Reconstruction of the Roman fish-salting plant at Neapolis

Salted fish, such as kippered herring, is fish preserved or cured with salt. Drying and salting, either with dry salt or brine, was the only widely available method of preserving fish until the 19th century.

Salting is the preservation of food with dry edible salt.^[1] It is related to pickling (preparing food with brine, i.e. salty water), and is one of the oldest methods of preserving food.^[1] Salt inhibits the growth of microorganisms by drawing water out of microbial cells through osmosis. Concentrations of salt up to 20% are required to kill most species of unwanted bacteria. Smoking, often used in the process of curing meat, adds chemicals to the surface of meat that reduce the concentration of salt required. Salting is used because most bacteria, fungi and other potentially pathogenic organisms cannot survive in a highly salty environment, due to the hypertonic nature of salt. Any living cell in such an environment will become dehydrated through osmosis and die or become temporarily inactivated.

The water activity, a_w, in a fish is defined as the ratio of the water vapour pressure in the flesh of the fish to the vapour pressure of pure water at the same temperature and pressure. It ranges between 0 and 1, and is a parameter that measures how available the water is in the flesh of the fish. Available water is necessary for the microbial and enzymatic reactions involved in spoilage. There are a number of techniques that have been or are used to tie up the available water or remove it by reducing the a_w. Traditionally, techniques such as drying, salting and smoking have been used, and have been used for thousands of years. In more recent times, freeze-drying, water binding humectants, and fully automated equipment with temperature and humidity control have been added. Often a combination of these techniques is used.^[2]

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  Platforms, called fish flakes, where cod dry in the sun before being packed in salt

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  Remains of Roman fish-salting plant at Neapolis

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  Drying salted fish at Malpe Harbour

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  Salt fish dip at Jakarta

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  Ruins of the Port Eynon Salt House – seawater was boiled to extract salt for preserving fish

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  Egyptians bringing in fish and splitting them for salting

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  Salted dried fish sold on a Hong Kong street

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  Fish in a salt crust

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  Fish cellars at Church Cove, England, used for pressing salted pilchards into barrels for storage and export to the continent

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  Salt cabin, a small building where fish is salted, in Koserow, Germany

Salted fish are a staple of the diet in North Africa, Southern China, Scandinavia, coastal Russia, and in the Arctic.

See also[link]

• Curing
• Dried and salted cod, one of the main preserved sources of protein for centuries around the Atlantic nations
• Gibbing

References[link]

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Mighty Sparrow or Birdie (born Slinger Francisco, July 9, 1935, in Grand Roy, Grenada, West Indies) is a calypso singer, songwriter, and guitarist. Known as the "Calypso King of the World," he is one of the most well-known and successful calypsonians. He has won Trinidad's Carnival Road March competition eight times and has been named "Calypso Monarch" eleven times.

Early life[link]

Sparrow was born in Grenada on July 9, 1935, but moved to Trinidad when he was one year old. His birth name is Slinger Francisco. He grew up in Port of Spain.^{[citation needed]}

He was first exposed to music through the choir in Catholic school, and became interested in calypso at 14 when he joined a steel band composed of neighborhood boys. He received his performing name "The Mighty Sparrow" during his early career:

Your calypso name is given to you by your peers, based on your style. In the old days they tried to emulate British royalty. There was Lord Kitchener, Lord Nelson, Duke. When I started singing, the bands were still using acoustic instruments and the singers would stand flat footed, making a point or accusing someone in the crowd with the pointing of a finger, but mostly they stood motionless. When I sing, I get excited and move around, much like James Brown, and this was new to them. The older singers said "Why don't you just sing instead of moving around like a little Sparrow." It was said as a joke, but the name stuck. -Mighty Sparrow ^[1]

Calypso Monarch[link]

In 1956, Sparrow won Trinidad's Carnival Road March and Calypso Monarch competitions with his most famous song, "Jean and Dinah". His prize for the latter was $40. In protest of the small sum, he wrote the song "Carnival Boycott" and attempted to organize other singers to boycott the competition. About half of the singers followed.^[1] Sparrow claims credit for succeeding improvements in the conditions of calypso and steelband musicians in Trinidad, as well as the formation of the Carnival Development Committee, a musicians' assistance organization.^[2] Sparrow refused to participate in the competition for the next three years, but he continued to perform unofficially, even winning another Road March title in 1958 with "P.A.Y.E."

Taking calypso abroad[link]

Calypso music enjoyed a brief period of popularity in other parts in the world during the 1950s. Trinidadian expatriate Lord Kitchener had helped popularize calypso in England, and Sparrow also found some success there. In the United States, interest in calypso was sparked largely by Harry Belafonte's 1956 album Calypso, the first LP to sell over one million copies.^[3] In January 1958, Sparrow, along with longtime rival Lord Melody, travelled to New York City seeking access to the American music audience.^[4] Sparrow had already been recording with Balisier and Cook Records, and with Belafonte's help^[5] he also began to record for RCA Victor. He did not achieve the success he had hoped for; he said in a 2001 interview, "When nothing happened for me, I went back to England and continued on with my career."^[5]

In 1960 Sparrow returned to the Calypso Monarch competition, winning his second Kingship and third Road March title with "Ten to One Is Murder" (an autobiographical song about an incident in which Sparrow allegedly shot a man^[6]) and "Mae Mae." He also began recording for his own label, National Recording.^[1] He continued to enjoy great popularity in Trinidad throughout the 1960s.

Soca[link]

As soca began to supplant calypso in popularity in Trinidad during the late 1970s and early 1980s,^[1] Sparrow embraced the hybrid of Calypso and cadence with the Local (Chutney) music. In 1984 he won his eighth Road March title with the soca-influenced "Doh Back Back." Also around this time, he began to spend at least half the year in New York City, finding an apartment in the West Indian neighborhoods in Jamaica, Queens.^[1] Sparrow continues to write, perform, and tour into the 21st century; in a 2001 interview he mentioned that he had been singing and performing a "Gospel-lypso" hybrid.^[5] In 2008, he released a song supporting Barack Obama's presidential campaign, "Barack the Magnificent".^[7] He also did a remake of his "Congo Man" song with fellow Trinidadian Machel Montano on the Flame on album.

Lyrics[link]

Sparrow's lyrics are famous for being witty, ironic, and ribald. He sings flirtatiously of the attractions of Hispanic women in "Magarita," and of East Indian women in "Marajhin." He tells some outrageously frank tales of sexuality in "Mae Mae," "The Lizard" and "Big Bamboo." And there is humorous commentary on West Indian culture to be found in "Obeah Wedding" and "Witch Doctor." Robert Christgau called his controversial song "Congo Man" "a wildly perverse piss-take on African roots, interracial revenge, interracial sex, male-female relations, and cannibalism."^[8] The 1965 song was criticized for its attitudes toward women and Africans, and banned from radio airplay until 1989.^[9]

Sparrow also frequently comments on social and political issues in his songs. During his early career he was a supporter of Eric Williams and his People's National Movement (PNM),^[6] which formed in 1955 and led Trinidad and Tobago to independence in 1962; songs such as "Leave The Damn Doctor Alone" and "William the Conqueror" mentioned Williams directly, while others such as "Federation" (blaming Jamaica for the breakup of the short-lived West Indies Federation), "Our Model Nation" (celebrating Trinidadian independence), and "PAYE" (supporting the PNM's pay-as-you-earn tax system) echoed PNM positions. Sparrow did express discontent in 1957's "No, Doctor, No," but it was comparatively mild, and aimed at holding PNM politicians to their promises rather than replacing them. Sparrow cleverly combined political criticism with sexual innuendo in his mid-1960s song "BG Plantain", which decried the ban levied by PM Williams on imported plantain from British Guiana (BG); plantain, a large banana-shaped vegetable, is a staple of West Indian cuisine, and Sparrow praised the BG plantain as larger, sweeter, and superior to the home-grown Trinidadian variety.

Sparrow's mid-1960s hit "Sir Garfield Sobers," celebrating the great Barbadian all-rounder cricketer, who starred for West Indies teams, anticipated by a decade the knighthood which Garfield Sobers would actually receive in 1975. Sobers is generally regarded as the greatest all-rounder in cricket history. This song's first verse:

"Who's the greatest cricketer on Earth or Mars?

Anyone can tell you, it's the great Sir Garfield Sobers!

This handsome Barbadian lad really knows his work.

Batting or bowling, he's the cricket King, no joke!

Three cheers for Captain Sobers!"

In more recent times Sparrow continues to incorporate social issues into his music. "Crown Heights Justice" is a plea for peace and understanding in the wake of the 1991 Crown Heights Riot in Sparrow's adopted home of New York City. The themes of peace, tolerance, and concern for the poor show up repeatedly in songs such as "Human Rights" (1981), "Capitalism Gone Mad" (1983), and "This Is Madness" (1995).

Sparrow still tours.

Selected discography[link]

• Calypso Kings and Pink Gin (Cook Records, 1957)
• King Sparrow's Calypso Carnival (Cook Records)
• Calypso Exposed (Cook, 1961)
• Sparrow in Hi-Fi (Cook, 1963)
• Hot and Sweet Pepper (Produced by Van Dyke Parks) - Warner Bros, 1974
• 16 Carnival Hits (with Lord Kitchener) - 1992
• Calypso Awakening from the Emory Cook Collection (Smithsonian Folkways, 2000)
• Mighty Sparrow Dance Party Gold 2000
• First Flight: Early Calypsos from the Emory Cook Collection (Smithsonian Folkways, 2005)
• Sparrow Hits on Karaoke - Islandstars Karaoke, 2005
• Mighty Sparrow Sparrowmania!: Wit, Wisdom and Soul from the King of Calypso 1960–1976 (Strut, 2012)

Major Awards and Honors[link]

Song sample[link]

	Mighty Sparrow's "No Money No Love" noicon One of Mighty Sparrow's more well-known songs
Problems listening to this file? See media help.

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Mighty Sparrow

• MightySparrow.com
• Sparrow Discography at Smithsonian Folkways
• Biography at allmusic.com
• Muriel's Treasure for recordings and video
• [1] [Sparrow 40years - complete vinyl listing]