Gridlock on a network of two-way streets. The red cars are those causing the gridlock by stopping in the middle of the intersection.

The term gridlock is defined as "A state of severe road congestion arising when continuous queues of vehicles block an entire network of intersecting streets, bringing traffic in all directions to a complete standstill; a traffic jam of this kind."^[1] The term originates from a situation possible in a grid plan where intersections are blocked, preventing vehicles from either moving forwards through the intersection or backing up to an upstream intersection.

The term gridlock is also widely used to describe high traffic congestion with minimal flow (a "traffic jam"), whether or not a blocked grid system is involved. By extension, the term has been applied to situations in other fields where flow is stalled by excess demand, or in which competing interests prevent progress.

Cause[link]

The traditional form of gridlock is caused by traffic heading in one direction across an intersection. This traffic is then stopped, by sometimes too much capacity for the roadway or an accident, blocking the intersection. The drivers in the other direction then go into the blocked intersection trying to get through. In many jurisdictions, drivers are prohibited from entering an intersection at a green light if there is no room for them to clear the intersection. If drivers follow this rule of the road, gridlock will be prevented and traffic will only be slow in the direction that is actually congested. One method of reducing gridlock is to aggressively enforce penalties for vehicles that block intersections.^[2]

Ontario's Highway 401 suffers from gridlock due to closely spaced interchanges. The use of collector lanes can reduce the amount of traffic congestion but does not solve the problem entirely.

Another type of gridlock can occur during traffic surges between highway on-ramps and off-ramps located within a quarter mile of each other. Traffic exiting the highway may back up and block the entering vehicles.

Gridlock is sometimes cited as an example of the prisoner's dilemma (from game theory).^[3] Mutual cooperation among drivers would give the maximum benefit (prevention of gridlock), but this may not happen because of the desire to maximize one's own benefit (shortest travel time) given the uncertainty about the other drivers' commitment to cooperation.

Enforcement[link]

New York City[link]

Vehicles "blocking the box" in New York City

In New York City, drivers who "block the box" are subject to a moving violation that comes with a US$90.00 penalty. Mayor Michael Bloomberg, noting that the ten minute ticketing process actually contributes to overall traffic congestion, has recently asked the New York State Legislature to remove “blocking the box” from the moving violation category. This reclassification would give more traffic agents authority to write tickets and change the current ticketing procedure, which requires that the issuing officer physically stop the violating car in traffic.^[4]

Virginia Beach, Virginia[link]

In Virginia Beach, Virginia, roads around the oceanfront feature signs at every intersection stating "Don't Block the Box", and threatening a $200 fine.

Effects[link]

The obvious impacts are driver frustration and trip delay. Another impact in cities is exacerbated by the presence of urban street canyons, which effectively trap air pollution and increase air pollution exposures of motorists as well as the general urban population. Noise pollution can be aggravated by excessive starting and stopping noise of gridlocked facilities.^[5]

Alleviating Gridlock[link]

To make a traffic system less susceptible to gridlock, a traffic metering system can be introduced. These systems determine the optimal number of vehicles allowed in a traffic system, and prevent any extra vehicles from entering. This can be done with traffic control devices, such as traffic lights or warning signs, or a better public transportation system. This type of system is used in Zurich, Switzerland^[6]

Etymology[link]

According to the New York Times the word gridlock was coined in New York City in the early 1970s.^[7] The first appearances of gridlock in newspapers occurred during the 1980 New York City transit strike. The word is attributed to Sam Schwartz, who was then the chief traffic engineer for the New York City Department of Transportation at the time of the strike.^[8] Schwartz said the word gridlock was used internally in his department during the 1970s, perhaps as early as 1971.^[9] Writing up a memo of emergency recommendations for senior officials, he recalled the words of a colleague several years earlier who had been analyzing a proposal to close Broadway to vehicular traffic. His colleague gave the plan the thumbs-down, worrying that it would simply “lock up the grid.” Schwartz was always struck by that image and titled his 1980 memo “Gridlock Prevention Plan.” ^[10] In another interview Mr. Schwartz said that he coined the term in the mid 1970s with fellow traffic engineer, Roy Cottam, who " was a little paranoid and thought he would be blamed for gridlock and so he gave me all the credit."^[11]

Historical events[link]

China[link]

The August 2010 traffic jam in the Beijing-Zhangjiakou highway in Hebei province, China, is considered the world's worst traffic jam ever, as traffic congestion stretched more than 100 kilometres (62 mi) from August 14 to the 26, including at least 11 days of total gridlock, with some drivers spending up to 5 days to cross this stretch of highway.^[12][13][14] The event was caused by a combination of road works and thousands of coal trucks from Inner Mongolia’s coalfields that travel daily to Beijing. The New York Times has called this event the "Great Chinese Gridlock of 2010."^[14][15]

Brazil[link]

According to Time magazine, São Paulo has the world's worst daily traffic jams.^[16] On June 10, 2009, the historical record was set with more than 182 miles (293 km) of accumulated queues out of 522 mi (835 km) being monitored.^[17]

France[link]

For several years the traffic jam that occurred in 1980 over a 175-kilometre (109 mi) long stretch of the French A6 Autoroute between Paris and Lyon was considered the world’s longest.^[18]

See also[link]

• Box junction
• Deadlock - computer software analogy
• Journal of Transport and Land Use
• Roadway air dispersion modeling
• Traffic congestion: Reconstruction with Kerner’s three-phase theory

References[link]

John Digweed
Background information
Birth name	John Digweed
Born	(1967-01-01) 1 January 1967 (age 45)
Origin	Hastings, England, United Kingdom
Genres	House, Progressive House
Occupations	Disc jockey Record producer Record Label Owner
Years active	1989 – present
Labels	Bedrock Records Global Underground Renaissance
Associated acts	Sasha & John Digweed, Bedrock
Website	http://www.johndigweed.com/

John Digweed (born John Digweed^[1] on 1 January 1967 in Hastings, England) is an English DJ, record producer and actor.^[2]

Biography[link]

John Digweed began DJing at age 15.^{[citation needed]} His breakthrough came in 1993 when he got a gig at the Renaissance Club in Mansfield after fellow DJ Alexander Coe (aka Sasha) heard his demo.

Digweed is known for promoting the progressive house sound that became popular in Europe and North America in the late 1990s and early 2000s, releasing several popular mix compilations on labels like Renaissance and Global Underground. He started the record label Bedrock Records to further promote the music he was playing at the time. In addition to starting the Bedrock imprint, he and friend Nick Muir produce under the Bedrock alias. In his sets, Digweed is noted^{[citation needed]} for adopting tracks with new and different styles.

Between 2000 and 2005, John Digweed promoted his "Bedrock" sound with monthly club nights for members and newcomers to the electronic music scene. He played Thursday nights at Heaven in London and Friday nights at a smaller club night at The Beach in Brighton. These nights featured numerous guest DJs including Danny Howells, Phil Thompson, Hernan Cattaneo, and Chris Fortier. As Digweed's international schedule increased, these events drew to a close, although occasional reunions are still held at Heaven. Digweed celebrated 10 years of his Bedrock club night at Matter, London on 10 October 2008 with a near on 10-hour set.

Digweed has enjoyed popularity throughout North America in addition to Europe. Digweed, as well as Sasha, established a monthly residency at the now defunct New York club Twilo, which proved a key location for the American electronic music scene. The residency began in 1996 with a lukewarm reception but grew into one of the most popular club nights in New York City by the end of its run in 2001. Sasha and Digweed DJ'd at Twilo on the last Friday of every month, playing sets that lasted between 8 and 12 hours. In early 2001, Sasha suffered an ear injury and was unable to play for their last 4 dates until Twilo was closed by the New York City.^{[citation needed]} Digweed continued to play the time slot by himself until May 6, 2001 when Twilo was raided by the NYPD and subsequently forced to close down.

Digweed DJed as himself in the Greg Harrison's 2000 movie Groove, which tells the story of an all-night rave in San Francisco.

In early 2002, Digweed underwent a six week country-wide tour of the United States with Sasha and Jimmy Van M called Delta Heavy. Promotion of the tour was done by Clear Channel and attendance reached 85,000.^{[citation needed]} The tour took place in a variety of venues but was completely self-reliant from a technical point of view. Sound, lights, and visual setups were brought along to every gig of the tour. Also in 2002, Digweed created the soundtrack to the film Stark Raving Mad.

From September 2000 to January 2011, Digweed hosted a weekly two-hour radio show on Kiss 100 in the UK, in which Digweed played the first hour of music and a guest DJ played the second hour. Beginning in September 2006, John Digweed's show was available on all 3 Kiss radio stations. By that time, the show's name became Transitions, which was also the name of a four-volume series of mix albums by Digweed released every six months during 2006-2008. In January 2011, "Transitions" aired for the last time on Kiss 100.^[3] The show continues to be broadcast online.

2008 saw Digweed and Sasha reuniting for a Spring Club Tour that once again featured performances all over North America. Also in 2008, Digweed's music is to be featured in the film movie adaptation of Irvine Welsh's best-selling novel Ecstasy: Three Tales of Chemical Romance.

In 2010, he was voted the number 29 DJ in DJ Mag's annual Top 100 vote. He has been featured in the top 10 from 1998–2008 and was voted number one DJ in 2001.^[4]

John is the brother of 19 times World Clay Shooting Champion George Digweed MBE.^{[5][not in citation given]}

Discography[link]

Compilation albums[link]

• 1994: Journeys by DJ Volume 4: Silky Mix (Music Unites)
• 1994: Sasha & John Digweed - Renaissance: The Mix Collection (Renaissance)
• 1995: Renaissance: The Mix Collection Part 2 (Renaissance)
• 1996: Sasha & John Digweed - Northern Exposure (Ministry of Sound)
• 1997: Sasha & John Digweed - Northern Exposure 2 (Ministry of Sound)
• 1997: The Winning Ticket (Jackpot)
• 1998: Global Underground 006: Sydney (Boxed)
• 1999: Bedrock (INCredible)
• 1999: Sasha & John Digweed - Northern Exposure: Expeditions (INCredible)
• 1999: Global Underground 014: Hong Kong (Boxed)
• 2000: Sasha & John Digweed - Communicate (INCredible) (Billboard 200 #149)
• 2001: Global Underground 019: Los Angeles (Boxed)
• 2002: MMII (Bedrock Records) (Billboard Top Electronic Albums #7)
• 2003: Stark Raving Mad (Thrive Records) (Billboard Electronic #9)
• 2004: Layered Sounds (Bedrock Records)
• 2005: fabric 20 (fabric) (Billboard Electronic #13)
• 2005: Choice – A Collection of Classics (Azuli Records)
• 2005: Layered Sounds 2 (Bedrock Records)
• 2006: Transitions (Renaissance) (Billboard Electronic #16)
• 2007: Transitions Vol. 2 (Renaissance)
• 2007: Transitions Vol. 3 (Renaissance)
• 2008: Transitions Vol. 4 (Renaissance)
• 2008: Bedrock 10: Past Present Future (Bedrock Records)
• 2009: Bedrock Eleven (Bedrock Records)
• 2010: Structures (Bedrock Records)
• 2010: Bedrock Twelve (Bedrock Records)
• 2011: Structures Two (Bedrock Records)
• 2012: Live in Cordoba (Bedrock Records)

Singles[link]

• 1993: Bedrock - "For What You Dream Of" (Stress Records) (UK #25)
• 1997: Bedrock - "Set in Stone" / "Forbidden Zone" (Stress Records) (UK #71)
• 1999: Bedrock - "Heaven Scent" (Bedrock Records) (UK #35)
• 2000: Bedrock - "Voices" (Bedrock Records) (UK #44)
• 2001: Bedrock - "Beautiful Strange" (Bedrock Records)
• 2002: Bedrock - "Emerald" (Bedrock Records)
• 2003: Bedrock - "Forge" (Bedrock Breaks)
• 2005: Bedrock - "Santiago" (Bedrock Records)
• 2006: Bedrock - "Warung Beach" (Bedrock Records)
• 2007: John Digweed - "Gridlock" (Renaissance)
• 2009: John Digweed & Nick Muir - "Tangent" (Bedrock Records)
• 2010: John Digweed & Nick Muir - "Satellite / Meteor" (Bedrock Records)
• 2010: John Digweed & Nick Muir - "Satellite / Meteor (Remixes)" (Bedrock Records)

DVD[link]

• Sasha & John Digweed present Delta Heavy (System Recordings)

References[link]

External links[link]

• Official Site
• Bedrock Records
• John Digweed discography at Discogs
• (French) Interview John Digweed - Actualites Electroniques
• (English) Interview John Digweed - Actualites Electroniques
• 10 years of Bedrock Interview by Laptoprockers
• John Digweed Transitions - Official Tracklistings - 2006 to Now
• John Digweed Transitions - Archive - 2000 to Now - Streaming & Downloads
• John Digweed Essential Mix 2010

Tupac Amaru Shakur (June 16, 1971 – September 13, 1996), known by his stage names 2Pac, Pac, and Makaveli, was an American rapper and actor.^[1] Shakur has sold over 75 million records worldwide as of 2010,^[2] making him one of the best-selling music artists in the world. Rolling Stone Magazine named him the 86th Greatest Artist of All Time.^[3] The themes of most of Tupac's songs are the violence and hardship in inner cities, racism, social problems, and conflicts with other rappers during the East Coast–West Coast hip hop rivalry. Shakur began his career as a roadie, backup dancer, and MC for the alternative hip hop group Digital Underground.^[4][5][6]

Both of his parents and several other family members were members of the Black Panthers, and Tupac made reference to the organization in the song "Changes". Shakur was involved in a West-coast East-coast rivalry after a major feud with East-coast rappers, producers and record-label members of staff.^[7]

On September 7, 1996, Shakur was shot four times in Las Vegas, Nevada. He was taken to the University Medical Center, where he died six days later.^[8]

Life and career[link]

1971–1990: Early life and career beginnings[link]

Tupac Amaru Shakur was born on the East Harlem section of Manhattan in New York City.^[9] He was named after Túpac Amaru,^[10] a Peruvian revolutionary who led an indigenous uprising against Spain and was subsequently executed.^[11] His mother, Afeni Shakur, and his father, Billy Garland, were active members of the Black Panther Party in New York in the late 1960s and early 1970s; he was born just one month after his mother's acquittal on more than 150 charges of "Conspiracy against the United States government and New York landmarks" in the New York Panther 21 court case.^[12]

Although unconfirmed by the Shakur family, several sources (including the official coroner's report) list his birth name as Lesane Parish Crooks.^[13] This name was supposedly entered on the birth certificate because Afeni feared her enemies would attack her son, and disguised his true identity using a different last name. She changed it later, following her separation from Garland and marriage to Mutulu Shakur.^[14] Struggle and incarceration surrounded Shakur from an early age. His godfather, Elmer "Geronimo" Pratt, a high ranking Black Panther, was convicted of murdering a school teacher during a 1968 robbery, although his sentence was later overturned. His stepfather, Mutulu, spent four years at large on the FBI's Ten Most Wanted Fugitives list beginning in 1982. Mutulu was wanted in part for having helped his sister Assata Shakur (also known as Joanne Chesimard) to escape from a penitentiary in New Jersey, where she had been incarcerated for shooting a state trooper to death in 1973. Mutulu was caught in 1986 and imprisoned for the robbery of a Brinks armored truck in which two police officers and a guard were killed.^[15] Shakur had a half-sister, Sekyiwa, two years his junior, and an older stepbrother, Mopreme "Komani" Shakur, who appeared on many of his recordings.^[16]

At the age of twelve, Shakur enrolled in Harlem's 127th Street Repertory Ensemble and was cast as the Travis Younger character in the play A Raisin in the Sun, which was performed at the Apollo Theater. In 1986, the family relocated to Baltimore, Maryland.^[17] After completing his second year at Paul Laurence Dunbar High School he transferred to the Baltimore School for the Arts, where he studied acting, poetry, jazz, and ballet. He performed in Shakespeare plays, and in the role of the Mouse King in The Nutcracker.^[15] Shakur, accompanied by one of his friends, Dana "Mouse" Smith, as his beatbox, won most of the many rap competitions that he participated in and was considered to be the best rapper in his school.^[18] He was remembered as one of the most popular kids in his school because of his sense of humor, superior rapping skills, and ability to mix in with all crowds.^[19] He developed a close friendship with a young Jada Pinkett (later Jada Pinkett Smith) that lasted until his death. In the documentary Tupac: Resurrection, Shakur says, "Jada is my heart. She will be my friend for my whole life," and Pinkett Smith calls him "one of my best friends. He was like a brother. It was beyond friendship for us. The type of relationship we had, you only get that once in a lifetime." A poem written by Shakur titled "Jada" appears in his book, The Rose That Grew From Concrete, which also includes a poem dedicated to Pinkett Smith called "The Tears in Cupid's Eyes". During his time in art school, Shakur became affiliated with the Baltimore Young Communist League USA,^[20][21] and began dating the daughter of the director of the local Communist Party USA^[22] In June 1988, Shakur and his family moved to Marin City, California, a community of mainly housing projects located 5 miles (8.0 km) north of San Francisco,^[17] where he attended Tamalpais High School in nearby Mill Valley.^[23] He began attending the poetry classes of Leila Steinberg in 1989.^[24] That same year, Steinberg organized a concert with a former group of Shakur's, Strictly Dope; the concert led to him being signed with Atron Gregory who set him up as a roadie and backup dancer with the young rap group Digital Underground in 1990.^[4][5][6]

[edit] 1990–92: 2Pacalypse Now, police brutality and shooting in Marin City

Shakur's professional entertainment career began in the early 1990s, when he debuted his rapping skills in a vocal turn in Digital Underground's "Same Song" from the soundtrack to the 1991 film Nothing but Trouble and also appeared with the group in the film of the same name. The song was later released as the lead song of the Digital Underground EP This is an EP Release, the follow-up to their debut hit album Sex Packets. Shakur appeared in the accompanying music video. After his rap debut, he performed with Digital Underground again on the album Sons of the P. Later, he released his first solo album, 2Pacalypse Now. 2Pacalypse Now did not do as well on the charts as future albums, spawning no top ten hits. 2Pacalypse Now is hailed by many critics and fans for its underground feel, with many rappers such as Nas, Eminem, Game, and Talib Kweli having pointed to it as a source for inspiration.^[25] Although the album was originally released on Interscope Records, rights of it are now owned by Amaru Entertainment. The album's name is a reference to the 1979 film Apocalypse Now. The album generated significant controversy stemming from Dan Quayle's public criticism after a youth in Texas shot a state trooper and his defense attorney claimed he was influenced by 2Pacalypse Now and its strong theme of police brutality. Quayle made the statement, "There's no reason for a record like this to be released. It has no place in our society." The record never achieved the same success as many of 2Pac's later albums owing in part to rough construction and sometimes repetitive beats, but it was important in showcasing 2Pac's political conviction and his focus on lyrical prowess. On MTV's Greatest Rappers of All Time List, 2pacalypse Now was listed as one of 2Pac's "certified classic" albums, along with Me Against the World, All Eyez On Me and The Don Killuminati: The 7 Day Theory. 2Pacalypse Now went on to be certified Gold by the RIAA. It featured three singles; "Brenda's Got a Baby", "Trapped", and "If My Homie Calls". 2Pacalypse Now can be found in the Vinyl Countdown and in the instruction manual for Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas along with the track "I Don't Give a Fuck" which appeared on the in-game radio station, Radio Los Santos.

In October 1991, he filed a $10 million civil suit against the law enforcement of the Oakland Police Department, alleging they brutally beat him for jaywalking.^[26] On August 22, 1992, in Marin City, California, Shakur performed at an outdoor festival, and stayed for an hour afterwards signing autographs and pictures. Some earlier negative remarks made by Shakur about Marin City led to a confrontation where the rapper drew a Colt Mustang, and accidentally dropped it. When being recovered from the ground a bullet discharged. Though nobody in the crowd was injured by the gunshot, about 100 yards away, a 6 year old child named Qa'id Walker-Teal was hit and killed by a bullet while riding his bike at a playground. Some sources report that the child was the victim of a stray bullet in a shootout between Shakur's entourage and a rival group.^[27][28] Shakur and Mopreme left in their car and were stopped by an angry mob, by chance, in front of a sheriff's substation. The police "rescued" them and took the two into custody, who were soon released without charge. In 1995, a wrongful death suit was brought against Shakur by Qa'id's mother. Ballistics tests proved the bullet that killed the boy was not from Shakur's or any members of his entourage's gun. Shakur's attorney stated that the festival was a "nasty situation," and his client was saddened by the death of the young boy. Shakur's record company settled the lawsuit for an undisclosed amount, reportedly between $300,000 and $500,000.^[29]

[edit] 1993: Strictly 4 My N.I.G.G.A.Z., rape charge and shooting in Atlanta

His second record, Strictly 4 My N.I.G.G.A.Z., was released in 1993. The album did better than the previous one debuting on number 24 on the Billboard 200. Similar to his debut, 2Pacalypse Now, the album contains many tracks emphasizing 2Pac's political and social views. The album was going to be named "Troublesome 21", the 21 referring to Shakur's age at the time. Debuting at number twenty-four on the Billboard 200, this album saw more commercial success than its predecessor, and there are many noticeable differences in production. While Tupac's first effort included a more underground or indie-rap-oriented sound, this album was considered his "breakout" album. It spawned the hits "Keep Ya Head Up" and "I Get Around" and reached platinum status. On vinyl, Side A (tracks 1-8) was labeled the "Black Side" and Side B (tracks 9-16) the "Dark Side." It's also known as his tenth-biggest selling album with 1,366,000 units moved as of 2004.^[30]

In November 1993, Shakur and others were charged with sexually assaulting a woman in a hotel room. According to the complaint, Shakur sodomized the woman and then encouraged his friends to sexually abuse her. Shakur denied the charges. According to Shakur, he had prior relations days earlier with the woman; she performed oral sex on him on a club dance floor and the two later had consensual sex in his hotel room. The complainant claimed sexual assault after her second visit to Shakur's hotel room; she alleged that Shakur and his entourage raped her.^[31][32] Shakur claimed that he fell asleep shortly after the woman arrived and later awoke to her accusations and legal threats. In the ensuing trial, Shakur was convicted of sexual abuse. In sentencing Shakur to 1½–4½ years in prison, the judge described the crime as "an act of brutal violence against a helpless woman."^[33][34][35] After serving part of his sentence, Shakur was released on bail pending appeal. On April 5, 1996, a judge sentenced him to serve 120 days in jail for violating terms of his release on bail.^[36]

In October 1993, in Atlanta, two brothers and off-duty police officers, Mark and Scott Whitwell, were with their wives celebrating Mrs. Whitwell's recent passing of the state bar examination. As they crossed the street, a car with Shakur inside passed by them or "almost struck them," after which the Whitwells began an altercation with the driver, Shakur and the other passengers, which was then joined by a second passing car. Shakur shot one officer in the buttocks, and the other in the leg, back, or abdomen, according to varying news reports. There were no other injuries, but Mark Whitwell was charged with firing at Shakur's car and later lying to the police during the investigation, and Shakur with the shooting, until prosecutors decided to drop all charges against all parties.^[37][38]

1994: Thug Life, Thug Life: Volume 1 and November shooting[link]

In late 1993, Shakur formed the group Thug Life with a number of his friends, including Big Syke, Macadoshis, his stepbrother Mopreme Shakur, and Rated R. The group released their only album Thug Life: Volume 1 on September 26, 1994, which went gold. The album featured the single "Pour Out a Little Liquor" produced by Johnny "J" Jackson, who went on to produce a large part of Shakur's album All Eyez on Me. The group usually performed their concerts without Shakur.^[39] The album was originally released by Shakur's label Out Da Gutta Records. Due to heavy criticism on gangsta rap at the time, the original version of the album was scrapped and re-recorded with many of the original songs being cut. It has been said that 2Pac created two other versions of this album, with many of the songs still remaining unreleased^{[citation needed]}. The group featured Big Syke, Macadoshis, Mopreme, The Rated R and Tupac Shakur. Among the notable tracks on the album are "Bury Me a G," "Cradle to the Grave," "Pour Out a Little Liquor" (which also appears in the soundtrack to the 1994 film Above the Rim), "How Long Will They Mourn Me?" and "Str8 Ballin'." The album only contains ten tracks because Interscope records felt many of the other recorded songs were too controversial to release. Although the original version of the album never came to fruition as the album went through a number of changes, Tupac performed the planned first single from the album, "Out on Bail" at the 1994 Source Awards.^[40] Although the album was originally released on Shakur's label Out Da Gutta, Amaru Entertainment, the label owned by the mother of Tupac Shakur, has since gained the rights to it. Thug Life: Volume 1 was certified Gold. The track "How Long Will They Mourn Me?" appeared later in 1998 from 2Pac's Greatest Hits album.^[41]

Shakur was rushed to Bellevue Hospital after a near-fatal shooting in 1994

On the night of November 30, 1994, the day before the verdict in his sexual abuse trial was to be announced, Shakur was shot five times and robbed after entering the lobby of Quad Recording Studios in Manhattan by two armed men in army fatigues. He would later accuse Sean Combs,^[42] Andre Harrell, and Biggie Smalls—whom he saw after the shooting—of setting him up. Shakur also suspected his close friend and associate, Randy "Stretch" Walker, of being involved in the attempt. According to the doctors at Bellevue Hospital, where he was admitted immediately following the incident, Shakur had received five bullet wounds; twice in the head, twice in the groin and once through the arm and thigh. He checked out of the hospital, against doctor's orders, three hours after surgery. In the day that followed, Shakur entered the courthouse in a wheelchair and was found guilty of three counts of molestation, but innocent of six others, including sodomy. On February 6, 1995, he was sentenced to one-and-a-half to four-and-a-half years in prison on a sexual assault charge.^[43] A year later on November 30, 1995, Stretch was killed after being shot twice in the back by three men who pulled up alongside his green minivan at 112th Ave. and 209th St. in Queens Village, while he was driving. His minivan smashed into a tree and hit a parked car before flipping over.^[44] On April 8th, 2008, the LA Times issued a retraction^[45] as follows "to the extent these publications could be interpreted as creating the impression that Combs was involved in arranging the attack, The Times wishes to correct that misimpression, which was neither stated in the article nor intended." The LAT article, written by Pulitzer prize winner Chuck Philips, stated that Shakur was led to the studio by James Rosemond aka Jimmy Henchman (an associate of Combs) to rough up Tupac. The article relied, in part, on documents The Smoking Gun shown to be faked.^[46] as well as 6 unnamed sources, one of them Dexter Issac, who LA Times author Chuck Philips later identified as one of his key unnamed sources ^[47] after Issacs confessed to having committed the crime for James Rosemond aka Jimmy Henchman. On June 15, 2011, Dexter Issac admitted to this shooting and robbery, reporting to have been hired to do so by James Rosemond aka Jimmy Henchman^{[48] [49]}, owner of Czar Entertainment.^[50] and associate of Sean Combs, thus supporting the LA Times retracted article by Chuck Philips ^[51] .

[edit] 1995: Prison Sentence, Me Against the World and Bail

Shakur began serving his prison sentence at Clinton Correctional Facility on February 14, 1995. Shortly afterwards, he released his multi-platinum album Me Against the World. Shakur became the first artist ever to have an album at number one on the Billboard 200 while serving a prison sentence. Me Against the World made its debut on the Billboard 200 and stayed at the top of the charts for four weeks. The album sold 240,000 copies in its first week, setting a record for highest first week sales for a solo male rap artist at the time.^[52] While serving his sentence, he married his long-time girlfriend, Keisha Morris, on April 4, 1995; the couple later divorced in 1996.^[53] While imprisoned, Shakur read many books by Niccolò Machiavelli, Sun Tzu's The Art of War and other works of political philosophy and strategy.^[54] He also wrote a screenplay titled Live 2 Tell while incarcerated, a story about an adolescent who becomes a drug baron.^[55]

Me Against the World, released while Shakur was imprisoned, made an immediate impact on the charts, debuting at number one on the Billboard 200. This ultimately made Shakur the first artist to have an album debut at number one on Billboard 200 while serving time in prison. The album served as one of Shakur's most positively reviewed albums, with many calling it the magnum opus of his career, and is considered one of the greatest and most influential hip hop albums of all-time. It is also his fourth biggest selling album with 2,439,000 units moved to date.^[56] Me Against the World won best rap album at the 1996 Soul Train Music Awards.^[57]

"Dear Mama" was released as the album's first single in February 1995, along with the track "Old School" as the B-side.^[58] "Dear Mama" would be the album's most successful single, topping the Hot Rap Singles chart, and peaking at the ninth spot on the Billboard Hot 100.^[59] The single was certified platinum in July 1995,^[60] and later placed at #51 on the year-end charts. The second single, "So Many Tears", was released in June, four months after the first single.^[61] The single would reach the number six spot on the Hot Rap Singles chart, and the 44th on the Billboard Hot 100.^[59] "Temptations", released in August, was the third and final single from the album.^[62] The single would be the least successful of the three released, but still did fairly well on the charts, reaching number 68 on the Billboard Hot 100, 35 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Singles & Tracks, and 13 on the Hot Rap Singles charts.^[59]

In October 1995, Shakur's case was on appeal but due to all of his legal fees he could not raise the $1.4 million bail. After serving eleven months of his one-and-a-half year to four-and-a-half year sentence,^[63] Shakur was released from the Attica Correctional Facility due in large part to the help and influence of Suge Knight, the CEO of Death Row Records, who posted a $1.4 million bail pending appeal of the conviction in exchange for Shakur to release three albums under the Death Row label.^[64]

[edit] 1996: All Eyez on Me and The Don Killuminati: The 7 Day Theory

All Eyez on Me was the fourth studio album by 2Pac, released February 13, 1996 on Death Row Records and Interscope Records. The album is frequently recognized as one of the crowning achievements of 1990s rap music.^[65] It has been said that "despite some undeniable filler, it is easily the best production 2Pac's ever had on record".^[66] It was certified 5× Platinum after just 2 months in April 1996 and 9× platinum in 1998. The album featured the Billboard Hot 100 number one singles "How Do U Want It" and "California Love". It featured 5 singles in all, the most of any 2Pac album. Moreover, All Eyez On Me (which was the only Death Row release to be distributed through PolyGram by way of Island Records) made history as the first double-full-length hip-hop solo studio album released for mass consumption. It was issued on two compact discs and four LPs. Chartwise, All Eyez on Me was the second album from 2Pac to hit number-one on both the Billboard 200 and the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums charts.^[67] It sold 566,000 copies in the first week of its release, and was charted on the top 100 with the top one-week Soundscan sales since 1991. The album won the 1997 Soul Train R&B/Soul or Rap Album of the Year Award.^[68][69] Shakur also won the Award for Favorite Rap/Hip-Hop Artist at the 24th Annual American Music Awards.^[70]

The Don Killuminati: The 7 Day Theory (Meaning Makaveli The Don - Killuminati: The 7 Day Theory and commonly shortened to The 7 Day Theory) is the fifth and final studio album by Tupac Shakur, under the new stage name Makaveli, finished before his death and his first studio album to be posthumously released.^[71] The album was completely finished in a total of seven days during the month of August 1996.^[72] The lyrics were written and recorded in only three days and mixing took an additional four days. These are among the very last songs he recorded before his fatal shooting on September 7, 1996. In 2005, MTV.com ranked Killuminati: The 7 Day Theory at #9 on their greatest hip hop albums of all time list^[73] and, in 2006, recognized it as a classic.^[74] The emotion and anger showcased on the album has been admired by a large part of the hip-hop community, including other rappers.^[75] Ronald "Riskie" Brent is the creator of the Makaveli Don Killuminati cover painting.^[76] George "Papa G" Pryce, Former Head of Publicity for Death Row, claimed that "Makaveli which we did was a sort of tongue and cheek and it was not really to come out and after Tupac was murdered, it did come out. But before that it was going to be a sort of an underground."^[77] The album peaked at number one on the Billboard Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart and the Billboard 200.^[78] The album generated the second-highest debut-week sales total of any album that year,^[79] selling 664,000 copies on the first week. This album was certified 4X Platinum on June 15, 1999.^[80]

Death[link]

September 1996 shooting[link]

On the night of September 7, 1996, Shakur attended the Mike Tyson–Bruce Seldon boxing match at the MGM Grand in Las Vegas. After leaving the match, one of Suge's associates spotted 21-year-old Orlando "Baby Lane" Anderson, an alleged member of the Southside Crips, in the MGM Grand lobby and informed Shakur, who then attacked Anderson. Shakur's entourage, as well as Suge and his followers, assisted in assaulting Anderson. The fight was captured on the hotel's video surveillance. Earlier that year, Anderson and a group of Crips had robbed a member of Death Row's entourage in a Foot Locker store, precipitating Shakur's attack. After the brawl, Shakur went to rendezvous with Suge to go to Death Row-owned Club 662 (now known as restaurant/club Seven). He rode in Suge's 1996 black BMW 750iL sedan as part of a larger convoy including many in Shakur's entourage.^[81]

At 10:55 pm, while paused at a red light, Shakur rolled down his window and a photographer took his photograph.^[82] At around 11:00–11:05 pm, they were halted on Las Vegas Boulevard by Metro bicycle police for playing the car stereo too loudly and not having license plates. The plates were then found in the trunk of Suge's car; they were released without being fined a few minutes later.^[82] At about 11:10 pm, while stopped at a red light at Flamingo Road near the intersection of Koval Lane in front of the Maxim Hotel, a vehicle occupied by two women pulled up on their left side. Shakur, who was standing up through the sunroof, exchanged words with the two women, and invited them to go to Club 662.^[82] At approximately 11:15 pm, a white, four-door, late-model Cadillac with an unknown number of occupants pulled up to the sedan's right side, rolled down one of the windows, and rapidly fired a volley of gunshots at Shakur; bullets hit him in the chest, pelvis, and his right hand and thigh.^[8][82] One of the rounds apparently ricocheted into Shakur's right lung.^[83] Suge was hit in the head by fragmentation, though it is thought that a bullet grazed him.^[84] According to Suge, a bullet from the gunfire had been lodged in his skull, but medical reports later contradicted this statement.^[85] At the time of the drive-by Shakur's bodyguard was following behind in a vehicle belonging to Kidada Jones, Shakur's then-fiancée.^{[citation needed]} The bodyguard, Frank Alexander, stated that when he was about to ride along with the rapper in Suge's car, Shakur asked him to drive Kidada Jones' car instead just in case they were too drunk and needed additional vehicles from Club 662 back to the hotel. The bodyguard reported in his documentary, Before I Wake, that shortly after the assault, one of the convoy's cars drove off after the assailant but he never heard back from the occupants.^[86]

After arriving on the scene, police and paramedics took Suge and a mortally wounded Shakur to the University Medical Center. According to an interview with one of Shakur's closest friends the music video director Gobi, while at the hospital, he received news from a Death Row marketing employee that the shooters had called the record label and were sending death threats aimed at Shakur, claiming that they were going there to "finish him off".^[87] Upon hearing this, Gobi immediately alerted the Las Vegas police, but the police claimed they were understaffed and no one could be sent.^[87] Nonetheless, the shooters never arrived.^[87] At the hospital, Shakur was in and out of consciousness, was heavily sedated, breathed through a ventilator and respirator, was placed on life support machines, and was ultimately put under a barbiturate-induced coma after repeatedly trying to get out of the bed.^[8][87][88] Despite having been resuscitated in a trauma center and surviving a multitude of surgeries (as well as the removal of a failed right lung), Shakur had gotten through the critical phase of the medical therapy and was given a 50% chance of pulling through.^[83] Gobi left the medical center after being informed that Shakur made a 13% recovery on the sixth night.^[87] While in the critical care unit on the afternoon of September 13, 1996, Shakur died of internal bleeding; doctors attempted to revive him but could not impede his hemorrhaging.^[8][88] His mother, Afeni, made the decision to tell the doctors to stop.^[83][88] He was pronounced dead at 4:03 pm (PDT)^[8] The official cause of death was noted as respiratory failure and cardiopulmonary arrest in connection with multiple gunshot wounds.^[8] Shakur's body was cremated and some of his ashes were later mixed with marijuana and smoked by members of the Outlawz.^[89]

Aftermath[link]

Murder case[link]

Due largely to a perceived lack of progress by law enforcement in the investigation of Shakur's murder, many independent investigations and theories emerged. Because of the acrimony between Shakur and Biggie (who was murdered in March 1997^[90]), there was speculation from the outset about the possibility of Biggie's involvement. Biggie, as well as his family, relatives, and associates, vehemently denied all such accusations.^[91] In 2002, the LA Times published a story by Pulitzer Prize-winning investigative reporter Chuck Philips, who claimed to have uncovered evidence implicating Biggie, in addition to Anderson and the Southside Crips, in the attack.^[92] Philips quoted unnamed gang-member sources who claimed Biggie had ties to the Crips, often hiring them for security during West Coast appearances, and that Biggie colluded with the Crips to murder Shakur.

In support of their claims, Biggie's family submitted documentation to MTV suggesting that he was working in a New York recording studio the night of the drive-by shooting. His manager Wayne Barrow and fellow rapper James "Lil' Cease" Lloyd made public announcements denying Biggie's partaking in the crime and claimed further that they were both with him in the recording studio during the night of the event.^[93] The high profile nature of the killing and ensuing gang violence caught the attention of English filmmaker Nick Broomfield, who made the documentary film Biggie & Tupac which examines the lack of progress in the case by speaking to those close to the two slain rappers and the investigation. Shakur's close childhood friend and member of Outlawz, Yafeu "Yaki Kadafi" Fula, was in the convoy when the drive-by occurred and indicated to police that he might be able to identify the assailants, however, he was shot and killed shortly thereafter in a housing project in Irvington.^[94] A DVD titled Tupac: Assassination was released on October 23, 2007, more than eleven years after Shakur's murder. It explores aspects surrounding the event and provides fresh insights into the cold case with new details about the environment.^[95]

Artistry[link]

Influences and musical style[link]

Shakur's music and philosophy is rooted in many American, African-American, and World entities, including the Black Panther Party, Black nationalism, egalitarianism, and liberty. His debut album, 2Pacalypse Now, revealed the socially conscious side of Shakur. On this album, Shakur attacked social injustice, poverty and police brutality on songs "Brenda's Got a Baby", "Trapped" and "Part Time Mutha". His style on this album was highly influenced by the social consciousness and Afrocentrism pervading hip hop in the late 1980s and early 1990s. On this initial release, Shakur helped extend the success of such rap groups as Boogie Down Productions, Public Enemy, X-Clan, and Grandmaster Flash, as he became one of the first major socially conscious rappers from the West Coast.^[96]

On his second record, Shakur continued to rap about the social ills facing African-Americans, with songs like "The Streetz R Deathrow" and "Last Wordz". He also showed his compassionate side with the anthem "Keep Ya Head Up", while simultaneously putting his legendary aggressiveness on display with the title track from the album Strictly 4 My N.I.G.G.A.Z. he added a salute to his former group Digital Underground by including them on the playful track "I Get Around". Throughout his career, an increasingly aggressive attitude can be seen pervading Shakur's subsequent albums.^[97]

The contradictory themes of social inequality and injustice, unbridled aggression, compassion, playfulness, and hope all continued to shape Shakur's work, as witnessed with the release of his incendiary 1995 album Me Against the World. In 1996, Shakur released All Eyez on Me. Many of these tracks are considered by many critics to be classics, including "Ambitionz Az a Ridah", "I Ain't Mad at Cha", "California Love", "Life Goes On" and "Picture Me Rollin'".; All Eyez on Me was a change of style from his earlier works. While still containing socially conscious songs and themes, Shakur's album was heavily influenced by party tracks and tended to have a more "feel good" vibe than his first albums. Shakur described it as a celebration of life, and the record was critically and commercially successful.^[98]

He had enjoyed and had been influenced by the work of contemporary English and Irish pop musicians as a teenager such as Kate Bush, Culture Club, Sinéad O'Connor and U2.^[99]

Other ventures and personal life[link]

Death Row Records[link]

Upon his release from Clinton Correctional Facility, Shakur immediately went back to song recording. He began a new group called Outlaw Immortalz. Shakur began recording his first album with Death Row and released the single "California Love" soon after. On February 13, 1996, Shakur released his fourth solo album, All Eyez on Me. This double album was the first and second of his three-album commitment to Death Row Records. It sold over nine million copies.^{[citation needed]} The record was a general departure from the introspective subject matter of Me Against the World, being more oriented toward a thug and gangsta mentality. Shakur continued his recordings despite increasing problems at the Death Row label. Dr. Dre left his post as house producer to form his own label, Aftermath. Shakur continued to produce hundreds of tracks during his time at Death Row, most of which would be released on his posthumous albums R U Still Down? (Remember Me), Still I Rise, Until the End of Time, Better Dayz, Loyal to the Game and Pac's Life. He also began the process of recording an album with the Boot Camp Clik and their label Duck Down Records, both New York–based, entitled One Nation.^[100]

On June 4, 1996, he and Outlawz released the diss track "Hit 'Em Up", a scathing lyrical assault on Biggie and others associated with him. In the track, Shakur claimed to have had sexual intercourse with Faith Evans, Biggie's wife at the time, and attacks Bad Boy's street credibility. Though no hard evidence suggests so, Shakur was convinced that some members associated with Bad Boy had known about the '94 attack on him beforehand due to their behavior that night and what his sources told him. Shakur aligned himself with Suge, Death Row's CEO, who was already bitter toward Combs over a 1995 incident at the Platinum Club in Atlanta, Georgia, which culminated in the death of Suge's friend and bodyguard, Jake Robles; Suge was adamant in voicing his suspicions of Combs' involvement.^[101] While incarcerated in Clinton Correctional Facility, Shakur read and studied Niccolò Machiavelli and other published works, which inspired his pseudonym "Makaveli" under which he released the album The Don Killuminati: The 7 Day Theory. The album presents a stark contrast to previous works. Throughout the album, Shakur continues to focus on the themes of pain and aggression, making this album one of the emotionally darker works of his career. Shakur wrote and recorded all the lyrics in only three days and the production took another four days, combining for a total of seven days to complete the album (hence the name).

Outlawz[link]

When Tupac Shakur recorded "Hit 'Em Up" a diss song towards his former friend and rival, The Notorious B.I.G., also known as Biggie Smalls he recruited three members from the former group Dramacydal whom he had worked with previously, and was eager to work with again. Together with the three New Jersey rappers and other associates, they formed the original lineup of the Outlawz. When 2Pac signed to Death Row upon his release from prison, he recruited his step brother Mopreme Shakur and Big Syke from Thug Life. Hussein Fatal, Napoleon, E.D.I. Mean, Kastro, Yaki Kadafi, and Storm (the only female Outlaw) were also added, and together they formed the original lineup of the Outlaw Immortalz that debuted on 2Pac's multi-platinum smash All Eyez on Me. They later dropped the immortal after the untimely deaths of 2Pac and Yaki Kadafi and moved on as Outlawz without the members of Thug Life. Young Noble was later added and appeared on 2Pac's second Death Row release The Don Killuminati: The 7 Day Theory. It was on 2Pac's Makaveli album that Outlawz first came to the greater rap community's notice, appearing on a few songs. The idea behind the group was for each member to have a rap name coinciding with the names of various tyrants or enemies of America, past and present. Outlawz chose in later years to make a backronym out of the letters of their group name Operating Under Thug Laws As Warriorz although it does not stand for the groups name and is used infrequently.

On forming the Outlawz, Tupac gave each of them a name of a dictator/military leader or an enemy of America.

• Yaki Kadafi, after Libyan dictator Muammar Gaddafi
• Hussein Fatal, after Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein
• Mussolini (formerly Big Syke), after Italian dictator Benito Mussolini
• Komani (Shakur's half brother Mopreme Shakur), after Iranian Islamic Revolution leader Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini
• Kastro, after Cuban leader Fidel Castro
• E.D.I. Mean, after Ugandan dictator Idi Amin
• Napoleon, after military strategist and leader Napoleon Bonaparte

For himself, Tupac created the alias "Makaveli" from Renaissance Italian philosopher and strategist Niccolo Machiavelli, whose writings inspired Shakur in prison, but who also preached that a leader could eliminate his enemies by all means necessary.

He mentioned Makaveli Records a few times before his death. This was supposed to be a music label for up and coming artists that Shakur had an interest in developing or potentially signing, and his own future projects would have also been published through it as well.^[102]

Acting career[link]

In addition to rapping and hip hop music, Shakur acted in films. He made his first film appearance in the motion picture Nothing But Trouble, as part of a cameo by the Digital Underground. His first starring role was in the film Juice. In this story, he played the character Bishop, a trigger happy teen, for which he was hailed by Rolling Stone's Peter Travers as "the film's most magnetic figure."^[103] He went on to star with Janet Jackson in Poetic Justice (for which he was nominated outstanding actor in 1994, but did not win) and with Duane Martin in Above the Rim. After his death, three of Shakur's completed films, Bullet, Gridlock'd and Gang Related, were released.^[104][105]

He had also been slated to star in the Hughes brothers' film Menace II Society but was replaced by Larenz Tate after assaulting Allen Hughes as a result of a quarrel. Director John Singleton mentioned that he wrote the script for Baby Boy with Shakur in mind for the leading role.^[106] It was eventually filmed with Tyrese Gibson in his place and released in 2001, five years after Shakur's death. The film features a mural of Shakur in the protagonist's bedroom as well as featuring the song "Hail Mary" in the film's score.^[107]

Personal life, literature and religion[link]

Shakur was a voracious reader. He was inspired by a wide variety of writers, including William Shakespeare, Niccolò Machiavelli, Donald Goines, Sun Tzu, Kurt Vonnegut, Mikhail Bakunin, Maya Angelou, Alice Walker, and Khalil Gibran. In his book Holler If You Hear Me: Searching for Tupac Shakur, University of Pennsylvania Avalon Professor of Humanities and African American Studies Michael Eric Dyson describes the experience of visiting the home of Shakur's friend and promoter Leila Steinberg to find "the sea of books" once owned by Shakur.^[108]

Shakur never professed following a particular religion, but his lyrics in singles such as 'Only God Can Judge Me' and poems such as The Rose That Grew from Concrete suggest he believed in God. This means many analysts currently describe him as a deist.^{[109][110][111]} He believed in Karma, but rejected a literal afterlife and organized religion.^[112]

Black Panthers[link]

Tupac has had several family members who were members of the Black Panthers; Mutulu Shakur, the step-father of Tupac, Assata Shakur, his step-aunt, Billy Garland the biological father of Tupac and Afeni Shakur his mother.

Accolades[link]

Legacy[link]

At a Mobb Deep concert following the death of the famed icon and release of The Don Killuminati: The 7 Day Theory, Cormega recalled in an interview that the fans were all shouting "Makaveli,"^[114] and emphasized the influence of The Don Killuminati: The 7 Day Theory and of Shakur himself even in New York at the height of the media-dubbed 'intercoastal rivalry'.^[115] Tupac Shakur was also one of the few rappers that were paid a tribute during the Up in Smoke Tour that featured many west coast hip-hop artists.

Shakur is held in high esteem by other MCs – in the book How to Rap, Bishop Lamont notes that Shakur “mastered every element, every aspect” of rapping^[116] and Fredro Starr of Onyx says Shakur, "was a master of the flow."^[117] "Every rapper who grew up in the Nineties owes something to Tupac," wrote 50 Cent. "He didn't sound like anyone who came before him."^[3] About.com for their part named Shakur the most influential rapper ever.^[118]

To preserve Shakur's legacy, his mother founded the Shakur Family Foundation (later renamed the Tupac Amaru Shakur Foundation or TASF) in 1997. The TASF's stated mission is to "provide training and support for students who aspire to enhance their creative talents." The TASF sponsors essay contests, charity events, a performing arts day camp for teenagers and undergraduate scholarships. The Foundation officially opened the Tupac Amaru Shakur Center for the Arts (TASCA) in Stone Mountain, Georgia, on June 11, 2005. On November 14, 2003, a documentary about Shakur entitled Tupac: Resurrection was released under the supervision of his mother and narrated entirely in his voice. It was nominated for Best Documentary in the 2005 Academy Awards. Proceeds will go to a charity set up by Shakur's mother Afeni. On April 17, 2003, Harvard University co-sponsored an academic symposium entitled "All Eyez on Me: Tupac Shakur and the Search for the Modern Folk Hero." The speakers discussed a wide range of topics dealing with Shakur's impact on everything from entertainment to sociology.^[119]

Many of the speakers discussed Shakur's status and public persona, including State University of New York at Buffalo English professor Mark Anthony Neal who gave the talk "Thug Nigga Intellectual: Tupac as Celebrity Gramscian" in which he argued that Shakur was an example of the "organic intellectual" expressing the concerns of a larger group.^[120] Professor Neal has also indicated in his writings that the death of Shakur has left a "leadership void amongst hip-hop artists."^[121] Neal further describes him as a "walking contradiction", a status that allowed him to "make being an intellectual accessible to ordinary people."^[122]

Professor of Communications Murray Forman, of Northeastern University, spoke of the mythical status about Shakur's life and death. He addressed the symbolism and mythology surrounding Shakur's death in his talk entitled "Tupac Shakur: O.G. (Ostensibly Gone)". Among his findings were that Shakur's fans have "succeeded in resurrecting Tupac as an ethereal life force."^[123] In "From Thug Life to Legend: Realization of a Black Folk Hero", Professor of Music at Northeastern University, Emmett Price, compared Shakur's public image to that of the trickster-figures of African-American folklore which gave rise to the urban "bad-man" persona of the post-slavery period. He ultimately described Shakur as a "prolific artist" who was "driven by a terrible sense of urgency" in a quest to "unify mind, body, and spirit".^[124]

In Holler If You Hear Me: Searching for Tupac Shakur, Michael Eric Dyson indicated that Shakur "spoke with brilliance and insight as someone who bears witness to the pain of those who would never have his platform. He told the truth, even as he struggled with the fragments of his identity."^[108] At one Harvard Conference the theme was Shakur's impact on entertainment, race relations, politics and the "hero/martyr".^[125] In late 1997, the University of California, Berkeley offered a student-led course entitled "History 98: Poetry and History of Tupac Shakur."^[126]

In late 2003, the Makaveli Branded Clothing line was launched by Afeni. In 2005, Death Row released Tupac: Live at the House of Blues. The DVD was the final recorded performance of Shakur's career, which took place on July 4, 1996, and features a plethora of Death Row artists. In August 2006, Tupac Shakur Legacy was released. The interactive biography was written by Jamal Joseph. It features unseen family photographs, intimate stories, and over 20 removable reproductions of his handwritten song lyrics, contracts, scripts, poetry, and other personal papers. Shakur's sixth posthumous studio album, Pac's Life, was released on November 21, 2006. It commemorates the 10th anniversary of Shakur's death. He is still considered one of the most popular artists in the music industry as of 2006^[update].^[127]

According to Forbes, in 2008 Shakur's estate made $15 million.^[128] In 2002, they recognized him as a Top Earning Dead celebrity coming in on number ten on their list.^[129]

On April 15, 2012, a "hologram" of Tupac Shakur (technically a 2-D video projection^[130]) performed his songs "Hail Mary" and "2 of Amerikaz Most Wanted" with Snoop Dogg^[131] at the Coachella Music Festival, the effect was created using an optical illusion called Pepper's ghost.^[132] The video footage was created by visual effects company Digital Domain.^[130] The Wall Street Journal reported Dr. Dre and Snoop Dogg were in talks of a possible tour involving the two rappers and the hologram version of Tupac.^[133] which was later turned down by Dr Dre.^[134]

Library of Congress[link]

Shakur's hit song "Dear Mama" is one of 25 songs that was added to the National Recording Registry in 2010. The Library of Congress has called "Dear Mama" "a moving and eloquent homage to both the murdered rapper's own mother and all mothers struggling to maintain a family in the face of addiction, poverty and societal indifference." The honor came seven days after what would have been Shakur's 39th birthday. Shakur is the third rapper to enter the library, behind Grandmaster Flash and Public Enemy.^[135]

Honors[link]

• In a 2005 Rolling Stone magazine vote, Tupac was named No.6 of the '100 immortal artists of all time' behind the likes of Elvis Presley and John Lennon.
• MTV ranked him at No.2 on their list of The Greatest MCs of All Time.^[136]
• Shakur was inducted into the Hip-Hop Hall of Fame in 2002.^[137]
• Ranked No.3 on VH1's 50 Greatest Hip Hop Artists.
• In 2003, MTV's "22 Greatest MCs" countdown listed Shakur as the "Number 1 MC", as voted by the viewers.^[138]
• In 2004, at the VH1 Hip Hop Honors Shakur was honored along with DJ Hollywood, Kool DJ Herc, KRS-One, Public Enemy, Run-D.M.C., Rock Steady Crew, and Sugarhill Gang.^[139]
• A Vibe magazine poll in 2004 rated Shakur "the greatest rapper of all time" as voted by fans.^[140]
• At the First Annual Turks & Caicos International Film Festival held on Tuesday, October 17, 2006, Shakur was honored for his undeniable voice and talent and as a performer who crossed racial, ethnic, cultural and medium lines; his mother accepted the award on his behalf.^[141]
• In 2008, The National Association Of Recording Merchandisers in conjunction with the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame recognized him as a very influential artist and has added him in their Definitive 200 list.^[142]
• On Wednesday, June 23, 2010, Shakur was inducted to the Library of Congress’s National Recording Registry.^[143]
• The seat of the Catholic Church released a list of 12 songs onto the social networking Web site's streaming music service. Among the artists included are Mozart, Muse and Dame Shirley Bassey; the list also includes Shakur's song "Changes", which was released two years after his shooting death on a greatest hits album in 1998.^[144]
• His double album, All Eyez on Me, is one of the highest-selling rap albums of all time, with over 5 million copies of the album sold in the United States alone by April 1996; it was eventually certified 9x platinum in June 1998 by the RIAA.^[145]

Discography[link]

Studio albums

• 2Pacalypse Now (1991)
• Strictly 4 My N.I.G.G.A.Z. (1993)
• Thug Life: Volume 1 (with Thug Life) (1994)
• Me Against the World (1995)
• All Eyez on Me (1996)
• The Don Killuminati: The 7 Day Theory (1996)

Posthumous albums

• R U Still Down? (Remember Me) (1997)
• Greatest Hits (1998)
• Still I Rise (with the Outlawz) (1999)
• Until the End of Time (2001)
• Better Dayz (2002)
• Tupac Resurrection (2003)
• Loyal to the Game (2004)
• Pac's Life (2006)

Filmography[link]

Documentaries Shakur's life has been recognized in big and small documentaries each trying capture the many different events during his short lifetime, most notably the Academy Award–nominated Tupac: Resurrection, released in 2003.

• 1997: Tupac Shakur: Thug Immortal
• 1997: Tupac Shakur: Words Never Die (TV)
• 2001: Tupac Shakur: Before I Wake...
• 2001: Welcome to Deathrow
• 2002: Tupac Shakur: Thug Angel
• 2002: Biggie & Tupac
• 2002: Tha Westside
• 2003: 2Pac 4 Ever
• 2003: Tupac: Resurrection
• 2004: Tupac vs.
• 2004: Tupac: The Hip Hop Genius (TV)
• 2006: So Many Years, So Many Tears
• 2007: Tupac: Assassination
• 2009: Tupac: Assassination II: Reckoning

See also[link]

Poetry portal

• List of best-selling music artists
• List of number-one albums (United States)
• List of number-one hits (United States)

References[link]