaq.
http://wn.com/ابن_الزقاق_البلنسي_المرثيه_Ibn_al_Zaqqaq_poem_by_Othman_wahabiAl_Martia
my take on a poem by Ali ibn Attiya ibn al-Zaqqaq (علي إبن عطيّة إبن الزقّاق البلنسي) (ca. 1100 Valencia - 1133 or 1134) who was one of the great poets of Al-Andalus during the reign of the Almoravids. He came from a Moroccan, Berber family and was the nephew of Ibn Khafaja. The patrons of Ibn al-Zaqqaq were two Valencian families, a governor, a family of Almoravid dignitaries, probably the supreme Almoravid judge of the East and perhaps the Almoravid ruler Ali ibn Yusuf himself. vocals and production by Othman Wahabi inspired by Luis delgado arrangement for his song Epitafio from the album el sueno de al zaqqaq.
- published: 20 Jun 2012
- views: 190
- author: Othman Stub
The moors Balck Berber Vs Arabians
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:22
- Updated: 11 Mar 2012
Moors
http://wn.com/The_moors_Balck_Berber_Vs_Arabians
Lourdes Maria Alvarez-Tolerance's End, The Rise of Fundamentalism in 12th and 13th Century Islam.mp4
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 59:06
- Updated: 19 Nov 2012
Dr. Lourdes Alvarez, Director of Medieval and Byzantine studies at the Catholic University of America, spoke about the relationships between Muslims, Christians, and Jews in Spain during the 12th and 13th century. She began her lecture by providing examples of scholars and intellectuals during this time who deepened human knowledge, appreciated creation, and aimed to service the poor. She then went on to discuss the Almoravid and Almohad dynasties which both ruled in Spain during this time, and how this affected the scholars, intellectuals and the rest of society. Both the Almoravid and Almohad dynasties used Machiavellian tactics such as forced conversions, imprisonment, and even death for the Jews, Christians, and Muslims who did not share their exact beliefs in order to gain a stronger hold on their land. While these tactics increased the Muslim population and certainly strengthened the dynasties political position for a while, in the end both dynasties were overthrown. Dr. Alvarez pointed out Machiavellian tactics such as those used in these two Berber dynasties only create a false sense of security that will never lead to permanent stability. In the end she hopes that this history will remind us to return to tolerance in its deepest meaning and to live out the words of thinkers such as Rumi in today's world.
http://wn.com/Lourdes_Maria_Alvarez-Tolerance's_End,_The_Rise_of_Fundamentalism_in_12th_and_13th_Century_Islammp4
Dr. Lourdes Alvarez, Director of Medieval and Byzantine studies at the Catholic University of America, spoke about the relationships between Muslims, Christians, and Jews in Spain during the 12th and 13th century. She began her lecture by providing examples of scholars and intellectuals during this time who deepened human knowledge, appreciated creation, and aimed to service the poor. She then went on to discuss the Almoravid and Almohad dynasties which both ruled in Spain during this time, and how this affected the scholars, intellectuals and the rest of society. Both the Almoravid and Almohad dynasties used Machiavellian tactics such as forced conversions, imprisonment, and even death for the Jews, Christians, and Muslims who did not share their exact beliefs in order to gain a stronger hold on their land. While these tactics increased the Muslim population and certainly strengthened the dynasties political position for a while, in the end both dynasties were overthrown. Dr. Alvarez pointed out Machiavellian tactics such as those used in these two Berber dynasties only create a false sense of security that will never lead to permanent stability. In the end she hopes that this history will remind us to return to tolerance in its deepest meaning and to live out the words of thinkers such as Rumi in today's world.
- published: 24 Jun 2011
- views: 374
- author: RumiForum
ابن الزقاق البلنسي Ibn al Zaqqaq poem by Othman wahabi.
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:53
- Updated: 26 Jun 2012
my take on a poem by Ali ibn Attiya ibn al-Zaqqaq (علي إبن عطيّة إبن الزقّاق البلنسي) (ca. 1100 Valencia - 1133 or 1134) who was one of the great poets of Al-Andalus during the reign of the Almoravids. He came from a Moroccan, Berber family and was the nephew of Ibn Khafaja. The patrons of Ibn al-Zaqqaq were two Valencian families, a governor, a family of Almoravid dignitaries, probably the supreme Almoravid judge of the East and perhaps the Almoravid ruler Ali ibn Yusuf himself. vocals and production by Othman Wahabi inspired by Luis delgado arrangement for his album el sueno de al zaqqaq.
http://wn.com/ابن_الزقاق_البلنسي_Ibn_al_Zaqqaq_poem_by_Othman_wahabi
my take on a poem by Ali ibn Attiya ibn al-Zaqqaq (علي إبن عطيّة إبن الزقّاق البلنسي) (ca. 1100 Valencia - 1133 or 1134) who was one of the great poets of Al-Andalus during the reign of the Almoravids. He came from a Moroccan, Berber family and was the nephew of Ibn Khafaja. The patrons of Ibn al-Zaqqaq were two Valencian families, a governor, a family of Almoravid dignitaries, probably the supreme Almoravid judge of the East and perhaps the Almoravid ruler Ali ibn Yusuf himself. vocals and production by Othman Wahabi inspired by Luis delgado arrangement for his album el sueno de al zaqqaq.
- published: 15 Jun 2012
- views: 81
- author: Othman Wahabi
Original Berbers were Black
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:06
- Updated: 09 Sep 2012
Original Berbers were Black " Almoravid who fought with white asses arabs
http://wn.com/Original_Berbers_were_Black
Original Berbers were Black " Almoravid who fought with white asses arabs
- published: 21 Nov 2011
- views: 758
- author: Almoravid25
Joe Chambers - Medina
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:25
- Updated: 07 Oct 2012
recorded February 10, 1971. Joe Chambers - drums Woody Shaw - trumpet Harold Vick - flute , tenor sax Garnett Brown- trombone Cecil McBee - bass George Cables - electric piano Album - The Almoravid ( Muse records )
http://wn.com/Joe_Chambers_Medina
recorded February 10, 1971. Joe Chambers - drums Woody Shaw - trumpet Harold Vick - flute , tenor sax Garnett Brown- trombone Cecil McBee - bass George Cables - electric piano Album - The Almoravid ( Muse records )
- published: 20 Mar 2012
- views: 1059
- author: TheJazzySu
Zaid Hamid:BrassTacks-Yeh Ghazi Episode12;Alp Arslan+Yusuf Ibn Tashfin Part1
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:01
- Updated: 09 Aug 2012
BrassTacks program Yeh Ghazi on Timeline of the Muslim History. In this episode Zaid Hamid discusses two contemprary champions of Islam, Alp Arslan in West Asia/SouthWest Asia & Yusuf Ibn Tashfeen in North Africa. Alp Arslan spread the message of Islam in Georgia, Armenia & Asia Minor. His victory in Battle of Manzikert opened Asia Minor to Turkmen conquest. His admininstrator Nizam-ul-Mulk scripted his name in history through his great skills & helped Alp Arslan's son Malik Shah establishing a powerful setup. Yusuf Ibn Tashfeen established himself in North Africa by conquering Morocco & Algeria. Spain, which just at this time was under attack from the Christian powers of northern Spain led by Alfonso VI of León and Castile. Weakened and divided among themselves, the party kings of Spain were unable to defend themselves from the Christian advance and after the fall of Toledo in 1085 invited Ibn Tashufin to bring the Almoravid armies to their aid. Thus at the end of the 11th century Ibn Tashufin had succeeded in uniting Morocco and Moslem Spain under Berber rule. Yeh Ghazi Yeh Teray Pur Asrar Banday Jinhain Tunay Bakhsha hai Zauq-e-Khudai Do Neem Un ki Thokar say Sahra o Darya Simat kar Pahaar In ki Haybat say Rayi Do Aalam say Karti hai Baygaana Dil ko Ajab cheez hai Lazzat-e-Aashnayi Shahadat hai Matloob o Maqsood-e-Momin Na Maal-e-Ghaneemat na Kishwar Kushayi Dilay Mard-e-Momin main phir zinda kar day Woh Bijli thi keh Na'ara-e-La Tadar main Azayim ko seenom main ...
http://wn.com/Zaid_HamidBrassTacks-Yeh_Ghazi_Episode12;Alp_Arslan+Yusuf_Ibn_Tashfin_Part1
BrassTacks program Yeh Ghazi on Timeline of the Muslim History. In this episode Zaid Hamid discusses two contemprary champions of Islam, Alp Arslan in West Asia/SouthWest Asia & Yusuf Ibn Tashfeen in North Africa. Alp Arslan spread the message of Islam in Georgia, Armenia & Asia Minor. His victory in Battle of Manzikert opened Asia Minor to Turkmen conquest. His admininstrator Nizam-ul-Mulk scripted his name in history through his great skills & helped Alp Arslan's son Malik Shah establishing a powerful setup. Yusuf Ibn Tashfeen established himself in North Africa by conquering Morocco & Algeria. Spain, which just at this time was under attack from the Christian powers of northern Spain led by Alfonso VI of León and Castile. Weakened and divided among themselves, the party kings of Spain were unable to defend themselves from the Christian advance and after the fall of Toledo in 1085 invited Ibn Tashufin to bring the Almoravid armies to their aid. Thus at the end of the 11th century Ibn Tashufin had succeeded in uniting Morocco and Moslem Spain under Berber rule. Yeh Ghazi Yeh Teray Pur Asrar Banday Jinhain Tunay Bakhsha hai Zauq-e-Khudai Do Neem Un ki Thokar say Sahra o Darya Simat kar Pahaar In ki Haybat say Rayi Do Aalam say Karti hai Baygaana Dil ko Ajab cheez hai Lazzat-e-Aashnayi Shahadat hai Matloob o Maqsood-e-Momin Na Maal-e-Ghaneemat na Kishwar Kushayi Dilay Mard-e-Momin main phir zinda kar day Woh Bijli thi keh Na'ara-e-La Tadar main Azayim ko seenom main ...
- published: 13 Sep 2008
- views: 13787
- author: khawajak
Zaid Hamid:BrassTacks-Yeh Ghazi Episode13;Alp Arslan+Yusuf Ibn Tashfin Part1
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:49
- Updated: 26 Nov 2012
BrassTacks program Yeh Ghazi on Timeline of the Muslim History. In this episode Zaid Hamid discusses two contemprary champions of Islam, Alp Arslan in West Asia/SouthWest Asia & Yusuf Ibn Tashfeen in North Africa. Alp Arslan spread the message of Islam in Georgia, Armenia & Asia Minor. His victory in Battle of Manzikert opened Asia Minor to Turkmen conquest. His admininstrator Nizam-ul-Mulk scripted his name in history through his great skills & helped Alp Arslan's son Malik Shah establishing a powerful setup. Yusuf Ibn Tashfeen established himself in North Africa by conquering Morocco & Algeria. Spain, which just at this time was under attack from the Christian powers of northern Spain led by Alfonso VI of León and Castile. Weakened and divided among themselves, the party kings of Spain were unable to defend themselves from the Christian advance and after the fall of Toledo in 1085 invited Ibn Tashufin to bring the Almoravid armies to their aid. Thus at the end of the 11th century Ibn Tashufin had succeeded in uniting Morocco and Moslem Spain under Berber rule. Yeh Ghazi Yeh Teray Pur Asrar Banday Jinhain Tunay Bakhsha hai Zauq-e-Khudai Do Neem Un ki Thokar say Sahra o Darya Simat kar Pahaar In ki Haybat say Rayi Do Aalam say Karti hai Baygaana Dil ko Ajab cheez hai Lazzat-e-Aashnayi Shahadat hai Matloob o Maqsood-e-Momin Na Maal-e-Ghaneemat na Kishwar Kushayi Dilay Mard-e-Momin main phir zinda kar day Woh Bijli thi keh Na'ara-e-La Tadar main Azayim ko seenom main ...
http://wn.com/Zaid_HamidBrassTacks-Yeh_Ghazi_Episode13;Alp_Arslan+Yusuf_Ibn_Tashfin_Part1
BrassTacks program Yeh Ghazi on Timeline of the Muslim History. In this episode Zaid Hamid discusses two contemprary champions of Islam, Alp Arslan in West Asia/SouthWest Asia & Yusuf Ibn Tashfeen in North Africa. Alp Arslan spread the message of Islam in Georgia, Armenia & Asia Minor. His victory in Battle of Manzikert opened Asia Minor to Turkmen conquest. His admininstrator Nizam-ul-Mulk scripted his name in history through his great skills & helped Alp Arslan's son Malik Shah establishing a powerful setup. Yusuf Ibn Tashfeen established himself in North Africa by conquering Morocco & Algeria. Spain, which just at this time was under attack from the Christian powers of northern Spain led by Alfonso VI of León and Castile. Weakened and divided among themselves, the party kings of Spain were unable to defend themselves from the Christian advance and after the fall of Toledo in 1085 invited Ibn Tashufin to bring the Almoravid armies to their aid. Thus at the end of the 11th century Ibn Tashufin had succeeded in uniting Morocco and Moslem Spain under Berber rule. Yeh Ghazi Yeh Teray Pur Asrar Banday Jinhain Tunay Bakhsha hai Zauq-e-Khudai Do Neem Un ki Thokar say Sahra o Darya Simat kar Pahaar In ki Haybat say Rayi Do Aalam say Karti hai Baygaana Dil ko Ajab cheez hai Lazzat-e-Aashnayi Shahadat hai Matloob o Maqsood-e-Momin Na Maal-e-Ghaneemat na Kishwar Kushayi Dilay Mard-e-Momin main phir zinda kar day Woh Bijli thi keh Na'ara-e-La Tadar main Azayim ko seenom main ...
- published: 16 Sep 2008
- views: 6314
- author: khawajak
Zaid Hamid:BrassTacks-Yeh Ghazi Episode12;Alp Arslan+Yusuf Ibn Tashfin Part2
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:28
- Updated: 03 Jul 2012
BrassTacks program Yeh Ghazi on Timeline of the Muslim History. In this episode Zaid Hamid discusses two contemprary champions of Islam, Alp Arslan in West Asia/SouthWest Asia & Yusuf Ibn Tashfeen in North Africa. Alp Arslan spread the message of Islam in Georgia, Armenia & Asia Minor. His victory in Battle of Manzikert opened Asia Minor to Turkmen conquest. His admininstrator Nizam-ul-Mulk scripted his name in history through his great skills & helped Alp Arslan's son Malik Shah establishing a powerful setup. Yusuf Ibn Tashfeen established himself in North Africa by conquering Morocco & Algeria. Spain, which just at this time was under attack from the Christian powers of northern Spain led by Alfonso VI of León and Castile. Weakened and divided among themselves, the party kings of Spain were unable to defend themselves from the Christian advance and after the fall of Toledo in 1085 invited Ibn Tashufin to bring the Almoravid armies to their aid. Thus at the end of the 11th century Ibn Tashufin had succeeded in uniting Morocco and Moslem Spain under Berber rule. Yeh Ghazi Yeh Teray Pur Asrar Banday Jinhain Tunay Bakhsha hai Zauq-e-Khudai Do Neem Un ki Thokar say Sahra o Darya Simat kar Pahaar In ki Haybat say Rayi Do Aalam say Karti hai Baygaana Dil ko Ajab cheez hai Lazzat-e-Aashnayi Shahadat hai Matloob o Maqsood-e-Momin Na Maal-e-Ghaneemat na Kishwar Kushayi Dilay Mard-e-Momin main phir zinda kar day Woh Bijli thi keh Na'ara-e-La Tadar main Azayim ko seenom main ...
http://wn.com/Zaid_HamidBrassTacks-Yeh_Ghazi_Episode12;Alp_Arslan+Yusuf_Ibn_Tashfin_Part2
BrassTacks program Yeh Ghazi on Timeline of the Muslim History. In this episode Zaid Hamid discusses two contemprary champions of Islam, Alp Arslan in West Asia/SouthWest Asia & Yusuf Ibn Tashfeen in North Africa. Alp Arslan spread the message of Islam in Georgia, Armenia & Asia Minor. His victory in Battle of Manzikert opened Asia Minor to Turkmen conquest. His admininstrator Nizam-ul-Mulk scripted his name in history through his great skills & helped Alp Arslan's son Malik Shah establishing a powerful setup. Yusuf Ibn Tashfeen established himself in North Africa by conquering Morocco & Algeria. Spain, which just at this time was under attack from the Christian powers of northern Spain led by Alfonso VI of León and Castile. Weakened and divided among themselves, the party kings of Spain were unable to defend themselves from the Christian advance and after the fall of Toledo in 1085 invited Ibn Tashufin to bring the Almoravid armies to their aid. Thus at the end of the 11th century Ibn Tashufin had succeeded in uniting Morocco and Moslem Spain under Berber rule. Yeh Ghazi Yeh Teray Pur Asrar Banday Jinhain Tunay Bakhsha hai Zauq-e-Khudai Do Neem Un ki Thokar say Sahra o Darya Simat kar Pahaar In ki Haybat say Rayi Do Aalam say Karti hai Baygaana Dil ko Ajab cheez hai Lazzat-e-Aashnayi Shahadat hai Matloob o Maqsood-e-Momin Na Maal-e-Ghaneemat na Kishwar Kushayi Dilay Mard-e-Momin main phir zinda kar day Woh Bijli thi keh Na'ara-e-La Tadar main Azayim ko seenom main ...
- published: 13 Sep 2008
- views: 7790
- author: khawajak
Zaid Hamid:BrassTacks-Yeh Ghazi Episode12;Alp Arslan+Yusuf Ibn Tashfin Part3
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:34
- Updated: 08 Jul 2012
BrassTacks program Yeh Ghazi on Timeline of the Muslim History. In this episode Zaid Hamid discusses two contemprary champions of Islam, Alp Arslan in West Asia/SouthWest Asia & Yusuf Ibn Tashfeen in North Africa. Alp Arslan spread the message of Islam in Georgia, Armenia & Asia Minor. His victory in Battle of Manzikert opened Asia Minor to Turkmen conquest. His admininstrator Nizam-ul-Mulk scripted his name in history through his great skills & helped Alp Arslan's son Malik Shah establishing a powerful setup. Yusuf Ibn Tashfeen established himself in North Africa by conquering Morocco & Algeria. Spain, which just at this time was under attack from the Christian powers of northern Spain led by Alfonso VI of León and Castile. Weakened and divided among themselves, the party kings of Spain were unable to defend themselves from the Christian advance and after the fall of Toledo in 1085 invited Ibn Tashufin to bring the Almoravid armies to their aid. Thus at the end of the 11th century Ibn Tashufin had succeeded in uniting Morocco and Moslem Spain under Berber rule. Yeh Ghazi Yeh Teray Pur Asrar Banday Jinhain Tunay Bakhsha hai Zauq-e-Khudai Do Neem Un ki Thokar say Sahra o Darya Simat kar Pahaar In ki Haybat say Rayi Do Aalam say Karti hai Baygaana Dil ko Ajab cheez hai Lazzat-e-Aashnayi Shahadat hai Matloob o Maqsood-e-Momin Na Maal-e-Ghaneemat na Kishwar Kushayi Dilay Mard-e-Momin main phir zinda kar day Woh Bijli thi keh Na'ara-e-La Tadar main Azayim ko seenom main ...
http://wn.com/Zaid_HamidBrassTacks-Yeh_Ghazi_Episode12;Alp_Arslan+Yusuf_Ibn_Tashfin_Part3
BrassTacks program Yeh Ghazi on Timeline of the Muslim History. In this episode Zaid Hamid discusses two contemprary champions of Islam, Alp Arslan in West Asia/SouthWest Asia & Yusuf Ibn Tashfeen in North Africa. Alp Arslan spread the message of Islam in Georgia, Armenia & Asia Minor. His victory in Battle of Manzikert opened Asia Minor to Turkmen conquest. His admininstrator Nizam-ul-Mulk scripted his name in history through his great skills & helped Alp Arslan's son Malik Shah establishing a powerful setup. Yusuf Ibn Tashfeen established himself in North Africa by conquering Morocco & Algeria. Spain, which just at this time was under attack from the Christian powers of northern Spain led by Alfonso VI of León and Castile. Weakened and divided among themselves, the party kings of Spain were unable to defend themselves from the Christian advance and after the fall of Toledo in 1085 invited Ibn Tashufin to bring the Almoravid armies to their aid. Thus at the end of the 11th century Ibn Tashufin had succeeded in uniting Morocco and Moslem Spain under Berber rule. Yeh Ghazi Yeh Teray Pur Asrar Banday Jinhain Tunay Bakhsha hai Zauq-e-Khudai Do Neem Un ki Thokar say Sahra o Darya Simat kar Pahaar In ki Haybat say Rayi Do Aalam say Karti hai Baygaana Dil ko Ajab cheez hai Lazzat-e-Aashnayi Shahadat hai Matloob o Maqsood-e-Momin Na Maal-e-Ghaneemat na Kishwar Kushayi Dilay Mard-e-Momin main phir zinda kar day Woh Bijli thi keh Na'ara-e-La Tadar main Azayim ko seenom main ...
- published: 13 Sep 2008
- views: 6132
- author: khawajak
Zaid Hamid:BrassTacks-Yeh Ghazi Episode12;Alp Arslan+Yusuf Ibn Tashfin Part4
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:24
- Updated: 03 Jul 2012
BrassTacks program Yeh Ghazi on Timeline of the Muslim History. In this episode Zaid Hamid discusses two contemprary champions of Islam, Alp Arslan in West Asia/SouthWest Asia & Yusuf Ibn Tashfeen in North Africa. Alp Arslan spread the message of Islam in Georgia, Armenia & Asia Minor. His victory in Battle of Manzikert opened Asia Minor to Turkmen conquest. His admininstrator Nizam-ul-Mulk scripted his name in history through his great skills & helped Alp Arslan's son Malik Shah establishing a powerful setup. Yusuf Ibn Tashfeen established himself in North Africa by conquering Morocco & Algeria. Spain, which just at this time was under attack from the Christian powers of northern Spain led by Alfonso VI of León and Castile. Weakened and divided among themselves, the party kings of Spain were unable to defend themselves from the Christian advance and after the fall of Toledo in 1085 invited Ibn Tashufin to bring the Almoravid armies to their aid. Thus at the end of the 11th century Ibn Tashufin had succeeded in uniting Morocco and Moslem Spain under Berber rule. Yeh Ghazi Yeh Teray Pur Asrar Banday Jinhain Tunay Bakhsha hai Zauq-e-Khudai Do Neem Un ki Thokar say Sahra o Darya Simat kar Pahaar In ki Haybat say Rayi Do Aalam say Karti hai Baygaana Dil ko Ajab cheez hai Lazzat-e-Aashnayi Shahadat hai Matloob o Maqsood-e-Momin Na Maal-e-Ghaneemat na Kishwar Kushayi Dilay Mard-e-Momin main phir zinda kar day Woh Bijli thi keh Na'ara-e-La Tadar main Azayim ko seenom main ...
http://wn.com/Zaid_HamidBrassTacks-Yeh_Ghazi_Episode12;Alp_Arslan+Yusuf_Ibn_Tashfin_Part4
BrassTacks program Yeh Ghazi on Timeline of the Muslim History. In this episode Zaid Hamid discusses two contemprary champions of Islam, Alp Arslan in West Asia/SouthWest Asia & Yusuf Ibn Tashfeen in North Africa. Alp Arslan spread the message of Islam in Georgia, Armenia & Asia Minor. His victory in Battle of Manzikert opened Asia Minor to Turkmen conquest. His admininstrator Nizam-ul-Mulk scripted his name in history through his great skills & helped Alp Arslan's son Malik Shah establishing a powerful setup. Yusuf Ibn Tashfeen established himself in North Africa by conquering Morocco & Algeria. Spain, which just at this time was under attack from the Christian powers of northern Spain led by Alfonso VI of León and Castile. Weakened and divided among themselves, the party kings of Spain were unable to defend themselves from the Christian advance and after the fall of Toledo in 1085 invited Ibn Tashufin to bring the Almoravid armies to their aid. Thus at the end of the 11th century Ibn Tashufin had succeeded in uniting Morocco and Moslem Spain under Berber rule. Yeh Ghazi Yeh Teray Pur Asrar Banday Jinhain Tunay Bakhsha hai Zauq-e-Khudai Do Neem Un ki Thokar say Sahra o Darya Simat kar Pahaar In ki Haybat say Rayi Do Aalam say Karti hai Baygaana Dil ko Ajab cheez hai Lazzat-e-Aashnayi Shahadat hai Matloob o Maqsood-e-Momin Na Maal-e-Ghaneemat na Kishwar Kushayi Dilay Mard-e-Momin main phir zinda kar day Woh Bijli thi keh Na'ara-e-La Tadar main Azayim ko seenom main ...
- published: 13 Sep 2008
- views: 6781
- author: khawajak
Viaje a Marruecos: dia 2
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:16
- Updated: 05 Aug 2012
Verano 2008: Marrakech - Medersa Ben Youssef - Museo de Marrakech - Qoubba Almoravid - Riad Tamkast - Plaza Jmaa el Fna
http://wn.com/Viaje_a_Marruecos_dia_2
Verano 2008: Marrakech - Medersa Ben Youssef - Museo de Marrakech - Qoubba Almoravid - Riad Tamkast - Plaza Jmaa el Fna
- published: 20 Oct 2008
- views: 625
- author: Rafa Soria
Zaid Hamid:BrassTacks-Yeh Ghazi Episode13;Alp Arslan+Yusuf Ibn Tashfin Part2
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:23
- Updated: 29 Oct 2011
BrassTacks program Yeh Ghazi on Timeline of the Muslim History. In this episode Zaid Hamid discusses two contemprary champions of Islam, Alp Arslan in West Asia/SouthWest Asia & Yusuf Ibn Tashfeen in North Africa. Alp Arslan spread the message of Islam in Georgia, Armenia & Asia Minor. His victory in Battle of Manzikert opened Asia Minor to Turkmen conquest. His admininstrator Nizam-ul-Mulk scripted his name in history through his great skills & helped Alp Arslan's son Malik Shah establishing a powerful setup. Yusuf Ibn Tashfeen established himself in North Africa by conquering Morocco & Algeria. Spain, which just at this time was under attack from the Christian powers of northern Spain led by Alfonso VI of León and Castile. Weakened and divided among themselves, the party kings of Spain were unable to defend themselves from the Christian advance and after the fall of Toledo in 1085 invited Ibn Tashufin to bring the Almoravid armies to their aid. Thus at the end of the 11th century Ibn Tashufin had succeeded in uniting Morocco and Moslem Spain under Berber rule. Yeh Ghazi Yeh Teray Pur Asrar Banday Jinhain Tunay Bakhsha hai Zauq-e-Khudai Do Neem Un ki Thokar say Sahra o Darya Simat kar Pahaar In ki Haybat say Rayi Do Aalam say Karti hai Baygaana Dil ko Ajab cheez hai Lazzat-e-Aashnayi Shahadat hai Matloob o Maqsood-e-Momin Na Maal-e-Ghaneemat na Kishwar Kushayi Dilay Mard-e-Momin main phir zinda kar day Woh Bijli thi keh Na'ara-e-La Tadar main Azayim ko seenom main ...
http://wn.com/Zaid_HamidBrassTacks-Yeh_Ghazi_Episode13;Alp_Arslan+Yusuf_Ibn_Tashfin_Part2
BrassTacks program Yeh Ghazi on Timeline of the Muslim History. In this episode Zaid Hamid discusses two contemprary champions of Islam, Alp Arslan in West Asia/SouthWest Asia & Yusuf Ibn Tashfeen in North Africa. Alp Arslan spread the message of Islam in Georgia, Armenia & Asia Minor. His victory in Battle of Manzikert opened Asia Minor to Turkmen conquest. His admininstrator Nizam-ul-Mulk scripted his name in history through his great skills & helped Alp Arslan's son Malik Shah establishing a powerful setup. Yusuf Ibn Tashfeen established himself in North Africa by conquering Morocco & Algeria. Spain, which just at this time was under attack from the Christian powers of northern Spain led by Alfonso VI of León and Castile. Weakened and divided among themselves, the party kings of Spain were unable to defend themselves from the Christian advance and after the fall of Toledo in 1085 invited Ibn Tashufin to bring the Almoravid armies to their aid. Thus at the end of the 11th century Ibn Tashufin had succeeded in uniting Morocco and Moslem Spain under Berber rule. Yeh Ghazi Yeh Teray Pur Asrar Banday Jinhain Tunay Bakhsha hai Zauq-e-Khudai Do Neem Un ki Thokar say Sahra o Darya Simat kar Pahaar In ki Haybat say Rayi Do Aalam say Karti hai Baygaana Dil ko Ajab cheez hai Lazzat-e-Aashnayi Shahadat hai Matloob o Maqsood-e-Momin Na Maal-e-Ghaneemat na Kishwar Kushayi Dilay Mard-e-Momin main phir zinda kar day Woh Bijli thi keh Na'ara-e-La Tadar main Azayim ko seenom main ...
- published: 16 Sep 2008
- views: 5087
- author: khawajak
photo: AP / Nick Ut
14 Dec 2012
Former President Bill Clinton, President Barack Obama, First Lady Michelle Obama, and Yahoo CEO Marissa Mayer, meet 55-year-old Martha Sellers. For the past nine years, Sellers has worked as a Walmart cashier in Paramount, California ... More than 10,000 community members joined more than 30 striking employees who walked off the job to demand better working conditions. . "It was wonderful ... That's not too much to ask for." ... 1698 ... ....(size: 23.6Kb)
photo: AP / Newtown Bee, Shannon Hicks
15 Dec 2012
The massacre of 26 children and adults at an elementary school in the US state of Connecticut elicited horror and soul-searching around the world even as it raised more basic questions about why the gunman, a 20-year-old described as brilliant but remote, would have been driven to such a crime and how he chose his victims ... He paused for several seconds to keep his composure as he teared up and wiped an eye ... ... "I'm numb ... Yes, yeah....(size: 8.8Kb)
photo: AP / Newtown Bee, Shannon Hicks
15 Dec 2012
Newtown, Conn. Twenty schoolchildren were slaughtered by a heavily armed gunman who opened fire at a suburban elementary school in Connecticut on Friday, ultimately killing at least 27 people including himself in the one of the worst mass shootings in US history ... Authorities found 18 children and seven adults, including the gunman, dead at the school, and two children were pronounced dead later after being taken to a hospital ... Reuters ....(size: 7.5Kb)
photo: AP / Jessica Hill
14 Dec 2012
More than two dozen people, mostly elementary school children, were shot and killed at a Newtown, Conn., elementary school this morning, federal and state sources tell ABC News. The massacre involved two gunmen at a Connecticut school this morning, prompting the town of Newtown to lock down all of its schools and draw SWAT teams to the school, authorities said today. State Police confirm that one shooter is dead ... at ABCNews.com ... ....(size: 4.5Kb)
photo: AP / Manu Brabo
14 Dec 2012
One of Syria's key allies has admitted for the first time the Assad regime is losing the 20-month ground war. Russia’s deputy foreign minister’s comments are significant because Russia has blocked action to stem the violence, supplied weapons to the Assad regime, and vetoed three UN resolutions -- even as other countries called for Assad to step down. The comments are expected to put new pressure on the Syrian leader ... Reporter ... ... ....(size: 6.6Kb)
All Africa
14 Nov 2012
Gulf News
12 Jun 2012
His grandfather, the influential Abdul Walid Mohammad, was the chief judge of Córdoba, under the Almoravid dynasty. Ibn Rushd’s father, Abdul Qasim Ahmad, although not as well recognised as his grandfather, held the same position until the Almoravids were ousted by the Almohad dynasty in 1146 ... The Almohads, like the Almoravids earlier, ......(size: 31.0Kb)
The Examiner
31 Mar 2012
The new exhibition “Aphrodite and the Gods of Love” at the Getty Villa will be enhanced by eight studio art workshops this spring ... They now live partly in Morocco, where a major international archeological exploration was sparked by Somers' discovery of a spa and bathing complex built in the eleventh century for the Almoravid emperors. The historic site is at the original Almoravid capital, twenty miles from modern Marrakech....(size: 7.5Kb)
Independent online (SA)
27 Feb 2012
Temperatures in Marrakech are warming up, with highs of around 18°C. Next week the city hosts the Marrakech Biennale (February 29-March 4) ... TOUCH DOWN. The medina (the ancient walled city centre) is a 15-minute drive from the airport. There are two types of taxis ... GET YOUR BEARINGS ... travel) ... North-east of the city is the sprawling Palmeraie, dotted with over 100,000 palm trees planted by the Almoravids in the 12th century ... CHECK IN ... ....(size: 9.0Kb)
Belfast Telegraph
27 Feb 2012
From the ancient medina to the Palmeraie, Morocco's Rose City offers a warm escape from the cold of winter. Why go now?. Temperatures in Marrakech are warming up, with highs of around 18°C. Next week the city hosts the Marrakech Biennale (February 29-March 4) ... Touch down ... 0844 493 0787; ba.com) and BMI (tel ... North-east of the city is the sprawling Palmeraie, dotted with over 100,000 palm trees planted by the Almoravids in the 12th century....(size: 9.1Kb)
The Independent
17 Feb 2012
Travel essentials. Why go now?. Temperatures in Marrakech are warming up, with highs of around 18C. Later this month the city hosts the Marrakech Biennale (29 Feb–4 Mar) ... Touch down ... The medina (the ancient walled city centre) is a 15-minute drive from the airport ... Get your bearings ... North-east of the city is the sprawling Palmeraie, dotted with over 100,000 palm trees planted by the Almoravids in the 12th century ... Check in ... Day one ... Day two ... ....(size: 8.6Kb)
BBC News
16 Jan 2012
Many of its people are nomads. In the Middle Ages Mauritania was the cradle of the Almoravid movement, which spread Islam throughout the region and for a while controlled the Islamic part of Spain ... ....(size: 1.2Kb)
Yahoo Daily News
22 Dec 2011
The 23rd edition of the Marrakech Marathon and half Marathon in the fascinating Moroccan city of Marrakech is here again amidst lots of excitement at the Marrakechi square, traditional market and other exciting spots. , the discount hotel specialist is offering cheap hotels in Marrakech for tourists who are traveling down from across the world ... The city was built as the new capital of the Almoravids and the Almohades ... ###. Soobash Badal....(size: 8.6Kb)
Yahoo Daily News
18 Nov 2011
The vast palm groves of Marrakesh in southern Morocco are in danger from urbanisation, massive tourist projects and even golf courses, so a conservation programme is in hand to save them ... Such activities are a stark contrast with the very name of the city, which was founded in 1062 by the first ruler of the Almoravid dynasty, Yusef Ibn Tashfin, and named for divine delights rather than worldly pleasures ... It's over." ... That's realistic ... ....(size: 14.0Kb)
The Hindu
01 Oct 2011
Lesser known though, no less important historically, it was also the year of the moor's last sigh ... Despite the crowds and the noise, one can still admire the uniqueness of the palace — the horseshoe arches, the Almoravid palms and stalactite ceilings — essential elements of the Nasrid architectural style that developed in relative isolation from contemporary Islamic architecture of the Middle East ... Italian imprint ... Escher ... ....(size: 4.9Kb)
The Guardian
30 Sep 2011
THE year 1066 is probably the best-known date in history and marks the last successful invasion of England ... But he was not the only claimant to the throne ... Total War, courtesy Sega ... READ ABOUT THE VIKINGS HERE ... 1William of Normandy, who became 'the conqueror' at the Battle of Hastings in 1066King Harold II, killed during the Battle of HastingsThe city walls at Marrakech, Morocco, which was founded as capital of the Almoravides in 1062....(size: 4.0Kb)
m&c;
18 Apr 2011
Valencia, Spain - In 1099, the dead body of Christian warrior El Cid was put on his his horse Babieca, in order to raise the morale of the troops fighting against the Almoravids in the battle for Valencia. On Wednesday Valencia will stage the final of the Spanish King's Cup, between twin giants Barcelona and Real Madrid - and the role of El Cid will be played by veteran Barca captain Carles Puyol ... A final is always attractive ... ....(size: 3.3Kb)
The Washington Institute
28 Mar 2011
In the 11th century, the religiously conservative Almoravid movement swept the Muslim kingdom of Andalusia in reaction to its liberal ways, especially its embrace of progressive thought and acceptance of non-Muslims. Upon taking over Andalusia, the Almoravids enshrined their illiberal interpretation of Islam as the moral compass of society....(size: 5.9Kb)
| Almoravid dynasty ⵉⵎⵕⴰⴱⴹⴻⵏ/المرابطون Al-Murābiṭūn |
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| Capital | Aghmat (1040–1062), Marrakech (1062–1147) | |||
| Language(s) | Primarily Berber languages, Andalusian Arabic, Arabic and Classical Arabic. |
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| Religion | mainly Islam, with some Catholic and Jewish minorities | |||
| Government | Monarchy | |||
| Caliph | ||||
| - 1040–1059 | Abdallah ibn Yasin | |||
| - 1146–1147 | Ishaq ibn Ali | |||
| History | ||||
| - Established | 1040 | |||
| - Disestablished | 1147 | |||
| Area | ||||
| - 1147 est. | 3,300,000 km2 (1,274,137 sq mi) | |||
| Currency | Dinar | |||
| Today part of |  Algeria Gibraltar Mali Mauritania Morocco Portugal SpainWestern Sahara |
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| History of Morocco | |
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Morocco Portal |
The Almoravids (Berber: ⵉⵎⵕⴰⴱⴹⴻⵏ Imṛabḍen, Arabic: المرابطون Al-Murābiṭūn) were a Berber dynasty of Morocco, who formed an empire in the 11th-century that stretched over the western Maghreb and Al-Andalus. Their capital was Marrakesh, a city which they founded in 1062 CE. The dynasty originated amongst the Lamtuna and the Gudala, which were nomadic Berber tribes of the Sahara traversing the territory between southern Morocco, the Niger river and the Senegal river.[1]
The Almoravids were crucial in avoiding a precipitated fall of Al-Andalus to the Iberian Christian kingdoms, when they decisively beat a coalition of the Castilian and Aragonese armies at the Battle of Sagrajas. This enabled them to control an empire that stretched 3,000 kilometers north to south. However, the rule of the dynasty was relatively short-lived and the Almoravids fell - at the height of their power - when they failed to quell the Masmuda-led rebellion initiated by Ibn Tumart. As a result, their last king Ishaq ibn Ali was killed in Marrakesh in April 1147 CE by the Almohads who replaced them as a ruling dynasty both in Morocco and Al-Andalus.
Contents |
Name[link]
The term "Almoravid" comes from the Arabic "al-Murabitun" (المرابطون) which is the plural form of "al-Murabit" literally meaning "One who is tying" but figuratively means "one who is ready for battle at a fortress". The term is related to the notion of Ribat, a frontier monastery-fortress, through the root r-b-t (ربط "Rabat": to tie or رابط "Raabat": to encamp).[2][3]
It is uncertain exactly when or why the Almoravids acquired that appellation. al-Bakri, writing in 1068, before their apogee, already calls them the al-Murabitun, but does not clarify the reasons for it. Writing three centuries later, Ibn Abi Zar suggested it was chosen early on by Abdallah Ibn Yasin[4] because, upon finding resistance among the Gudala Berbers of Adrar (Mauritania) to his teaching, he took a handful of followers to erect a makeshift ribat (monastery-fortress) on an offshore island (possibly Tidra island, in Arguin bay).[5] Ibn Idhari wrote that the name was suggested by Ibn Yasin in the "persevering in the fight" sense, to boost morale after a particularly hard-fought battle in the Draa valley c. 1054, in which they had taken many losses. Whichever explanation is true, it seems certain the appellation was chosen by the Almoravids for themselves, partly with the conscious goal of forestalling any tribal or ethnic identifications.
It has also been suggested that the name might be related to the ribat of Waggag ibn Zallu in the village of Aglu (near present-day Tiznit), where the future Almoravid spiritual leader Abdallah ibn Yasin got his initial training. The 13th-century Moroccan biographer Ibn al-Zayyat al-Tadili and Qadi Ayyad before him in the 12th-century, note that Waggag's learning center was called Dar al-Murabitin (The house of the Almoravids), and that might have inspired Ibn Yasin's choice of name for the movement.[6][7]
Contemporaries frequently referred to them as the al-mulathimun ("the veiled ones", from litham, Arabic for "veil"). The Almoravids veiled themselves below the eyes (see tagelmust), a custom they adapted from southern Sanhaja Berbers (as can still be seen among the modern Tuareg people), but unusual further north. Although practical for the desert dust, the Almoravids insisted on wearing the veil everywhere, as a badge of "foreignness" in urban settings, partly as a way of emphasizing their puritan credentials. It served as the uniform of the Almoravids, and under their rule, sumptuary laws forbade anybody else from wearing the veil, thereby making it the distinctive dress of the ruling class (the later Almohads made a point of mocking the Almoravid veil as symbolic of effeminacy and decadence.)
Origins[link]
The Berber peoples of the Maghreb in the early Middle Ages could be roughly classified into three major groups - the Zenata across the north, the Masmuda concentrated in central Morocco and the Sanhaja, clustered in two areas - the western part of the Sahara and the hills of the eastern Maghreb.[8][9] The eastern Sanhaja included the Kutama Berbers, who had been the base of the Fatimid rise in the early 10th C., and the Zirid dynasty who ruled Ifriqiya as vassals of the Fatimids after the latter moved to Egypt in 972. The western Sanhaja were divided into several tribes - the Gazzula and the Lamta in the Draa valley and the foothills of the Anti-Atlas range, further south, encamped in the western Sahara desert, were the Massufa, the Lamtuna and the Banu Warith, and most southerly of all, the Gudala (or Judala), in littoral Mauritania down to the borderlands of the Senegal river.
The western Sanhaja had been converted to Islam sometime in the 9th C. They were subsequently united in the 10th C., and with the zeal of neophyte converts launched several campaigns against the "Sudanese" (pagan black peoples of sub-Saharan Africa).[10] Under their king Tinbarutan ibn Usfayshar, the Sanhaja Lamtuna erected (or captured) the citadel of Awdaghust, a critical stop on the trans-Saharan trade route. After the collapse of the Sanhaja union, Awdagust passed over to the Ghana empire and the trans-Saharan routes were taken over by the Zenata Maghrawa of Sijilmassa. The Maghrawa also exploited this disunion to dislodge the Sanhaja Gazzula and Lamta out of their pasturelands in the Sous and Draa valleys. Around 1035, the Lamtuna chieftain Abu Abdallah Muhammad ibn Tifat (alias Tarsina), tried to reunite the Sanhaja desert tribes, but his reign lasted less than three years.
Around 1040, Yahya ibn Ibrahim, a chieftain of the Gudala (and brother-in-law of the late Tarsina), went on pilgrimage to Mecca. On his return, he stopped by Kairouan in Ifriqiya, where he met Abu Imran al-Fasi, a native of Fes and a jurist and scholar of the Sunni Maliki school. At this time, Ifriqiya was in ferment, the Zirid ruler al-Muizz ibn Badis, was openly contemplating breaking with his Shi'ite Fatimid overlords in Cairo, and the jurists of Kairouan were agitating for him to do so. Absorbing this heady atmosphere, Yahya and Abu Imran fell into conversation on the state of the faith in their western homelands, and Yahya expressed his disappointment on the lack of religious education and negligence of Islamic law among his southern Sanhaja people. With Abu Imran's recommendation, Yahya ibn Ibrahim made his way to the ribat of Waggag ibn Zelu in the Sous valley of southern Morocco, to seek out a Maliki teacher for his people. Waggag assigned him one of his residents, Abdallah ibn Yasin.
Abdallah ibn Yasin was a Gazzula Berber, and probably a convert rather than a born Muslim. His name can be read as "son of Ya Sin" (the title of the 36th Sura of the Qur'an), suggesting he had obliterated his family past and was "re-born" of the Holy Book.[11] Ibn Yasin certainly had the ardor of a puritan zealot, his creed was mainly characterized by a rigid formalism and a strict adherence to the dictates of the Qur'an, and the Orthodox tradition.[12] (chroniclers like al-Bakri allege Ibn Yasin's own learning was superficial.) Ibn Yasin's initial meetings with the Gudala people went poorly. With more ardor than depth, Ibn Yasin's arguments were disputed by his audience. He responded to questioning with charges of apostasy and handed out harsh punishments for the slightest deviations. The Gudala soon had enough and expelled him almost immediately after the death of his protector, Yahya ibn Ibrahim, sometime in the 1040s.
Ibn Yasin, however, found a more favorable reception among the neighboring Lamtuna people.[12] Probably sensing the useful organizing power of Ibn Yasin's pious fervor, he was invited by the Lamtuna chieftain Yahya ibn Umar al-Lamtuni to preach to his people. The Lamtuna leaders, however, kept Ibn Yasin on a careful leash, forging a more productive partnership between them. Invoking stories of the early life of the Prophet Muhammad, Ibn Yasin preached that conquest was a necessary addendum to Islamicization, that it was not enough to merely adhere to God's law, but necessary to also destroy opposition to it. And, in Ibn Yasin's ideology, anything and everything outside of Islamic law could be characterized as "opposition". Tribalism, in particular, was singled out as an obstacle. Again, it was not enough to merely ask or urge his audiences to put aside their blood loyalties and ethnic differences, and embrace the equality of all Muslims under the Sacred Law, it was necessary to make them do so. For the Lamtuna leadership, this new ideology dovetailed with their long desire to refound the Sanhaja union and recover their lost dominions. In the early 1050s, the Lamtuna, under the joint leadership of Yahya ibn Umar and Abdallah ibn Yasin - soon calling themselves the al-Murabitin (Almoravids) - set out on campaign to bring their neighbors over to their cause.
Conquests[link]
Northern Africa[link]
From the year 1053, the Almoravids began to spread their religious way to the Berber areas of the Sahara, and to the regions south of the desert. After winning over the Sanhaja Berber tribe, they quickly took control of the entire desert trade route, seizing Sijilmasa at the northern end in 1054, and Aoudaghost at the southern end in 1055. Yahya ibn Umar was killed in a battle in 1057,[13] but Abdullah ibn Yasin, whose influence as a religious teacher was paramount, named his brother Abu Bakr ibn Umar as chief. Under him, the Almoravids soon began to spread their power beyond the desert, and subjected the tribes of the Atlas Mountains. They then came in contact with the Berghouata, a Berber tribal confederation, who followed a "heresy" founded by Salih ibn Tarif, three centuries earlier. The Berghouata resisted, and it was in battle with them that Abdullah ibn Yasin was killed in 1059, in a village called "Krifla" located near Rommani, Morocco. They were, however, completely conquered by Abu Bakr ibn Umar, and adopted Islam as a religion. Abu Bakr married a noble and wealthy woman, Zaynab an-Nafzawiyyat, that would become very influential in the development of the dynasty.[14] Zainab was the daughter of a wealthy merchant from Houara (a Masmuda tribe), who is said to be from Kairouan in origin.[14]
In 1061, Abu Bakr ibn Umar made a division of the power he had established, handing over the more-settled parts to his cousin Yusuf ibn Tashfin, as viceroy, resigning to him also his favourite wife Zainab. For himself, he reserved the task of suppressing the revolts which had broken out in the desert, but when he returned to resume control, he found his cousin too powerful to be superseded. In November 1087,[15] Abu Bakr was killed in battle by a poisoned arrow, while fighting in the historic region of the Sudan.[15]
Yusuf ibn Tashfin had in the meantime brought what is now known as Morocco, Western Sahara and Mauretania into complete subjection. In 1062 he founded the city of Marrakech. In 1080, he conquered the kingdom of Tlemcen (in modern-day Algeria) and founded the present city of that name, his rule extending as far east as Oran.[16]
Ghana Empire[link]
The Almoravids conquered the Ghana Empire sometime around 1075 CE.[17] According to Arab tradition, the ensuing war pushed Ghana over the edge, ending the kingdom's position as a commercial and military power by 1100, as it collapsed into tribal groups and chieftaincies, some of which later assimilated into the Almoravids while others founded the Mali Empire. However, the Almoravid religious influence was gradual and not heavily involved in military strife, as Almoravids increased in power by marrying among the nation's nobility. Scholars such as Dierk Lange attribute the decline of ancient Ghana to numerous unrelated factors, only one of which can be likely attributable to internal dynastic struggles that were instigated by Almalvorid influence and Islamic pressures, but devoid of any military conversion and conquest.[18]
Southern Iberia[link]
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This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2011) |
In 1086 Yusuf ibn Tashfin was invited by the taifa Muslim princes of the Iberian Peninsula (Al-Andalus) to defend their territories from Alfonso VI, King of León and Castile. In that year, Yusuf ibn Tashfin crossed the straits to Algeciras, and defeated Castile at the Battle of az-Zallaqah (Battle of Sagrajas). He was prevented from following up his victory by trouble in Africa, which he chose to settle in person.
He returned to Iberia in 1090, avowedly for the purpose of annexing the taifa states of Iberia. He was supported by the bulk of Iberian peoples, who were discontent with the heavy taxation imposed upon them by their spend-thrift rulers. Their religious teachers, as well as others in the east, (most notably, al-Ghazali in Persia and al-Tartushi in Egypt, who was himself an Iberian by birth, from Tortosa), detested taifa rulers for their religious indifference. The clerics issued a fatwa (a non-binding legal opinion) that Yusuf had good moral and religious right, to dethrone the rulers, whom he saw as heterodox. By 1094, Yusuf had annexed most major taifas, with the exception of the one at Zaragoza. Yusuf did not reconquer much from the Christian kingdoms, except Valencia, but he did slow down the reconquesta by uniting al-Andalus.
After friendly correspondence with the caliph at Baghdad, whom he acknowledged as Amir al-Mu'minin ("Commander of the Faithful"), Yusuf ibn Tashfin in 1097 assumed the title of Amir al Muslimin ("Commander of the Muslims"). He died in 1106, when he was reputed to have reached the age of 100.
The Almoravid power was at its height at Yusuf's death, and the Moorish empire then included all North-West Africa as far as Algiers, and all of Iberia south of the Tagus, with the east coast as far as the mouth of the Ebro, and included the Balearic Islands.
Decline[link]
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This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2011) |
Three years afterwards, under Yusuf's son and successor, Ali ibn Yusuf, Sintra and Santarém were added, and Iberia was again invaded in 1119 and 1121, but the tide had turned, the French having assisted the Aragonese to recover Zaragoza. In 1138, Ali ibn Yusuf was defeated by Alfonso VII of León, and in the Battle of Ourique (1139), by Afonso I of Portugal, who thereby won his crown. Lisbon was recovered by the Portuguese in 1147.
According to some scholars Ali ibn Yusuf was a new generation of leadership that had forgot the desert life for the comforts of the city.[19] Under the combined action of his Christian foes in Iberia and the agitation of Almohads (the Muwahhids) in Morocco. After Ali ibn Yusuf's death in 1143, his son Tashfin ibn Ali lost ground rapidly before the Almohads, and in 1146 he was killed by a fall from a precipice while attempting to escape after a defeat near Oran.
His two successors were Ibrahim ibn Tashfin and Ishaq ibn Ali, but their reigns were short. The conquest of the city of Marrakech by the Almohads in 1147 marked the fall of the dynasty, though fragments of the Almoravids (the Banu Ghaniya), continued to struggle in the Balearic Islands, and finally in Tunisia.
Family names such as Morabito, Murabito and Mirabito are common in western Sicily, the Aeolian Islands and southern Calabria in Italy. These names may have appeared in this region as early as the eleventh century, when Robert Guiscard and the Normans conquered the Muslim emirate of Sicily. In addition to southern Italy, there are also sizable populations of Mourabit (also spelled Morabit, Murabit or Morabet) in modern-day Morocco, Tunisia, Egypt and Mauritania.
Military organization[link]
Abdallah ibn Yassin imposed very strict disciplining measures on his forces for every breach of his laws.[20] The Almoravids' first military leader, Yahya ibn Umar al-Lamtuni, gave them a good military organization.[16] Their main force was infantry, armed with javelins in the front ranks and pikes behind, which formed into a phalanx;[16][21] and was supported by camelmen and horsemen on the flanks.[16][21] They also had a flag carrier at the front who guided the forces behind him; when the flag was upright the combatants behind would stand and when turned down, they would sit.[21]
al-Bakri reports that, while in combat, the Almoravids did not pursue those who fled in front of them.[21] Their fighting was tense and they did not retreat when disadvantaged by an advancing opposing force and preferred death over defeat.[21] These characteristics were possibly unusual at the time.[21]
List of Almoravid rulers[link]
- Abdallah ibn Yasin (1040–1059) - founder & spiritual leader
- Yahya ibn Umar al-Lamtuni (c. 1050-1056)
- Abu Bakr ibn Umar (1056–1087) - partitioned reign from 1072.
- Yusuf ibn Tashfin (c. 1072–1106)
- Ali ibn Yusuf (1106–43)
- Tashfin ibn Ali (1143–45)
- Ibrahim ibn Tashfin (1145-1147)
- Ishaq ibn Ali (1147)
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Notes[link]
- ^ Extract from Encyclopedia Universalis on Almoravids
- ^ Nehemia levtzion, "Abd Allah b. Yasin and the Almoravids", in: John Ralph Willis, Studies in West African Islamic History, p. 54
- ^ P.F. de Moraes Farias, "The Almoravids: Some Questions Concerning the Character of the Movement", Bulletin de l’IFAN, series B, 29:3-4 (794-878), 1967
- ^ Ibn Abi Zar, p81
- ^ Ibn Abi Zar's account in translated in N. Levtzion and J.F.P. Hopkins, 2000, editors, Corpus of Early Arabic Sources for West African History, University of Ghana, p.239ff. For tentative identification of the ribat, see Moraes Farias (1967)
- ^ Ibn al-Zayyat (1220). التشوف إلى معرفة رجال التصوف [Looking to know the men of Sufism]. pp. 89.
- ^ Qadi Ayyad (12th-century). ترتيب المدارك وتنوير المسالك لمعرفة أعلام مذهب مالك. [Biographies of Eminent Maliki Scholars]. pp. 839–840.
- ^ ʻAbd al-Wāḥid Dhannūn Ṭāhā (1998). The Muslim conquest and settlement of North Africa and Spain. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-00474-8. (online at Google Books)
- ^ Mones (1988: p.119; 1992: p.228)
- ^ Lewicki (1988:p.160-61; 1992: p.308-09)
- ^ M.Brett and E. Fentress (1996)The Berbers Oxford: Blackwell, p.100; Revealingly, the 36th Sura begins the salutation "You are one of messengers" and the imperative duty to set people "on the straight path". Ibn Yasin's choice of name was probably not a coincidence.
- ^ a b Shillington, Kevin (2005). History of Africa. 175 5th Avenue, New York, NY, USA: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 88. ISBN 978-0-333-59957-0.
- ^ Shillington 90
- ^ a b Ibn Abi Zar p87
- ^ a b Ibn Abi Zar, p89
- ^ a b c d Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press
- ^ Muslim Societies in African History (New approaches to African History) David Robinson
- ^ Lange, Dierk (1996). "The Almoravid expansion and the downfall of Ghana", Der Islam 73, pp. 122-159
- ^ North Africa, Islam and the Mediterranean World: From the Almoravids to the Algerian War (History & Society in the Islamic World) pg 59 By Julia Ann Clancy-Smith
- ^ al-Bakri, pp.169-172
- ^ a b c d e f al-Bakri, p166
References[link]
- Ibn Khaldun, Abderahman (1377). تاريخ ابن خلدون: ديوان المبتدأ و الخبر في تاريخ العرب و البربر و من عاصرهم من ذوي الشأن الأكبر [The history of Ibn Khaldun: Record of the Beginnings and Events in the History of the Arabs and Berbers and their Powerful Contemporaries]. 6. دار الفكر.
- Ibn Abi Zar al-Fassi, Ali Abu al-Hassan (1326). روض القرطاس في أخبار ملوك المغرب و تاريخ مدينة فاس [The Garden of Pages in the Chronicles of the Kings of Morocco and the History of the City of Fes]. Uppsala University.
- al-Bakri (1068). كتاب المسالك و الممالك [Book of the Roads and the Kingdoms]. دار الكتاب الإسلامي, القاهرة.
- Ibn Idhari al-Murakushi, Ahmad (1312). البيان المغرب في أخبار الأندلس والمغرب [Book of the Amazing Story in the Chronicles of the Kings of al-Andalus and Morocco]. جامعة الملك سعود.
- Brett,M. and E. Fentress (1996) The Berbers. Oxford: Blackwell
- Hrbek, I. and J. Devisse (1988) "The Almoravids", in M. Elfasi, editor, General History of Africa, Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century, UNESCO. 1992 ed., Ch. 13, pp. 336–366.
- Lewicki, T. (1988) "The Role of the Sahara and Saharians in relationships between north and south", in M. Elfasi, editor, General History of Africa, Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century, UNESCO. 1992 ed., ch.11, p. 276-313.
- Levtzion, N. and J.F.P. Hopkins, editors, (1981) Corpus of Early Arabic Sources for West African History, Cambridge, UK" Cambridge University Press. 2000 edition.
- Messier,R.A. (2010) Almoravids and the Meanings of Jihad Santa Barbara, Calif.: Praeger.
- Mones, H. (1988) "The conquest of North Africa and Berber resistance", in M. Elfasi, editor, General History of Africa, Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century, UNESCO. 1992 ed.M, Ch. 9, p. 224-46.
- Moraes Farias, P.F. de (1967), "The Almoravids: Some Questions Concerning the Character of the Movement", Bulletin de l’IFAN, series B, 29:3-4, pp. 794–878.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Almoravides". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
| Preceded by Idrisid Dynasty |
Almoravid Dynasty 1040–1147 |
Succeeded by Almohad Dynasty |
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http://wn.com/Almoravid_dynasty
Related pages:
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http://id.wn.com/Murabitun
http://es.wn.com/Almorávide
http://ru.wn.com/Альморавиды
http://nl.wn.com/Almoraviden
http://pt.wn.com/Almorávidas
http://pl.wn.com/Almorawidzi
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This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
For other uses, see Joe Chambers (basketball).
| Joe Chambers | |
|---|---|
| Birth name | Joe Chambers |
| Born | (1942-06-25) June 25, 1942 (age 70) |
| Origin | Stoneacre, Virginia, United States |
| Genres | Jazz |
| Occupations | Musician, composer |
| Instruments | Drum kit, piano, vibraphone |
| Associated acts | Wayne Shorter, Eric Dolphy, M'Boom |
Joe Chambers (born June 25, 1942) is an American jazz drummer, pianist, vibraphonist and composer. He attended the Philadelphia Conservatory for one year.[1] In the 1960s and 70s Chambers gigged with many high-profile artists such as Eric Dolphy, Charles Mingus, Lou Donaldson, Chick Corea, Freddie Hubbard, Jimmy Giuffre and Bobby Hutcherson. Other artists Joe Chambers has worked with in his career include Andrew Hill, Archie Shepp, Miles Davis, David Murray, Joe Henderson, Franck Amsallem and Max Roach. He has been a member of several incarnations of Roach's M'Boom percussion ensemble.[2]
He has also taught, including at the New School for Jazz and Contemporary Music in New York, NY. At the school he leads the "Outlaw Band,"[3][4][5][6] In 2008, he was hired to be the Thomas S. Kenan Distinguished Professor of Jazz in the Department of Music at the University of North Carolina Wilmington.[7]
Contents |
Discography[link]
As leader[link]
- 1971: The Almoravid
- 1973: Almoravid, (Muse)
- 1976: New World, (Finite)
- 1977: Double Exposure (Muse)
- 1981: New York Concerto
- 1991: Phantom of the City
- 1998: Mirrors (Blue Note)
- 2006: The Outlaw
- 2010: Horace to Max
With M'Boom
- Re: Percussion (Strata-East, 1973)
- M'Boom (Columbia, 1979)
- Collage (Soul Note, 1984)
As sideman[link]
With Donald Byrd
- Mustang! Blue Note, 1964
- Fancy Free Blue Note, 1969
With Chick Corea
- Tones for Joan's Bones Atlantic Records, 1966
With Miles Davis
- The Complete In A Silent Way Sessions, Blue Note Records, 1969
With Art Farmer
- Something Tasty, Baystate, 1979
With Don Friedman
- Metamorphosis, Prestige Records, 1966
With Joe Henderson
- Mode for Joe Blue Note, 1966
- Joe Henderson Big Band, Polygram Records, 1992
With Andrew Hill
- Andrew!!! Blue Note Records, 1964
- One For One, Blue Note Records, 1965
- Compulsion!!!!! Blue Note Records, 1965
With Freddie Hubbard
- Breaking Point, Blue Note Records, 1964
With Bobby Hutcherson
- Dialogue, Blue Note Records, 1965
- Components, Blue Note Records, 1965
- Happenings, Blue Note Records, 1966
- Spiral, Blue Note Records, 1965–1968
- Oblique, Blue Note Records, 1967
- Patterns, Blue Note Records, 1968
- Total Eclipse, Blue Note Records, 1968
- Medina, Blue Note Records, 1969
- Now!, Blue Note Records, 1969
With Hubert Laws
- Wild Flower (Atlantic, 1972)
With Charles Mingus
- Charles Mingus and Friends in Concert (Columbia, 1972)
- Something Like A Bird, Atlantic Records, 1978
- Me, Myself and Eye, Atlantic Records, 1978
With Sam Rivers
- Contours, Blue Note Records, 1965
With Woody Shaw
- Cassandranite, Muse, 1965
With Archie Shepp
- Fire Music, Impulse!, 1965
- On This Night, Impulse!, 1965
- New Thing at Newport, Impulse!, 1965 (also features a set by John Coltrane)
- For Losers Impulse!, 1969
- Kwanza Impulse!, 1969
- On Green Dolphin Street, Denon, 1977
With Wayne Shorter
- Et Cetera Blue Note, 1965
- The All Seeing Eye Blue Note, 1965
- Adam's Apple Blue Note, 1966
- Schizophrenia Blue Note, 1967
With The Super Jazz Trio
- The Super Jazz Trio, Baystate Records, 1978
- The Standard, Baystate Records, 1980
With Hidefumi Toki
- City, Baystate Records, 1978
With Charles Tolliver
- Paper Man (1969) - Black Lion Records
With McCoy Tyner
- Tender Moments Blue Note, 1967
With Miroslav Vitous
- Infinite Search, Embryo, 1969
With Tyrone Washington
- Natural Essence Blue Note, 1967
With Joe Zawinul
References[link]
- ^ Joe Chambers Interview
- ^ allmusic ((( Joe Chambers > Biography )))
- ^ Jazz News: Joe Chambers and the Outlaw Band at The New School for Jazz and Contemporary Music February 28, 8:00 pm
- ^ untitled
- ^ Faculty Biographies - The New School for Jazz and Contemporary Music
- ^ Mannes Jazz Faculty Biographies
- ^ Welcome to University of North Carolina Wilmington News
External links[link]
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Chambers, Joe |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | |
| Date of birth | June 25, 1942 |
| Place of birth | |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
http://wn.com/Joe_Chambers
Related pages:
http://cs.wn.com/Joe Chambers
http://fr.wn.com/Joe Chambers
http://de.wn.com/Joe Chambers
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Chambers
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
For Arabs in Sri Lanka, see Sri Lankan Moors.
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This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page.
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The description Moors has referred to several historic and modern populations of Berber, Black African and Arab descent from Northern Africa, who came to conquer, occupy and rule the Iberian Peninsula for nearly 800 years.[citation needed] At that time they were Muslim, although earlier the people had followed other religions. They called the territory Al Andalus, comprising most of what is now Spain and Portugal.
" Moors" are not a distinct or self-defined people. Medieval and early modern Europeans applied the name primarily to Berbers, but also at various times to Arabs, Muslim Iberians[1] and West Africans from Mali and Niger who had been absorbed into the Almoravid dynasty.[2] Mainstream scholars observed in 1911 that "The term 'Moors' has no real ethnological value."[3]
The Andalusian Moors of the late Medieval era inhabited the Iberian Peninsula after the Moorish conquests of the Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphates, and the final Umayyad conquest of Hispania.[citation needed] The Moors' rule stretched at times as far as modern-day Mauritania, West African countries, and the Senegal River. Earlier, the Classical Romans interacted with (and later conquered) parts of Mauretania, a state that covered northern portions of modern Morocco and much of north western and central Algeria during the classical period. The people of the region were noted in Classical literature as the Mauri.
The term Mauri, or variations, was later used by European traders and explorers of the 16th to 18th centuries to designate ethnic Berber and Arab groups speaking the Hassaniya Arabic dialect.[citation needed] Today such groups inhabit Mauritania and parts of Algeria, western Sahara, Morocco, Niger and Mali.[4] Speakers of European languages have historically designated a number of associated ethnic groups as "Moors". In modern Iberia, the term is applied to people of Moroccan ethnicity living in Europe. "Moor" is sometimes colloquially applied to any person from North Africa. Some people to whom it is applied consider the term pejorative and racist.
Contents |
Etymology[link]
In Latin, the word maurus (plural mauri) means coming from Mauretania, a Roman province on the northwestern fringe of Africa. In the Medieval Romance languages (such as Portuguese, Spanish, French, Italian,Romanian), the root appeared in such forms as mouro, moro, moir, mor and maur. Derivatives are found in today's versions of the languages. Some derive the word from the ancient Greek mauros, meaning "dark".
Through nominalization, the root has taken on a variety of meanings. Moreno, from the Latin root, can mean "tanned" in Spain and Portugal, as well as in Brazil. In Cuba and other Spanish-speaking countries, it can mean "black person" or "mulatto".[citation needed] Also in Spanish, morapio is a humorous name for "wine", especially that which has not been "baptized" or mixed with water, i.e., pure unadulterated wine. Among Spanish speakers, moro ("Moor") came to have a broader meaning, applied to both Moros of Mindanao in the Philippines, and the moriscos of Granada. Moro is used to describe all things dark, as in "Moor", moreno, etc. It was used as a nickname; for instance, the Milanese Duke Ludovico Sforza was called Il Moro because of his dark complexion. In Polish murzyn means a black person and can be perceived either as a neutral or pejorative term.
In Portugal and Spain, mouro (feminine, moura) may also refer to supernatural beings known as enchanted moura, where "moor" implies 'alien' and 'non-Christian'; These beings were siren-like fairies with golden or reddish hair and a fair face. They were believed to have magical properties.[5] From this root, the name moor is also applied to unbaptised children, meaning not Christian.[6][7] In Basque, mairu means moor and also refers to a mythical people.[8][dead link]
History[link]
See also: Domain of Moor
Overview[link]
Although the Moors came to be identified as Muslim, the name Moor pre-dates Islam. It derives from the small Numidian Kingdom of Maure of the 3rd century BCE in what is now northern central and western part of Algeria and a part of northern Morocco.[9] The name was applied to people of the entire region. "They were called Maurisi by the Greeks", wrote Strabo, "and Mauri by the Romans."[10] During that age, the Maure or Moors were trading partners of Carthage, the independent city state founded by Phoenicians. During the second Punic war between Carthage and Rome, two Moorish Numidian kings took different sides, Syphax with Carthage, Masinissa with the Romans, decisively so at Zama.
Thereafter, the Moors entered into treaties with Rome. King Jugurtha responded to violence against merchants with war. Juba, a later king, was a friend of Rome. Eventually, the Roman Empire incorporated the region as the provinces of Mauretania Caesariensis and Mauretania Tingitana. The area around Carthage was already part of the province of Africa. Roman rule was effective enough so that these provinces became integrated into the empire.
During the Christian era, two prominent Berber churchmen were Tertullian and St. Augustine. After the fall of Rome, the Germanic kingdom of the Vandals ruled much of the area.
Neither Vandal nor Byzantine could extend effective rule; the interior remained under Moorish Berber control.[11] For more than 50 years, the Berbers resisted Arab armies from the east. Among its memorable resistance were the forces led by Kahina, the Berber prophetess of the Awras, during 690–701. By 700 CE, or the 92nd lunar year after the Hijra, the Arab Muslims dominated North Africa.[12]
Moors of Iberia[link]
Main article: Al-Andalus
In 711 AD, the now Islamic Moors conquered Visigothic Christian Hispania. Their general, Tariq ibn-Ziyad, brought most of Iberia under Islamic rule in an eight-year campaign. They moved northeast across the Pyrenees Mountains, but were defeated by the Frank Charles Martel at the Battle of Poitiers in 732 AD.
The Moorish state fell into civil conflict in the 750s. The Moors ruled in North Africa and in most of the Iberian peninsula for several decades. They were resisted in areas in the northwest (such as Asturias, where they were defeated at the battle of Covadonga) and the largely Basque regions in the Pyrenees. Though the number of Moor colonists was small, many native Iberian inhabitants converted to Islam. According to Ronald Segal, by 1200 AD, some 5.6 million of Iberia's 7 million inhabitants, nearly all native inhabitants, were Muslim.[13] In the late 15th century, the persecution of Muslims and forced conversion to Catholicism caused a mass exodus.
In a process of decline, the Al Andalus had broken up into a number of Islamic-ruled fiefdoms, or taifas, which were partly consolidated under the Caliphate of Córdoba.[citation needed]
The Asturias, a small northwestern Christian Iberian kingdom, initiated the Reconquista (the "reconquest") soon after the Islamic conquest in the 8th century. Christian states based in the north and west slowly extended their power over the rest of Iberia. Navarre, Galicia, León, Portugal, Aragón, Catalonia or Marca Hispanica, and Castile began a process of expansion and internal consolidation during the next several centuries under the flag of Reconquista.
In 1212, a coalition of Christian kings under the leadership of Alfonso VIII of Castile drove the Muslims from Central Iberia. The Portuguese side of the Reconquista ended in 1249 with the conquest of the Algarve (Arabic الغرب — Al-Gharb) under Afonso III. He was the first Portuguese monarch to claim the title "King of Portugal and the Algarve".
The Moorish Kingdom of Granada continued for three more centuries in the southern Iberia. On January 2, 1492, the leader of the last Muslim stronghold in Granada surrendered to armies of a recently united Christian Spain (after the marriage of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, the Catholic Monarchs). They forced the remaining Muslims and Jews to leave Spain, convert to Roman Catholic Christianity or be killed for not doing so. To exert social and religious control, in 1480, Isabella and Ferdinand agreed to allow the Inquisition in Spain.
The Inquisition was aimed mostly at Jews and Muslims who had overtly converted to Christianity but were thought to be practicing their faiths secretly. They were respectively called marranos and moriscos. The Inquisition also attacked heretics who rejected Roman Catholic orthodoxy, including alumbras, who practiced a personal mysticism or spiritualism. The latter represented a significant portion of the peasants in some territories, such as Aragon, Valencia or Andalusia. In the years from 1609 to 1614, the government expelled such subjects. The historian Henri Lapeyre estimated that this affected 300,000 out of an estimated total of 8 million inhabitants.[14]
Many Muslims converted to Christianity and remained permanently in Iberia. This is indicated by a "high mean proportion of ancestry from North African (10.6%)" that "attests to a high level of religious conversion (whether voluntary or enforced), driven by historical episodes of social and religious intolerance, that ultimately led to the integration of descendants.".[15][16]
In the meantime, the tide of Islam had rolled not just to Iberia, but also eastward, through India, the Malayan peninsula, and Indonesia up to the Philippines. This was one of the major islands of an archipelago which the Spaniards had reached during their voyages westward from the New World. By 1521, the ships of Magellan[citation needed] and other Spanish explorers had reached that island archipelago, which they named Las Islas de Filipinas, after Philip II of Spain. In Mindanao, the Spaniards named the kris-bearing people as Moros or 'Moors'. Today in the Philippines, this ethnic group of people in Mindanao, who are generally Muslims, are called 'Moros'. This identification of Islamic people as Moros persists in the modern Spanish language spoken in Spain, and as Mouros in the modern Portuguese language. See Reconquista, and Maure.
According to historian Richard A. Fletcher,[17] 'the number of Arabs who settled in Iberia was very small. "Moorish" Iberia does at least have the merit of reminding us that the bulk of the invaders and settlers were Moors, i.e. Berbers from Algeria and Morocco.'.
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Reconquista
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The Moors request permission from James I of Aragon
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Christian and Moor playing lute, 13th century
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Muhammad XII of Granada, last Moorish sultan in Spain
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Leo Africanus, born in Granada
.jpg)
Medieval Southern Italy[link]
See also: History of Islam in southern Italy and Arab-Norman culture
The first Muslim conquest of Sicily and parts of southern Italy lasted 75 years (827–902). By 827, Sicily was almost entirely in control of the Aghlabids with the exception of some minor strongholds in the rugged interior until 909 when it was then replaced by Shiite Fatimids. Four years later, the Fatimid governor was ousted from Palermo when the island declared its independence under Emir Ahmed ibn-Kohrob.
In 1038, a Byzantine army under George Maniaces crossed the strait of Messina. This included a corps of Normans which saved the situation in the first clash against the Muslims from Messina. After another decisive victory in the summer of 1040, Maniaces halted his march to lay siege to Syracuse. Despite his conquest of the latter, Maniaces was removed from his position, and the subsequent Muslim counter-offensive reconquered all the cities captured by the Byzantines.
The Norman Robert Guiscard, son of Tancred, invaded Sicily in 1060. The island was split between three Arab emirs, and the majority Christian population rose up against the ruling Muslims. One year later, Messina fell, and in 1072, Palermo was taken by the Normans. The loss of the cities, each with a splendid harbor, dealt a severe blow to Muslim power on the island. Eventually all of Sicily was taken. In 1091, Noto in the southern tip of Sicily and the island of Malta, the last Arab stongholds, fell to the Christians.
Islamic authors would marvel at the tolerance of the Norman kings of Sicily. Ibn al-Athir wrote: "They [the Muslims] were treated kindly, and they were protected, even against the Franks. Because of that, they had great love for king Roger."[18]
Many repressive measures were introduced by Frederick II to please the popes who were intolerant of Islam in the heart of Christendom. This resulted in a rebellion by Sicilian Muslims, which in turn triggered organized resistance and systematic reprisals and marked the final chapter of Islam in Sicily. The Muslim problem characterized Hohenstaufen rule in Sicily under Henry VI and his son Frederick II. The complete eviction of Muslims and the annihilation of Islam in Sicily was completed by the late 1240s when the final deportations to Lucera took place.
Modern age[link]
Beside its usage in historical context, Moor and Moorish (Italian and Spanish: moro, French: maure, Portuguese: mouro, Romanian: maur) is used to designate an ethnic group speaking the Hassaniya Arabic dialect. They inhabit Mauritania and parts of Algeria, Western Sahara, Tunisia, Morocco, Niger and Mali. In Niger and Mali, these peoples are also known as the Azawagh Arabs, after the Azawagh region of the Sahara.[19]
In Spain, modern colloquial Spanish use of the term "Moro" is derogatory for Moroccans in particular[20][21][22][23][24] and North Africans in general. Similarly, in modern, colloquial Portuguese, the term "Mouro" was primarily used as a designation for North Africans and secondarily as a derogatory and ironic term by northern Portuguese to refer to the inhabitants of the southern parts of the country (Lisbon, Alentejo and Algarve). However, this designation has gotten more acceptance in the South.
In the Philippines, a former Spanish colony, many residents call the local Muslim population in the Southern islands Moros. They also self-identify that way (see Muslim Filipino). The term was introduced by the Spanish colonizers. Within the context of Portuguese colonization, in Sri Lanka (Portuguese Ceylon), Muslims of Arab origin are called Moors (see Sri Lankan Moors).
Religious relations[link]
The initial rule of the Moors in the Iberian peninsula under this Caliphate of Córdoba is regarded as tolerant in its acceptance of Christians, Muslims and Jews living in the same territories.[citation needed] The Caliphate of Córdoba collapsed in 1031 and the Islamic territory in Iberia fell under the rule of the Almoravid dynasty. This second stage inaugurated an era of Moorish rulers guided by a version of Islam that left behind the tolerant practices of the past.[citation needed][dubious – discuss]
Architecture[link]
Main article: Moorish architecture
Moorish architecture is a term used to describe the articulated Islamic architecture of North Africa and parts of Spain and Portugal where the Moors were dominant from 711–1492. The best surviving examples are La Mezquita in Córdoba and the Alhambra palace (mainly 1338–1390),[25] and also the Giralda in 1184.[26] Other notable examples include the ruined palace city of Medina Azahara (936–1010), the church (former mosque) San Cristo de la Luz in Toledo, the Aljafería in Saragossa and baths at for example Ronda and Alhama de Granada.
Heraldry[link]
In European heraldry the Moors are shown as black Africans, most frequently as a couped (i.e. severed) head with the temples wreathed.[citation needed]
Population genetics[link]
See also: Berbers#Genetic evidence
Shomarka Keita, a biological anthropologist from Howard University, has claimed that populations in Carthage circa 200 BC and northern Algeria 1500 BC were very diverse. As a group, they plotted closest to the populations of Northern Egypt and intermediate to Northern Europeans and tropical Africans. Keita claimed that "the data supported the comments from ancient authors observed by classicists: everything from fair-skinned blonds to peoples who were dark-skinned 'Ethiopian' or part Ethiopian in appearance."[27] Modern evidence showed a similar diversity among present North Africans. Moreover, this "diversity" of phenotypes and peoples was probably due to in situ differentiation, not foreign influxes. Of course foreign influxes certainly had an impact but they did not replace the indigenous Berber population.[28]
The Y chromosome p49a,f TaqI Haplotype V, which corresponds to Y haplogroup E1b1b1b (M81) —formerly E3b1b, E3b2 and colloquially referred to as the "Berber marker"— has been found among 68.9% of modern Berbers in North Africa and as high as 80% in one group. It is believed to be about 5,600 years old,[29] and to have arrived with the Neolithic expansion from the Near East. M81 is not found in Sub-Saharan Africa. This haplotype has also been observed in as high as 40% of one small group of Andalusians tested. Generally it appears at much lower frequencies among Iberian populations, and lower as distance from North Africa increases.[30]
Y DNA haplogroup E1b1b (formerly E3b) predominates among North African populations; its E1b1b1b subgroup (M81) is identified especially with Berbers. The Vb subtype of p49a,f Haplotype V, apparently corresponding to E3b1b, has been found to occur in two-thirds of the Haplotype V Southern Iberians, that is, in about a quarter of all Andalusians tested. The frequency of Vb is at its highest among Berbers, and was found to decline rapidly from West to East among North Africans sampled. It is uncommon in France and Italy.[30]
A 2006 mitochondrial DNA study of 12th to 13th century Islamic remains from Priego de Córdoba, Spain, indicates a higher proportion (4%) of sub-Saharan African lineages. This is attributed only partially to the period of Moorish occupation; researchers believe that more ancient migrations from Africa to Europe were more significant.[31]
| “ | Mitochondrial DNA sequences and restriction fragment polymorphisms were retrieved from three Islamic 12th to 13th century samples of 71 bones and teeth (with >85% efficiency) from Madinat Baguh (today called Priego de Córdoba, Spain). Compared with 108 saliva samples from the present population of the same area, the medieval samples show a higher proportion of sub-Saharan African lineages that can only partially be attributed to the historic Muslim occupation. In fact, the unique sharing of transition 16175, in L1b lineages, with Europeans, instead of Africans, suggests a more ancient arrival to Europe from Africa. The present-day Priego sample is more similar to the current south Iberian population than to the medieval sample from the same area. The increased gene flow in modern times could be the main cause of this difference. | ” |
Notable Moors[link]
See also: List of Berbers and List of Arab scientists and scholars
- Lusius Quietus, a Roman general, governor of Iudaea in 117. Originally a Berber prince, his military ability won him the favor of Trajan, who even designated him as his successor. During the emperor's Parthian campaign, the numerous Jewish inhabitants of Babylonia revolted and were relentlessly suppressed by Quietus, who was rewarded by being appointed governor of Judea. Restlessness in the region caused Trajan to send his favorite, as a legate of consular rank, to Judea, where he continued his sanguinary course.
- Macrinus, 164–218, a Berber officer, prefect of the Praetorian Guard under Caracalla. In 217–218, he became the first Roman emperor who was not a senator.
- Gildo, a Berber chieftain who instigated a rebellion against the Roman Empire in 398.
- Tariq ibn Ziyad, Berber general who defeated the Visigoths and conquered Hispania in 711.
- Al-Mansur, reigned 754–775, second Caliph of the Abbasid Caliphate; his mother was a Berber.
- Abd ar-Rahman I, founder of the Umayyad Emirate of Córdoba in 756; along with its succeeding Caliphate of Córdoba, the dynasty ruled Islamic Spain for three centuries.
- Abbas Ibn Firnas, 810–887, Berber inventor and aviator who invented an early parachute and made the first attempt at controlled flight with a hang glider.
- Maslamah Ibn Ahmad al-Majriti, died 1007, Andalusian writer believed to have been the author of the Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity and the Picatrix.
- Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis), Andalusian physician and surgeon who established the discipline of surgery as a profession with his Al-Tasrif in 1000.
- Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī (Arzachel), 1028–1087, Andalusian astronomer and engineer who developed the equatorium and universal (latitude-independent) astrolabe and compiled a Zij later used as a basis for the Tables of Toledo.
- Ibn Bajjah (Avempace), died 1138, Andalusian physicist and polymath whose theory of motion, including the concept of a reaction force, influenced the development of classical mechanics.
- Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar), 1091–1161, Andalusian physician and polymath who discovered the existence of parasites and pioneered experimental surgery.
- Muhammad al-Idrisi, circa 1100–1166, Moorish geographer and polymath who drew the Tabula Rogeriana, the most accurate world map in pre-modern times.
- Ibn Tufail, circa 1105–1185, Arabic writer and polymath who wrote Hayy ibn Yaqdhan, the first philosophical novel.
- Ibn Rushd (Averroes), 1126–1198, classical Islamic philosopher and polymath who wrote The Incoherence of the Incoherence and the most extensive Aristotelian commentaries, and established the school of Averroism.
- Ibn al-Baitar, died 1248, Andalusian botanist and pharmacist who compiled the most extensive pharmacopoeia and botanical compilation in pre-modern times.
- Ibn Battuta, 1304–1368, a Berber traveller who was the most prolific explorer in pre-modern times, travelling 73,000 miles across much of the Old World.
- Ibn Khaldun, a pioneer of the social sciences and forerunner of sociology, historiography and economics, who wrote the Muqaddimah in 1377.
- Abū al-Hasan ibn Alī al-Qalasādī, 1412–1486, Moorish mathematician who took the first steps toward the introduction of algebraic symbolism.
- Othello, the fictitious hero in the eponymous play by William Shakespeare, published in 1604. The character of Othello was a mercenary who served in the war between Venice and the Ottoman Empire, who married the daughter of a Venetian nobleman.
- Estevanico, also referred to as "Stephen the Moor", was an explorer in the service of Spain of what is now the southwest of the United States.
- Monostatos, a fictional corrupt henchman in Mozart's The Magic Flute.
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Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Moors |
Bibliography[link]
- This section's bibliographical information is not fully provided. If you know these sources and can provide full information, you can help Wikipedia by completing it.
- Jan Carew, Rape of Paradise
- David Brion Davis, "Slavery: Black, White, Muslim, Christian"
- Herodotus, The Histories
- Shomark O.Y. Keita, "Genetic Haplotyes in North Africa"
- Shomark O.Y. Keita, "Craniometric Data from North Africa
- Shomark O.Y. Keita, "Further Craniometric Data from North Africa"
- Shomark O.Y. Keita, "Bernal vs. Snowden"
- Bernard Lewis, "The Middle East"
- Bernard Lewis, "The Muslim Discovery of Europe"
- Bernard Lewis, "Race and Slavery in Islam"
- Stanley Lane-Poole, Turkey (1888)
- Stanley Lane-Poole, The Barbary Corsairs (1890)
- Stanley Lane-Poole, The History of the Moors in Spain
- J.A. Rogers, Nature Knows no Color Line
- Ronald Segal, "Islam's Black Slaves"
- Ivan van Sertima, The Golden Age of the Moor
- Frank Snowdon, "Before Color Prejudice"
- Frank Snowdon, "Blacks in Antiquity"
- David M. Goldenberg, "The Curse of Ham"
- Lucotte and Mercier, various genetic studies
- Eva Borreguero. "The Moors Are Coming, the Moors Are Coming! Encounters with Muslims in Contemporary Spain". Islam and Christian-Muslim relations, 2006, vol. 17, no4, pp. 417–432. Center for Muslim-Christian Understanding, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C.
- "The Moors" by Ross Brann, published on New York University website.
See also[link]
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References[link]
- ^ Ross Brann, "The Moors?", Andalusia, New York University. Quote: "Andalusi Arabic sources, as opposed to later Mudéjar and Morisco sources in Aljamiado and medieval Spanish texts, neither refer to individuals as Moors nor recognize any such group, community or culture."
- ^ Ivan Van Sertima, Golden Age of the Moor, Volume 11[page needed]
- ^ "Moors", Britannica Encyclopedia (1911), p. 811
- ^ Online Etymology Dictionary
- ^ Xosé Manuel González Reboredo, Leyendas Gallegas de Tradición Oral (Galician Legends of the Oral Tradition), Galicia: Editorial Galaxia, 2004, p. 18, Googlebooks, accessed 12 Jul 2010 (Spanish)
- ^ Rodney Gallop, Portugal: A Book of Folkways, Cambridge University Press (CUP), 1936; reprint CUP Archives, 1961, Googlebooks, accessed 12 Jul 2010
- ^ Francisco Martins Sarmento, "A Mourama", in Revista de Guimaraes, No. 100, 1990, Centro de Estudos de Património, Universidade do Minho, accessed 12 Jul 2010 (Portuguese)
- ^ Euskadi.net (Spanish)
- ^ Michael Brett and Elizabeth Fentress, The Berbers at 25 & 77; Gabriel Camps, Les Berbères (Edisud 1996) at 20–21, 25
- ^ Strabo, Geographica (c.17 CE.) at XVIII,3,ii (cited by Rene Basset in Moorish Literature (N.Y., Collier 1901) at iii.
- ^ Jamil M. Abun-Nasr, A History of the Maghrib (Cambridge Univ., 1971) at 27, 38 & 43; Michael Brett and Elizabeth Fentress, The Berbers (Blackwell 1996) at 14, 24, 41–54; Henri Terrasse, History of Morocco (Casablanca: Atlantides 1952) at 39–49, esp. 43–44; Serge Lancel, Carthage (Librairie Artheme Fayard 1992, Blackwell 1995) at 396–401; Glenn Markoe, The Phoenicians, Berkeley, CA: Univ. of California, 2000, pp. 54–56
- ^ "The conquest of North Africa and Berber resistance" in General History of Africa
- ^ Ronald Segal, Islam's Black Slaves (2003), Atlantic Books, ISBN 1-903809-81-9
- ^ See History of Al-Andalus
- ^ Adams et al., "The Genetic Legacy of Religious Diversity and Intolerance: Paternal Lineages of Christians, Jews, and Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula", Cell, 2008. Quote: "Admixture analysis based on binary and Y-STR haplotypes indicates a high mean proportion of ancestry from North African (10.6%) ranging from zero in Gascony to 21.7% in Northwest Castile."
- ^ Elena Bosch, "The religious conversions of Jews and Muslims have had a profound impact on the population of the Iberian Peninsula", University of , 2008, Quote: "The study shows that religious conversions and the subsequent marriages between people of different lineage had a relevant impact on modern populations both in Spain, especially in the Balearic Islands, and in Portugal."
- ^ Richard Fletcher. Moorish Spain p10. University of California Press. 1993. ISBN 978-0-520-08496-4
- ^ Aubé, Pierre (2006). Les empires normands d’Orient. Editions Perrin. p. 168. ISBN 2-262-02297-6.
- ^ For an introduction to the culture of the Azawagh Arabs, see: Rebecca Popenoe, Feeding Desire — Fatness, Beauty and Sexuality among a Saharan People. Routledge, London (2003) ISBN 0-415-28096-6
- ^ Simms, Karl (1997). Translating sensitive texts: linguistic aspects. Rodopi. pp. 144. ISBN 978-90-420-0260-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=t4y7EHgCn8kC&pg=PA1&lpg=PA1&dq#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ Warwick Armstrong, James Anderson (2007). Geopolitics of European Union enlargement: the fortress empire. Routledge. pp. 83. ISBN 978-0-415-33939-1. http://books.google.com/books?id=0pmkrY29qkIC&dq.
- ^ Wessendorf, Susanne (2010). The multiculturalism backlash: European discourses, policies and practices. Taylor & Francis. pp. 171. ISBN 978-0-415-55649-1. http://books.google.com/books?id=wUaHVimJkT0C&dq.
- ^ Tariq Modood, Anna Triandafyllidou, Ricard Zapata-Barrero (2006). Multiculturalism, Muslims and citizenship: a European approach. Routledge. pp. 143. ISBN 978-0-415-35515-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=7OAAV5eEmy4C&dq.
- ^ Bekers, Elisabeth (2009). Transcultural modernities: narrating Africa in Europe. Rodopi. pp. 14. ISBN 978-90-420-2538-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=N4_on188WJwC&dq.
- ^ Curl p.502
- ^ Pevsner — The penguin dictionary of architecture
- ^ G. Mokhtar."General History of Africa: Ancient Civilizations of Africa", pg 427
- ^ "Studies of ancient crania from northern Africa", AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 83:35-48 (1990)
- ^ Arredi et al. (2004), A Predominantly Neolithic Origin for Y-Chromosomal DNA Variation in North Africa, Am J Hum Genet. 2004 August; 75(2): 338–345.
- ^ a b Nathalie Gérard et al., "North African Berber and Arab Influences in the Western Mediterranean Revealed by Y-Chromosome DNA Haplotypes", Human Biology, Volume 78, Number 3, June 2006, pp. 307–316.
- ^ Biologisk institutt
External links[link]
- Moorsgate.com
- Pbs.org
- Encyclopedia - Britannica Online Encyclopedia (2006)
- Moors, Classic Encyclopedia (1911)
- Khalid Amine, Moroccan Shakespeare: From Moors to Moroccans. Paper presented at an International Conference Organized by The Postgraduate School of Critical Theory and Cultural Studies, University of Nottingham, and The British Council, Morocco, 12–14 April 2001.
- Heraldry: The Moor's Head, Hidden Histories - African in Medieval and Renaissance Art, Victoria and Albert Museum (n.d)
- Sean Cavazos-Kottke. Othello's Predecessors: Moors in Renaissance Popular Literature: (outline). Folger Shakespeare Library, 1998.
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http://wn.com/Moors
Related pages:
http://it.wn.com/Mori (storia)
http://cs.wn.com/Maurové
http://id.wn.com/Moor
http://es.wn.com/Moro
http://ru.wn.com/Мавры
http://nl.wn.com/Moren
http://pl.wn.com/Maurowie
http://fr.wn.com/Maures
http://de.wn.com/Mauren
http://hi.wn.com/मूर
http://pt.wn.com/Mouros
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This article relies on references to primary sources or sources affiliated with the subject, rather than references from independent authors and third-party publications. Please add citations from reliable sources. (May 2009) |
| Syed Zaid Zaman Hamid Urdu: سید زید الزمان حامد | |
|---|---|
| Born | (1964-03-14) March 14, 1964 (age 48) |
| Residence | Rawalpindi |
| Nationality | Pakistan |
| Other names | Syed Zaid Zaman Hamid |
| Occupation | Security Consultant & Political commentator |
| Known for | BrassTacks TV Series & Leader: Takmeel-e-Pakistan Movement |
| Religion | Islam |
| Website | |
| Official Site Profile Page |
|
Syed Zaiduzzaman Hamid, better known as Zaid Hamid, is a Pakistani security consultant and political commentator.[1][2] His byline in newspaper articles has been Zaid Zaman.[2]
Contents |
Early life and education[link]
Zaid was born in Karachi, in 1964. His father, Col. Zaman Hamid (Retd), served in the Pakistan Army. Zaid spent his early life in Karachi. He received a Bachelor of Engineering (BE) degree in Computer Systems Engineering from NED University, Karachi in 1980's.[3]
Political views[link]
Through his TV programmes, Hamid has claimed that a nexus between India's RAW, the CIA and is responsible for the destabilization of Pakistan. He also claims that the November 2008 Mumbai attacks, were part of a plan hatched by "Hindu Zionists"", and that it was an attempt by the Indians to stage an attack just like the Americans executed the September 11 attacks.[1][2][4][3]
Criticism[link]
A number of noted Pakistani journalists, writers and Islamic scholars[5] have criticized Hamid and have described his views on politics and security as conspiracy theories.[6][7][8][9]
References[link]
- ^ a b Pak TV channel says 26/11 hatched by Hindu Zionists, Times of India
- ^ a b Hate speech -- II: The Pakistan report card
- ^ NED Alumni page on WikiPakistan
- ^ "Educated and radical: Why Pakistan produces Faisal Shahzads". http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Asia-South-Central/2010/0510/Educated-and-radical-Why-Pakistan-produces-Faisal-Shahzads. Retrieved May 10, 2010.
- ^ Zaid Hamid Ki Haqeeqat
- ^ Clear and present danger - Gul Bukhari
- ^ Smokers' Corner: Nauseous mumblings - Nadeem F. Paracha
- ^ [1]
- ^ Will the real Zaid Hamid please stand up - Express Tribune
External links[link]
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Hamid, Zaid |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | |
| Date of birth | March 14, 1964 |
| Place of birth | |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
http://wn.com/Zaid_Hamid
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2011) |
| Alp Arslan | |
|---|---|
| Sultan of Great Seljuq | |
| File:AlpArslanTurkey.jpg Statue of Alp Arslan, Muş, Turkey |
|
| Reign | 1064–1072 |
| Coronation | 27 April 1064 |
| Full name | Muhammad bin Da'ud Chaghri |
| Born | 1029 |
| Died | 15 December 1072 (aged 43) |
| Place of death | Oxus River, Turkestan |
| Buried | Merv, Great Seljuq Empire |
| Predecessor | Tughril |
| Successor | Malik Shah I |
| Royal House | Seljuq dynasty |
| Father | Chaghri Beg |
| Religious beliefs | Sunni Islam |
Alp Arslan (Persian: آلپ ارسلان ālp arslān; Arabic: الب ارسلان alb arslān or آلب آرسلان ālb ārslān; 1029 – 15 December 1072) was the third sultan of the Seljuq dynasty and great-grandson of Seljuk, the eponymous founder of the dynasty. His real name was Muhammad bin Da'ud Chaghri, and for his military prowess, personal valour, and fighting skills he obtained the surname آلپ ارسلان Alp Arslan, which means "Heroic Lion"[1] in Turkic.
Contents |
Career[link]
He succeeded his father Çağrı Bey as governor of Khorasan in 1059. When his uncle Tughril died he was succeeded by Suleiman, Alp Arslan's brother. Alp Arslan and his uncle Kutalmish both contested this succession. Alp Arslan defeated Kutalmish for the throne and succeeded on 27 April 1064 as sultan of Great Seljuq, and thus became sole monarch of Persia from the river Oxus to the Tigris.
In consolidating his empire and subduing contending factions he was ably assisted by Nizam ul-Mulk, his vizier, and one of the most eminent statesmen in early Muslim history. With peace and security established in his dominions, he convoked an assembly of the states and declared his son Malik Shah I his heir and successor. With the hope of capturing Caesarea Mazaca, the capital of Cappadocia, he placed himself at the head of the Turkish cavalry, crossed the Euphrates and entered and invaded the city. He then marched into Armenia and Georgia, which he conquered in 1064.
Byzantine struggle[link]
In 1068, en route to Syria, Alp Arslan Oush invaded the Byzantine Empire. The Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes, assuming the command in person, met the invaders in Cilicia. In three arduous campaigns, the first two of which were conducted by the emperor himself while the third was directed by Manuel Comnenos (great-uncle of Emperor Manuel Comnenos), the Turks were defeated in detail in 1070 and driven across the Euphrates. In 1071 Romanos again took the field and advanced with possibly 30,000 men, including a contingent of the Cuman Turks as well as contingents of Franks and Normans, under Ursel de Baieul, into Armenia.
At Manzikert, on the Murat River, north of Lake Van, Diogenes was met by Alp Arslan. The sultan proposed terms of peace, which were rejected by the emperor, and the two forces met in the Battle of Manzikert. The Cuman mercenaries among the Byzantine forces immediately defected to the Turkish side; and, seeing this, "the Western mercenaries rode off and took no part in the battle."[2] The Byzantines were totally routed.
Emperor Romanos IV was himself taken prisoner and conducted into the presence of Alp Arslan, who treated him with generosity, and, terms of peace having been agreed to, dismissed him, loaded with presents and respectfully attended by a military guard. The following conversation is said to have taken place after Romanos was brought as a prisoner before the Sultan[3]:
- Alp Arslan: "What would you do if I was brought before you as a prisoner?"
- Romanos: "Perhaps I'd kill you, or exhibit you in the streets of Constantinople."
- Alp Arslan: "My punishment is far heavier. I forgive you, and set you free."
Alp Arslan's victories changed the balance in near Asia completely in favour of the Seljuq Turks and Sunni Muslims. While the Byzantine Empire was to continue for nearly another four centuries, and the Crusades would contest the issue for some time, the victory at Manzikert signalled the beginning of Turkish ascendancy in Anatolia. Most historians, including Edward Gibbon, date the defeat at Manzikert as the beginning of the end of the Eastern Roman Empire. Certainly the entry of Turkic farmers following their horsemen ended the themes in Anatolia which had furnished the Empire with men and treasure.
State organization[link]
Alp Arslan's strength lay in the military realm. Domestic affairs were handled by his able vizier, Nizam al-Mulk, the founder of the administrative organization which characterized and strengthened the sultanate during the reigns of Alp Arslan and his son, Malik Shah. Military fiefs, governed by Seljuq princes, were established to provide support for the soldiery and to accommodate the nomadic Turks to the established Anatolian agricultural scene. This type of military fiefdom enabled the nomadic Turks to draw on the resources of the sedentary Persians, Turks and other established cultures within the Seljuq realm, and allowed Alp Arslan to field a huge standing army, without depending on tribute from conquest to pay his soldiery. He not only had enough food from his subjects to maintain his military, but the taxes collected from traders and merchants added to his coffers sufficiently to fund his continuous wars.
According to the poet Saadi Shirazi: Arslan possessed a fort, which raised at the height of Alwand, from all were those within its walls, for its roads were a labyrinth, like the curls of a bride. From a learned traveler Arslan once inquired: "Didst thou ever, in thy wanderings, see a fort as strong as this?". "Splendid it is," was the travelers reply, "but methinks not it confers much strength. Before thee, did not other kings possess it for a while, then pass away? After thee, will not other kings assume control, and eat the fruits of the tree of thy hope?"
In the estimation of the wise, the world is a false gem that passes each moment from one hand to another. (the fort was sacked by the Mongols led by Hulagu).
Suleiman ibn Kutalmish was the son of the contender for Arslan's throne; he was appointed governor of the north-western provinces and assigned to completing invasion of Anatolia. An explanation for this choice can only be conjectured from Ibn al-Athir’s account of the battle between Alp-Arslan and Kutalmish, in which he writes that Alp-Arslan wept for the latter's death and greatly mourned the loss of his kinsman.
Death[link]
The dominion of Alp Arslan after Manzikert extended over much of western Asia. He soon prepared to march to the conquest of Turkestan, the original seat of his ancestors. With a powerful army he advanced to the banks of the Oxus. Before he could pass the river with safety, however, it was necessary to subdue certain fortresses, one of which was for several days vigorously defended by the governor, Yussuf el-Harezmi, a Khwarezmian. He was, however, obliged to surrender and was carried a prisoner before the sultan, who condemned him to death. Yussuf, in desperation, drew his dagger and rushed upon the sultan. Alp Arslan, who took great pride in his reputation as the foremost archer of his time, motioned to his guards not to interfere and drew his bow, but his foot slipped, the arrow glanced aside and he received the assassin's dagger in his breast. Alp Arslan died four days later from this wound on 25 November 1072 in his 42nd year, and was taken to Merv to be buried next to his father Chaghri Beg. Upon his tomb lies the following inscription:
- “O those who saw the sky-high grandeur of Alp Arslan, behold! He is under the black soil now...”
As he lay dying, Alp Arslan whispered to his son that his vanity had killed him. "Alas," he is recorded to have said, "surrounded by great warriors devoted to my cause, guarded night and day by them, I should have allowed them to do their job. I had been warned against trying to protect myself, and against letting my courage get in the way of my good sense. I forgot those warnings, and here I lie, dying in agony. Remember well the lessons learned, and do not allow your vanity to overreach your good sense..."
Legacy[link]
Alp Arslan's conquest of Anatolia from the Byzantines is also seen as one of the pivotal precursors to the launch of the crusades.
From 2002 to July 2008 under Turkmen calendar reform, the month of August was named after Alp Arslan.
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Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Alp Arslan |
References[link]
- ^ "Alp Arslan." Encyclopedia of World Biography. 2004. Encyclopedia.com. (September 5, 2011). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3404700163.html
- ^ Runciman, Steve (1992). The First Crusade. Cambridge University Press.
- ^ Peoples, R. Scott Crusade of Kings Wildside Press LLC, 2008. p. 13. ISBN 0-8095-7221-4, ISBN 978-0-8095-7221-2
| Preceded by Toghrül |
Sultan of Great Seljuq 1063–1072 |
Succeeded by Malik Shah I |
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Arslan, Alp |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | Sultan of Great Seljuq |
| Date of birth | 1029 |
| Place of birth | |
| Date of death | 15 December 1072 |
| Place of death | Oxus River, Turkestan |
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