Augustine of Hippo

Saturday, 27 October 2012

Augustine of Hippo

Against the World - The Life & Theology of Aurelius Augustine

Saint Augustine of Hippo writings on display in Rome

Restless Heart: The Confessions of Augustine | Trailer

Biography of Saint Augustine of Hippo (music: City on our Knees)

Confessions - Augustine of Hippo (1 of 59)

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Alcuin
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Algeria
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Annaba
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Cagliari
Cagliari (, ) is the capital of the island of Sardinia, a region of Italy. Cagliari's Sardinian name Casteddu literally means castle. It has about 160,000 inhabitants, or about 400,000 including the outlying townships (metropolitan area): Elmas, Assemini, Capoterra, Selargius, Sestu, Monserrato, Quartucciu, Quartu Sant'Elena.
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Carthage
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Counter-Reformation
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Guelma
Guelma () is the capital of Guelma Province and Guelma District, located in north-eastern Algeria, at about 40 kilometers from the Mediterranean coast. It is home to the titular see of Calama.
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Hippo Regius
Hippo Regius is the ancient name of the modern city of Annaba, in Algeria. Under this name, it was a major city in Roman Africa, hosting several early Christian councils, and was the home of the philosopher and theologian Augustine of Hippo. In even earlier days, the city was a royal residence for Numidian kings.
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M'Daourouch
'''M'Daourouch''' is a municipality in Souk Ahras Province, Algeria, occupying the site of the former Roman town of Madauras, Madaure, or Madaura (see also for homonyms) which is now a Roman Catholic titular see in the former Roman province of Numidia.
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Milan
Milan (, ; Western Lombard: Milan, ) is a city in Italy and the capital of the region of Lombardy and of the province of Milan. The city proper has a population of about 1,310,000, while the urban area is the first in Italy and the fifth largest in the European Union with a population of 4,345,000 over an area of . The Milan metropolitan area, by far the largest in Italy, is estimated by the OECD to have a population of 7,400,000.
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New Jerusalem
In religion, New Jerusalem, also known as The Tabernacle of God, Holy City, City of God, Celestial City and Heavenly Jerusalem in the Book of Revelation, as well as Jerusalem Above, Zion and shining city on a hill in other books of the bible, is a city that is or will be the dwelling place of the Saints, interpreted as a physical reconstruction, spiritual restoration, or divine recreation of the city of Jerusalem. It is also interpreted by many Christian groups as referring to the Church.
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Pavia
Pavia (; Lombard: Pavia), the ancient Ticinum, is a town and comune of south-western Lombardy, northern Italy, 35 km south of Milan on the lower Ticino river near its confluence with the Po. It is the capital of the province of Pavia. It has a population of c. 71,000. The city achieved its greatest political importance between 568 and 774, as the capital of the Kingdom of the Lombards.
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Rome
Rome (; , ; ) is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in . In 2006 the population of the metropolitan area was estimated by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development to have a population of 3.7 million.
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Souk Ahras
Souk Ahras (; Chaoui: ) is a municipality in Algeria. It is the capital of Souk Ahras Province. The Numidian city of Thagaste (or Tagaste), on whose ruins Souk Ahras was built, was the birthplace of Augustine of Hippo and a center of Berber culture.
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Tagaste
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Thagaste
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Villanova University
Villanova University is a private university located in Radnor Township, a suburb northwest of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in the United States. Named for Saint Thomas of Villanova, the school is the oldest Catholic university in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania.
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Abu Rayhan Biruni
(), often known as Alberonius in Latin, but also Al Beruni, Al Bayrooni or variants, (born 5 September 973 in Kath, Khwarezm (now in Uzbekistan, historically a part of Greater Iran), died 13 December 1048 in Ghazni (now in Afghanistan)) was a Persian Muslim scholar and polymath
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Adam Smith
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Al Amiri
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Al-Kindi
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Al-Razi
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Alain Badiou
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Alain de Lille
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Albert Camus
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Albertus Magnus
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Alcuin
http://wn.com/Alcuin
Alexander of Hales
Alexander Hales (also Halensis, Alensis, Halesius, Alesius; called Doctor Irrefragabilis and Theologorum Monarcha) was a scholastic theologian. He was born at Hales (today Halesowen, West Midlands), England ca. 1183, and died in Paris on August 21, 1245. He was educated at Oxford, studied and lectured at Paris, and by 1210 was a master of the sacred page in the faculty of theology. He entered the Franciscan order sometime around 1236 thus creating the first formal connection between the Order and the University of Paris.
http://wn.com/Alexander_of_Hales
Alvin Plantinga
Alvin Carl Plantinga (born 1932) is an American analytic philosopher, formerly the John A. O'Brien Professor of Philosophy at the University of Notre Dame. He is known for his work in philosophy of religion, epistemology, metaphysics, and Christian apologetics. Plantinga is a Christian and known for applying the methods of analytic philosophy to defend orthodox Christian beliefs. Notably, he has argued that some people can know that God exists as a basic belief, requiring no argument, similar to how people usually claim to know that other minds exist. He has also argued that there is no logical inconsistency between the existence of evil and the existence of an all-powerful, all-knowing, wholly good God.
http://wn.com/Alvin_Plantinga
Alypius of Thagaste
Saint Alypius of Thagaste was bishop of the see of Tagaste (in what is now Algeria) in 394. He is also credited with building the first monastery in Africa. He was a lifelong friend of Saint Augustine of Hippo and joined him in his conversion (in 386; Confessions 8.12.28) and life in Christianity. He came from an aristrocratic family and his early life was as a magistrate in Rome. Most of what is known about him comes from Augustine's autobiographical Confessions.
http://wn.com/Alypius_of_Thagaste
Ambrose
:St. Ambrose redirects here. For the university, see Saint Ambrose University. For other uses, see Ambrose (disambiguation)
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Anthony Kenny
Sir Anthony John Patrick Kenny FBA (born 16 March 1931 in Liverpool) is an English philosopher whose interests lie in the philosophy of mind, ancient and scholastic philosophy, the philosophy of Wittgenstein and the philosophy of religion. With Peter Geach, he has made a significant contribution to Analytical Thomism, a movement whose aim is to present the thought of St Thomas Aquinas in the style of modern philosophy by clearing away the trappings and obscurities of traditional Thomism. He is one of the executors of Wittgenstein's literary estate. He is a former President of the British Academy and current President of the Royal Institute of Philosophy.
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Anthony of Padua
http://wn.com/Anthony_of_Padua
Anthony the Great
http://wn.com/Anthony_the_Great
Antonio Negri
Antonio Negri (born August 1, 1933) is an Italian Marxist sociologist and political philosopher.
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Antony Flew
http://wn.com/Antony_Flew
Aristotle
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Arthur Schopenhauer
http://wn.com/Arthur_Schopenhauer
Ary Scheffer
Ary Scheffer (10 February 1795 - 15 June 1858), French painter of Dutch and German extraction, was born in Dordrecht.
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Auguste Comte
http://wn.com/Auguste_Comte
Augustine of Hippo
: For other uses, see Augustine, Augustinus and Saint Augustine.
http://wn.com/Augustine_of_Hippo
Averroes
http://wn.com/Averroes
Avicenna
http://wn.com/Avicenna
Ayn Rand
http://wn.com/Ayn_Rand
Baron d'Holbach
http://wn.com/Baron_d'Holbach
Baruch Spinoza
http://wn.com/Baruch_Spinoza
Bede
http://wn.com/Bede
Benozzo Gozzoli
Benozzo Gozzoli (c. 1421 – 1497) was an Italian Renaissance painter from Florence. He is best known for a series of murals in the Palazzo Medici-Riccardi depicting festive, vibrant processions with wonderful attention to detail and a pronounced International Gothic influence.
http://wn.com/Benozzo_Gozzoli
Berber people
Berbers are the indigenous peoples of North Africa west of the Nile Valley. They are discontinuously distributed from the Atlantic to the Siwa oasis, in Egypt, and from the Mediterranean to the Niger River. Historically they spoke various Berber languages, which together form a branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family. Today many of them speak Darija and also French in the Maghreb, due to the French colonization of the Maghreb, and especially Spanish in Morocco. Today most Berber-speaking people live in Morocco, Algeria, Libya and Tunisia.
http://wn.com/Berber_people
Bernard of Clairvaux
http://wn.com/Bernard_of_Clairvaux
Bertrand Russell
http://wn.com/Bertrand_Russell
Blaise Pascal
http://wn.com/Blaise_Pascal
Bob Dylan
http://wn.com/Bob_Dylan
Boethius
http://wn.com/Boethius
Bonaventure
Bonaventure (; 1221 – 15 July 1274), born John of Fidanza (), was an Italian medieval scholastic theologian and philosopher, the seventh Minister General of the Order of Friars Minor. He was a Cardinal Bishop of Albano. He was canonized on 14 April 1482 by Pope Sixtus IV and declared a Doctor of the Church in the year 1588 by Pope Sixtus V. He is known as the "Seraphic Doctor" (). Many writings believed in the Middle Ages to be his are now collected under the name Pseudo-Bonaventura.
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Brethren of Purity
http://wn.com/Brethren_of_Purity
Brian O'Nolan
http://wn.com/Brian_O'Nolan
Bryan Magee
Bryan Edgar Magee (born 12 April 1930) is a noted British broadcasting personality, politician, and author, best known as a popularizer of philosophy.
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Carl Schmitt
Carl Schmitt (July 11, 1888 – April 7, 1985) was a German jurist, Catholic philosopher, political theorist, and professor of law.
http://wn.com/Carl_Schmitt
Catherine of Siena
http://wn.com/Catherine_of_Siena
Cicero
Marcus Tullius Cicero (; Classical Latin: ; January 3, 106 BC – December 7, 43 BC; sometimes anglicized as "Tully"), was a Roman philosopher, statesman, lawyer, political theorist, and Roman constitutionalist. He came from a wealthy municipal family of the equestrian order, and is widely considered one of Rome's greatest orators and prose stylists.
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Confucius
http://wn.com/Confucius
Cornelius Jansen
Corneille Janssens, commonly known by the Latinized name Cornelius Jansen or Jansenius, (October 28, 1585–May 6, 1638) was Catholic bishop of Ypres (Belgium) and the father of a theological movement known as Jansenism.
http://wn.com/Cornelius_Jansen
Cyprian
:This page is about Cyprian, bishop of Carthage. For other Cyprians, see Cyprian (disambiguation).
http://wn.com/Cyprian
Cyril of Alexandria
Cyril of Alexandria (c. 376 - 444) was the Pope of Alexandria from 412 to 444. He came to power when the city was at its height of influence and power within the Roman Empire. Cyril wrote extensively and was a leading protagonist in the Christological controversies of the later 4th and 5th centuries. He was a central figure in the First Council of Ephesus in 431, which led to the deposition of Nestorius as Patriarch of Constantinople.
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Cyril of Jerusalem
http://wn.com/Cyril_of_Jerusalem
David Hume
http://wn.com/David_Hume
Derek Parfit
Derek Parfit (born December 11, 1942) is a British philosopher who specializes in problems of personal identity, rationality and ethics, and the relations between them. His 1984 book, Reasons and Persons (described by Alan Ryan in The Sunday Times as "something close to a work of genius") has been very influential. He has worked at Oxford for the whole of his academic career, and is presently a Senior Research Fellow at All Souls College, Oxford. He is also a Visiting Professor of Philosophy at New York University, Harvard University, and Rutgers University. Between 1965-66 he was Harkness Fellow at Columbia University and Harvard University [http://as.nyu.edu/object/aboutas.globalprofessor.DerekParfit].
http://wn.com/Derek_Parfit
Descartes
http://wn.com/Descartes
Desiderius Erasmus
http://wn.com/Desiderius_Erasmus
Donald Burt
Donald X. Burt (born 1929), O.S.A., Ph.D., is a member of the Augustinian Order. Recently retired as professor emeritus in philosophy at Villanova University, Father Burt has published twelve books and numerous articles on the thought of St. Augustine.
http://wn.com/Donald_Burt
Duns Scotus
Blessed John (Johannes) Duns Scotus, O.F.M. (c. 1265 – 8 November 1308) was one of the more important theologians and philosophers of the High Middle Ages. He was nicknamed Doctor Subtilis for his penetrating and subtle manner of thought.
http://wn.com/Duns_Scotus
Edmund Burke
Edmund Burke PC (12 January [NS] 1729 9 July 1797) was an Irish statesman, author, orator, political theorist, and philosopher who, after relocating to England, served for many years in the House of Commons of Great Britain as a member of the Whig party. He is mainly remembered for his support of the cause of the American Revolutionaries, and for his later opposition to the French Revolution. The latter led to his becoming the leading figure within the conservative faction of the Whig party, which he dubbed the "Old Whigs", in opposition to the pro-French-Revolution "New Whigs," led by Charles James Fox. Burke was praised by both conservatives and liberals in the nineteenth century and since the twentieth century he has generally been viewed as the philosophical founder of modern conservatism, as well as a representative of classical liberalism.
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Edmund Husserl
http://wn.com/Edmund_Husserl
Elaine Pagels
http://wn.com/Elaine_Pagels
Emil Brunner
Heinrich Emil Brunner (December 23, 1889 – April 6, 1966) was a Swiss Protestant (Reformed) theologian. Along with Karl Barth (see Relationship with Karl Barth), he is commonly associated with neo-orthodoxy or the dialectical theology movement.
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Ephrem the Syrian
http://wn.com/Ephrem_the_Syrian
Eratosthenes
http://wn.com/Eratosthenes
Ernst Haeckel
http://wn.com/Ernst_Haeckel
Ernst Troeltsch
http://wn.com/Ernst_Troeltsch
Everett Ferguson
Everett Ferguson (born February 18, 1933) currently serves as Distinguished Scholar in Residence at Abilene Christian University in Abilene, Texas. He is author of numerous books on early Christian studies and served as co-editor of the Journal of Early Christian Studies.
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Fakhr al-Din al-Razi
http://wn.com/Fakhr_al-Din_al-Razi
Frances Yates
http://wn.com/Frances_Yates
Francis de Sales
http://wn.com/Francis_de_Sales
Franco Nero
Franco Nero (born 23 November 1941) is an Italian actor.
http://wn.com/Franco_Nero
Friedrich Nietzsche
Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (; in English , ) (October 15, 1844 August 25, 1900) was a 19th-century German philosopher and classical philologist. He wrote critical texts on religion, morality, contemporary culture, philosophy and science, displaying a fondness for metaphor, irony and aphorism.
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G. E. Moore
:"G.E. Moore" redirects here. For the cofounder of Intel, see Gordon Moore.
http://wn.com/G_E_Moore
Germanic peoples
The Germanic peoples (also called Teutonic in older literature) are a historical ethno-linguistic group, originating in Northern Europe and identified by their use of the Indo-European Germanic languages, which diversified out of Common Germanic in the course of the Pre-Roman Iron Age.
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Gersonides
Levi ben Gershon, better known by his Latinised name as Gersonides or the abbreviation of first letters as RaLBaG (1288–1344), philosopher, Talmudist, mathematician, astronomer/astrologer. He was born at Bagnols in Languedoc, France. According to Abraham Zacuto and others, he was the son of Gerson ben Solomon Catalan.
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Gilbert de la Porrée
http://wn.com/Gilbert_de_la_Porrée
Giles of Rome
http://wn.com/Giles_of_Rome
Giovanni Gentile
Giovanni Gentile (; May 30, 1875 – April 15, 1944) was an Italian neo-Hegelian Idealist philosopher, a peer of Benedetto Croce. He described himself as 'the philosopher of Fascism', and ghostwrote A Doctrine of Fascism (1932) for Benito Mussolini. He also devised his own system of philosophy, Actual Idealism.
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Godfrey of Fontaines
Godfrey of Fontaines (ca. 1250-1309), whose name in Latin was Godefridus de Fontibus, was a scholastic philosopher and theologian, designated by the title Doctor Venerandus. His greatest contributions to philosophy were in metaphysics.
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Gregory of Nazianzus
http://wn.com/Gregory_of_Nazianzus
Guy Debord
Guy Ernest Debord (December 28, 1931 - November 30, 1994) was a French Marxist theorist, writer, filmmaker, hypergraphist and founding member of the groups Lettrist International and Situationist International (SI). He was also briefly a member of Socialisme ou Barbarie.
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Hannah Arendt
http://wn.com/Hannah_Arendt
Henry David Thoreau
http://wn.com/Henry_David_Thoreau
Henry of Ghent
http://wn.com/Henry_of_Ghent
Henry Sidgwick
http://wn.com/Henry_Sidgwick
Heraclitus
Heraclitus of Ephesus (Ancient Greek: — ; c. 535–c. 475 BCE) was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher, a native of the Greek city Ephesus, Ionia, on the coast of Asia Minor. He was of distinguished parentage. Little is known about his early life and education, but he regarded himself as self-taught and a pioneer of wisdom. From the lonely life he led, and still more from the riddling nature of his philosophy and his contempt for humankind in general, he was called "The Obscure," and the "Weeping Philosopher."
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Herbert Spencer
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Herodotus
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Hilary of Poitiers
hi mitchel
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Hipparchus
http://wn.com/Hipparchus
Hugh of Saint Victor
http://wn.com/Hugh_of_Saint_Victor
Hugh of St Victor
http://wn.com/Hugh_of_St_Victor
Hugo Grotius
http://wn.com/Hugo_Grotius
Ibn al-Haytham
http://wn.com/Ibn_al-Haytham
Ibn al-Rawandi
http://wn.com/Ibn_al-Rawandi
Ibn Arabi
http://wn.com/Ibn_Arabi
Ibn Hazm
http://wn.com/Ibn_Hazm
Ibn Khaldun
http://wn.com/Ibn_Khaldun
Ibn Taymiyyah
http://wn.com/Ibn_Taymiyyah
Immanuel Kant
http://wn.com/Immanuel_Kant
Isaiah Berlin
Sir Isaiah Berlin OM (6 June 1909 – 5 November 1997) was a Russian-British social and political theorist, philosopher and historian of ideas, regarded as one of the leading thinkers of the twentieth century, and as the dominant liberal scholar of his generation. He excelled as an essayist, conversationalist and raconteur; and as a brilliant lecturer who improvised, rapidly and spontaneously, richly allusive and coherently structured material. He translated works by Ivan Turgenev from Russian into English and, during the war, worked for the British Diplomatic Service. The Independent stated that "Isaiah Berlin was often described, especially in his old age, by means of superlatives: the world's greatest talker, the century's most inspired reader, one of the finest minds of our time ... there is no doubt that he showed in more than one direction the unexpectedly large possibilities open to us at the top end of the range of human potential".
http://wn.com/Isaiah_Berlin
Isidore of Seville
Saint Isidore of Seville (Spanish: or , Latin: ) (c. 560 – 4 April 636) was Archbishop of Seville for more than three decades and is considered, as the historian Montalembert put it in an oft-quoted phrase, "le dernier savant du monde ancien" ("the last scholar of the ancient world"). Indeed, all the later medieval history-writing of Hispania (the Iberian Peninsula, comprising modern Spain and Portugal) was based on his histories.
http://wn.com/Isidore_of_Seville
J. L. Mackie
John Leslie Mackie (25 August 1917–12 December 1981) was an Australian philosopher, originally from Sydney. He made significant contributions to the philosophy of religion, metaphysics, and the philosophy of language, and is perhaps best known for his views on meta-ethics, especially his defence of moral skepticism.
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James J. O'Donnell
'''James Joseph O'Donnell''' is a classical scholar and the Provost of Georgetown University. O'Donnell previously served as Vice Provost for Information Systems and Computing at the University of Pennsylvania. He is a former President of the American Philological Association and a Fellow of the Medieval Academy of America.
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Jean Baudrillard
http://wn.com/Jean_Baudrillard
Jean-Luc Marion
Jean-Luc Marion (born 3 July 1946) is among the best-known living philosophers in France, former student of Jacques Derrida and one of the leading Catholic thinkers of modern times. Marion's take on the postmodern is richly enhanced by his expertise in patristic and mystical theology, phenomenology, and modern philosophy. Although much of his academic work has dealt with Descartes and phenomenologists like Martin Heidegger and Edmund Husserl, it is rather his explicitly religious works that have garnered much recent attention. God Without Being, for example, is concerned predominantly with an analysis of idolatry, a theme strongly linked in Marion's work with love and the gift, which is a concept also explored at length by Derrida. To a certain extent, Marion also takes up the mantle of Emmanuel Levinas in directing our thought beyond being. There is a widespread but possibly dubious designation of Jean-Luc Marion as a leading contributor to postmodern theology.
http://wn.com/Jean-Luc_Marion
Jean-Paul Sartre
Jean-Paul Charles Aymard Sartre (, ; 21 June 1905 – 15 April 1980) was a French existentialist philosopher, playwright, novelist, screenwriter, political activist, biographer, and literary critic. He was one of the leading figures in 20th century French philosophy, existentialism, and Marxism, and his work continues to influence fields such as Marxist philosophy, sociology, and literary studies. Sartre was also noted for his long relationship with the author and social theorist, Simone de Beauvoir. He was awarded the 1964 Nobel Prize in Literature but refused the honour.
http://wn.com/Jean-Paul_Sartre
Jeremy Bentham
Jeremy Bentham ( or ; 15 February 1748 – 6 June 1832) was an English jurist, philosopher, and legal and social reformer. He became a leading theorist in Anglo-American philosophy of law and a political radical whose ideas influenced the development of welfarism. He is best known for his advocacy of utilitarianism and the ethical treatment of animals, and the idea of the panopticon.
http://wn.com/Jeremy_Bentham
Jerome
http://wn.com/Jerome
Jesus
http://wn.com/Jesus
John C. Wells
John Christopher Wells (born 11 March 1939 in Bootle, Merseyside) is a British phonetician and Esperanto teacher. Wells is affiliated with University College London, where until his retirement in 2006 he held the departmental chair in phonetics.
http://wn.com/John_C_Wells
John Calvin
http://wn.com/John_Calvin
John Chrysostom
John Chrysostom (c. 349–407, ), Archbishop of Constantinople, was an important Early Church Father. He is known for his eloquence in preaching and public speaking, his denunciation of abuse of authority by both ecclesiastical and political leaders, the Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom, and his ascetic sensibilities. After his death (or, according to some sources, during his life) he was given the Greek surname chrysostomos, meaning "golden mouthed", rendered in English as Chrysostom.
http://wn.com/John_Chrysostom
John Locke
http://wn.com/John_Locke
John of Avila
: For the co-founder of the Carmelites, see Saint John of the Cross
http://wn.com/John_of_Avila
John of Damascus
:Chrysorrhoas redirects here. For the river, see Barada.
http://wn.com/John_of_Damascus
John of the Cross
http://wn.com/John_of_the_Cross
John Peckham
http://wn.com/John_Peckham
John Rawls
http://wn.com/John_Rawls
John Stuart Mill
John Stuart Mill (20 May 1806 – 8 May 1873) was a British philosopher and civil servant. An influential contributor to social theory, political theory, and political economy, his conception of liberty justified the freedom of the individual in opposition to unlimited state control. He was a proponent of utilitarianism, an ethical theory developed by Jeremy Bentham, although his conception of it was very different from Bentham's. Hoping to remedy the problems found in an inductive approach to science, such as confirmation bias, he clearly set forth the premises of falsification as the key component in the scientific method. Mill was also a Member of Parliament and an important figure in liberal political philosophy.
http://wn.com/John_Stuart_Mill
Josiah Royce
http://wn.com/Josiah_Royce
Jostein Gaarder
Jostein Gaarder (born 8 August 1952 in Oslo) is a Norwegian intellectual and author of several novels, short stories and children's books. Gaarder often writes from the perspective of children, exploring their sense of wonder about the world. He often uses metafiction in his works, writing stories within stories.
http://wn.com/Jostein_Gaarder
Jovinian
Jovinian, or Jovinianus, (died c.405) was an opponent of Christian asceticism in the 4th century and was condemned as a heretic at synods convened in Rome under Pope Siricius and in Milan by St Ambrose in 393. Our information about him is derived principally from the work of St. Jerome in two books, Adversus Jovinianum. Jerome referred to him as the "Epicurus of Christianity".
http://wn.com/Jovinian
Julian of Eclanum
http://wn.com/Julian_of_Eclanum
Jürgen Habermas
http://wn.com/Jürgen_Habermas
Kant
http://wn.com/Kant
Karl Barth
Karl Barth ( – ) (pronounced "Bart") was a Swiss Reformed theologian whom critics hold to be among the most important Christian thinkers of the 20th century; Pope Pius XII described him as the most important theologian since Thomas Aquinas. Beginning with his experience as a pastor, he rejected his training in the predominant liberal theology typical of 19th-century European Protestantism. Instead he embarked on a new theological path initially called dialectical theology, due to its stress on the paradoxical nature of divine truth (e.g., God's relationship to humanity embodies both grace and judgment). Other critics have referred to Barth as the father of neo-orthodoxy — a term emphatically rejected by Barth himself. The most accurate description of his work might be "a theology of the Word." Barth's theological thought emphasized the sovereignty of God, particularly through his innovative doctrine of election.
http://wn.com/Karl_Barth
Karl Marx
http://wn.com/Karl_Marx
Karl Popper
http://wn.com/Karl_Popper
Lawrence of Brindisi
Saint Lawrence of Brindisi (July 22, 1559, Brindisi, Apulia – July 22, 1619), born Giulio Cesare Russo, was a Roman Catholic priest and a member of the Order of Friars Minor Capuchin.
http://wn.com/Lawrence_of_Brindisi
Leo Ruickbie
Leo Ruickbie is an historian and sociologist of magic, witchcraft and Wicca. He is the author of several books, beginning with Witchcraft Out of the Shadows, a 2004 publication outlining the history of witchcraft from ancient Greece until the modern day. Ruickbie was born in Scotland and took a Master's degree in Sociology and Religion at the University of Lancaster. He then studied at King's College London and was an awarded a PhD for his thesis entitled The Re-Enchanters: Theorising Re-Enchantment and Testing for its Presence in Modern Witchcraft. On Samhain 2007 he launched Open Source Wicca, a project inspired by the Open Source software movement aimed at making the founding texts of Wicca more readily available by releasing them under a Creative Commons licence. In 2008 and 2009 he exhibited on the subject of witchcraft in France.
http://wn.com/Leo_Ruickbie
Leo Strauss
Leo Strauss (September 20, 1899 – October 18, 1973) was a political philosopher who specialized in classical political philosophy. He was born in Germany to Jewish parents and later emigrated to the United States. He spent most of his career as a professor of political science at the University of Chicago, where he taught several generations of students and published fifteen books.
http://wn.com/Leo_Strauss
Lev Shestov
Lev Isaakovich Shestov (), born Yehuda Leyb Schwarzmann (), was a Ukrainian/Russian existentialist philosopher. Born in Kiev (Russian Empire) on , he emigrated to France in 1921, fleeing from the aftermath of the October Revolution. He lived in Paris until his death on November 19, 1938.
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Lewis Ayres
Dr. Lewis Ayres, a lay Catholic theologian, husband, and father of three, is currently the Bede Professor of Catholic Theology at Durham University in the United Kingdom. As holder of the Bede Chair, he is the figurehead for the newly established Durham Centre for Catholic Studies and is also involved in a wide range of outreach activities for the Diocese of Hexham and Newcastle. Dr. Ayres also maintains his position as Associate Professor of Historical Theology at the Candler School of Theology at Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia, from which he is on a temporary leave of absence.
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List of ethicists
List of ethicists including religious or political figures recognized by those outside their tradition as having made major contributions to ideas about ethics, or raised major controversies by taking strong positions on previously unexplored problems.
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Loyal Rue
Dr. Loyal D. Rue is professor of religion and philosophy at Luther College of Decorah, Iowa , and focuses on naturalistic theories of religion.
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Ludwig Wittgenstein
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Maimonides
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Manichaean
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Manichaeans
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Manichaeism
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Mar Ammo
Mar Ammo was a 3rd century Manichean disciple of the prophet Mani. According to Manichaen tradition he spread Manichaeism eastward into Sogdiana during the time period when Mani was living. Mar Ammo is well known as the apostle of the east in Manichean literature nevertheless his exact origins are unknown. His name may denote that he was Aramaic in origin. He was nevertheless familiar with the Parthian language, in such he is responsible for establishing Parthian as the language of the eastern Manichean Church, later to be replaced by Sogdian in the sixth century.
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Marsilius of Padua
Marsilius of Padua (Italian Marsilio or Marsiglio da Padova; (circa 1275 – circa 1342) was an Italian scholar, trained in medicine who practiced a variety of professions. He was also an important 14th century political figure. His political treatise Defensor pacis is seen by some authorities as the most revolutionary political treatise written in the later Middle Ages.
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Martin Buber
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Martin Heidegger
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Martin Luther
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Mencius
:For the book with the same name, see Mencius (book).
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Michael Oakeshott
Michael Joseph Oakeshott (December 11, 1901 – December 19, 1990) was an English philosopher who wrote about political thought, and the philosophy of history, religion, aesthetics, and law. He is widely regarded as one of the most important conservative intellectuals of the twentieth century, although he has also been characterized as a liberal thinker.
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Michael Walzer
Michael Walzer (; 3 March 1935) is a Jewish American political philosopher and public intellectual. A professor emeritus at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, he is editor of the political-intellectual quarterly Dissent. He has written books and essays on a wide range of topics, including just and unjust wars, nationalism, ethnicity, economic justice, social criticism, radicalism, tolerance, and political obligation and is a contributing editor to The New Republic. To date, he has written 27 books and published over 300 articles, essays, and book reviews in Dissent, The New Republic, The New York Review of Books, The New Yorker, The New York Times, and many scholarly journals.
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Michel Foucault
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Milovan Đilas
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Mircea Eliade
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Mozi
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Nasir al-Din al-Tusi
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Niccolò Machiavelli
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Noam Chomsky
Avram Noam Chomsky ( or ; born December 7, 1928) is an American linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist, and political activist. He is an Institute Professor and professor emeritus of linguistics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Chomsky is well known in the academic and scientific community as one of the fathers of modern linguistics, and a major figure of analytic philosophy. Since the 1960s, he has become known more widely as a political dissident and an anarchist, referring to himself as a libertarian socialist. Chomsky is the author of more than 100 books and has received worldwide attention for his views, despite being typically absent from the mainstream media.
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Paul MacKendrick
Paul Lachlan MacKendrick (1914 – 1998) was an American classicist, author and teacher.
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Paul of Tarsus
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Paul the Apostle
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Paul Tillich
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Pavel Florensky
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Person
A person (from the Latin persona meaning "mask") is most broadly defined as any individual self-conscious or rational being, or any entity having rights and duties; or often more narrowly defined as an individual human being in particular.
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Peter Abelard
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Peter Damian
Saint Peter Damian, O.S.B. (Petrus Damiani, also Pietro Damiani or Pier Damiani; c. 1007 – February 21/22, 1072) was a reforming monk in the circle of Pope Gregory VII and a cardinal. In 1823, he was declared a Doctor of the Church. Dante placed him in one of the highest circles of Paradiso as a great predecessor of Saint Francis of Assisi.
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Peter Geach
Peter Thomas Geach (; born March 29, 1916) is a British philosopher. His areas of interest are the history of philosophy, philosophical logic, and the theory of identity.
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Peter Singer
Peter Albert David Singer (born 6 July 1946) is an Australian philosopher. He is the Ira W. DeCamp Professor of Bioethics at Princeton University, and laureate professor at the Centre for Applied Philosophy and Public Ethics (CAPPE), University of Melbourne. He specialises in applied ethics, approaching ethical issues from a secular preference utilitarian perspective.
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Petrus Damiani
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Philippa Foot
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Pierre de Maricourt
Pierre Pelerin de Maricourt (French), Petrus Peregrinus de Maricourt (Latin) or Peter Peregrinus of Maricourt; (fl. 1269) was a 13th century French scholar who conducted experiments on magnetism and wrote the first extant treatise describing the properties of magnets. His work is particularly noted for containing the earliest detailed discussion of freely pivoting compass needles, a fundamental component of the dry compass soon to appear in medieval navigation. He also wrote a treatise on the construction and use of a universal astrolabe.
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Pierre Hadot
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Plato
:For other uses, see Plato (disambiguation) and Platon (disambiguation).
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Plotinus
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Pope Benedict XV
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Pope Benedict XVI
Pope Benedict XVI (; ; ; born Joseph Alois Ratzinger on 16 April 1927) is the 265th and current Pope, by virtue of his office of Bishop of Rome, the head of the Catholic Church and Sovereign of the Vatican City State. He was elected on 19 April 2005 in a papal conclave, celebrated his Papal Inauguration Mass on 24 April 2005, and took possession of his cathedral, the Basilica of St. John Lateran, on 7 May 2005. A native of Bavaria, Pope Benedict XVI has both German and Vatican citizenship. He succeeded John Paul II.
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Pope Boniface VIII
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Pope Gregory I
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Pope Innocent I
Pope Saint Innocent I was pope from 401 to March 12, 417.
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Pope John Paul I
Pope John Paul I (Latin: Ioannes Paulus PP. I, Italian: Giovanni Paolo I), born Albino Luciani, (17 October 1912 – 28 September 1978), reigned as Pope of the Catholic Church and as Sovereign of Vatican City from 26 August 1978 until his death 33 days later. His reign is among the shortest in papal history, resulting in the most recent Year of Three Popes. John Paul I was the first Pope born in the 20th century.
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Pope John Paul II
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Pope John XXIII
Blessed Pope John XXIII (; ), born Angelo Giuseppe Roncalli (25 November 1881 – 3 June 1963), known as Blessed John XXIII since his beatification, was elected as the 261st Pope of the Catholic Church and Sovereign of Vatican City on 28 October 1958.
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Pope Leo I
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Pope Leo XIII
Pope Leo XIII (2 March 1810 - 20 July 1903), born Vincenzo Gioacchino Raffaele Luigi Pecci to an Italian comital family, was the 256th Pope of the Roman Catholic Church, reigning from 1878 to 1903 in succession to Pope Pius IX. Reigning until the age of 93, he was the oldest pope, and had the third longest pontificate, behind his immediate predecessor Pius IX and John Paul II.
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Pope Paul VI
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Pope Pius IX
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Pope Pius V
Pope Pius V (17 January 1504 – 1 May 1572), born Antonio Ghislieri (from 1518 called Michele Ghislieri, O.P.), was Pope from 1566 to 1572 and is a saint of the Catholic Church. He is chiefly notable for his role in the Council of Trent, the Counter-Reformation, and the standardisation of the liturgy. Pius V declared Thomas Aquinas a Doctor of the Church and patronised prominent sacred music composer Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina.
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Pope Pius X
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Pope Pius XI
Pope Pius XI (Latin: Pius PP. XI; ; 31 May 1857 – 10 February 1939), born Ambrogio Damiano Achille Ratti, was Pope from 6 February 1922, and sovereign of Vatican City from its creation as an independent state on 11 February 1929 until his death on 10 February 1939. He issued numerous encyclicals including Quadragesimo Anno highlighting capitalistic greed of international finance, social justice issues and Quas Primas establishing the feast of Christ the King. He took as his papal motto "Christ's peace in Christ's kingdom".
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Pope Pius XII
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Pope Zosimus
Pope Saint Zosimus was pope from March 18, 417 to December 26, 418 (or December 27).
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Possidius
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R. C. Sproul
Robert Charles Sproul, (born February 13, 1939, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania) is an American Calvinist theologian and pastor. He is the founder and chairman of Ligonier Ministries (named after the Ligonier Valley just outside of Pittsburgh, where the ministry started as a study center for college and seminary students) and can be heard daily on the Renewing Your Mind radio broadcast in the United States and internationally. "Renewing Your Mind with Dr. R.C. Sproul" is also broadcast on Sirius and XM satellite radio.
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Rabindranath Tagore
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Ramon Llull
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Reinhold Niebuhr
Karl Paul Reinhold Niebuhr (; June 21, 1892 – June 1, 1971) was an American theologian and commentator on public affairs. Niebuhr was the archetypal American intellectual of the Cold War era. Starting as a leftist minister in the 1920s indebted to theological liberalism, he shifted to the new Neo-Orthodox theology in the 1930s, explaining how the sin of pride created evil in the world. He attacked utopianism as useless for dealing with reality, writing in The Children of Light and the Children of Darkness (1944):
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René Descartes
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René Guénon
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Richard Swinburne
Richard G. Swinburne (born 26 December 1934) is an Emeritus Professor of Philosophy at the University of Oxford. Over the last 50 years Swinburne has been a very influential proponent of natural theology, that is, philosophical arguments for the existence of God. His philosophical contributions are primarily in philosophy of religion and philosophy of science. He aroused much discussion with his early work in the philosophy of religion, a trilogy of books consisting of The Coherence of Theism, The Existence of God, and Faith and Reason.
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Robert Bellarmine
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Robert Grosseteste
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Robert Nozick
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Roger Bacon
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Roscellinus
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Russell Kirk
Russell Kirk (October 19, 1918 – April 29, 1994) was an American political theorist, moralist, historian, social critic, literary critic, and fiction author known for his influence on 20th century American conservatism. His 1953 book, The Conservative Mind, gave shape to the amorphous post-World War II conservative movement. It traced the development of conservative thought in the Anglo-American tradition, giving special importance to the ideas of Edmund Burke. Kirk was also considered the chief proponent of traditionalist conservatism.
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Saint Augustine
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Saint Bonaventure
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Saint Monica
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Saint Paul
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Saint Possidius
Possidius (5th century) was a friend of Saint Augustine of Hippo who wrote a reliable biography and an indiculus or list of his works. He was bishop of Calama in the Roman province of Numidia.
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Sergei Bulgakov
Fr. Sergei Nikolaevich Bulgakov () ( - July 12, 1944) was a Russian Orthodox theologian, philosopher and economist.
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Sirach
Sirach, by the Jewish scribe Ben Sira of Jerusalem, also known as Wisdom of Jesus son of Sirach, the Wisdom of Ben Sira, or Ecclesiasticus, is a work from the early second century BCE, originally written in Hebrew.
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Society
A society or a human society is (1) a group of people related to each other through persistent relations such as social status, roles and social networks. (2) A large social grouping that shares the same geographical territory and is subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations. Human societies are characterized by patterns of relationships between individuals sharing a distinctive culture and institutions. Without an article, the term refers either to the entirety of humanity or a contextually specific subset of people.
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Sri Aurobindo
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Sting (musician)
Gordon Matthew Thomas Sumner, CBE (born 2 October 1951), better known by his professional name Sting, is an English musician, singer-songwriter, activist, actor and philanthropist. Prior to starting his solo career, he was the principal songwriter, lead singer and bassist of the rock band The Police.
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Søren Kierkegaard
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Teresa of Ávila
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Thomas Cahill
Thomas Cahill (born 1940 in New York City) is an American scholar and writer. He is best known for The Hinges of History series, a prospective seven-volume series in which the author recounts formative moments in Western civilization. To date, the series includes the following five best-selling books:
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Thomas Hobbes
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Thomas Nagel
Thomas Nagel (born July 4, 1937 in Belgrade, in present-day Serbia) is an American philosopher, currently University Professor of Philosophy and Law at New York University, where he has taught since 1980. His main areas of philosophical interest are philosophy of mind, political philosophy and ethics. He is well-known for his critique of reductionist accounts of the mind in his essay "What Is it Like to Be a Bat?" (1974), and for his contributions to deontological and liberal moral and political theory in The Possibility of Altruism (1970) and subsequent writings.
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Thérèse of Lisieux
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Vandals
The Vandals were an East Germanic tribe that entered the late Roman Empire during the 5th century, perhaps best known for their sack of Rome in 455. Although they were not notably more destructive than other invaders of ancient times, Renaissance and Early Modern writers who idealized Rome tended to blame the Vandals for its destruction. This led to the coinage of "vandalism", meaning senseless destruction, particularly the defacing of artworks that were completed with great effort.
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Vincent Ferrer
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Virgil
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Visigoths
The Visigoths () were one of two main branches of the Goths, an East Germanic tribe; the Ostrogoths being the other. Together these tribes were among the barbarians who disturbed the late Roman Empire during the Migration Period. The romanized Visigoths first emerged as a distinct people during the 4th century, initially in the Balkans, where they participated in several wars with Rome. A Visigothic army under Alaric I eventually moved into Italy and famously sacked Rome in 410.
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Will Durant
William James Durant (November 5, 1885 – November 7, 1981) was a prolific American writer, historian, and philosopher. He is best known for The Story of Civilization, 11 volumes written in collaboration with his wife Ariel and published between 1935 and 1975. He was earlier noted for The Story of Philosophy, written in 1926, which one observer described as "a groundbreaking work that helped to popularize philosophy."
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William Alston
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William James
:This article is about the American psychologist and philosopher. For other people named William James see William James (disambiguation)
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William L. Rowe
William Leonard Rowe (born 26 July 1931) is a professor emeritus of philosophy at Purdue University who specialises in the philosophy of religion. His work has played a leading role in the "remarkable revival of analytic philosophy of religion since the 1970s". He is most notable for his formulation of the evidential argument from evil.
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William Lane Craig
William Lane Craig (born August 23, 1949) is an American Evangelical Christian apologist, theologian, and analytic philosopher known for his contributions to the philosophy of religion, historical Jesus studies, and the philosophy of time. He is one of the most visible contemporary proponents of natural theology, often participating in debates on the existence of God. In 1979, Craig authored The Kalam Cosmological Argument, a modern defense of the kalam cosmological argument—which is today the most published-on contemporary argument for theism in the philosophy of religion.
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William of Ockham
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William Whewell
William Whewell (24 May 1794 – 6 March 1866) was an English polymath, scientist, Anglican priest, philosopher, theologian, and historian of science. His surname is .
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William Wollaston
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Émile Durkheim
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Étienne Gilson
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Against the World - The Life & Theology of Aurelius Augustine

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published: 19 Nov 2011

Augustine of Hippo - The City of God (Part 1 of 69)

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published: 19 Jul 2011

Augustine Of Hippo 1

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published: 10 Jan 2008

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published: 06 May 2012

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published: 26 Feb 2012

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"Augustine", "Saint Augustine", and "Augustinus" redirect here. For other uses, see Augustine (disambiguation), Saint Augustine (disambiguation), and Augustinus (disambiguation).

Augustine of Hippo
Portrait by Philippe de Champaigne, 17th century
Bishop, Confessor, Doctor of the Church "Doctor Gratiae"
Born	(354-11-13)13 November 354 Thagaste, Numidia (now Souk Ahras, Algeria)
Died	28 August 430(430-08-28) (aged 75) Hippo Regius, Numidia (now modern-day Annaba, Algeria)
Honored in	Catholic Church Assyrian Church of the East Eastern Orthodoxy Oriental Orthodoxy Anglican Communion Lutheranism Aglipayan Church
Major shrine	San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro, Pavia, Italy
Feast	August 28 (Western Christianity) June 15 (Eastern Christianity) November 4 (Assyrian)
Attributes	child; dove; pen; shell, pierced heart, holding book with a small church, bishop's staff, miter
Patronage	brewers; printers; theologians Bridgeport, Connecticut; Cagayan de Oro, Philippines;
Influences	Saint Monica, Plotinus, Ambrose, Anthony the Great, Saint Paul, Cyprian, Plato
Influenced	Bernard of Clairvaux, Thomas Aquinas, John Calvin, Martin Luther, René Descartes, Cornelius Jansen, Nicolas Malebranche, Edmund Husserl, Martin Heidegger, Hannah Arendt, Carl Schmitt, Ludwig Wittgenstein, Antonio Negri, Jean-Paul Sartre, Saint Bonaventure, Benedict XVI, John Piper, R. C. Sproul
Major work(s)	Confessions of St. Augustine City of God On Christian Doctrine

St. Augustine of Hippo

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Augustine of Hippo ( /ɒˈɡʌstɨn/^[1]^[2] or /ˈɔːɡəstɪn/;^[2] Latin: Aurelius Augustinus Hipponensis;^[3] November 13, 354 – August 28, 430), also known as Augustine, St. Augustine, St. Austin,^[4] St. Augoustinos, Blessed Augustine, or St. Augustine the Blessed,^[5] was Bishop of Hippo Regius (present-day Annaba, Algeria). He was a Latin philosopher and theologian from Roman Africa. His writings were very influential in the development of Western Christianity.

According to his contemporary, Jerome, Augustine "established anew the ancient Faith."^[6] In his early years he was heavily influenced by Manichaeism and afterward by the Neo-Platonism of Plotinus.^[7] After his conversion to Christianity and baptism in AD 387, Augustine developed his own approach to philosophy and theology, accommodating a variety of methods and different perspectives.^[8] He believed that the grace of Christ was indispensable to human freedom, and he framed the concepts of original sin and just war.

When the Western Roman Empire was starting to disintegrate, Augustine developed the concept of the Catholic Church as a spiritual City of God (in a book of the same name), distinct from the material Earthly City.^[9] His thoughts profoundly influenced the medieval worldview. Augustine's City of God was closely identified with the Church, the community that worshipped God.^[10]

In the Catholic Church and the Anglican Communion, he is a saint and pre-eminent Doctor of the Church, and the patron of the Augustinian religious order; his memorial is celebrated 28 August, the day of his death. He is the patron saint of brewers, printers, theologians, the alleviation of sore eyes, and a number of cities and dioceses.^[11] Many Protestants, especially Calvinists, consider him to be one of the theological fathers of Reformation due to his teaching on salvation and divine grace. In the Eastern Orthodox Church he is also considered a saint, his feast day being celebrated on 15 June.^[12]. He carries the additional title of Blessed. Among the Orthodox, he is called "Blessed Augustine", or "St. Augustine the Blessed".^[13]

1 Life
2 Works
3 Influence as a theologian and thinker
4 Theology
5 Teaching philosophy
6 List of Works (books, letters and sermons)
7 Translations
8 In popular culture
9 See also
10 References
11 Bibliography
12 External links

Life [link]

Early childhood [link]

Augustine at the school of Taghaste by Benozzo Gozzoli

Augustine was born in 354 in the municipium of Thagaste (now Souk Ahras, Algeria) in Roman Africa.^[14]^[15] His father, Patricius, was a pagan, and his mother, Monica, was Christian. Scholars believe that Augustine's ancestors included Berbers, Latins and Phoenicians.^[16] Augustine's family name, Aurelius, suggests that his father's ancestors were freedmen of the gens Aurelia. Augustine's family had been Roman, from a legal standpoint, for at least a century when he was born.^[17] It is assumed that his mother, Monica, was of Berber origin, on the basis of her name,^[16]^[18] but as his family were honestiores, Augustine's first language is likely to have been Latin.^[16] At the age of 11, he was sent to school at Madaurus (now M'Daourouch), a small Numidian city about 19 miles south of Thagaste. There he became familiar with Latin literature, as well as pagan beliefs and practices.^[19] While at home in 369 and 370, he read Cicero's dialogue Hortensius (now lost), which he described as leaving a lasting impression on him and sparking his interest in philosophy.^[20]

Studying at Carthage [link]

At age 17, through the generosity of fellow citizen Romanianus,^[20] Augustine went to Carthage to continue his education in rhetoric. Although raised as a Christian, Augustine left the church to follow the Manichaean religion, much to the despair of his mother, Monica.^[21] As a youth Augustine lived a hedonistic lifestyle for a time, associating with young men who boasted of their sexual exploits with women and urged the inexperienced boys, like Augustine, to seek out experiences or to make up stories about experiences in order to gain acceptance and avoid ridicule.^[22] It was during this period that he uttered his famous prayer, "Grant me chastity and continence, but not yet" (Latin: da mihi castitatem et continentiam, sed noli modo).^[23] At a young age, he began an affair with a young woman in Carthage. She was his lover for over thirteen years and gave birth to his son Adeodatus,^[24] who was said to have been extremely intelligent.^[25]

Teaching rhetoric [link]

During the years 373 and 374, Augustine taught grammar at Thagaste. The following year he moved to Carthage to conduct a school of rhetoric, and would remain there for the next nine years.^[20] Disturbed by the unruly behavior of the students in Carthage, in 383 he moved to establish a school in Rome, where he believed the best and brightest rhetoricians practiced. However, Augustine was disappointed with the Roman schools, where he was met with apathy. Once the time came for his students to pay their fees they simply fled. Manichaean friends introduced him to the prefect of the City of Rome, Symmachus, who had been asked to provide a professor of rhetoric for the imperial court at Milan.^[26]

"St Augustine and Monica" (1846), by Ary Scheffer.

Augustine won the job and headed north to take up his position in late 384. At the age of thirty, he had won the most visible academic position in the Latin world – at a time when such posts gave ready access to political careers. During this period, although Augustine showed some fervor for Manichaeism, he was never an initiate or "elect" but remained an "auditor", the lowest level in the sect's hierarchy.^[26]

While he was in Milan, Augustine's life changed. While still at Carthage, he had begun to move away from Manichaeism, in part because of a disappointing meeting with the Manichean Bishop, Faustus of Mileve, a key exponent of Manichaean theology.^[26] In Rome, he is reported to have completely turned away from Manichaeanism, and instead embraced the scepticism of the New Academy movement. At Milan, his mother pressured him to become a Christian. Augustine's own studies in Neoplatonism were also leading him in this direction, and his friend Simplicianus urged him that way as well.^[20] But it was the bishop of Milan, Ambrose, who had most influence over Augustine. Ambrose was a master of rhetoric like Augustine himself, but older and more experienced.^[27]

Augustine's mother had followed him to Milan and he allowed her to arrange a society marriage, for which he abandoned his concubine. It is believed that Augustine truly loved the woman he had lived with for so long. In his "Confessions," he expressed how deeply he was hurt by ending this relationship, and also admitted that the experience eventually produced a decreased sensitivity to pain over time. However, he had to wait two years until his fiancee came of age, so despite the grief he felt over leaving "The One", as he called her, he soon took another concubine. Augustine eventually broke off his engagement to his eleven-year-old fiancee, but never renewed his relationship with "The One" and soon left his second concubine.

It was because of otium that Alypius of Thagaste steered Augustine away from marriage. He said that they could not live a life together in the love of wisdom if he married. Augustine looked back years later on the life at Cassiciacum, a villa outside of Milan where he gathered with his followers, and described it as Christianae vita otium - the Christian life of leisure.^[28] Augustine had been awarded a job of professor of rhetoric in Milan at the time he was living at Cassiciacum around A.D. 383. In 388 he returned to Africa and his home country and pursued a life of aristocratic otium at his family's property.^[29]^[30] In 391 he was ordained bishop of Hippo Regius (hence obtaining the name "Augustine of Hippo") and gave his property to the church of Thagaste.^[31]

Christian conversion [link]

In the summer of 386, after having heard the story of Placianus about his and his friends' first reading of the life of Saint Anthony of the Desert, which greatly inspired him, Augustine underwent a profound personal crisis, leading him to convert to catholic Christianity, abandon his career in rhetoric, quit his teaching position in Milan, give up any ideas of marriage, and devote himself entirely to serving God and to the practices of priesthood, which included celibacy. According to Augustine his conversion was prompted by a childlike voice he heard telling him in a sing-song voice, "Take up and read" (Latin: tolle, lege):

I threw myself down somehow under a certain figtree^[32], and let my tears flow freely. Rivers streamed from my eyes, a sacrifice acceptable to you ^[Ps 50:19] and (though not in these words, yet in this sense) I repeatedly said to you: 'How long, O Lord? How long, Lord, will you be angry to the uttermost? Do not be mindful of our old iniquities.'^[Ps 6:4]. For I felt my past to have a grip on me. It uttered wretched cries: 'How long, how long is it to be?' 'Tomorrow, tomorrow.'^[33] 'Why not now? Why not an end to my impure life in this very hour?'

As I was saying this and weeping in the bitter agony of my heart, suddenly I heard a voice from the nearby house ^[34] chanting as if it might be a boy or a girl (I do not know which), saying and repeating over and over again 'Pick up and read, pick up and read.' At once my countenance changed, and I began to think intently whether there might be some sort of children's game in which such a chant is used. But I could not remember having heard of one. I checked the flood of tears and stood up. I interpreted it solely as a divine command to me to open the book and read the first chapter I might find. For I had heard how Antony happened to be present at the gospel reading, and took it as an admonition addressed to himself when the words were read: 'Go, sell all you have, give to the poor, and you shall have treasure in heaven; and come, follow me'^{[Matt 19:21]}^[35] . By such an inspired utterance he was immediately 'converted to you' (Ps. 50.15). So I hurried back to the place where Alypius was sitting. There I had put down the book of the apostle when I got up. I seized it, opened it and in silence read the first passage on which my eyes lit: 'Not in riots and drunken parties, not in eroticism and indecencies, not in strife and rivalry, but put on the Lord Jesus Christ and make no provision for the flesh in its lusts'^{[Rom 13:13-15]}.

I neither wished nor needed to read further. At once, with the last words of this sentence, it was as if a light of relief from all anxiety flooded into my heart. All the shadows of doubt were dispelled.

— The Confessions of Saint Augustine, Book VIII, Paragraphs 28 and 29.^[36]

The volume Augustine read was Paul's Epistle to the Romans. He wrote an account of his conversion in his Confessions (Latin: Confessiones), which became a classic of Christian theology. Ambrose baptized Augustine, along with his son, Adeodatus, on Easter Vigil in 387 in Milan, and a year later they returned to Africa.^[20] Also in 388 he completed his apology On the Holiness of the Catholic Church.^[26] On the way back to Africa Augustine's mother Monica died, ^[37] and Adeodatus soon after. ^[38]

Priesthood [link]

Upon his return to north Africa Augustine sold his patrimony and gave the money to the poor. The only thing he kept was the family house, which he converted into a monastic foundation for himself and a group of friends.^[20] In 391 he was ordained a priest in Hippo Regius (now Annaba, in Algeria). He became a famous preacher (more than 350 preserved sermons are believed to be authentic), and was noted for combating the Manichaean religion, to which he had formerly adhered.^[26]

In 395 he was made coadjutor Bishop of Hippo, and became full Bishop shortly thereafter.^[39] He remained in this position until his death in 430. Augustine worked tirelessly in trying to convince the people of Hippo to convert to Christianity. He left his monastery, but continued to lead a monastic life in the episcopal residence. He left a regula his monastery that has led him to be designated the "patron saint of regular clergy"^[40]

Much of Augustine's later life was recorded by his friend Possidius, bishop of Calama (present-day Guelma, Algeria), in his Sancti Augustini Vita. Possidius admired Augustine as a man of powerful intellect and a stirring orator who took every opportunity to defend Christianity against its detractors. Possidius also described Augustine's personal traits in detail, drawing a portrait of a man who ate sparingly, worked tirelessly, despised gossip, shunned the temptations of the flesh, and exercised prudence in the financial stewardship of his see.^[41]

Death [link]

Tomb in San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro Basilica, Pavia.

Shortly before Augustine's death, Roman Africa was invaded by the Vandals, a Germanic tribe that had converted to Arianism. The Vandals besieged Hippo in the spring of 430, when Augustine entered his final illness. According to Possidius one of the few miracles attributed to Augustine took place during the siege. While Augustine was confined to his sick bed, a man petitioned him that he might lay his hands upon a relative who was ill. Augustine replied that if he had any power to cure the sick, he would surely have applied it on himself first. The visitor declared that he was told in a dream to go to Augustine so that his relative would be made whole. When Augustine heard this, he no longer hesitated, but laid his hands upon the sick man, who departed from Augustine's presence healed.^[42]

Possidius also gives a first-hand account of Augustine's death, which occurred on August 28, 430, while Hippo was still besieged. Augustine spent his final days in prayer and repentance, requesting that the penitential Psalms of David be hung on his walls so that he could read them. He directed that the library of the church in Hippo and all the books therein should be carefully preserved.^[43] Shortly after his death the Vandals lifted the siege of Hippo, but they returned not long thereafter and burned the city. They destroyed all of it but Augustine's cathedral and library, which they left untouched.^[44]

According to Bede's True Martyrology, Augustine's body was later removed to Cagliari, Sardinia by the Catholic bishops expelled from North Africa by Huneric. Around 720 his remains were moved again by Peter, bishop of Pavia and uncle of the Lombard king Liutprand, to the church of San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro, in order to save them from frequent coastal raids by Muslims. In January 1327 Pope John XXII issued the papal bull Veneranda Santorum Patrum, in which he appointed the Augustinians guardians of the tomb of Augustine, which was remade in 1362 and elaborately carved with bas-reliefs of scenes from Augustine's life. By that time, however, the actual remains of Augustine could not be authenticated. Stonemasons working in the crypt altar removed paving blocks and discovered a marble box. Within it were other boxes; in the third box were fragments of wood, numerous bones and bone fragments, and glass vials. Some of the workers later claimed to have seen the name "Augustine" written in charcoal on the top of the box. A factor complicating the authentication of the remains was that San Pietro was shared by two Augustinian religious orders in bitter rivalry.^{[citation needed]} The Augustinians were expelled from Pavia in 1700, taking refuge in Milan with the relics of Augustine, and the disassembled Arca, which were removed to the cathedral there. San Pietro fell into disrepair and was a military magazine during the Napoleonic occupation of the city. It was finally rebuilt in the 1870s, under the urging of Agostino Gaetano Riboldi, and reconsecrated in 1896 when the relics of Augustine and the shrine were once again reinstalled.^[45]^[46]

Works [link]

Augustine was one of the most prolific Latin authors in terms of surviving works, and the list of his works consists of more than one hundred separate titles.^[47] They include apologetic works against the heresies of the Arians, Donatists, Manichaeans and Pelagians, texts on Christian doctrine, notably De Doctrina Christiana (On Christian Doctrine), exegetical works such as commentaries on Book of Genesis, the Psalms and Paul's Letter to the Romans, many sermons and letters, and the Retractationes, a review of his earlier works which he wrote near the end of his life. Apart from those, Augustine is probably best known for his Confessiones (Confessions), which is a personal account of his earlier life, and for De civitate dei (Of the City of God, consisting of 22 books), which he wrote to restore the confidence of his fellow Christians, which was badly shaken by the sack of Rome by the Visigoths in 410. His On the Trinity, in which he developed what has become known as the 'psychological analogy' of the Trinity, is also among his masterpieces, and arguably one of the greatest theological works of all time. He also wrote On Free Choice Of The Will (De libero arbitrio), addressing why God gives humans free will that can be used for evil.

Influence as a theologian and thinker [link]

Augustine was a bishop, priest, and father who remains a central figure, both within Christianity and in the history of Western thought, and is considered by modern historian Thomas Cahill to be the first medieval man and the last classical man.^[48] In both his philosophical and theological reasoning, he was greatly influenced by Stoicism, Platonism and Neo-platonism, particularly by the work of Plotinus, author of the Enneads, probably through the mediation of Porphyry and Victorinus (as Pierre Hadot has argued). Although he later abandoned Neoplatonism some ideas are still visible in his early writings.^[49] His generally favourable view of Neoplatonic thought contributed to the "baptism" of Greek thought and its entrance into the Christian and subsequently the European intellectual tradition. His early and influential writing on the human will, a central topic in ethics, would become a focus for later philosophers such as Schopenhauer, Kierkegaard, and Nietzsche. In addition, Augustine was influenced by the works of Virgil (known for his teaching on language), Cicero (known for his teaching on argument), and Aristotle (particularly his Rhetoric and Poetics).

Augustine's concept of original sin was expounded in his works against the Pelagians. However, St. Thomas Aquinas took much of Augustine's theology while creating his own unique synthesis of Greek and Christian thought after the widespread rediscovery of the work of Aristotle. Augustine's doctrine of efficacious grace found eloquent expression in the works of Bernard of Clairvaux; also Reformation theologians such as Martin Luther and John Calvin would look back to him as their inspiration.

Augustine was canonized by popular acclaim, and later recognized as a Doctor of the Church in 1298 by Pope Boniface VIII.^[50] His feast day is August 28, the day on which he died. He is considered the patron saint of brewers, printers, theologians, sore eyes, and a number of cities and dioceses.^[11]

The latter part of Augustine's Confessions consists of an extended meditation on the nature of time. Even the agnostic philosopher Bertrand Russell was impressed by this. He wrote, "a very admirable relativistic theory of time. ... It contains a better and clearer statement than Kant's of the subjective theory of time - a theory which, since Kant, has been widely accepted among philosophers."^[51] Catholic theologians generally subscribe to Augustine's belief that God exists outside of time in the "eternal present"; that time only exists within the created universe because only in space is time discernible through motion and change. His meditations on the nature of time are closely linked to his consideration of the human ability of memory. Frances Yates in her 1966 study The Art of Memory argues that a brief passage of the Confessions, 10.8.12, in which Augustine writes of walking up a flight of stairs and entering the vast fields of memory^[52] clearly indicates that the ancient Romans were aware of how to use explicit spatial and architectural metaphors as a mnemonic technique for organizing large amounts of information.

Augustine's philosophical method, especially demonstrated in his Confessions, has had continuing influence on Continental philosophy throughout the 20th century. His descriptive approach to intentionality, memory, and language as these phenomena are experienced within consciousness and time anticipated and inspired the insights of modern phenomenology and hermeneutics. Edmund Husserl writes: "The analysis of time-consciousness is an age-old crux of descriptive psychology and theory of knowledge. The first thinker to be deeply sensitive to the immense difficulties to be found here was Augustine, who laboured almost to despair over this problem."^[53] Martin Heidegger refers to Augustine's descriptive philosophy at several junctures in his influential work, Being and Time.^[54] Hannah Arendt began her philosophical writing with a dissertation on Augustine's concept of love, Der Liebesbegriff bei Augustin (1929): "The young Arendt attempted to show that the philosophical basis for vita socialis in Augustine can be understood as residing in neighbourly love, grounded in his understanding of the common origin of humanity."^[55] Jean Bethke Elshtain in Augustine and the Limits of Politics finds likeness between Augustine and Arendt in their concepts of evil: "Augustine did not see evil as glamorously demonic but rather as absence of good, something which paradoxically is really nothing. Arendt ... envisioned even the extreme evil which produced the Holocaust as merely banal [in Eichmann in Jerusalem]."^[56] Augustine's philosophical legacy continues to influence contemporary critical theory through the contributions and inheritors of these 20th century figures.

According to Leo Ruickbie, Augustine's arguments against magic, differentiating it from miracle, were crucial in the early Church's fight against paganism and became a central thesis in the later denunciation of witches and witchcraft. According to Professor Deepak Lal, Augustine's vision of the heavenly city has influenced the secular projects and traditions of the Enlightenment, Marxism, Freudianism and Eco-fundamentalism.^[57]

Influence on St. Thomas Aquinas [link]

For quotations of St. Augustine by St. Thomas Aquinas see Aquinas and the Sacraments and Thought of Thomas Aquinas.

On the topic of original sin, Aquinas proposed a more optimistic view of man than that of Augustine in that his conception leaves to the reason, will, and passions of fallen man their natural powers even after the Fall.^[58]

Influence on Protestant reformers [link]

While in his pre-Pelagian writings Augustine taught that Adam's guilt as transmitted to his descendants much enfeebles, though does not destroy, the freedom of their will, Protestant reformers Martin Luther and John Calvin affirmed that Original Sin completely destroyed liberty (see total depravity).^[58]

Influence on Modern-Day Ministers and Authors [link]

Augustine's influence has impacted many modern day theologians and authors. One known theologian and author is John Piper, whose series of books are called, The Swans Are Not Silent in which the first book is titled The Legacy of Sovereign Joy, referring to a quote taken from (Confessions, IX,1).

"How sweet it was for me to be rid of those fruitless joys which I had once feared to lose.... You drove them from me, you who are the true, the sovereign joy. You drove them from me and took their place, you who are sweeter than all pleasure, though not of flesh and blood, you who outshine all light, yet are hidden deeper than any secret in our hearts, you who surpass all honor, though not in the eyes of men who see all honor in themselves.... O Lord my God, my Light, my Wealth, and My Salvation."^[59]

Hannah Arendt, an influential twentieth century political theorist, wrote her doctoral dissertation in philosophy on St. Augustine, and continued to rely on his though throughout her career.

In his autobiographical book Milestones, Pope Benedict XVI, a prolific and influential Catholic theologian in his own right before ascending to the papacy, claims St. Augustine as one of the deepest influences in his thought.

Theology [link]

Abortion and ensoulment [link]

Like other Church Fathers such as Athenagoras ^[60] St Augustine "vigorously condemned the practice of induced abortion" as a crime, in any stage of pregnancy.^[61]

Anthropology [link]

Augustine was one of the first Christian ancient Latin authors with very clear anthropological vision.^[62] He saw the human being as a perfect unity of two substances: soul and body. In his late treatise On Care to Be Had for the Dead, section 5 (420 AD) he exhorted to respect the body on the grounds that it belonged to the very nature of the human person:

In no wise are the bodies themselves to be spurned. (...) For these pertain not to ornament or aid which is applied from without, but to the very nature of man.^[63]

Augustine's favourite figure to describe body-soul unity is marriage: caro tua, coniunx tua - your body is your wife.^[64] Initially, the two elements were in perfect harmony. After the fall of humanity they are now experiencing dramatic combat between one another.

They are two categorically different things. The body is a three-dimensional object composed of the four elements, whereas the soul has no spatial dimensions.^[65] Soul is a kind of substance, participating in reason, fit for ruling the body.^[66] Augustine was not preoccupied, as Plato and Descartes were, with going too much into details in efforts to explain the metaphysics of the soul-body union. It suffices for him to admit that they are metaphysically distinct; to be a human is to be a composite of soul and body, and that the soul is superior to the body. The latter statement is grounded in his hierarchical classification of things into those that merely exist, those that exist and live, and those that exist, live, and have intelligence or reason.^[67]

Astrology [link]

Augustine's contemporaries often believed astrology to be an exact and genuine science. Its practitioners were regarded as true men of learning and called mathemathici. Astrology played a prominent part in Manichean doctrine, and Augustine himself was attracted by their books in his youth, being particularly fascinated by those who claimed to foretell the future. Later as a bishop he used to warn that one should avoid astrologers who combine science and horoscopes. (Augustine's term "mathematici". meaning "astrologers", is sometimes mistranslated as "mathematicians".) According to Augustine, they were not genuine students of Hipparchus or Eratosthenes but "common swindlers":^[68]^[69]^[70]^[71]

Hence, a devout Christian must avoid astrologers and all impious soothsayers, especially when they tell you the truth, for fear of leading his soul into error by consorting with demons and entangling himself with the bonds of such association.

— The Literal Meaning of Genesis^[72]

Baptism [link]

Against the Pelagians Augustine strongly stressed the importance of infant baptism. About the question if baptism is an absolute necessity for salvation however, Augustine appears to have refined his beliefs during his lifetime, causing some confusion among later theologians about his position. He said in one of his sermons:

"God does not remit sins but to the baptized".

— A Sermon to Catechumens on the Creed, Paragraph 16

This belief was shared by many early Christians.

However, a passage from his City of God, concerning the Apocalypse, may indicate that Augustine did believe in an exception for children born to Christian parents:

"But what shall become of the little ones? For it is beyond all belief that in these days [the Apocalypse] there shall not be found some Christian children born, but not yet baptized, and that there shall not also be some born during that very period; and if there be such, we cannot believe that their parents shall not find some way of bringing them to the laver of regeneration."

— City of God, Book 20, Chapter 8

Creation [link]

In "The Literal Interpretation of Genesis" Augustine took the view that everything in the universe was created simultaneously by God, and not in seven calendar days like a plain account of Genesis would require. He argued that the six-day structure of creation presented in the book of Genesis represents a logical framework, rather than the passage of time in a physical way - it would bear a spiritual, rather than physical, meaning, which is no less literal. One reason for this interpretation is the passage in Sirach 18:1, creavit omni simul ("he created all things at once"), which Augustine took as proof that the days of Genesis 1 had to be taken non-literally.^[73] Augustine also does not envision original sin as originating structural changes in the universe, and even suggests that the bodies of Adam and Eve were already created mortal before the Fall.^{[citation needed]} Apart from his specific views, Augustine recognizes that the interpretation of the creation story is difficult, and remarks that we should be willing to change our mind about it as new information comes up.^[74]

In "City of God", Augustine rejected both the immortality of the human race proposed by pagans, and contemporary ideas of ages (such as those of certain Greeks and Egyptians) that differed from the Church's sacred writings:

Let us, then, omit the conjectures of men who know not what they say, when they speak of the nature and origin of the human race. For some hold the same opinion regarding men that they hold regarding the world itself, that they have always been... They are deceived, too, by those highly mendacious documents which profess to give the history of many thousand years, though, reckoning by the sacred writings, we find that not 6000 years have yet passed.

— Augustine, Of the Falseness of the History Which Allots Many Thousand Years to the World's Past, The City of God, Book 12: Chapt. 10 [419].

Ecclesiology [link]

Eschatology [link]

Augustine originally believed that Christ would establish a literal 1,000-year kingdom prior to the general resurrection (premillennialism or chiliasm) but rejected the system as carnal. He was the first theologian to systematically expound a doctrine of amillennialism, although some theologians and Christian historians believe his position was closer to that of modern postmillennialists. The mediaeval Catholic church built its system of eschatology on Augustinian amillennialism, where the Christ rules the earth spiritually through his triumphant church.^[76] At the Reformation, theologians such as John Calvin accepted amillennialism while rejecting aspects of mediaeval ecclesiology which had been built on Augustine's teaching.

Augustine taught that the eternal fate of the soul is determined at death,^[77]^[78] and that purgatorial fires of the intermediate state purify only those that died in communion with the Church. His teaching provided fuel for later theology.^[77]

Epistemological views [link]

Augustine's intellectual development was shaped by epistemological concerns. His early dialogues (Contra academicos (386) and De Magistro (389)), both written shortly after his conversion to Christianity, reflect his engagement with skeptical arguments and show the development of his doctrine of inner illumination. Augustine also posed the problem of other minds throughout different works, most famously perhaps in On the Trinity (VIII.6.9), and develops what has come to be a standard solution: the argument from analogy to other minds.^[79] In contrast to Plato and other earlier philosophers, Augustine recognizes the centrality of testimony to human knowledge and argues that what others tell us can provide knowledge even if we don't have independent reasons to believe their testimonial reports.^[80]

Intercession of the Saints [link]

In his book Confessions, Augustine wrote of a peculiar practice of his Christian mother, Monica, in which she "brought to certain oratories, erected in the memory of the saints, offerings of porridge, bread, and wine."^[81] When she moved to Milan, the bishop Ambrose forbade her to use the offering of wine, since "it might be an occasion of gluttony for those who were already given to drink". So, Augustine wrote of her:

In place of a basket filled with fruits of the earth, she had learned to bring to the oratories of the martyrs a heart full of purer petitions, and to give all that she could to the poor - so that the communion of the Lord's body might be rightly celebrated in those places where, after the example of his passion, the martyrs had been sacrificed and crowned.

— Confessions 6.2.2

Just war [link]

Mariology [link]

Although Augustine did not develop an independent Mariology, his statements on Mary surpass in number and depth those of other early writers.^[86] Even before the Council of Ephesus, he defended the ever Virgin Mary as the Mother of God, who, because of her virginity, is full of grace.^[87] Likewise, he affirmed that the Virgin Mary “conceived as virgin, gave birth as virgin and stayed virgin forever”.^[88]

Natural knowledge and biblical interpretation [link]

Augustine took the view that the Biblical text should not be interpreted as properly literal, but rather as metaphorical, if it contradicts what we know from science and our God-given reason. While each passage of Scripture has a literal sense, this "literal sense" does not always mean that the Scriptures are mere history; at times they are rather an extended metaphor. In The Literal Interpretation of Genesis, St. Augustine wrote:

It not infrequently happens that something about the earth, about the sky, about other elements of this world, about the motion and rotation or even the magnitude and distances of the stars, about definite eclipses of the sun and moon, about the passage of years and seasons, about the nature of animals, of fruits, of stones, and of other such things, may be known with the greatest certainty by reasoning or by experience, even by one who is not a Christian. It is too disgraceful and ruinous, though, and greatly to be avoided, that he [the non-Christian] should hear a Christian speaking so idiotically on these matters, and as if in accord with Christian writings, that he might say that he could scarcely keep from laughing when he saw how totally in error they are. In view of this and in keeping it in mind constantly while dealing with the book of Genesis, I have, insofar as I was able, explained in detail and set forth for consideration the meanings of obscure passages, taking care not to affirm rashly some one meaning to the prejudice of another and perhaps better explanation.

— De Genesi ad literam 1:19–20, Chapt. 19 [408]

With the scriptures it is a matter of treating about the faith. For that reason, as I have noted repeatedly, if anyone, not understanding the mode of divine eloquence, should find something about these matters [about the physical universe] in our books, or hear of the same from those books, of such a kind that it seems to be at variance with the perceptions of his own rational faculties, let him believe that these other things are in no way necessary to the admonitions or accounts or predictions of the scriptures. In short, it must be said that our authors knew the truth about the nature of the skies, but it was not the intention of the Spirit of God, who spoke through them, to teach men anything that would not be of use to them for their salvation.

— De Genesi ad literam, 2:9

A more clear distinction between "metaphorical" and "literal" in literary texts arose with the rise of the Scientific Revolution, although its source could be found in earlier writings, such as those of Herodotus (5th century BC). It was even considered heretical to interpret the Bible literally at times.^[89]^{[clarification needed]}

Original sin [link]

Main article: Original sin

Augustine taught that Original sin of Adam and Eve was either an act of foolishness (insipientia) followed by pride and disobedience to God or the opposite: pride came first.^[90] The first couple disobeyed God, who had told them not to eat of the Tree of the knowledge of good and evil (Gen 2:17).^[91] The tree was a symbol of the order of creation.^[92] Self-centeredness made Adam and Eve eat of it, thus failing to acknowledge and respect the world as it was created by God, with its hierarchy of beings and values.^[93] They would not have fallen into pride and lack of wisdom, if Satan hadn't sown into their senses "the root of evil" (radix Mali).^[94] Their nature was wounded by concupiscence or libido, which affected human intelligence and will, as well as affections and desires, including sexual desire.^[95] In terms of Metaphysics, concupiscence is not a being but bad quality, the privation of good or a wound.^[96]

Augustine's understanding of the consequences of the original sin and of necessity of the redeeming grace was developed in the struggle against Pelagius and his pelagian disciples, Caelestius and Julian of Eclanum,^[75] who had been inspired by Rufinus of Syria, a disciple of Theodore of Mopsuestia.^[97] They refused to agree that libido wounded human will and mind, insisting that the human nature was given the power to act, to speak, and to think when God created it. Human nature cannot lose its moral capacity for doing good, but a person is free to act or not to act in a righteous way. Pelagius gave an example of eyes: they have capacity for seeing, but a person can make either good or bad use of it.^[98] Like Jovinian, pelagians insisted that human affections and desires were not touched by the fall either. Immorality, e.g. fornication, is exclusively a matter of will, i.e. a person does not use natural desires in a proper way. In opposition to that, Augustine pointed out to the apparent disobedience of the flesh to the spirit, and explained it as one of the results of original sin, punishment of Adam and Eve's disobedience to God:

For it was not fit that His creature should blush at the work of his Creator; but by a just punishment the disobedience of the members was the retribution to the disobedience of the first man, for which disobedience they blushed when they covered with fig-leaves those shameful parts which previously were not shameful.
(...) As, therefore, they were so suddenly ashamed of their nakedness, which they were daily in the habit of looking upon and were not confused, that they could now no longer bear those members naked, but immediately took care to cover them; did not they—he in the open, she in the hidden impulse—perceive those members to be disobedient to the choice of their will, which certainly they ought to have ruled like the rest by their voluntary command? And this they deservedly suffered, because they themselves also were not obedient to their Lord. Therefore they blushed that they in such wise had not manifested service to their Creator, that they should deserve to lose dominion over those members by which children were to be procreated.

— Against Two Letters of the Pelagians 1.31-32

Augustine had served as a "Hearer" for the Manicheans for about nine years,^[99] who taught that the original sin was carnal knowledge.^[100] But his struggle to understand the cause of evil in the world started before that, at the age of nineteen.^[101] By malum (evil) he understood most of all concupiscence, which he interpreted as a vice dominating person and causing in men and women moral disorder. A. Trapè insists that Augustine's personal experience cannot be credited for his doctrine about concupiscence. His marriage experience, though Christian marriage celebration was missing, was exemplary, very normal and by no means specifically sad.^[102] As J. Brachtendorf showed, Augustine used Ciceronian Stoic concept of passions, to interpret St. Paul's doctrine of universal sin and redemption.^[103]

The view that not only human soul but also senses were influenced by the fall of Adam and Eve was prevalent in Augustine's time among the Fathers of the Church.^[104] It is clear that the reason of Augustine's distance towards the affairs of the flesh was different than that of Plotinus, a neo-Platonist^[105] who taught that only through disdain for fleshly desire could one reach the ultimate state of mankind.^[106] Augustine taught the redemption, i.e. transformation and purification, of the body in the resurrection.^[107]

Some authors perceive Augustine's doctrine as directed against human sexuality and attribute his insistence on continence and devotion to God as coming from Augustine's need to reject his own highly sensual nature as described in the Confessions. But in view of his writings it is apparently a misunderstanding.^[108] Augustine teaches that human sexuality has been wounded, together with the whole of human nature, and requires redemption of Christ. That healing is a process realized in conjugal acts. The virtue of continence is achieved thanks to the grace of the sacrament of Christian marriage, which becomes therefore a remedium concupiscentiae - remedy of concupiscence.^[109]^[110] The redemption of human sexuality will be, however, fully accomplished only in the resurrection of the body.^[111]

The sin of Adam is inherited by all human beings. Already in his pre-Pelagian writings, Augustine taught that Original Sin was transmitted by concupiscence,^[112] which he regarded as the passion of both, soul and body,^[113] making humanity a massa damnata (mass of perdition, condemned crowd) and much enfeebling, though not destroying, the freedom of the will.

Augustine's formulation of the doctrine of original sin was confirmed at numerous councils, i.e. Carthage (418), Ephesus (431), Orange (529), Trent (1546) and by popes, i.e. Pope Innocent I (401–417) and Pope Zosimus (417–418). Anselm of Canterbury established in his Cur Deus Homo the definition that was followed by the great Schoolmen, namely that Original Sin is the "privation of the righteousness which every man ought to possess", thus interpreting concupiscence as something more than mere sexual lust, with which some Augustine's disciples had defined it^[114] as later did Luther and Calvin, a doctrine condemned in 1567 by Pope Pius V.^[58]

Lutherans and Calvinists suggest that, according to Augustine, human beings are utterly depraved in nature. That humans are spoiled by the original sin to the extent that the very presence of concupiscence, fomes peccati (incendiary of sin), is already a personal sin.^[115] Augustine's doctrine about the liberum arbitrium or free will and its inability to respond to the will of God without divine grace is interpreted in terms of Predestination: grace is irresistible, results in conversion, and leads to perseverance. The Calvinist view of Augustine's teachings rests on the assertion that God has foreordained, from eternity, those who will be saved. The number of the elect is fixed.^[75] God has chosen the elect certainly and gratuitously, without any previous merit (ante merita) on their part.

The Catholic Church considers Augustine's teaching to be consistent with free will.^[116] He often said that any can be saved if they wish.^[116] While God knows who will be saved and who will not, with no possibility that one destined to be lost will be saved, this knowledge represents God's perfect knowledge of how humans will freely choose their destinies.^[116]

Sacramental theology [link]

Also in reaction against the Donatists, Augustine developed a distinction between the "regularity" and "validity" of the sacraments. Regular sacraments are performed by clergy of the Catholic Church while sacraments performed by schismatics are considered irregular. Nevertheless, the validity of the sacraments do not depend upon the holiness of the priests who perform them (ex opere operato); therefore, irregular sacraments are still accepted as valid provided they are done in the name of Christ and in the manner prescribed by the Church. On this point Augustine departs from the earlier teaching of Cyprian, who taught that converts from schismatic movements must be re-baptised.^[75] Augustine taught that sacraments administered outside the Catholic Church, though true sacraments, avail nothing. However, he also stated that baptism, while it does not confer any grace when done outside the Church, does confer grace as soon as one is received into the Catholic Church.

Eucharist [link]

Upholding the early Christian understanding of the Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist, Augustine made the following logical observation regarding this sacrament: "Christ was carried in his own hands when, referring to his own body, he said, ‘This is my body’ [Matt. 26:26]. For he carried that body in his hands."^[117]

In a sermon addressed to new Christians, Augustine explicitly described the bread and wine as the body and blood of Christ.

I promised you [new Christians], who have now been baptized, a sermon in which I would explain the sacrament of the Lord’s Table. . . . That bread which you see on the altar, having been sanctified by the word of God, is the body of Christ. That chalice, or rather, what is in that chalice, having been sanctified by the word of God, is the blood of Christ.^[118]

What you see is the bread and the chalice; that is what your own eyes report to you. But what your faith obliges you to accept is that the bread is the body of Christ and the chalice is the blood of Christ. This has been said very briefly, which may perhaps be sufficient for faith; yet faith does not desire instruction".^[119]

Soteriology [link]

Augustine made several statements concerning his views on the limitations of the atonement, such as:

The garden of the Lord's brothers and sisters, includes, yes it includes, it certainly includes not only the roses of martyrs but also the lilies of virgins, and the ivy of married people and the violets of widows. There is absolutely no kind of human beings, dearly beloved, who need to despair of their vocation; Christ suffered for all. It was truly written, it is he "who wishes all men to be saved and to come to the acknowledgment of the truth."

— Sermon 304.2

Statements on Jews [link]

Against certain Christian movements, some of which rejected the use of Hebrew Scripture, Augustine countered that God had chosen the Jews as a special people,^[120] and he considered the scattering of Jews by the Roman Empire to be a fulfillment of prophecy.^[121]

Augustine also quotes part of the same prophecy that says "Slay them not, lest they should at last forget Thy law" (Psalm 59:11). Augustine argued that God had allowed the Jews to survive this dispersion as a warning to Christians, thus they were to be permitted to dwell in Christian lands. Augustine further argued that the Jews would be converted at the end of time.^[122]

Views on lust [link]

Augustine struggled with lust throughout his life. He had a mistress before he converted, but once he became a Christian, he condemned all forms of extra-marital sex (including his previous relationship with his mistress), considering them unlawful and unbiblical. In the Confessions, Augustine describes his personal struggle in vivid terms: "But I, wretched, most wretched, in the very commencement of my early youth, had begged chastity of Thee, and said, 'Grant me chastity and continence, only not yet.'"^[123] At sixteen Augustine moved to Carthage where again he was plagued by this "wretched sin":

There seethed all around me a cauldron of lawless loves. I loved not yet, yet I loved to love, and out of a deep-seated want, I hated myself for wanting not. I sought what I might love, in love with loving, and I hated safety... To love then, and to be beloved, was sweet to me; but more, when I obtained to enjoy the person I loved. I defiled, therefore, the spring of friendship with the filth of concupiscence, and I beclouded its brightness with the hell of lustfulness.

— Confessions 3.1.1

For Augustine, the evil was not in the sexual act itself, but rather in the emotions that typically accompany it. In On Christian Doctrine Augustine contrasts love and lust:

By love I mean the impulse of one's mind to enjoy God on his own account and to enjoy oneself and one's neighbour on account of God, and by lust I mean the impulse of one's mind to enjoy oneself and one's neighbour and any corporeal thing not on account of God.

— 3.37

Here we can see the theoretical resolution of the struggle documented in Confessions: that proper love exercises a denial of selfish pleasure and the subjugation of corporeal desire to God.

To the pious virgins raped during the sack of Rome, he writes, "Truth, another's lust cannot pollute thee." Chastity is "a virtue of the mind, and is not lost by rape, but is lost by the intention of sin, even if unperformed."^[124]^[125]

Augustine viewed erections themselves as involuntary: at times, without intention, the body stirs on its own, insistent; at other times, it leaves a straining lover in the lurch.^[126]

In short, Augustine's life experience led him to consider lust to be one of the most grievous sins, and a serious obstacle to the virtuous life.

Teaching philosophy [link]

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Augustine is considered an influential figure in the history of education. He introduced the theory of three different categories of students, and instructed teachers to adapt their teaching styles to each student's individual learning style. The three different kinds of students are: the student who has been well-educated by knowledgeable teachers; the student who has had no education; and the student who has had a poor education, but believes himself to be well-educated. If a student has been well educated in a wide variety of subjects, the teacher must be careful not to repeat what they have already learned, but to challenge the student with material which they do not yet know thoroughly. With the student who has had no education, the teacher must be patient, willing to repeat things until the student understands, and sympathetic. Perhaps the most difficult student, however, is the one with an inferior education who believes he understands something when he does not. Augustine stressed the importance of showing this type of student the difference between "having words and having understanding," and of helping the student to remain humble with his acquisition of knowledge.

Another radical idea which Augustine introduced is the idea of teachers responding positively to the questions they may receive from their students, no matter if the student interrupted his teacher. Augustine also founded the restrained style of teaching. This teaching style ensures the students' full understanding of a concept because the teacher does not bombard the student with too much material; focuses on one topic at a time; helps them discover what they don't understand, rather than moving on too quickly; anticipates questions; and helps them learn to solve difficulties and find solutions to problems. Yet another of Augustine's major contributions to education is his study on the styles of teaching. He claimed there are two basic styles a teacher uses when speaking to the students. The mixed style includes complex and sometimes showy language to help students see the beautiful artistry of the subject they are studying. The grand style is not quite as elegant as the mixed style, but is exciting and heartfelt, with the purpose of igniting the same passion in the students' hearts.^[127]^{[Full citation needed]}

Augustine balanced his teaching philosophy with the traditional Bible-based practice of strict discipline. For example, he agreed with using punishment as an incentive for children to learn. He believed all people tend toward evil, and students must therefore be physically punished when they allow their evil desires to direct their actions.^[128] ^{[Full citation needed]}

List of Works (books, letters and sermons)[link]

"The World is a book, and those who do not travel read only a page."

Saint Augustine

On Christian Doctrine (Latin: De doctrina Christiana, 397-426)
Confessions (Confessiones, 397-398)
The City of God (De civitate Dei, begun ca. 413, finished 426)
On the Trinity (De trinitate, 400-416)
Enchiridion (Enchiridion ad Laurentium, seu de fide, spe et caritate)
Retractions (Retractationes): At the end of his life (ca. 426-428) Augustine revisited his previous works in chronological order. The English translation of the title has led some to assume that at the end of his career, Augustine retreated from his earlier theological positions. In fact, the Latin title literally means 're-treatments" (not "Retractions") and though in this work Augustine suggested what he would have said differently, it provides little in the way of actual "retraction." It does, however, give the reader a rare picture of the development of a writer and his final thoughts.
The Literal Meaning of Genesis (De Genesi ad litteram)
On Free Choice of the Will (De libero arbitrio)
On the Catechising of the Uninstructed (De catechizandis rudibus)
On Faith and the Creed (De fide et symbolo)
Concerning Faith of Things Not Seen (De fide rerum invisibilium)
On the Profit of Believing (De utilitate credendi)
On the Creed: A Sermon to Catechumens (De symbolo ad catechumenos)
On Continence (De continentia)
On the teacher (De magistro)
On the Good of Marriage (De bono coniugali)
On Holy Virginity (De sancta virginitate)
On the Good of Widowhood (De bono viduitatis)
On Lying (De mendacio)
To Consentius: Against Lying (Contra mendacium [ad Consentium])
To Quodvultdeus, On Heresies (De haeresibus ad Quodvultdeum)
On the Work of Monks (De opere monachorum)
On Patience (De patientia)
On Care to be Had For the Dead (De cura pro mortuis gerenda)
On the Morals of the Catholic Church and on the Morals of the Manichaeans (De moribus ecclesiae catholicae et de moribus Manichaeorum)
On Two Souls, Against the Manichaeans (De duabus animabus [contra Manichaeos])
Acts or Disputation Against Fortunatus the Manichaean ([Acta] contra Fortunatum [Manichaeum])
Against the Epistle of Manichaeus Called Fundamental (Contra epistulam Manichaei quam vocant fundamenti)
Reply to Faustus the Manichaean (Contra Faustum [Manichaeum])
Concerning the Nature of Good, Against the Manichaeans (De natura boni contra Manichaeos)
On Baptism, Against the Donatists (De baptismo [contra Donatistas])
The Correction of the Donatists (De correctione Donatistarum)
On Merits and Remission of Sin, and Infant Baptism (De peccatorum meritis et remissione et de baptismo parvulorum)
On the Spirit and the Letter (De spiritu et littera)
On Nature and Grace (De natura et gratia)
On Man's Perfection in Righteousness (De perfectione iustitiae hominis)
On the Proceedings of Pelagius (De gestis Pelagii)
On the Grace of Christ, and on Original Sin (De gratia Christi et de peccato originali)
On Marriage and Concupiscence (De nuptiis et concupiscientia)
On the Nature of the Soul and its Origin (De natura et origine animae)
Against Two Letters of the Pelagians (Contra duas epistulas Pelagianorum)
On Grace and Free Will (De gratia et libero arbitrio)
On Rebuke and Grace (De correptione et gratia)
On the Predestination of the Saints (De praedestinatione sanctorum)
On the Gift of Perseverance (De dono perseverantiae)
Our Lord's Sermon on the Mount (De sermone Domini in monte)
On the Harmony of the Evangelists (De consensu evangelistarum)
Treatises on the Gospel of John (In Iohannis evangelium tractatus)
Soliloquies (Soliloquiorum libri duo)
Enarrations, or Expositions, on the Psalms (Enarrationes in Psalmos)
On the Immortality of the Soul (De immortalitate animae)
Answer to the Letters of Petilian, Bishop of Cirta (Contra litteras Petiliani)
Against the Academics (Contra Academicos)
Sermons, among which a series on selected lessons of the New Testament
Homilies, among which a series on the First Epistle of John

Translations [link]

English translations of Augustine's work abound. One of the best translations of Augustine into English currently available is the one offered by New City Press in the series The Works of St. Augustine: A translation for the 21st Century.^[129] To date, this is also the most complete translation of Augustine's works in English.^[130] The second most complete translation of Augustine's works in English is by the Catholic University of America Press.^[131] The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy offers a list of selected translations, which however does not claim to be exhaustive.

In popular culture [link]

Augustine was played by Dary Berkani in the 1972 television movie Augustine of Hippo. He was also played by Franco Nero in the 2010 mini-series Augustine: The Decline of the Roman Empire. The modern day name links to the Agostinelli Family.^[132]

Jostein Gaarder's book Vita Brevis is a translation of a letter Gaarder found in a bookshop in Buenos Aires which is assumed to be a letter from Augustine's concubine to him after he became the Bishop of Hippo.

Bob Dylan recorded a song entitled I Dreamed I Saw St. Augustine on his album John Wesley Harding.

Pop artist Sting pays an homage of sorts to Augustine's struggles with lust with the song "Saint Augustine in Hell" which appears on the singer's 1993 album Ten Summoner's Tales.

Christian Rock artist Disciple named their fourth track on their 2010 release (Horseshoes and Handgrenades) after Augustine called: The Ballad of St. Augustine.

The song "St. Augustine" appears on Girlyman's album, Supernova.

American rock band, "Moe.", named and referenced Augustine of Hippo in their song entitled, "St. Augustine."

St. Augustine appears in the novel The Dalkey Archive by Irish Author Brian O'Nolan under the pen name Brian O'Nolan. He is summoned in an underwater cavern by an absurd scientist called De Selby, together they discuss life in Heaven and the characters of other Saints.

References [link]

^ Wells, J. (2000). Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (2 ed.). New York: Longman. ISBN 0-582-36467-1.
^ ^a ^b "Augustin(e, n. (and adj.)". OED Online. March 2011. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 25 May 2011.
^ The nomen Aurelius is virtually meaningless, signifying little more than Roman citizenship (see: Salway, Benet (1994). "What's in a Name? A Survey of Roman Onomastic Practice from c. 700 B.C. to A.D. 700". The Journal of Roman Studies (Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies) 84: 124–45. DOI:10.2307/300873. ISSN 0075-4358. JSTOR 300873. ).
^ The American Heritage College Dictionary. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company. 1997. p. 91. ISBN 0-395-66917-0.
^ "Blessed Augustine of Hippo: His Place in the Orthodox Church: A Corrective Compilation". Orthodox Tradition XIV (4): 33–35. http://www.orthodoxinfo.com/inquirers/bless_aug.aspx. Retrieved 2007-06-28.
^ Jerome wrote to Augustine in 418: "You are known throughout the world; Catholics honour and esteem you as the one who has established anew the ancient Faith" (conditor antiquae rursum fidei). Cf. Epistola 195; TeSelle, Eugene (1970). Augustine the Theologian. London. p. 343. ISBN 0-223-97728-4. March 2002 edition: ISBN 1-57910-918-7.
^ Cross, Frank L.; Livingstone, Elizabeth, eds. (2005). "Platonism". The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280290-9.
^ TeSelle, Eugene (1970). Augustine the Theologian. London. pp. 347–349. ISBN 0-223-97728-4. March 2002 edition: ISBN 1-57910-918-7.
^ Durant, Will (1992). Caesar and Christ: a History of Roman Civilization and of Christianity from Their Beginnings to A.D. 325. New York: MJF Books. ISBN 1-56731-014-1.
^ Wilken, Robert L. (2003). The Spirit of Early Christian Thought. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 291. ISBN 0-300-10598-3.
^ ^a ^b Know Your Patron Saint.
^ Archimandrite [now Archbishop] Chrysostomos. "Book Review: The Place of Blessed Augustine in the Orthodox Church". Orthodox Tradition II (3&4): 40–43. http://www.orthodoxinfo.com/inquirers/bless_aug.aspx#rose. Retrieved 2007-06-28.
^ "Blessed" here does not mean that he is less than a saint, but is a title bestowed upon him as a sign of respect. "Blessed Augustine of Hippo: His Place in the Orthodox Church: A Corrective Compilation". Orthodox Tradition XIV (4): 33–35. http://www.orthodoxinfo.com/inquirers/bless_aug.aspx. Retrieved 2007-06-28.
^ Paul MacKendrick, The North African Stones Speak, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1980; p. 326
^ Encyclopedia of Early Christianity, Everett Ferguson, Taylor & Francis, 1998, p.776
^ ^a ^b ^c Kim Power, "Family, Relatives", Augustine through the ages: an encyclopedia. Allan D. Fitzgerald (ed.). Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1999, pp. 353 – 354. ISBN 978-0-8028-3843-8
^ Serge Lancel, Saint Augustine, Hymns Ancient & Modern Ltd, 2002, p5
^ Michael Brett and Elizabeth Fentress, The Berbers, Wiley-Blackwell, 1997, p.71, 293
^ Andrew Knowles and Pachomios Penkett, Augustine and his World Ch. 2.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Encyclopedia Americana, v.2, p. 685. Danbury, CT: Grolier Incorporated, 1997. ISBN 0-7172-0129-5.
^ Pope, Hugh. "CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Saint Monica". http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10482a.htm. Retrieved 20 April 2012. "At Carthage Augustine had become a Manichean and when on his return home he ventilated certain heretical propositions she drove him away from her table, but a strangevision which she had urged her to recall him. It was at this time that she went to see a certain holy bishop, whose name is not given, but who consoled her with the now famous words, "the child of those tears shall never perish.""
^ Augustine of Hippo, Confessions, 3:3
^ Conf. 8.7.17
^ Augustine of Hippo, Confessions, 4:2
^ A'Becket, John. "CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Adeodatus". http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01141e.htm. Retrieved 20 April 2012. "Seeing the wonderful intelligence of his son, Augustine felt a sort of awe. "The grandeur of his mind filled me with a kind of terror", he says himself (De beata vita, c. vi)."
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Portalié, Eugène. "Life of St. Augustine of Hippo" The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 2. New York: Robert Appleton Company (1907). Retrieved 30 Sept. 2011
^ Jason David BeDuhn (28 October 2009). Augustine's Manichaean dilemma: Conversion and apostasy, 373-388 C.E.. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 163. ISBN 978-0-8122-4210-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=mEmZaq1Gg3wC&pg=PA163. Retrieved 17 June 2011.
^ Ferguson, p. 208
^ Possidius, v. Aug. 3.1
^ Lepelley, 2:176-77
^ Augustine, ep. 126.1
^ Augustine; Henry Chadwick (2008). Confessions. Oxford University Press. p. 152. "Footnote 1: Perhaps a symbolic reference to the figtree of Adam (Gen 3:7; cf. John 1:48)."
^ Augustine; Henry Chadwick (2008). Confessions. Oxford University Press. p. 152. "Footnote 2: Persius, Satires 5.66."
^ Augustine; Henry Chadwick (2008). Confessions. Oxford University Press. p. 152. "Footnote 3: The oldest manuscript reads here 'from the house of God'. The child's voice is in any event a divine oracle to Augustine. The variant may echo Ps 41:5."
^ Augustine; Henry Chadwick (2008). Confessions. Oxford University Press. p. 153. "Footnote 1: Athanasius, Life of Antony 2."
^ Augustine; Henry Chadwick (2008) (in English). Oxford University Press. pp. 152-153. , Scripture References Present in Chadwick's translation but not in original Latin manuscripts
^ Pope, Hugh. "CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Saint Monica". http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10482a.htm. Retrieved 20 April 2012. "Here death overtook Monica and the finest pages of his "Confessions" were penned as the result of the emotion Augustine then experienced."
^ A'Becket, John. "CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Adeodatus". http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01141e.htm. Retrieved 20 April 2012.
^ Brown, Peter. Augustine of Hippo: A Biography. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000).
^ Saint Augustine of Hippo at saints.sqpn.com. Accessed 2011-09-30.
^ Weiskotten, Herbert T. The Life of Saint Augustine: A Translation of the Sancti Augustini Vita by Possidius, Bishop of Calama. Merchantville, NJ: Evolution Publishing, 2008. ISBN 1-889758-90-6
^ Weiskotten, 43
^ Weiskotten, 57
^ "St Augustine of Hippo" at PhilosophyBasics.com. Accessed 2011-09-30.
^ Shanon Dale, 2001. "A house divided: San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro in Pavia and the politics of Pope John XXII", in JMH 27, p. 55ff
^ Harold Samuel Stone, St. Augustine's Bones: A Microhistory (Studies in Print Culture and the History of the Book) (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press) 2002.
^ Passage based on F.A. Wright and T.A. Sinclair, A History of Later Latin Literature (London 1931), pp. 56 ff.
^ Thomas Cahill, How the Irish Saved Civilization Ch.2.
^ Bertrand Russell History of western Philosophy Book II Chapter IV
^ "New Advent - Pope Boniface VIII". http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02662a.htm. Retrieved February 26, 2012.
^ History of Western Philosophy, 1946, reprinted Unwin Paperbacks 1979, pp 352-3
^ Confessiones Liber X: commentary on 10.8.12 (in Latin)
^ Husserl, Edmund. Phenomenology of Internal Time-Consciousness. Tr. James S. Churchill. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1964, 21.
^ For example, Heidegger's articulations of how "Being-in-the-world" is described through thinking about seeing: "The remarkable priority of 'seeing' was noticed particularly by Augustine, in connection with his Interpretation of concupiscentia." Heidegger then quotes the Confessions: "Seeing belongs properly to the eyes. But we even use this word 'seeing' for the other senses when we devote them to cognizing... We not only say, 'See how that shines', ... 'but we even say, 'See how that sounds'". Being and Time Trs. Macquarrie & Robinson. New York: Harpers, 1964. 171
^ Chiba, Shin. Hannah Arendt on Love and the Political: Love, Friendship, and Citizenship.The Review of Politics, Vol. 57, No. 3 (Summer, 1995), 507.
^ Tinder, Glenn. The American Political Science Review, Vol. 91, No. 2 (Jun., 1997), pp. 432-433
^ Lal, D. Morality and Capitalism: Learning from the Past. Working Paper Number 812, Department of Economics, University of California, Los Angeles. March 2002
^ ^a ^b ^c Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article Original Sin
^ Confessions, ISBN 978-0-8024-5651-9
^ "A Plea for the Christians By Athenagoras the Athenian". http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0205.htm.
^ Bauerschmidt, John C. (1999). "Abortion". In Allan D. Fitzgerald (ed.). Augustine Through the Ages: An Encyclopedia. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 1. ISBN 978-0-8028-3843-8.
^ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy [1]"Augustine" accessed March 23, 2011
^ De cura pro mortuis gerenda CSEL 41, 627[13–22]; PL 40, 595: Nullo modo ipsa spernenda sunt corpora. (...)Haec enim non ad ornamentum vel adiutorium, quod adhibetur extrinsecus, sed ad ipsam naturam hominis pertinent.
^ Enarrationes in psalmos, 143, 6; CCL 40, 2077 [46] – 2078 [74]; De utilitate ieiunii, 4,4-5; CCL 46, 234-235.
^ De quantitate animae 1.2; 5.9
^ De quantitate animae 13.12: Substantia quaedam rationis particeps, regendo corpori accomodata.
^ On the free will (De libero arbitrio) 2.3.7-6.13; cf. W.E. Mann, Inner-Life Ethics, in: The Augustinian Tradition. G. B. Matthews (ed.). University of California Press. 1999. pp. 141–142. ISBN 0-520-20999-0.
^ Cf. Van Der Meer, F. (1961). Augustine the Bishop. The Life and Work of the Father of the Church. London – Newy York. p. 60.
^ Bonner, G. (1986). St. Augustine of Hippo. Life and Controversies. Norwich: The Canterbury Press. p. 63. ISBN 0-86078-203-4.
^ Testard, M. (1958). Saint Augustin et Cicéron, I. Cicéron dans la formation et l'oeuvre de saint Augustin. Paris: Études Augustiniennes. pp. 100–106.
^ Confessions 5,7,12;7,6
^ De Genesi ad litteram 2:17:37, trans. John Hammond Taylor SJ, vol. 1, pp. 72-73: Quapropter bono christiano, sive mathematici, sive quilibet impie divinantium, maxime dicentes vera, cavendi sunt, ne consortio daemoniorum animam deceptam, pacto quodam societatis irretiant. [2]
^ Teske, Roland J. (1999). "Genesi ad litteram liber imperfectus, De". In Allan D. Fitzgerald (ed.). Augustine Through the Ages: An Encyclopedia. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 377–378. ISBN 978-0-8028-3843-8.
^ Young, Davis A. "The Contemporary Relevance of Augustine's View of Creation", Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith 40.1:42-45 (3/1988). Retrieved 2011-09-30.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Justo L. Gonzalez (1970-1975). A History of Christian Thought: Volume 2 (From Augustine to the eve of the Reformation). Abingdon Press.
^ Craig L. Blomberg (2006). From Pentecost to Patmos. Apollos. p. 519.
^ ^a ^b Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, unspecified article
^ Enchiridion 110
^ Gareth B. Matthews (1992). Thought's ego in Augustine and Descartes. Cornell University Press.
^ King, Peter; Nathan Ballantyne (2009). "Augustine on gTestimony". Canadian Journal of Philosophy 39 (2): 195. DOI:10.1353/cjp.0.0045. http://www.canadianjournalofphilosophy.com/PDFs/cjp39-2--195-214--Ballantyne-King.pdf.
^ Confessions 6.2.2
^ St. Augustine of Hippo, Crusades-Encyclopedia
^ Saint Augustine and the Theory of Just War
^ The Just War
^ Justo L. Gonzalez (1984). The Story of Christianity. HarperSanFrancisco.
^ O Stegmüller, in Marienkunde, 455
^ De Sacra Virginitate, 6,6, 191.
^ De Saca virginitate 18
^ Origen, St. Jerome: "On First Principles", Book III, Chapter III, Verse 1. Translated by K. Froehlich. Biblical Interpretation in the Early Church. Fortress Press, 1985
^ He explained to Julian of Eclanum that it was a most subtle job to discern what came first: Sed si disputatione subtilissima et elimatissima opus est, ut sciamus utrum primos homines insipientia superbos, an insipientes superbia fecerit. (Contra Julianum, V, 4.18; PL 44, 795)
^ Augustine of Hippo, The Literal Meaning of Genesis (De Genesi ad litteram), VIII, 6:12, vol. 1, p. 192-3 and 12:28, vol. 2, p. 219-20, trans. John Hammond Taylor SJ;BA 49,28 and 50-52; PL 34, 377; cf. idem, De Trinitate, XII, 12.17; CCL 50, 371-372 [v. 26-31;1-36]; De natura boni 34-35; CSEL 25, 872; PL 42, 551-572
^ cf. Augustine, On the Literal Meaning of Genesis (De Genesi ad litteram), VIII, 4.8; BA 49, 20
^ Augustine explained it in this way: Why therefore is it enjoined upon mind, that it should know itself? I suppose, in order that, it may consider itself, and live according to its own nature; that is, seek to be regulated according to its own nature, viz., under Him to whom it ought to be subject, and above those things to which it is to be preferred; under Him by whom it ought to be ruled, above those things which it ought to rule. For it does many things through vicious desire, as though in forgetfulness of itself. For it sees some things intrinsically excellent, in that more excellent nature which is God: and whereas it ought to remain steadfast that it may enjoy them, it is turned away from Him, by wishing to appropriate those things to itself, and not to be like to Him by His gift, but to be what He is by its own, and it begins to move and slip gradually down into less and less, which it thinks to be more and more. ("On the Trinity" (De Trinitate), 5:7; CCL 50, 320 [1-12])
^ Nisi radicem mali humanus tunc reciperet sensus ("Contra Julianum", I, 9.42; PL 44, 670)
^ In one of Augustine's late works, Retractationes, he made a significant remark indicating the way he understood difference between spiritual, moral libido and the sexual desire: "Libido is not good and righteous use of the libido" ("libido non est bonus et rectus usus libidinis"). See the whole passage: Dixi etiam quodam loco: «Quod enim est cibus ad salutem hominis, hoc est concubitus ad salutem generis, et utrumque non est sine delectatione carnali, quae tamen modificata et temperantia refrenante in usum naturalem redacta, libido esse non potest». Quod ideo dictum est, quoniam "libido non est bonus et rectus usus libidinis". Sicut enim malum est male uti bonis, ita bonum bene uti malis. De qua re alias, maxime contra novos haereticos Pelagianos, diligentius disputavi. Cf. De bono coniugali, 16.18; PL 40, 385; De nuptiis et concupiscentia, II, 21.36; PL 44, 443; Contra Iulianum, III, 7.16; PL 44, 710; ibid., V, 16.60; PL 44, 817. See also Idem (1983). Le mariage chrétien dans l'oeuvre de Saint Augustin. Une théologie baptismale de la vie conjugale. Paris: Études Augustiniennes. p. 97.
^ Non substantialiter manere concupiscentiam, sicut corpus aliquod aut spiritum; sed esse affectionem quamdam malae qualitatis, sicut est languor. (De nuptiis et concupiscentia, I, 25. 28; PL 44, 430; cf. Contra Julianum, VI, 18.53; PL 44, 854; ibid. VI, 19.58; PL 44, 857; ibid., II, 10.33; PL 44, 697; Contra Secundinum Manichaeum, 15; PL 42, 590.
^ Cf. Marius Mercator Lib. subnot.in verb. Iul. Praef., 2,3; PL 48,111 /v.5-13/; Bonner, Gerald. Rufinus of Syria and African Pelagianism. pp. 35(X). in: Idem (1987). God's Decree and Man's Destiny. London: Variorum Reprints. pp. 31–47 (X). ISBN 0-86078-203-4.
^ De gratia Christi et de peccato originali, I, 15.16; CSEL 42, 138 [v.24-29]; Ibid., I,4.5; CSEL 42, 128 [v.15-23]. See Bonner, G. (1986). St. Augustine of Hippo. Life and Controversies. Norwich: The Canterbury Press. pp. 355–356. ISBN 0-86078-203-4.
^ Brown, Peter. Augustine of Hippo. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967. ISBN 0-520-00186-9, 35
^ The Manichaean Version of Genesis 2-4. Translated from the Arabic text of Ibn al-Nadīm, Fihrist, as reproduced by G. Flügel in Mani: Seine Lehre und seine Schriften (Leipzig, 1862; reprinted, Osnabrück: Biblio Verlag, 1969) 58.11-61.13.[3].^{[dead link]}
^ De libero arbitrio 1,9,1.
^ Cf.Trapè, A.. S. Agostino: Introduzione alla Dottrina della Grazia. I - Natura e Grazia. pp. 113–114.
^ J. Brachtendorf (1997). Cicero and Augustine on the Passions. p. 307. hdl:2042/23075.
^ See. Sfameni Gasparro, G. (2001). Enkrateia e Antropologia. Le motivazioni protologiche della continenza e della verginità nel christianesimo del primi secoli e nello gnosticismo. Studia Ephemeridis «Augustinianum» 20. Rome. pp. 250–251. ; Somers, H.. "Image de Dieu. Les sources de l'exégèse augustinienne". Revue des Études Augustiniennes 7 (1961): 115. ISSN 0035-2012. hdl:2042/712. . Cf. John Chrysostome, Περι παρθενίας (De virginitate), XIV, 6; SCh 125, 142-145; Gregory of Nyssa, On the Making of Man, 17; SCh 6, 164-165 and On Virginity, 12.2; SCh 119, 402 [17-20]. Cf. Augustine, On the Good of Marriage, 2.2; PL 40, 374.
^ Although Augustine praises him in the Confessions, 8.2., it is widely acknowledged that Augustine's attitude towards that pagan philosophy was very much of a Christian apostle, as T.E. Clarke SJ writes: Towards Neoplatonism there was throughout his life a decidedly ambivalent attitude; one must expect both agreement and sharp dissent, derivation but also repudiation. In the matter which concerns us here, the agreement with Neoplatonism (and with the Platonic tradition in general) centers on two related notions: immutability as primary characteristic of divinity, and likeness to divinity as the primary vocation of the soul. The disagreement chiefly concerned, as we have said, two related and central Christian dogmas: the Incarnation of the Son of God and the resurrection of the flesh. Clarke, SJ, T. E.. "St. Augustine and Cosmic Redemption". Theological Studies 19 (1958): 151. Cf. É. Schmitt's chapter 2: L'idéologie hellénique et la conception augustinienne de réalités charnelles in: Idem (1983). Le mariage chrétien dans l'oeuvre de Saint Augustin. Une théologie baptismale de la vie conjugale. Paris: Études Augustiniennes. pp. 108–123. O'Meara, J.J. (1954). The Young Augustine: The Growth of St. Augustine's Mind up to His Conversion. London. pp. 143–151 and 195f. Madec, G.. Le "platonisme" des Pères. p. 42. in Idem (1994). Petites Études Augustiniennes. «Antiquité» 142. Paris: Collection d'Études Augustiniennes. pp. 27–50. Thomas Aq. STh I q84 a5; Augustine, City of God (De Civitate Dei), VIII, 5; CCL 47, 221 [3-4].
^ Gerson, Lloyd P. Plotinus. New York, NY: Routledge, 1994. 203
^ See e.g. "Enarrations on the Psalms" (Enarrationes in psalmos),143:6; CCL 40, 2077 [46] – 2078 [74]; The Literal Meaning of Genesis (De Genesi ad Litteram), 9:6:11, trans. John Hammond Taylor SJ, vol. 2, p. 76-77; PL 34, 397.
^ Gerald Bonner's comment explains a little bit why there are so many authors who write false things about Augustine's views: It is, of course, always easier to oppose and denounce than to understand. See Bonner, G. (1986). St. Augustine of Hippo. Life and Controversies. Norwich: The Canterbury Press. p. 312. ISBN 0-86078-203-4.
^ Cf. De continentia, 12.27; PL 40, 368; Ibid., 13.28; PL 40, 369; Contra Julianum, III, 15.29, PL 44, 717; Ibid., III, 21.42, PL 44, 724.
^ See A Postscript to the Remedium Concupiscentiae ’The Thomist 70 (2006): 481-536 [4]
^ See. Merits and Remission of Sin, and Infant Baptism (De peccatorum meritis et remissione et de baptismo parvulorum), I, 6.6; PL 44,112-113; cf. "On the Litteral meaning of the Genesis (De Genesi ad litteram) 9:6:11, trans. John Hammond Taylor SJ, vol. 2, p. 76-77; PL 34, 397.
^ Imperfectum Opus contra Iulianum, II, 218
^ In 393 or 394 he commented: Moreover, if unbelief is fornication, and idolatry unbelief, and covetousness idolatry, it is not to be doubted that covetousness also is fornication. Who, then, in that case can rightly separate any unlawful lust whatever from the category of fornication, if covetousness is fornication? And from this we perceive, that because of unlawful lusts, not only those of which one is guilty in acts of uncleanness with another's husband or wife, but any unlawful lusts whatever, which cause the soul making a bad use of the body to wander from the law of God, and to be ruinously and basely corrupted, a man may, without crime, put away his wife, and a wife her husband, because the Lord makes the cause of fornication an exception; which fornication, in accordance with the above considerations, we are compelled to understand as being general and universal ("On the Sermon on the Mount", De sermone Domini in monte, 1:16:46; CCL 35, 52)
^ Cf. Southern, R.W. (1953). The Making of the Middle Ages. London. pp. 234–7. ; Bonner, G. (1986). St. Augustine of Hippo. Life and Controversies. Norwich: The Canterbury Press. p. 371. ISBN 0-86078-203-4.
^ Statement condemned by Council of Trent, Decree on Justification, XI and can. 25 (January 13, 1547)
^ ^a ^b ^c Portalié, Eugène. "Teaching of St. Augustine of Hippo" The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 2. New York: Robert Appleton Company (1907). Retrieved 30 Sept. 2011
^ Explanations of the Psalms 33:1:10 [A.D. 405]
^ Sermons 227 [A.D. 411]
^ Sermons 272
^ Diarmaid MacCulloch. The Reformation: A History (Penguin Group, 2005) p 8.
^ City of God, book 18, chapter 46.
^ J. Edwards, The Spanish Inquisition (Stroud, 1999), pp33-5.
^ Conf. 8.7.17
^ Russell, Bertrand. (1945) A History of Western Philosophy, Simon & Schuster. p.356.
^ City of God, Book I, Ch. 16, 18.
^ Augustine of Hippo, City of God, 14.17
^ Encyclopedia of Education
^ North Carolina State University
^ Maria Boulding's translations of the Confessions and the Expositions of the Psalms, in particular, have garnered great praise. See for instance Catholic Library World in reference to the Confessions: "A whole new generation should fall in love with one of Christendoms greatest works thanks to Maria Boulding." See also the acknowledgment expressed in her obituary
^ See a list of available works here [5].
^ See a list of available works here [6].
^ http://www.4crests.com/agostinelli-coat-of-arms.html

Bibliography [link]

Ancient Christian Writers: The Works of the Fathers in Translation. New York: Newman Press. 1978.
Augustine, Saint (1974). Vernon Joseph Bourke. ed. The Essential Augustine (2nd ed.). Indianapolis: Hackett.
Ayres, Lewis (2010). Augustine and the Trinity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-83886-3.
Bourke, Vernon Joseph (1945). Augustine's Quest of Wisdom. Milwaukee: Bruce.
Bourke, Vernon Joseph (1984). Wisdom From St. Augustine. Houston: Center for Thomistic Studies.
Brachtendorf J. "Cicero and Augustine on the Passions". Revue des Études Augustiniennes 43 (1997): 289–308. hdl:2042/23075.
Brown, Peter (1967). Augustine of Hippo. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-00186-9.
Burke, Cormac (1990). "St. Augustine and Conjugal Sexuality". Communio IV (17): 545–565. http://www.cormacburke.or.ke/node/355.
Burnaby, John (1938). Amor Dei: A Study of the Religion of St. Augustine. The Canterbury Press Norwich. ISBN 1-85311-022-1.
Clark, Mary T. (1994). Augustine. Geoffrey Chapman. ISBN 978-0-225-66681-6.
Deane, Herbert A. (1963). The Political and Social Ideas of St. Augustine. New York: Columbia University Press.
Doull, James A. (1979). "Augustinian Trinitarianism and Existential Theology". Dionysius III: 111–159.
Doull, James A. (1988). "What is Augustinian "Sapientia"?". Dionysius XII: 61–67.
Fitzgerald, Allan D., O.S.A., General Editor (1999). Augustine through the Ages: An Encyclopedia. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.. ISBN 0-8028-3843-X.
Ferguson, Everett, Christianity in relation to Jews, Greeks, and Romans, Taylor & Francis (1999), ISBN 0-8153-3069-3
Gilson, Etienne (1960). The Christian Philosophy of St. Augustine. L. E. M. Lynch, trans. New York: Random House.
Lawless, George P. (1987). Augustine of Hippo and His Monastic Rule. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
LeMoine, Fannie; Kleinhenz, Christopher, eds. (1994). Saint Augustine the Bishop: A Book of Essays. Garland Medieval Casebooks. 9. New York: Garland.
Lubin, Augustino (1659). Orbis Augustinianus sive conventuum ordinis eremitarum Sancti Augustini - chorographica et topographica descriptio. Paris. http://www.cassiciaco.it/ITA/001ago/Agostiniani/lubin_conventi/lubin_600.htm.
Mackey, Louis (2011). Faith Order Understanding: Natural Theology in the Augustinian Tradition. Totonto: PIMS. ISBN 978-0-88844-421-9.
Magee, Bryan (1998). The Story of Thought. London: The Quality Paperback Bookclub. ISBN 0-7894-4455-0.
Magee, Bryan (1998). The Story of Philosophy: The Essential Guide to the History of Western Philosophy. New York: DK Pub. ISBN 0-7894-7994-X.
Markus, R. A., ed. (1972). Augustine: A Collection of Critical Essays. Garden City, NY: Anchor.
Matthews, Gareth B. (2005). Augustine. Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-23348-2.
Nash, Ronald H (1969). The Light of the Mind: St Augustine's Theory of Knowledge. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky.
Nelson, John Charles (1973). "Platonism in the Renaissance". In Wiener, Philip. Dictionary of the History of Ideas. 3. New York: Scribner. pp. 510–15 (vol. 3). ISBN 0-684-13293-1. http://xtf.lib.virginia.edu/xtf/view?docId=DicHist/uvaBook/tei/DicHist3.xml;chunk.id=dv3-64. "(...) Saint Augustine asserted that Neo-Platonism possessed all spiritual truths except that of the Incarnation. (...) "
O'Daly, Gerard (1987). Augustine's Philosophy of the Mind. Berkeley: University of California Press.
O'Donnell, James (2005). Augustine: A New Biography. New York: ECCO. ISBN 0-06-053537-7.
Pagels, Elaine (1989). Adam, Eve, and the Serpent: Sex and Politics in Early Christianity. Vintage Books. ISBN 0-679-72232-7.
Plumer, Eric Antone, (2003). Augustine's Commentary on Galatians. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-924439-1.
Pollman, Karla (2007). Saint Augustine the Algerian. Göttingen: Edition Ruprecht. ISBN 3-89744-209-4.
Pottier, René (2006) (in French). Saint Augustin le Berbère. Fernand Lanore. ISBN 2-85157-282-2.
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Starnes, Colin (1990). Augustine's Conversion: A Guide to the Arguments of Confessions I-IX. Waterloo, Ontario: Wilfred Laurier University Press.
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Trapè, A. (1990). S. Agostino: Introduzione alla Dottrina della Grazia. Collana di Studi Agostiniani 4. I - Natura e Grazia. Rome: Città Nuova. p. 422. ISBN 88-311-3402-7.
von Heyking, John (2001). Augustine and Politics as Longing in the World. Columbia: University of Missouri Press. ISBN 0-8262-1349-9.
Weiskotten, Herbert T. (2008). The Life of Saint Augustine: A Translation of the Sancti Augustini Vita by Possidius, Bishop of Calama. Merchantville, NJ: Evolution Publishing. ISBN 1-889758-90-6.
Zumkeller O.S.A., Adolar (1986). Augustine's Ideal of the Religious Life. New York: Fordham University Press. ISBN 0-8232-1105-3.
Zumkeller O.S.A., Adolar (1987). Augustine's Rule. Villanova: Augustinian Press. ISBN 0-941491-06-4.

External links [link]

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Augustine of Hippo

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"St. Augustine, Bishop and Confessor, Doctor of the Church", Butler's Lives of the Saints
The Life and Writings of St. Augustine of Hippo: Bishop & Doctor of the Christian Church
Augustine of Hippo edited by James J. O'Donnell – texts, translations, introductions, commentaries, etc.
Augustine's theory of knowledge
St. Augustine page at Christian Iconography
"The Life of St. Austin, or Augustine, Doctor" from the Caxton translation of the Golden Legend
David Lindsay: Saint Augustine - Doctor Gratiae

Bibliography

Augustine of Hippo at EarlyChurch.org.uk – extensive bibliography and on-line articles
Works by or about Augustine of Hippo in libraries (WorldCat catalog)

Works by Augustine

St. Augustine at the Christian Classics Ethereal Library
Aurelius Augustinus at "IntraText Digital Library" – texts in several languages, with concordance and frequency list
Augustinus.it – Latin and Italian texts
Sanctus Augustinus at Documenta Catholica Omnia – Latin
City of God, Confessions, Enchiridion, Doctrine audio books
Saint Augustine (2008). The Happy Life; Answer to Sceptics; Divine Providence and the Problem of Evil; Soliloquies. USA: CUA Press. ISBN 978-0-8132-1551-8. http://books.google.ru/books?id=u4EJZWrmqgkC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false.

Biography and criticism

Saint Augustine entry by Michael Mendelson in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Order of St Augustine
Blessed Augustine of Hippo: His Place in the Orthodox Church
Augustine's World: An Introduction to His Speculative Philosophy by Donald Burt, OSA, member of the Augustinian Order, Villanova University

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Persondata
Name	Augustine of Hippo, Saint
Alternative names	Augustine, Saint, Bishop of Hippo; Augustin; Augustinus, Aurelius
Short description	Christian theologian, bishop, philosopher and saint
Date of birth	(354-11-13)November 13, 354
Place of birth	Tagaste, Algeria
Date of death	August 28, 430(430-08-28)
Place of death	Hippo Regius

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TobyMac
TobyMac
Background information
Birth name	Kevin Michael McKeehan
Born	(1964-10-22) October 22, 1964 (age 47) Fairfax, Virginia, U.S.
Genres	Christian hip hop, Christian rock, Christian pop
Occupations	Singer-songwriter, music producer, author, rapper
Years active	1987–present^[1]
Labels	ForeFront Records EMI CMG
Associated acts	DC Talk, Kevin Max, Michael Tait, The Gotee Brothers, GRITS, DJ Maj
Website	www.tobymac.com

Toby McKeehan (born Kevin Michael McKeehan;^[2] October 22, 1964), better known by his stage name TobyMac (styled tobyMac), is a Christian recording artist, music producer, hip-hop/pop artist, singer-songwriter, and author.

TobyMac was one of the first Christian rappers.^{[citation needed]} He was first known for being a member of the Christian singing trio DC Talk, staying with them from 1987 until their announced hiatus in 2000. He has since continued a successful solo career with the release of four studio albums: Momentum (2001), Welcome to Diverse City (2004), Portable Sounds (2007), Tonight (2010), as well as two remixed albums of the first two albums titled Re:Mix Momentum and Renovating Diverse City and one remix album for the last two albums titled Dubbed and Freq'd: A Remix Project (2012), respectively. He also has a full-length Christmas album Christmas in Diverse City (2011).

Between DC talk and his own solo career, he has sold more than 10 million albums.^[3] TobyMac has had six No. 1 hit CHR singles^[4] including "Gone", "Made to Love" and "Lose My Soul." His live concert CD+DVD combo album, Alive and Transported, was released in 2008 and received the Grammy Award for Best Rock or Rap Gospel Album at the 51st Grammy Awards in 2009.^[5] His fourth studio album, Tonight, was released on February 9, 2010.

1 Musical career
- 1.1 DC Talk (1988–2001)
- 1.2 Solo career
2 Other work
3 Personal life
4 Discography
5 Awards
6 References
7 External links

Musical career [link]

DC Talk (1988–2001)[link]

Toby formed DC Talk with Michael Tait in 1987, at Liberty University in Lynchburg, VA. He and Tait released Christian Rhymes to a Rhythm in 1988, while they recruited classmate, Kevin Max Smith. The three set out on tour after they released their first album in 1989, DC Talk. In 1990 They released their first gold album, Nu Thang. After the Nu Thang tour they recorded their first platinum album, Free at Last. The Free at Last Tour was a success. They were invited to play on The Jay Leno Show and The Arsenio Hall Show, getting mainstream attention. They released their first single for their next album which immediately became a hit single. The album went multi-platinum and the best Christian album in the face of CCM music, Jesus Freak, which they released in 1995. The album led to the extremely popular Jesus Freak World Tour. They eventually released the tour CD, Welcome to the Freakshow. The tour ended in success in time for Supernatural, which would be their last album. The album would sell platinum. They then went solo in 2001.

The band has not toured together since 2001 (except for one show in Redmond, Washington in 2005, and when TobyMac made surprise guest appearances at Winter Jam in 2010 in Nashville and in 2011 in Greensboro, NC and sang "Jesus Freak" with Michael Tait). However, DC Talk has recorded several songs together since their hiatus: "Let's Roll" (a song about the September 11 attacks) in 2002, "Atmosphere (Remix)" on TobyMac's 2004 album Welcome to Diverse City, and "The Cross", a track on Kevin Max's 2007 album The Blood.

Solo career [link]

[edit] Momentum (2001–03)

In 2001, TobyMac released his first solo album titled Momentum. McKeehan composed and recorded the song "Extreme Days" for the 2001 Truth Builder Productions film Extreme Days, which was featured on the Momentum album. The song Extreme Days was also used in the movie, Hangman's Curse, based on the popular book by Frank Peretti. His song "Get This Party Started" was featured on an episode of the TV show Roswell. His song "Irene" was a big hit. His song "Yours" made it to the Top 5 on ChristianRock.net. His songs "Yours", "Extreme Days", "Get This Party Started", and "Momentum" were all recently featured in the Xbox 360 video game Crackdown. Momentum gained five Dove Awards and a Grammy nomination. In 2002 he released his first Christmas album, This Christmas with only two tracks: "This Christmas" and "O Come All Ye Faithful". In 2003 he remixed the Momentum album. This album was titled Re:Mix Momentum.His song "Yours" was used in TNA (Total Nonstop Action Wrestling) as "Sting's" Theme song.

On Kirk Franklin's 2002 album The Rebirth of Kirk Franklin he was featured on "Throw Yo Hands Up".

[edit] Welcome to Diverse City (2004–06)

Welcome to Diverse City was released in October 2004. The album debuted and peaked on the Billboard 200 at number 54, selling 21,000 copies that week. The album's song "The Slam" was featured in the film Never Back Down, advertisements for the films Transporter 2, Aeon Flux, and The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift, as well as advertisements for the television show Prison Break. The song was also featured in car commercials, men's NCAA clips, NBA Finals (Miami Heat, 2006), World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) programming, NFL Football commercials, and "The Ultimate Highlight" on Sportscenter. Ohio Valley Wrestling performer Matt Cappotelli (who currently is unable to perform due to a brain tumor) uses "The Slam" as his entrance theme. In the movie Never Back Down Toby's song "The Slam" is featured in the main fight scene. "Diverse City" was featured in the Veronica Mars episode, The Wrath of Con. "Atmosphere" was used in a Volvo car commercial, "Burn For You" was used for cinnamon gum commercials (as well as on a Dr. Phil advertisement). The album gave TobyMac another Dove Award for Rap/Hip-Hop Album of the Year. A remix version of the album, Renovating->Diverse City, was released in 2005.

[edit] Portable Sounds (2007–08)

McKeehan's next album, titled Portable Sounds, was released in 2007 and sold 50,645 copies in its first week, debuting at No. 10 on the Billboard 200, and at No. 1 on the SoundScan Contemporary Christian Overall chart.^[6] The album also received a Grammy nomination for Best Pop/Contemporary Gospel Album.^[7] The songs "Made to Love" and "I'm For You" both hit No. 1 and were the second and third most played songs on Christian Hit Radio stations in 2007.^[8] "Ignition" is being used by ABC/ESPN to promote its coverage of NASCAR, and "Boomin'" has also been used to promote a new crime-drama, The Women's Murder Club, on ABC, as well as others. In September 2007, his song "Feelin' So Fly" appeared in the film The Game Plan starring Dwayne "The Rock" Johnson. Recently, "Ignition" received worldwide exposure when it was used as the Arizona Cardinals entrance music during the pre-game of Super Bowl XLIII. Then in March 2011, it was played during NCAA tournament promo during Arizona vs UConn game.^{[citation needed]} TobyMac was awarded two Dove Awards for his work on this album, including Artist of the Year. His music video featuring the song "Boomin" was awarded a Dove Award for Short Form Music Video of the Year. Around this time also, he wrote his song, "New World" for the "The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe" and recorded the song "What We Gonna Do?" for the VeggieTales movie, The Pirates Who Don't Do Anything: A VeggieTales Movie. "Feelin' So Fly" and "I'm for You" appear in Thrillville: Off the Rails.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Alive and Transported (2008–09)

TobyMac released his first live album as a solo artist in 2008. Alive and Transported was a live recording of the Portable Sounds Tour in Houston, TX. It included covers of popular DC Talk songs "Jesus Freak" and "In the Light". The album included a DVD of the concert and gained him a GMA Dove and a Grammy Award.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Tonight (2010–present)

TobyMac's fourth studio release, Tonight, was released on February 9, 2010. The album debuted at No. 6 on the Billboard 200, selling 79,000 units in its first week.^[1] The album's first single, "City on Our Knees", was released on August 14, 2009. The song reached No. 1 on Billboard's Hot Christian Songs and No. 1 on both Christian AC and CHR. Christopher Stevens and Dave Wyatt joined McKeehan in producing the album, as with the production of his 2007 release, Portable Sounds. Truett, aka TruDog, Toby's oldest son, was once again featured on a song as in the previous albums. The album is a mix of pop, rock, hip-hop, Latin, and funk, similar to his album Portable Sounds. The album charted No. 6 on the Billboard Top 200 and No. 1 on the Billboard Christian albums chart; selling 79,000 units in its first week.^[9] He recently finished touring with Skillet and House of Heroes on the "Awake Tonight Tour". The title track of the new album is featured in the intro of MLB Network's TV show 30 Clubs 30 Days. In March, he announced the "Hello Tonight" summer 2010 tour with Chris Tomlin. The song "City on Our Knees" earned TobyMac a Dove Award for Pop/Contemporary Song of the Year. The song "Showstopper" was used to promote World Wrestling Entertainment's (WWE) June 2010 Pay Per View, "Fatal 4-Way", and was used at least once in NCAA Basketball. It was also used as an introduction to Thursday Night Football in 2009-2010. His single "Tonight" was also used as a pregame introduction at home games for the Baltimore Orioles during the 2011 MLB season. The song was also promoted for ESPYS' Best U.S Male Olympian. TobyMac's "Tonight" was listed best Christian album of 2010 on iTunes and his Christmas single titled "Christmas This Year" (featuring Leigh Nash) was awarded the holiday song of the week on iTunes. He won the "Artist of the Year" at the 2011 Dove Awards.^{[citation needed]} Additionally, the songs "Get Back Up" and "City On Our Knees" were recognized for being two of the Top 25 most performed songs on Christian radio over the past year.^{[citation needed]}

TobyMac just ended a tour with Third Day, Michael W. Smith, Jason Gray and Max Lucado on the World Vision-sponsored "Make a Difference Tour 2010".^[10]

Tonight was nominated for a Grammy in the category "Best Pop/Contemporary Gospel Album" for the 53rd Annual Grammy awards.^[11]

TobyMac's first full-length Christmas album, Christmas in Diverse City, was released October 4, 2011. It contains songs from each of the Diverse City members as well as TobyMac. Its other guest artists include: Leigh Nash, Owl City, Jamie Grace, Victor Oquendo, Superherose, Arch Nemesiz, Tim Rosenau, Todiefunk, and Byron "Talkbox" Chambers.^[12]

TobyMac released his third remix album, Dubbed and Freq'd: A Remix Project, on March 26, 2012 featuring remixes of songs from his prior two studio albums.^{[citation needed]}

On May 8, 2012, a follower of TobyMac's on twitter account correctly guessed the name of the upcoming fifth full-length studio album, Eye On It, to be released August 28, 2012.^{[citation needed]}

Other work [link]

TobyMac has written two books with Michael Tait and Kevin Max entitled, Jesus Freaks: DC Talk and The Voice of the Martyrs – Stories of Those Who Stood for Jesus, the Ultimate Jesus Freaks,^[13] and, Jesus Freaks: Revolutionaries: Stories of Revolutionaries Who Changed Their World: Fearing God, Not Man.^[14] These books are mainly focused on Christian martyrs. Toby Mac has also written two more books with Michael Tait, one titled, Under God,^[15] containing stories of America's spiritual battles, and another book called, Living Under God: Discovering Your Part In God's Plan.^[16]

TobyMac has written a fifth book called, City On Our Knees.^[17] The book is about how Christians past and present have set aside differences, come together in unity, and stepped forward in action and prayer.

TobyMac is the president of the record label Gotee Records. He created the label with Todd Collins and Joey Elwood in order to produce Out of Eden's Lovin' the Day after efforts to sign the group to an established label proved unsuccessful.^[18] "We all collectively said, 'Let's just give this a shot'", Elwood recalls; "Three naïve guys, a willing band, and some really good songs."^[18] Gotee features artists such as Relient K, House of Heroes, Jamie Grace and Abandon Kansas. However, as a recording artist, TobyMac is under contract with ForeFront Records.

Toby also performs in "Rock the Universe" in Universal Studios and "Night of Joy" in Walt Disney World annually each September. Toby usually alternates between Rock the Universe and Night of Joy.

Toby has also helped establish a camp, called Camp Electric, located near Nashville, Tennessee, for young musicians who want to have pop and rock skills.^[19]

Toby released a DVD, TobyMac: Moving Pictures Featuring His Entire Work of Music Videos, on November 10, 2010.^{[citation needed]}

Toby will also be in the movie I'm In Love With a Church Girl originally scheduled to be released in the Fall of 2011, and currently in post-production.^[20]

Toby made a headline appearance at the quadrennial event NYC (a conference of the youth of the Church of the Nazarene) at its most recent North American gathering in Louisville, Kentucky.^[21]

Personal life [link]

McKeehan and his wife Amanda (Mandy) were married in 1994.^[22] Amanda, who comes from Jamaica, is the daughter of Judy and Robert Levy (of Jamaica Broilers fame). Being married to a Jamaican, and with regular visits to the island, TobyMac is well immersed in Jamaican music, language and other aspects of local culture.^[23] Toby and Mandy live in Franklin, Tennessee.

They have five children: Truett, born September 4, 1998; twins Moses and Marlee, adopted in 2002; Leo, born on November 2, 2004;^[1] and Judah, born March 24, 2006.^[1]

Truett has appeared on the albums Momentum, Re:Mix Momentum, Welcome to Diverse City, Renovating Diverse City, Portable Sounds, Tonight, and "Christmas in Diverse City" as the artist "TruDog". Judah McKeehan has appeared on the album Tonight on the track "Loud'N'Clear" with Truett.

Discography [link]

Main article: TobyMac discography

2001: Momentum
2004: Welcome to Diverse City
2007: Portable Sounds
2010: Tonight
2011: Christmas in Diverse City
2012: Eye On It

Awards [link]

Grammy Award nominations

2003: Best Rock Gospel Album – Momentum
2005: Best Rock Gospel Album – Welcome to Diverse City
2008: Best Gospel Song – "Made to Love"
2008: Best Pop/Contemporary Gospel Album – Portable Sounds
2009: Best Rock or Rap Gospel Album (Alive and Transported) – won
2010: Best Gospel Song (City on Our Knees)
2011: Best Pop/Contemporary Gospel Album

GMA Dove Award awards

2002: Rap/Hip Hop Album (Momentum)
2002: Rap/Hip Hop Recorded Song ("Somebody's Watching Me")
2003: Short Form Music Video ("Irene")
2005: Rap/Hip Hop Album (Welcome to Diverse City)
2006: Rock Recorded Song ("The Slam")
2006: Special Event Album of the Year (Music Inspired by the Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe)
2008: Artist of the Year
2008: Short Form Music Video of the Year ("Boomin'")
2008: Rock/Contemporary Album of the Year ("Portable Sounds")
2009: Long Form Music Video of the Year (Alive and Transported)
2010: Pop/Contemporary Song of the Year ("City on Our Knees")

Video awards

2007: Rock Video ("Boomin")
2007: Video of the Year ("Boomin")
2009: Pop Video of the Year ("Lose My Soul")
2009: Video of the Year ("Lose My Soul")

References [link]

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d "TobyMac Discography, TobyMac Lyrics, Toby Mac, Toby MacKeehan". Jesusfreakhideout.com. 1964-10-22. http://jesusfreakhideout.com/artists/tobyMac.asp. Retrieved 2011-10-23.
^ Williams, Preston (May 15, 2008). "Giving Up Sports Has Never Sounded So Good". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/05/13/AR2008051302829.html. Retrieved December 7, 2009.
^ "Christian Music, Christian Music Video, Christian Music News". Hear It First. http://www.hearitfirst.com/artisthome.aspx?f=artisthome&artist_id=1097. Retrieved 2010-12-24.
^ Richard O. Jones (2009-01-23). "Francesca Battistelli brings theater perspective to Christian music". The Middletown Journal. http://www.middletownjournal.com/e/content/oh/story/entertainment/music/2009/01/23/go012309winterjam.html. Retrieved 2009-02-19.
^ "The 51st Annual Grammy Awards Winners List". Grammy.com. http://www.grammy.com/grammy_awards/51st_show/list.aspx#11. Retrieved 2009-02-19.
^ "News". Christianrock.net. http://www.christianrock.net/news.asp. Retrieved 2011-10-23.
^ Grammys.com^{[dead link]}
^ 2007 Year End Charts/Top Christian CHR songs, R&R magazine. Retrieved January 6, 2008.
^ http://www.billboard.com/#/news/sade-s-soldier-sizzles-at-no-1-on-billboard-1004068437.story
^ Make a Difference Tour 2010 Website
^ "Multi-Platinum Selling Artist TobyMac Garners Seventh Solo GRAMMY Award Nomination for "Best Pop/Contemporary Gospel Album"". Fusemix.com. http://fusemix.com/en/the-leak/1701-multi-platinum-selling-artist-tobymac-garners-seventh-solo-grammy-r-award-nomination-for-best-popcontemporary-gospel-album. Retrieved 2011-10-23.
^ "Christmas in DiverseCity Now In Stores". TobyMac. 2011-10-06. http://www.tobymac.com/2011/10/06/christmas-in-diversecity-now-in-stores/. Retrieved 2011-10-23.
^ Zumdahl, Steven S.. "Jesus Freaks: Stories of Those Who Stood for Jesus, the Ultimate Jesus Freaks: DC Talk and the Voice of the Martyrs: Books". Amazon.com. http://www.amazon.com/dp/1577780728. Retrieved 2011-10-23.
^ Devotion, Extreme. "Jesus Freaks: Revolutionaries: Stories of Revolutionaries Who Changed Their World: Fearing God, Not Man (Jesus Freaks): dc Talk: Books". Amazon.com. http://www.amazon.com/dp/0764200844. Retrieved 2011-10-23.
^ Mac, Toby. "Under God: Toby Mac, Michael Tait, Toby Mac: Books". Amazon.com. http://www.amazon.com/dp/B0009U7YQO. Retrieved 2011-10-23.
^ by dc Talk. "Living Under God: Discovering Your Part in Gods Plan: Baker Publishing Group, Michael Tait: Books". Amazon.com. http://www.amazon.com/dp/0764201425. Retrieved 2011-10-23.
^ by dc Talk. "City On Our Knees at Amazon". Amazon.com. http://www.amazon.com/City-Our-Knees-TobyMac/dp/0764208659/. Retrieved 2011-10-23.
^ ^a ^b Geil, Mark. About Gotee. April 14, 2008. Originally posted on Christianitytoday.com. Retrieved July 12, 2010.
^ "Camp Electric Home". Campelectric.com. http://www.campelectric.com/home. Retrieved 2011-10-23.
^ "I'm in Love with a Church Girl". IMDB.com. http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1618432/. Retrieved 2012-02-14.
^ "monyc2011.com". monyc2011.com. http://www.monyc2011.com/images/12152010%20NYC%20Press%20Release%20wv.htm. Retrieved 2011-10-23.
^ Biography of Gospel Hip Hop Artist TobyMac http://christianmusic.about.com/od/mzprofiles/p/prtobymac.htm Retrieved 2009-08-23
^ Mind and Spirit - Chatting with a Christian ROCKER http://www.jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20050101/ent/ent1.html Retrieved 2009-08-23

External links [link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: TobyMac

Official website
tobyMac at the Internet Movie Database

v t e DC Talk

Toby McKeehan Michael Tait Kevin Max

Studio albums	DC Talk (1989) Nu Thang (1990) Free at Last (1992) Jesus Freak (1995) Supernatural (1998) Solo (2001)

Live albums	Welcome to the Freak Show (1997)

Compilation albums	Intermission: the Greatest Hits (2000) The Early Years (2006) Greatest Hits (2007) The Ultimate Collection (2009)

Singles	"Heavenbound" "I Luv Rap Music" "Can I Get a Witness?" "Jesus Is Just Alright" "Lean On Me" "Socially Acceptable" "Luv Is a Verb" "The Hardway" "Jesus Freak" "Between You and Me" "What If I Stumble?" "Like It, Love It, Need It" "Colored People" "In the Light" "Mind's Eye" "Into Jesus" "Consume Me" "My Friend (So Long)" "Dive" "My Will" "Godsend" "Wanna Be Loved" "Supernatural" "Say the Words (Now)" "Let's Roll"

Related articles	Discography

v t e TobyMac

Studio albums	Momentum (2001) Welcome to Diverse City (2004) Portable Sounds (2007) Tonight (2010)

Remix albums	Re:Mix Momentum (2003) Renovating Diverse City (2005) Dubbed and Freq'd: A Remix Project (2012)

Live albums	Alive and Transported (2008)

Christmas albums	This Christmas (2002) Christmas in Diverse City (2011)

Tours	Portable Sounds Tour

Related articles	TobyMac discography The Diverse City Band dc Talk

v t e CompassionArt

Artists	Paul Baloche Chris Tomlin Tim Hughes Matt Redman Darlene Zschech Israel Houghton Michael W. Smith Graham Kendrick Andy Park Steven Curtis Chapman Stu Garrard Martin Smith

Guest vocalists	Kirk Franklin Amy Grant Joel Houston Leeland Mooring Christy Nockels tobyMac CeCe Winans

Albums	CompassionArt

Related articles	Delirious? Hillsong

Persondata
Name	Tobymac
Alternative names
Short description
Date of birth	October 22, 1964
Place of birth	Fairfax, Virginia
Date of death
Place of death

This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TobyMac

This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.

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Contents

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Contents

[edit] Momentum (2001–03)

[edit] Welcome to Diverse City (2004–06)

[edit] Portable Sounds (2007–08)

[edit] Alive and Transported (2008–09)

[edit] Tonight (2010–present)

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