Parachutes opening

A parachute is a device used to slow the motion of an object through an atmosphere by creating drag, or in the case of ram-air parachutes, aerodynamic lift. Parachutes are usually made out of light, strong cloth, originally silk, now most commonly nylon. Parachutes must slow an object's terminal vertical speed by a minimum 75% in order to be classified as such. Depending on the situation, parachutes are used with a variety of loads, including people, food, equipment, space capsules, and bombs.

Drogue chutes are used to aid horizontal deceleration of a vehicle (a fixed-wing aircraft, or a drag racer), or to provide stability (tandem free-fall, or space shuttle after a touchdown).

The word "parachute" comes from the French prefix paracete, originally from the Greek, meaning to protect against, and chute, the French word for "fall", and it was originally coined, as a hybrid word which meant literally "that which protects against a fall", by the French aeronaut François Blanchard (1753–1809) in 1785.

History[link]

Early Renaissance Forms[link]

The oldest known depiction of a parachute, by an anonymous author (Italy, 1470s)

Veranzio's 1595 parachute design titled "Flying Man"

The earliest evidence for the parachute dates back to the Renaissance period.^[1] The oldest parachute design appears in an anonymous manuscript from 1470s Renaissance Italy (British Museum Add. MSS 34,113, fol. 200v), showing a free-hanging man clutching a cross bar frame attached to a conical canopy.^[2] As a safety measure, four straps run from the ends of the rods to a waist belt. The design is a marked improvement over another folio (189v) which depicts a man trying to break the force of his fall by the means of two long cloth streamers fastened to two bars which he grips with his hands.^[3] Although the surface area of the parachute design appears to be too small to offer effective resistance to the friction of the air and the wooden base-frame is superfluous and potentially harming, the revolutionary character of the new concept is obvious.^[3]

Only slightly later, a more sophisticated parachute was sketched by the polymath Leonardo da Vinci in his Codex Atlanticus (fol. 381v) dated to ca. 1485.^[2] Here, the scale of the parachute is in a more favorable proportion to the weight of the jumper. Leonardo's canopy was held open by a square wooden frame, which alters the shape of the parachute from conical to pyramidal.^[3] It is not known whether the Italian inventor was influenced by the earlier design, but he may have learnt about the idea through the intensive oral communication among artist-engineers of the time.^[4] The feasibility of Leonardo's pyramidal design was successfully tested in 2000 by the British Adrian Nicholas and again in 2008 by another skydiver.^[5] According to the historian of technology Lynn White, these conical and pyramidal designs, much more elaborate than early artistic jumps with rigid parasols in Asia, mark the origin of "the parachute as we know it".^[1]

The Venetian inventor Fausto Veranzio (1551–1617) examined da Vinci's parachute sketch, and set out to implement one of his own. He kept the square frame, but replaced the canopy with a bulging sail-like piece of cloth which he came to realize decelerates the fall more effectively.^[3] A now-famous depiction of a parachute that he dubbed Homo Volans (Flying Man) appeared in his book on mechanics, Machinae Novae (1615 or 1616), alongside a number of other devices and technical concepts. It is widely believed that in 1617, Veranzio implemented his design and tested the parachute by jumping from St Mark's Campanile in Venice and that the event was documented some thirty years later by John Wilkins, founder and secretary of the Royal Society in London in his book Mathematical Magick or, the Wonders that may be Performed by Mechanical Geometry, published in London in 1648. However, in this book, John Wilkins wrote about flying, not about parachutes. He neither mentions Fausto Veranzio nor a parachute jump nor any event in 1617. Furthermore, the story does not explain how Veranzio could have managed to get the wooden frame out of the tower and into a horizontal position with himself underneath without the device tilting and collapsing. No evidence has been found that anyone ever tested Veranzio's parachute.^[6]

Modern parachutes[link]

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Louis-Sébastien Lenormand jumps from the tower of the Montpellier observatory, 1783. Illustration from the late 19th century

First use of a frameless parachute, by André Garnerin in 1797

Schematic depiction of Garnerin's parachute, from an early nineteenth century illustration

Picture published in a Dutch newspaper "De Prins der Geïllustreerde Bladen" (Feb 18, 1911)^[7]

18th and 19th centuries[link]

The modern parachute was invented in the late 18th century by Louis-Sébastien Lenormand in France, who made the first recorded public jump in 1783. Lenormand also sketched his device beforehand.

Two years later, in 1785, Lenormand coined the word "parachute" by hybridizing the prefix para-, for "defense against," and chute, the French word for "fall," to describe the device's function, the word literally meaning "that which protects against a fall."

Also in 1785, Jean-Pierre Blanchard demonstrated it as a means of safely disembarking from a hot air balloon. While Blanchard's first parachute demonstrations were conducted with a dog as the passenger, he later had the opportunity to try it himself in 1793 when his hot air balloon ruptured and he used a parachute to escape.

Subsequent development of the parachute focused on it becoming more compact. While the early parachutes were made of linen stretched over a wooden frame, in the late 1790s, Blanchard began making parachutes from folded silk, taking advantage of silk's strength and light weight. In 1797, André Garnerin made the first jump using such a parachute. Garnerin also invented the vented parachute, which improved the stability of the fall.

Eve of World War One[link]

In 1911 a successful test was done with a dummy at the Eiffel tower in Paris. The puppet's weight was 75 kg; the parachute's weight was 21 kg. The cables between puppet and the parachute were 9 M long.^[7] The following year Franz Reichelt fell to his death from the tower demonstrating his wearable parachute.

Also in 1911, Grant Morton made the first parachute jump from an airplane, a Wright Model B, at Venice Beach, California. The pilot of the plane was Phil Parmalee. Morton's parachute was of the 'throw-out' type where he held the chute in his arms as he left the aircraft. In the same year, a Russian inventor Gleb Kotelnikov invented the first knapsack parachute,^[8] although Hermann Lattemann and his wife Käthe Paulus had been jumping with bagged parachutes in the last decade of the 19th century.

In 1912, on a road near Tsarskoye Selo, years before it became part of St. Petersburg, Kotelnikov successfully demonstrated the braking effects of parachute by accelerating a Russo-Balt automobile to the top speed, and then opening a parachute attached to the back seat, thus inventing also the drogue parachute.^[8]

On 1 March 1912, US Army Captain Albert Leo Stevens made the first (attached-type) parachute jump in the United States from a fixed-wing aircraft, a Benoist pusher, while flying above Jefferson Barracks, St. Louis, Mo. The jump utilized a 'pack' style chute with the chute being stored or housed in a casing on the jumper's body.

Štefan Banič from Slovakia invented the first actively used parachute, patenting it in 1913.^[9] On 21 June 1913, Georgia Broadwick became the first woman to parachute jump from a moving aircraft, doing so over Los Angeles.^[10]

World War One[link]

The first military use for the parachute was for use by artillery detectors on tethered observation balloons in World War I. These were tempting targets for enemy fighter aircraft, though difficult to destroy, due to their heavy anti-aircraft defenses. Because they were difficult to escape from, and dangerous when on fire due to their hydrogen inflation, observers would abandon them and descend by parachute as soon as enemy aircraft were seen. The ground crew would then attempt to retrieve and deflate the balloon as quickly as possible. The main part of the parachute was in a bag suspended from the balloon with the pilot wearing only a simple waist harness which was attached to the main parachute. When the balloon crew jumped the main part of the parachute was pulled from the bag by the crew's waist harness, first the shroud lines, followed by the main canopy. This type of parachute was first adopted on a large scale by the Germans for their observation balloon crews, and then later by the British and French for their observation balloon crews. While this type of unit worked well from balloons it had mixed results when used on fixed wing aircraft by the Germans where the bag was stored in a compartment directly behind the pilot. In many instances where it did not work the shroud lines became entangled with the spinning aircraft. Although a number of famous German fighter pilots were saved by this type of parachute including Hermann Göring,^[11] no parachutes were issued to Allied "heavier-than-air" aircrew, since it was thought at the time that if a pilot had a parachute he would jump from the plane when hit rather than trying to save the aircraft.^[12]

In the UK, Everard Calthrop, a railway engineer, and breeder of Arab horses, invented and marketed through his Aerial Patents Company a "British Parachute." Thomas Orde-Lees, known as the "Mad Major," demonstrated that parachutes could be used successfully from a low height (he jumped from Tower Bridge in London) which led to their being used by the Royal Flying Corps.

In 1911, Solomon Lee Van Meter, Jr. of Lexington Kentucky, submitted for and in 1916 received a patent for a backpack style parachute - the Aviatory Life Buoy, Patent # 1192479, July 25, 1916.^[13] His self-contained device featured a revolutionary quick-release mechanism—the ripcord—that allowed a falling aviator to expand the canopy only when safely away from the disabled aircraft.^[14]

The German air service, in 1918, became the world's first to introduce a standard parachute and the only one at the time. Despite Germany issuing their pilots with parachutes, their efficiency was relatively poor. As a result, many pilots died whilst using them, including aces such as Oberleutnant Erich Lowenhardt (who fell from 12,000 feet (3,700 m) after being accidentally rammed by another German aircraft) and Fritz Rumey who tested it in 1918, only to have it fail at a little over 3,000 ft (910 m).

Post World War One[link]

Tethered parachutes were initially tried but caused problems when the aircraft was spinning. In 1919, Leslie Irvin invented and successfully tested a parachute that the pilot could deploy when clear of the aircraft. He became the first person to make a premeditated free-fall parachute jump from an airplane.^[15]

An early brochure of the Irvin Air Chute Company credits William O'Connor as having become, on 24 August 1920 at McCook Field near Dayton, Ohio, the first person to be saved by an Irvin parachute.^[16] Another life-saving jump was made at McCook Field by test pilot Lt. Harold H. Harris on 20 October 1922. Shortly after Harris' jump, two Dayton newspaper reporters suggested the creation of the Caterpillar Club for successful parachute jumps from disabled aircraft.

In 1924 Gleb Kotelnikov became the first parachutist to apply the soft packing of a parachute instead of a hard casing.^[17]

Beginning with Italy in 1927, several countries experimented with using parachutes to drop soldiers behind enemy lines. The regular Soviet Airborne Troops were established as early as 1931 after a number of experimental military mass jumps starting from the August 2, 1930.^[8] Earlier the same year, in 1930, the first Soviet mass jumps led to the development of the parachuting sport in the Soviet Union.^[8] By the time of World War II, large airborne forces were trained and used in surprise attacks, as in the Battle for The Hague, the first large scale deployment of airborne troops in military history, by the Germans (whose operation failed totally)^[18] and in 1941 Battle of Crete and in 1944 the Operation Market Garden, again in Holland and again a complete failure but still the largest airborne military operation ever carried out.^[19] Aircraft crew were routinely equipped with parachutes for emergencies as well.^{[citation needed]}

In 1937, drag chutes were used in aviation for the first time, by the Soviet airplanes in the Arctic that were providing support for the famous polar expeditions of the era, such as the first manned drifting ice station North Pole-1. The drag chute allowed to land safely on the ice-floes of smaller size.^[8]

Types of parachutes[link]

Today's modern parachutes are classified into two categories: ascending and descending canopies. All ascending canopies refer to Paragliders which are built specifically to ascend and stay aloft as long as possible. Other parachutes including ram-air non elliptical are classified as descending canopies by manufacturers.

Some modern parachutes are classified as semi-rigid wings, which are maneuverable and can make a controlled descent to break on impact with the ground.

Round types[link]

An American paratrooper using an MC1-1C series 'round' parachute

Round parachutes are purely a drag device (that is, unlike the ram-air types, they provide no lift) and are used in military, emergency and cargo applications. These have large dome-shaped canopies made from a single layer of triangular cloth gores. Some skydivers call them "jellyfish 'chutes" because of the resemblance. Modern sports parachutists rarely use this type.

The first round parachutes were simple, flat circulars. These early parachutes suffered from instability caused by oscillations. A hole in the apex helped to vent some air and reduce the oscillations. Many military applications adopted conical (i.e. cone-shaped) or parabolic (a flat circular canopy with an extended skirt) shapes, such as the US Army T-10 static-line parachute. A round parachute with no holes in it is more prone to oscillate, and is not considered to be steerable.

A large (3-8 mph) forward speed and steering can be achieved by cuts in various sections (gores) across the back, or by cutting 4 lines in the back thereby modifying the canopy to allow air to escape from the back of the canopy, providing limited forward speed. Modifications can skirt bow out.^{[clarification needed]} Turning is accomplished by forming the edges of the modifications, giving the parachute more speed from one side of the modification than the other. This gives the jumpers the ability to steer the parachute, enabling them to avoid obstacles and to turn into the wind to minimize horizontal speed at jumping.

Cruciform (square) types[link]

The unique design characteristics of cruciform parachutes decreases oscillation (its user swinging back and forth) and violent turns during descent. This technology will be used by the US Army as it replaces its current T-10 parachutes under a program called ATPS (Advanced Tactical Parachute System). The ATPS canopy is a highly modified version of a cross/ cruciform platform and is square in appearance. The ATPS (T-11) system will reduce the rate of descent by 30 percent from 21 feet per second (6.4 m/s) to 15.75 feet per second (4.80 m/s). The T-11 is designed to have an average rate of descent 14% slower than the T-10D thus resulting in lower landing injury rates for jumpers. The decline in rate of descent will reduce the impact energy by almost 25% to lessen the potential for injury.

Boeing B-47B-40BW of the 306th Bomb Wing (Medium) at MacDill AFB, Florida, landing with drag chute

RAF Typhoon using a parachute for braking after landing

animation showing a parachute release system

Annular and pull-down apex types[link]

A variation on the round parachute is the pull down apex parachute. Invented by a Frenchman named Pierre-Marcel Lemoigne^{[20][21][22][citation needed]}, it is referred to as a Para-Commander canopy in some circles, after the first model of the type. It is a round parachute, but with suspension lines to the canopy apex that applies load there and pulls the apex closer to the load, distorting the round shape into a somewhat flattened or lenticular shape.

Some designs have the fabric removed from the apex to open a hole through which air can exit, giving the canopy an annular geometry. They also have decreased horizontal drag due to their flatter shape and, when combined with rear-facing vents, can have considerable forward speed.

Rogallo wing and other types[link]

Sport parachuting has experimented with the Rogallo wing, among other shapes and forms. These were nearly always an attempt to increase the forward speed and reduce the landing speed offered by the other options at the time. The ram-air parachute's development and the subsequent introduction of the sail slider to slow deployment reduced the level of experimentation in the sport parachuting community. The parachutes are also hard to build.

Ribbon and ring parachutes have similarities to annular designs. They are frequently designed to deploy at supersonic speeds. A conventional parachute would instantly burst upon opening at such speeds. Ribbon parachutes have a ring-shaped canopy, often with a large hole in the centre to release the pressure. Sometimes the ring is broken into ribbons connected by ropes to leak air even more. These large leaks lower the stress on the parachute so it does not burst or shred when it opens. Ribbon parachutes made of kevlar are used on nuclear bombs such as the B61 and B83.

Ram-air types[link]

Most modern parachutes are self-inflating "ram-air" airfoils known as a parafoil that provide control of speed and direction similar to paragliders. Paragliders have much greater lift and range, but parachutes are designed to handle, spread and mitigate the stresses of deployment at terminal velocity. All ram-air parafoils have two layers of fabric; top and bottom, connected by airfoil-shaped fabric ribs to form "cells." The cells fill with high pressure air from vents that face forward on the leading edge of the airfoil. The fabric is shaped and the parachute lines trimmed under load such that the ballooning fabric inflates into an airfoil shape. This airfoil is sometimes maintained by use of fabric one-way valves called Airlocks. The first Ram-air test jump was made by Navy test jumper Joe Crotwell.

Personal parachutes[link]

Deployment[link]

Reserve parachutes usually have a ripcord deployment system, which was first designed by Theodore Moscicki, but most modern main parachutes used by sports parachutists use a form of hand-deployed pilot chute. A ripcord system pulls a closing pin (sometimes multiple pins), which releases a spring-loaded pilot chute, and opens the container; the pilot chute is then propelled into the air stream by its spring, then uses the force generated by passing air to extract a deployment bag containing the parachute canopy, to which it is attached via a bridle. A hand-deployed pilot chute, once thrown into the air stream, pulls a closing pin on the pilot chute bridle to open the container, then the same force extracts the deployment bag. There are variations on hand-deployed pilot chutes, but the system described is the more common throw-out system.

Only the hand-deployed pilot chute may be collapsed automatically after deployment—by a kill line reducing the in-flight drag of the pilot chute on the main canopy. Reserves, on the other hand, do not retain their pilot chutes after deployment. The reserve deployment bag and pilot chute are not connected to the canopy in a reserve system. This is known as a free-bag configuration, and the components are often lost during a reserve deployment.

Occasionally, a pilot chute does not generate enough force either to pull the pin or to extract the bag. Causes may be that the pilot chute is caught in the turbulent wake of the jumper (the "burble"), the closing loop holding the pin is too tight, or the pilot chute is generating insufficient force. This effect is known as "pilot chute hesitation," and, if it does not clear, it can lead to a total malfunction, requiring reserve deployment.

Paratroopers' main parachutes are usually deployed by static lines that release the parachute, yet retain the deployment bag that contains the parachute—without relying on a pilot chute for deployment. In this configuration the deployment bag is known as a direct-bag system, in which the deployment is rapid, consistent, and reliable.

Varieties of personal ram-airs[link]

A U.S. Navy Parachute Team "Leap Frogs" jumper landing a 'square' ram-air parachute

Personal ram-air parachutes are loosely divided into two varieties: rectangular or tapered, commonly referred to as "squares" or "ellipticals" respectively. Medium-performance canopies (reserve-, BASE-, canopy formation-, and accuracy-type) are usually rectangular. High-performance, ram-air parachutes have a slightly tapered shape to their leading and/or trailing edges when viewed in plan form, and are known as ellipticals. Sometimes all the taper is in the leading edge (front), and sometimes in the trailing edge (tail).

Ellipticals are usually used only by sports parachutists. Ellipticals often have smaller, more numerous fabric cells and are shallower in profile. Their canopies can be anywhere from slightly elliptical to highly elliptical—indicating the amount of taper in the canopy design, which is often an indicator of the responsiveness of the canopy to control input for a given wing loading, and of the level of experience required to pilot the canopy safely.

The rectangular parachute designs tend to look like square, inflatable air mattresses with open front ends. They are generally safer to operate because they are less prone to dive rapidly with relatively small control inputs, they are usually flown with lower wing loadings per square foot of area, and they glide more slowly. They typically have a less-efficient glide ratio.

Wing loading of parachutes is measured similarly to that of aircraft: comparing the number of pounds (exit weight) to square footage of parachute fabric. Typical wing loadings for students, accuracy competitors, and BASE jumpers are less than one pound per square foot—often 0.7 pounds per square foot or less. Most student skydivers fly with wing loadings below one pound per square foot. Most sport jumpers fly with wing loadings between 1.0 and 1.4 pounds per square foot, but many interested in performance landings exceed this wing loading. Professional Canopy pilots compete at wing loadings of 2 to 3+ pounds per square foot. While ram-air parachutes with wing loadings higher than four pounds per square foot have been landed, this is strictly the realm of professional test jumpers.

Smaller parachutes tend to fly faster for the same load, and ellipticals respond faster to control input. Therefore, small, elliptical designs are often chosen by experienced canopy pilots for the thrilling flying they provide. Flying a fast elliptical requires much more skill and experience. Fast ellipticals are also considerably more dangerous to land. With high-performance elliptical canopies, nuisance malfunctions can be much more serious than with a square design, and may quickly escalate into emergencies. Flying highly loaded, elliptical canopies is a major contributing factor in many skydiving accidents, although advanced training programs are helping to reduce this danger.

High-speed, cross-braced parachutes such as the Velocity, VX, XAOS and Sensei have given birth to a new branch of sport parachuting called "swooping." A race course is set up in the landing area for expert pilots to measure the distance they are able to fly past the 5-foot (1.5 m) tall entry gate. Current world records exceed 600 feet (180 m).

Aspect ratio is another way to measure ram-air parachutes. Aspect ratios of parachutes are measured the same way as aircraft wings, by comparing span with chord. Low aspect ratio parachutes (i.e. span 1.8 times the chord) are now limited to precision landing competitions. Popular precision landing parachutes include Jalbert (now NAA) Para-Foils and John Eiff's series of Challenger Classics. While low aspect ratio parachutes tend to be extremely stable—with gentle stall characteristics—they suffer from steep glide ratios and small "sweet spots" for timing the landing flare.

Medium aspect ratio (i.e. 2.1) parachutes are widely used for reserves, BASE, and canopy formation competition because of their predictable opening characteristics. Most medium aspect ratio parachutes have seven cells.

High aspect ratio parachutes have the flattest glide and the largest "sweet spots" (for timing the landing flare) but the least predictable openings. An aspect ratio of 2.7 is about the upper limit for parachutes. High aspect ratio canopies typically have nine or more cells. All reserve ram-air parachutes are of the square variety, because of the greater reliability, and the less-demanding handling characteristics.

General characteristics of ram-airs[link]

Main parachutes used by skydivers today are designed to open softly. Overly rapid deployment was an early problem with ram-air designs. The primary innovation that slows the deployment of a ram-air canopy is the slider; a small rectangular piece of fabric with a grommet near each corner. Four collections of lines go through the grommets to the risers (risers are strips of webbing joining the harness and the rigging lines of a parachute). During deployment, the slider slides down from the canopy to just above the risers. The slider is slowed by air resistance as it descends and reduces the rate at which the lines can spread. This reduces the speed at which the canopy can open and inflate.

At the same time, the overall design of a parachute still has a significant influence on the deployment speed. Modern sport parachutes' deployment speeds vary considerably. Most modern parachutes open comfortably, but individual skydivers may prefer harsher deployment.

The deployment process is inherently chaotic. Rapid deployments can still occur even with well-behaved canopies. On rare occasions deployment can even be so rapid that the jumper suffers bruising, injury, or death. Reducing the amount of fabric decreases the air resistance. This can be done by making the slider smaller, inserting a mesh panel, or cutting a hole in the slider.

Safety[link]

A parachute is carefully folded, or "packed" to ensure that it will open reliably. If a parachute is not packed properly it can result in death because the main parachute might fail to deploy correctly or fully. In the U.S. and many developed countries, emergency and reserve parachutes are packed by "riggers" who must be trained and certified according to legal standards. Sport skydivers are always trained to pack their own primary "main" parachutes.

Parachutes can malfunction in several ways. Malfunctions can range from minor problems that can be corrected in-flight and still be landed, to catastrophic malfunctions that require the main parachute to be cut away using a modern 3-ring release system, and the reserve be deployed. Most skydivers also equip themselves with small barometric computers (known as an AAD or automatic activation device like Cypres, FXC or Vigil) that will automatically activate the reserve parachute if the skydiver himself has not deployed a parachute to reduce his rate of descent by a preset altitude.

Exact numbers are difficult to estimate, but approximately one in a thousand sports main parachute openings malfunction, and must be cut away, although some skydivers have many hundreds of jumps and never cut away. Reserve parachutes are packed and deployed differently. They are also designed more conservatively, and are built and tested to more exacting standards, making them more reliable than main parachutes. However, the primary safety advantage of a reserve chute comes from the probability of an unlikely main malfunction being multiplied by the even less likely probability of a reserve malfunction. This yields an even smaller probability of a double malfunction, although the possibility of a main malfunction that cannot be cut away causing a reserve malfunction is a very real risk. In the U.S., the average fatality rate is considered to be about 1 in 80,000 jumps.^{[citation needed]} Most injuries and fatalities in sport skydiving occur under a fully functional main parachute because the skydiver made an error in judgment while flying the canopy—resulting in high-speed impact with the ground, impact with a hazard on the ground that might otherwise have been avoided, or collision with another skydiver under canopy.^{[citation needed]}

Parachute malfunctions[link]

The Apollo 15 spacecraft landed safely despite a parachute failure.

Below are listed malfunctions specific to round-parachutes. For malfunctions specific to square parachutes, see Malfunction (parachuting).

• A "Mae West" or "Blown Periphery" is a type of round parachute malfunction which contorts the shape of the canopy into the appearance of a brassiere, presumably one outward, is blown against the opposite skirt. The column of nylon fabric, buffeted by the wind, rapidly heats from friction and fuses together, removing any chance of the canopy opening.
• An "inversion" occurs when one skirt of the canopy blows between the suspension lines on the opposite side of the parachute and then catches air. That portion then forms a secondary lobe with the canopy inverted. The secondary lobe grows until the canopy turns completely inside out.
• A "Barber's pole" describes having a mess of lines tangled “behind your head and you have to cut away your main chute and pull your reserve.”^[23]
• The "Horseshoe" Is an out of sequence deployment. This is when the parachute lines and bag are released before the bag drogue and bridle. This can cause the lines to become tangled or a situation where the parachute drogue not release from the container.^[23]
• "Jumper-In-Tow" involves a static line which doesn't disconnect and "you are being dragged along in the wild blue yonder."^[23]
• The "Streamer" is "dreaded" when the main chute is whistling in the wind, the chutist cuts away, and attempts to open the reserve if there is time.^[23]

Records[link]

On 16 August 1960, Joseph Kittinger, in the Excelsior III test jump, set the current world record for the highest parachute jump. He jumped from a balloon at an altitude of 102,800 feet (31,333 m) (which was also a manned balloon altitude record at the time). A small stabilizer chute deployed successfully, and Kittinger fell for 4 minutes and 36 seconds,^[24] also setting a still-standing world record for the longest parachute free-fall, if falling with a stabilizer chute is counted as free-fall. At an altitude of 17,500 feet (5,300 m), Kittinger opened his main chute and landed safely in the New Mexico desert. The whole descent took 13 minutes and 45 seconds.^[25] During the descent, Kittinger experienced temperatures as low as −94 °F (−70 °C). In the free-fall stage, he reached a top speed of 614 mph (988 km/h or 274 m/s).^[26]

According to the Guinness book of records, Eugene Andreev (USSR) holds the official FAI record for the longest free-fall parachute jump (without drogue chute) after falling for 80,380 ft (24,500 m) from an altitude of 83,523 ft (25,457 m) near the city of Saratov, Russia on 1 November 1962.

See also[link]

• Free fall
• Parachuting
• Parachute landing fall
• Paratrooper
• Landing

References[link]

Sources[link]

• White, Lynn (1968), "The Invention of the Parachute", Technology and Culture 9 (3): 462–467, DOI:10.2307/3101655, JSTOR 3101655 

External links[link]

Look up parachute in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Parachute

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Parachutes

• CSPA The Canadian Sport Parachuting Association—The governing body for sport skydiving in Canada.
• Excelsior III free-fall from a Stratospheric Balloon, Details of the highest parachute jump ever.
• FAI The Federation Aeronautique Internationale—The international governing body for all airborne sports.
• First jump with parachute from moving plane - Scientific American June 7, 1913.
• Parachute
• Parachute History
• Program Executive Office (PEO) Soldier
• Skydiving education
• The 2nd FAI World Championships in Canopy Piloting - 2008 at Pretoria Skydiving Club South Africa
• USPA The United States Parachute Association—The governing body for sport skydiving in the U.S.
• The Parachute History Collection at Linda Hall Library (text-searchable PDFs)
• "How Armies Hit The Silk" June 1945, Popular Science James L. H. Peck - i.e. detailed article on parachutes

Cheryl Cole
Cole performing with Girls Aloud at Battle Abbey in 2008.
Background information
Birth name	Cheryl Ann Tweedy
Born	(1983-06-30) 30 June 1983 (age 28)
Origin	Newcastle upon Tyne, Tyneside, England
Genres	Pop, R&B
Occupations	Singer-songwriter, dancer, model
Instruments	Vocals
Years active	2002–present
Labels	Fascination, will.i.am music[1]
Associated acts	Girls Aloud, will.i.am, Taio Cruz
Website	cherylcole.com

Cheryl Ann Cole (née Tweedy; born 30 June 1983), often known professionally as Cheryl, is an English pop and R&B recording artist, songwriter, dancer and model. She rose to fame in late 2002 when she auditioned for the reality television show Popstars: The Rivals on ITV. The programme announced that Cole had won a place as a member of the girl group, Girls Aloud.^[2] Cole has been part of the group's twenty consecutive top-ten singles (including four number one singles) in the UK and five platinum albums (two of which went to number one) and earned five BRIT Award nominations from 2005 to 2010. In 2009, Girls Aloud won "Best Single" with their song "The Promise". In 2009, Girls Aloud announced their musical hiatus and Cole went on to release two solo albums, which both went to number one in the UK: 3 Words (2009) and Messy Little Raindrops (2010). She achieved a number of hits, including two number one singles: "Fight for This Love" and "Promise This". Cole is set to release her third solo album A Million Lights on the 18 June 2012, with lead single "Call My Name" being released on the 10 June 2012.^[3]

Cole has become a recognised and photographed style icon;^[4][5][6] referred to as a fashionista by the press.^[7] She has been photographed for the covers of British Vogue,^[6] Elle^[8] and Harper's Bazaar, while also becoming the new face of cosmetic company L'Oréal.^[9] Cole was married to England footballer Ashley Cole from July 2006^[10] until September 2010, when she divorced him. ^[11][12] Cole became a judge on The X Factor in 2008,^[13][14][15] becoming the winning judge twice out of the three series she judged. In 2011, Cole left the UK version of The X Factor to judge the American version. However, Cole was sacked from the show.^[16][17][18] Cole's net worth was estimated at £15 million in April 2012.^[19]

Biography[link]

1983-2001: Early life and career beginnings[link]

Cole was born in Newcastle upon Tyne, Tyneside, and grew up on council estates in the districts of Walker^[20] and Heaton.^[21] She is the fourth of five children of Joan Callaghan,^[22] and the eldest child of Gary Tweedy. Cole's parents never married each other; they separated when she was 11.^[23] She has a brother, Garry (born 1987, Newcastle)^[24] and three elder maternal half-siblings: Joseph, Gillian and Andrew.^[25]

As a small child in about 1990, she appeared in a television advert for British Gas.^[26]

As she was interested in dancing from an early age, Cole started sequence dancing at the age of four,^[27] before joining The Royal Ballet's summer school at the age of nine.^[28] She won modelling competitions, including the titles of Boots Group's "bonniest baby", Mothercare's Happy Faces Portrait competition, "Best Looking Girl of Newcastle", The Evening Chronicle's "Little Miss and Mister", and "Most Attractive Girl" at the MetroCentre.^[29] She also appeared in two British Gas adverts, an SCS advert, and an Eldon Square Christmas advert with younger brother Garry as well as appearing in dance recitals on some television shows.^{[citation needed]} She attended Walker Comprehensive School in Newcastle,^[30] and left at 16 with few qualifications. During her time there, she was suspended twice: once for fighting with another pupil and again for swearing on a bus.^[31] After leaving school in 1999, she took a job as a waitress in a restaurant.^[31]

2002–08: Girls Aloud, assault and marriage[link]

Cole performing with Girls Aloud

On 11 January 2003, Cole was involved in an altercation with a nightclub toilet attendant and was subsequently charged with assault over the incident.^[32][33] She was subsequently found guilty of assault occasioning actual bodily harm at her trial on 20 October,^[34] and sentenced to 120 hours of community service. She was also ordered to pay her victim £500 in compensation, as well as £3,000 prosecution costs.^[34] Cole auditioned for the reality television show Popstars The Rivals in 2002 with the song "Have You Ever".^[35] Several thousand applicants attended auditions across the UK in hope of being selected. Ten girls and ten boys were chosen as finalists by judges Pete Waterman, Louis Walsh and Geri Halliwell. These finalists then took to the stage, participating in weekly Saturday night live performances which alternated weekly between the girls and boys. Each week, the contestant polling the fewest phone votes was eliminated, until the final line-ups of the groups emerged. Cole joined Nadine Coyle, Sarah Harding, Nicola Roberts, and Kimberley Walsh to form the new girl group Girls Aloud, as determined by a public vote administered through the show on 30 November 2002.^[2]

Cole performing with Girls Aloud at the O2 arena

The group's debut single "Sound of the Underground" peaked at number one on the UK Singles Chart, becoming the 2002 Christmas number one.^[36] Girls Aloud hold the record for the shortest time between formation and reaching number one.^[37] The group released their debut album Sound of the Underground in May 2003,^[38] which entered the charts at number two and was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) later the same year.^[39] Since 2003, Girls Aloud have released twenty additional singles, with all but one charting within the top ten, and 15 reaching top five positions. Their singles "I'll Stand by You", "Walk This Way", and "The Promise" have charted at number one. Two of their albums have reached the top of the UK Albums Chart: their greatest hits album The Sound of Girls Aloud and 2008's Out of Control, both of which entered the chart at number one, with over one million copies of the former being sold.^[40] All five of their studio albums have been certified platinum by the BPI.^{[citation needed]} They have been nominated for five Brit Awards, and in 2009 won "Best British Single" at that year's Brit Awards for "The Promise".^[41] The group has sold ten million records worldwide.^[42] Girls Aloud have become one of the few UK reality television acts to achieve continued success, and had amassed a fortune of £25 million by May 2009.^[43] The 2007 edition of Guinness World Records listed them as "Most Successful Reality TV Group",^{[citation needed]} while they also hold the record for "Most Consecutive Top Ten Entries in the UK by a Female Group" in the 2008 edition.^{[citation needed]}

In July 2009, Girls Aloud announced they would take a year-long hiatus in the pursuit of solo projects, but would reunite for a new studio album in 2010.^[44] In August 2010, bandmate Nicola Roberts revealed that she wasn't anticipating a reunion of the band until 2012.^[45] Cole began dating England and Chelsea footballer Ashley Cole in September 2004, announcing their engagement after he proposed in Dubai in June 2005.^[46] The couple were married at a ceremony at Barnet, North West London on 15 July 2006.^[47] They signed an exclusive deal with OK!, reportedly worth £1 million, regarding the rights of the photographs.^[48] In January 2008, a hairdresser named Aimee Walton alleged in The Sun^[49] that she had engaged in drunken extramarital sex with Ashley Cole. Subsequently, glamour model Brooke Healy claimed that she had spent the night and had sexual relations with Ashley Cole in December 2006.^[50] The couple, however, reconciled.

[edit] 2008–09: 3 Words, Cheryl Cole's Night In and X-Factor

Cole's first solo performance was on American rapper will.i.am's "Heartbreaker" in 2008. She was picked to appear as a dancer in the video after taking streetdancing classes during the filming of the ITV2 series The Passions of Girls Aloud,^[51] in which the members of the band achieve something they had always wanted to do, other than sing.^[52] She was later asked, by will.i.am, to sing additional vocals on the track.^[53] In April 2009, Cole started working on solo material.^[54] Her debut album, 3 Words, was released in the UK on 26 October 2009.^[55] Cole was reunited with will.i.am for the album, in addition to collaborating with Fraser T. Smith, Syience, Danish production team Soulshock & Karlin, singer-songwriter Taio Cruz, Wayne Wilkins, and Steve Kipner. Recorded in Los Angeles and London, Cole mainly collaborated with will.i.am of the Black Eyed Peas, the executive producer of 3 Words. It crosses from contemporary R&B, dance pop, house and a more general pop sound. Cruz was asked to write two songs for Cole, the first of which, "Break Your Heart", was written specially for Cole but Polydor label boss Ferdy Unger-Hamilton felt the song was too similar to Heartbreaker, the track Cole did with Will.i.am.^[56] When asked about the album's title Cole revealed she had already contemplated an album title which contained the phrase 3 Words before the title track was recorded.^[57] She had considered titles like Three Syllables, although the strongest contender was Unveiled as Cole "felt like she didn't have any protection without the girls [Girls Aloud]" and because it correlated with the veil on the album cover.^[57] The album begins with its title track, a duet with will.i.am and Cole's favourite song on the album.^[58] She said the song was "totally different from anything I've done [with Girls Aloud] or liked before" and took its inspiration from Cole's newly acquired love for dance music on the charts, especially David Guetta & Kelly Rowland's "When Love Takes Over".^[58]

3 Words spent two weeks at number one.^[59] On 6 November 2009, BPI certified the album Platinum, denoting shipments of over 300,000 units.^[60] It later tripled this feat.^[60] The first single from the album, "Fight for This Love", was written by Andre Merritt, Steve Kipner and Wayne Wilkins, and produced by Steve Kipner and Wayne Wilkins. According to Cole, it was released as the lead single because she "connected with the song so well".^[61] Following a performance on The X Factor live results show, "Fight for This Love" became the fourth best-selling single of 2009 in the UK.^[62] It charted at number one on both the Irish and UK Singles Chart.^[63] In 2010, "Fight For This Love" went to number one in Denmark, Norway and Hungary.^[64] "Fight for This Love" gained positive to mixed reviews. Ruth Harrison from 'Female First' was impressed by the song after initially being worried that Cole would not be able to cope going solo. She said "Whilst it does sound just a little big Girls Aloud-y, we still love it, and can see it being a huge hit on the club circuit up and down the country ... we think this is going to send her well on her way to global superstardom."^[65] The single was later certified silver in the UK. Cole's second single "3 Words", which features will.i.am, went to number 4 in the UK and seven in Ireland.^[66] In 2010, the single was released in Australia and charted at number 5 and was certified platinum.^[67] The third single, "Parachute", charted in the top five in both the UK and Ireland. The single was certified silver in the UK.^[60] From May to July 2010, Cole was the opening act for The Black Eyed Peas at the British shows (as well as some European dates) of The E.N.D. World Tour.^[68][69][70] Chris Johnson of the Daily Mail wrote, "she was supposed to be the support act. But as it turned out, Cheryl Cole ended up being the main event".^[71]

Cole was given a one-off television programme for ITV1 titled Cheryl Cole's Night In, which aired on 19 December 2009.^[72] The programme, hosted by Holly Willoughby, featured music and interviews with Cole and some of her favourite performers. Alexandra Burke, Rihanna, Will Young, Snow Patrol and will.i.am made appearances.^[73] Cole told the press, "I couldn't be happier that ITV have asked me to round off the year with my own show, working with some of my favourite artists".^[74] The programme attracted 5 million viewers on its first airing, substantially less than the 8.1 million viewers that Strictly Come Dancing received during the same time slot.^[75] In June 2008, it was announced Cole would replace Sharon Osbourne as a judge for the fifth series of The X Factor alongside Dannii Minogue, Simon Cowell and Louis Walsh. Cole was given the girls category (made up of female contestants between 16 and 25) and subsequently ended up as the victorious judge when Alexandra Burke was crowned the fifth winner of The X Factor on 13 December 2008.^[76] Cole returned for the sixth series in 2009 and was given the boys category (made up of male contestants aged 16 to 25).^[77] Cole emerged as the winning judge for a second consecutive year after Joe McElderry was crowned the sixth winner of The X Factor.^[78] Simon Cowell, the show's creator, said, "I knew she was going to be good because she speaks like normal people speak. People can relate to that. And I think that is the best sign of a judge."^[79] Cowell has referred to Cole as "one of the best I've ever worked with."^[80] Cole was interviewed during an episode of the fourth series of Piers Morgan's Life Stories. The show, which aired on 23 October 2010, drew an audience of 7.2 million: the highest figure in the chat show's history.^[81] As a member of Girls Aloud, Cole has also appeared in the fly on the wall documentary Girls Aloud: Home Truths, the E4 documentary series Girls Aloud: Off the Record, an episode of Ghosthunting With..., and a one-off variety show entitled The Girls Aloud Party.

[edit] 2010–11: Messy Little Raindrops, divorce, malaria and The X Factor USA

Cole alongside Simon Cowell on The X Factor

In March 2010, Cole stated that she had begun working on a follow up album to 3 Words, which she hoped to release "later on in the year".^[82] Cole's second solo album, titled Messy Little Raindrops, was released on 1 November 2010. The album's first single, "Promise This", was released on 24 October 2010 and became her second number-one hit in the UK.^[83] "Promise This" is an up-tempo dance-pop song written by American songwriter Priscilla Hamilton, British music producer Wayne Wilkins, who was responsible for Cole's debut single "Fight for This Love", and Christopher Jackson.^[84][85] The album was largely produced by Wayne Wilkins.^[86] The album also features guest vocals from August Rigo, Dizzee Rascal, Travie McCoy, and will.i.am.^[87] Cole started recording sessions for her second album in February 2010^[88] though in an interview on Alan Carr: Chatty Man she admitted that some of the songs submitted for the record dated back to 3 Words (2009).^[89] Messy Little Raindrops has received generally mixed reviews from music critics. A predominantly positive review came from Jon O'Brien of Allmusic who awarded it four out of five stars.^[90] Cheryl Cole made a high-profile appearance on Piers Morgan's Life Stories, in which she discussed her marriage and divorce with Ashley Cole and her life-threatening battle with malaria.^[91][92]

In early February 2010, news broke that Cole's husband had cheated on her with five more women.^[93][94][95] On 23 February, Cole announced she was separating from her husband.^[10][11] On 26 May 2010, Cole filed for divorce at London's High Court citing "unreasonable behaviour" of estranged husband Ashley as the reason for their break-up.^[12] She was granted a decree nisi on 3 September.^[96] In October of that year, Cole stated in an interview with The Guardian that she would continue to use her married name, saying that changing it back would make her seem "ashamed" of her marriage.^[97]

On 3 July 2010, Cole was admitted to hospital with suspected acute malaria after a visit to Tanzania.^[98] During an X Factor photoshoot in Cardiff, Cole has said that she noticed her lips were blue.^[99][100]

Cole returned for the seventh series of The X Factor in 2010 to mentor the girls category once again.^[101] In this series, Cole faced intense scrutiny from the public and the media after she rejected popular contestant Gamu Nhengu to go through to the live shows in favour of Cher Lloyd and Katie Waissel, even though both had fluffed their performances at judges' houses. Cole also receive more criticism after she refused to vote for an act in the fifth week, which resulted in claims that the show was fixed. This series would also mark the first that Cole was not the winning mentor, after a contestant in her category, Rebecca Ferguson, lost out to Matt Cardle, who was mentored by Dannii Minogue.

On 5 May 2011, it was officially announced after months of speculation that Cole would appear as a judge alongside Simon Cowell, L.A. Reid, and Paula Abdul on the American version of The X Factor.^[102] However, after only three weeks as a judge and completing the auditions in Los Angeles and Chicago, Cole departed the show.^[17] Cowell said that the reason why Cole left was because he offered her the job in the UK version back and he felt that she would have been more comfortable there.^[103] Additionally, it was later confirmed that she would not be returning to the UK version either, as Tulisa Contostavlos had taken her place on the UK judging panel.^[104] Nicole Scherzinger replaced Cole on the judging panel of The X Factor USA for the rest of season 1.^[105]

[edit] 2012–present: A Million Lights

On 1 April 2012, Cole announced that the lead single from her third studio album will be called "Call My Name". Cheryl uploaded an audio video of the single on April 19, 2012 to her YouTube account.^[106] On 2 May 2012, the full length music video premiered.^[107] The song debuted on Capital FM's breakfast show on 20 April 2012.^[108] The single was written and produced by Calvin Harris and will be released on 10 June 2012.^[109] The video for the single was directed by Anthony Mandler and shot in Downtown Los Angeles.^[110] On 18 April 2012, Cole revealed the title of her third studio album, A Million Lights, which will be released on 18 June 2012.^[111]

Cole previewed a song entitled "Love Killer" on her official soundcloud.^[112] The album artwork for A Million Lights, as well the official track listing for the standard and deluxe versions of the album was revealed via Cole's Facebook and official website on 24 May 2012.^[113]

Other endeavours[link]

Products and endorsements[link]

Cole contributed to the book Dreams that Glitter – Our Story, an autobiography with her Girls Aloud bandmates, in October 2008. The book was written with a ghostwriter and published by the Transworld imprint Bantam Press.^[114][115] The book featured unseen photographs, included insights into the members' personal lives, their success together, style tips, and "everything [they]'ve learned about life, love and music."^[115][116] The book was previewed and serialised by OK! prior to its release. Girls Aloud held a book signing at Waterstone's in Piccadilly, London to promote the release.^[117] The title Dreams that Glitter comes from a line in the group's 2007 single "Call the Shots". Cole's first official book, entitled Through My Eyes, was published on 30 September 2010 by Bantam Press.^[118] The book is described as "a series of stunning exclusive new photos plus informal shots from her own personal collection ... a revealing and intimate portrait of the world of Cheryl Cole".^[119] Through My Eyes offers a glimpse of Cole in the recording studio, backstage on tour, behind-the-scenes at The X Factor, at photo shoots and at award ceremonies. She said the book is "filled with pictures that capture those moments, [her] memories and the people [she's] closest to".^[120] Cole is the subject of several unauthorised biographies,^{[121][122][123]} as well as books detailing her relationship with and divorce from Ashley Cole.^{[124][125][126]} In February 2009, Cole appeared on the cover of British Vogue. The media coverage of her appearance in the magazine boosted the magazine's circulation to 240,000: its best ever February figure.^[127] She also appeared on the November 2009 cover of the UK's Elle magazine.^[8] In late 2009, Cole became the new face of L'Oréal. However, her recent advertising campaign promoting the L'Oréal Elvive shampoo and conditioner range attracted criticism amid claims that she had deliberately deceived persons wishing to buy the product, since it shows Cole with hair extensions.^[128] As a member of Girls Aloud, Cole has endorsed Barbie,^{[citation needed]} Kit Kat,^[129] Nintendo DS,^[130] Samsung,^{[citation needed]} and Sunsilk.^[131]

Charitable activities[link]

In March 2009 Cole climbed Mount Kilimanjaro in aid of Comic Relief.^[132] The trek raised £3.4 million for the charity.^[133] Between 3 February and 23 March 2009, Cole raised money for Comic Relief by providing the voice for the BT Speaking Clock.^[132]

In February 2011, Cole launched her own charitable foundation with The Prince’s Trust following a meeting with The Trust’s President, HRH Charles, Prince of Wales. The Cheryl Cole Foundation will provide vital funds for The Trust in the North East, helping disadvantaged young people from Cole’s region.^[134] On 13 June 2011, she auctioned 20 dresses with ASOS to raise funds for the foundation.^[135][136]

Filmography[link]

References in media[link]

Cole was referenced in Lily Allen's "Cheryl Tweedy", a b-side to her 2006 debut single "Smile". Cole took the song as a compliment to her, although Allen later pointed out that it had been tongue-in-cheek.^[137] Allen has since retracted her comments.^{[138][dead link]}

Discography[link]

• 3 Words (2009)
• Messy Little Raindrops (2010)
• A Million Lights (2012)

Tours[link]

With Girls Aloud[link]

As solo supporting act[link]

• The Black Eyed Peas' The E.N.D. World Tour (Europe, 2010)

Awards and nominations[link]

References[link]