Lviv

Wednesday, 19 December 2012

Chocolate, beer and coffee in Lviv - BBC

Armin van Buuren Lviv 14.12.2012 (Full HD)

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Austrian Empire
The Austrian Empire (German: Kaiserthum Oesterreich, modern spelling Kaisertum Österreich) was a modern era successor empire, which was centered on what is today's Austria and which officially lasted from 1804 to 1867. It was followed by the Empire of Austria-Hungary, whose proclamation was a diplomatic move that elevated Hungary's status within the Austrian Empire as a result of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867. The Austro-Hungarian Empire (1867 to 1918) was itself dissolved by the victors at the end of World War I and broken into separate new states.
The term "Austrian Empire" is also used for the Habsburg possessions before 1804, which had no official collective name, although Austria is more frequent; the term of Austria-Hungary has also been used.^{[citation needed]}
The Austrian Empire was founded by the Habsburg monarch Holy Roman Emperor Francis II (who became Emperor Francis I of Austria), as a state comprising his personal lands within and outside of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation.

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Banja Luka
Banja Luka (pronounced [bâːɲaː lǔːka]) or sometimes Banjaluka ([baɲalǔːka]), in Serbian Cyrillic Бања Лука, or Бањалука, is the second largest city in Bosnia and Herzegovina and the administrative capital of the Republika Srpska entity. Traditionally it has been the center of the Bosanska Krajina region, located in the north-western part of the country. It is home of the University of Banja Luka, as well as numerous state and entity institutions of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The city lies on the Vrbas river and is well known in the countries of the Former Yugoslavia for being full of tree-lined avenues, boulevards, gardens, and parks.
• Agino Selo • Banja Luka • Barlovci • Bastasi • Bistrica • Bočac • Borkovići • Bronzani Majdan • Cerici • Čokori • Debeljaci • Dobrnja • Dragočaj • Drakulić • Dujakovci • Goleši • Ivanjska • Jagare • Kmećani • Kola • Kola Donja • Krmine • Krupa na Vrbasu • Kuljani • Lokvari • Lusići • Ljubačevo • Melina • Motike • Obrovac • Pavići • Pavlovac • Pervan Donji • Pervan Gornji • Piskavica • Ponir • Prijakovci • Priječani • Prnjavor Mali • Radmanići • Radosavska • Ramići • Rekavice • Slavićka • Stratinska • Stričići • Subotica • Šargovac • Šimići • Šljivno • Verići • Vilusi • Zalužani • Zelenci

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Baturyn
Baturyn (Ukrainian: Батурин; also referred to as Baturin), is a historic town in the Chernihiv Oblast (province) of northern Ukraine. It is located in the Bakhmach Raion (district) of the oblast, on the banks of the Seym River. The current estimated population is 3,066.
Evidence of settlement in the area of present-day Baturyn dates back to the Neolithic era, with Bronze Age and Scythian remains also having been unearthed. According to some modern writers, the earliest fortress at Baturyn would have been created by the Grand Principality of Chernihiv in the 11th century. The contemporary name for the settlement, however, was first mentioned in the 1625, likely referring to the fortress of Stefan Batory, King of Poland, Prince of Transylvania, and Grand Duke of Lithuania, which was built and named in his honor. The area had been part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (in the Kijów Voivodeship of the Crown of Poland) since before the Union of Lublin. Control of the town was wrested from the Commonwealth during the Khmelnytsky Uprising, after which natives of Ruthenia gained some degree of autonomy under Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky and his Cossack state. In 1648, Baturyn was transformed into a Cossack regional center (sotnia), first hosting the Starodub Cossack Regiment, and then the Nizhyn Regiment.

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Belz
Belz (Ukrainian: Белз, Polish: Bełz, Yiddish/Hebrew: בעלז translit. Belz), a small city in the Lviv Oblast (province) of Western Ukraine, near the border with Poland, is located between the Solokiya river (a tributary of the Bug River) and the Rzeczyca stream.
The current estimated population is 2408 (as of 2004), making it the smallest city in Ukraine.
There are a few versions of the origin of the name:
The name occurs only in two other places, both Celtic areas in antiquity:
Belz is situated in a fertile plain which tribes of Indo-European origin settled in ancient times: Celtic Lugii, next (2nd-5th century) German Goths, slavized Sarmatians (White Croats), and at last Slavic Lendians.
The town has existed since at least the 10th century, as one of the Burgs of Czerwień (Red Ruthenia) strongholds under Bohemian and Polish rule. In 981, Belz was incorporated into the Kievan Rus', except 1018–1030 when it belonged to Poland. In 1170 the town became a seat of the Duchy of Belz. In 1234 it was incorporated into the Duchy of Galicia–Volhynia, which would control Belz till 1340, when it came under Lithuanian rule. In 1366 it became a fief of Poland, since 1462 a permanent part of the Kingdom of Poland, until the First Partition of Poland in 1772. Then, it was incorporated into the Austrian Empire, later the Austro-Hungarian Empire, where it was a part of the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria.

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Bibrka
Bibrka (Polish: Bóbrka, Ukrainian: Бібрка) is a town in western Ukraine, located in the Lviv Oblast (province) about 29 km southeast of Lviv on PI29.
The town has been ruled at various points by the Kingdom of Poland, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Austrian empire, the Austro-Hungarian empire, the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, the Kingdom of Hungary, the Russian Empire, the Soviet Union, and is now part of the Lviv Oblast in Ukraine; as a result Bibrka has several official and native names, including: Bóbrka (Polish/Russian), Prachnik (German), and Boiberke/Boyberke (Yiddish). The city has a population of 3,980.
Bibrka was the site of a Soviet prison and detention centre that detained Poles and others in the mid-20th century.
Coordinates: 49°37′N 24°14′E / 49.617°N 24.233°E / 49.617; 24.233

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Brody
Brody (Ukrainian: Броди, Polish: Brody, Russian: Броды, Yiddish: בראָד, translit. Brod) is a city in the Lviv Oblast (province) of western Ukraine. It is the administrative center of the Brody Raion (district), and is located in the valley of the upper Styr River, approximately 90 kilometres northeast of the oblast capital, Lviv. As of 2004, its population is 23,239.
Brody is the junction of the Druzhba and Odessa-Brody oil pipelines.
The first mention of a settlement on the site of Brody is dated 1084 (Instructions by Volodymyr Monomach). It is believed to have been destroyed by Batu Khan in 1241.
From 1441 Brody was the property of different feudal families (Jan Sieniński, from 1511 - Kamieniecki).
Brody was granted Magdeburg rights and city status in 1546. At this time it was known under the name Lubicz (Любич, Polish: Lubicz) that gave name to the Lubicz Coat of Arms of the owner, Stanisław Żółkiewski (not to be confused with Lubech, Lubecz).
Since the 17th century, the city has been populated not only by Ukrainians and Poles, but also a significant number of Jews (70% of the town's population), Armenians, and Greeks .^{[citation needed]} From 1629, the city became the property of Stanisław Koniecpolski, who ordered the construction of Brody Castle (1630–1635). The castle, or rather the fortress, was designed by the French military engineer Guillaume Le Vasseur de Beauplan. In 1648, the castle took 8 weeks for Bohdan Khmelnytsky to capture it. Notably Jewish population was spared after the sack. The Jews of Brody were judged and "deemed as not engaged in maltreatment of the Ruthenians" and were only required to pay a tribute in "textiles and furs".

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Bucharest
Bucharest (Romanian: București pronounced [bukuˈreʃtʲ] ( listen)) is the capital municipality, cultural, industrial, and financial centre of Romania. It is the largest city in Romania, located in the southeast of the country, at 44°25′57″N 26°06′14″E / 44.4325°N 26.10389°E / 44.4325; 26.10389Coordinates: 44°25′57″N 26°06′14″E / 44.4325°N 26.10389°E / 44.4325; 26.10389, and lies on the banks of the Dâmbovița River.
Bucharest was first mentioned in documents as early as 1459. Since then it has gone through a variety of changes, becoming the state capital of Romania in 1862 and steadily consolidating its position as the centre of the Romanian mass media, culture and arts. Its eclectic architecture is a mix of historical (neo-classical), interbellum (Bauhaus and Art Deco), Communist-era and modern. In the period between the two World Wars, the city's elegant architecture and the sophistication of its elite earned Bucharest the nickname of "Little Paris" (Micul Paris). Although many buildings and districts in the historic centre were damaged or destroyed by war, earthquakes, and Nicolae Ceaușescu's program of systematization, many survived. In recent years, the city has been experiencing an economic and cultural boom..

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Budapest
Budapest ( /ˈbuːdəpɛst/, /ˈbuːdəpɛʃt/ or /ˈbʊdəpɛst/; Hungarian pronunciation: [ˈbudɒpɛʃt] ( listen); names in other languages) is the capital and the largest city of Hungary, the largest in East-Central Europe and the seventh largest in the European Union. It is the country's principal political, cultural, commercial, industrial, and transportation centre, sometimes described as the primate city of Hungary. According to 2011 Census, Budapest had 1.74 million inhabitants, down from its 1989 peak of 2.1 million due to suburbanization. The Budapest Commuter Area is home to 3.3 million people. The city covers an area of 525 square kilometres (202.7 sq mi) within the city limits. Budapest became a single city occupying both banks of the river Danube with a unification on 17 November 1873 of west-bank Buda and Óbuda with east-bank Pest.
The history of Budapest began with Aquincum, originally a Celtic settlement that became the Roman capital of Lower Pannonia.Hungarians arrived in the territory in the 9th century. Their first settlement was pillaged by the Mongols in 1241-42. The re-established town became one of the centres of Renaissance humanist culture in the 15th century. Following the Battle of Mohács and nearly 150 years of Ottoman rule, development of the region entered a new age of prosperity in the 18th and 19th centuries, and Budapest became a global city after the 1873 unification. It also became the second capital of Austria-Hungary, a great power that dissolved in 1918. After the Treaty of Trianon in 1920, when Hungary lost 72% of its former territory, culturally and economically the country became wholly Budapest-dominated. The capital dominates the country both by the size of its population—which dwarfs those of Hungary's other cities Budapest was the focal point of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848, the Hungarian Soviet Republic of 1919, Operation Panzerfaust in 1944, the Battle of Budapest of 1945, and the Revolution of 1956.

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Busk, Ukraine
Busk (Ukrainian: Буськ; Polish: Busk) is a city located in Busk Raion in Lviv Oblast (province) of western Ukraine. The city's population was 8,896 as of the 2006 Ukrainian Census.
It is administrative center of the Busk Raion.
Busk was the birthplace of Yevhen Petrushevych, the president of the West Ukrainian National Republic.
Busk had a very active Jewish community before World War II. The first synagogue was built in 1502. The old Jewish cemetery was renowned.
On July 1, 1941, German forces occupied Busk. The Jewish population was transferred to a ghetto then eliminated on May 21, 1943. 1500 Jews perished during this operation.
Busk is twinned with
Coordinates: 49°58′N 24°38′E / 49.967°N 24.633°E / 49.967; 24.633

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Canada
Canada ( /ˈkænədə/) is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean. Spanning over 9,900,000 km² (3,800,000 sq mi), Canada is the world's second-largest country by total area, and its common border with the United States is the longest land border in the world.
The land that is now Canada has been inhabited for millennia by various Aboriginal peoples. Beginning in the late 15th century, British and French colonial expeditions explored, and later settled, along the region's Atlantic coast. France ceded nearly all of its colonies in North America in 1763 after the Seven Years' War. In 1867, with the union of three British North American colonies through Confederation, Canada was formed as a federal dominion of four provinces. This began an accretion of provinces and territories and a process of increasing autonomy; the Canada Act 1982 severed the vestiges of legal dependence on Britain.

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Carpathian Mountains
Coordinates: 47°00′N 25°30′E / 47°N 25.5°E / 47; 25.5
The Carpathian Mountains or Carpathians are a range of mountains forming an arc roughly 1,500 km (932 mi) long across Central and Eastern Europe, making them the second-longest mountain range in Europe (after the Scandinavian Mountains, 1,700 km (1,056 mi)). They provide the habitat for the largest European populations of brown bears, wolves, chamois and lynxes, with the highest concentration in Romania, as well as over one third of all European plant species. The Carpathians and their piedmont also concentrate many thermal and mineral waters, with Romania home to over one-third of the European total. Romania is likewise home to the largest surface of virgin forests in Europe (except Russia), totaling 250,000 hectares (65%), most of them in the Carpathians, with the Southern Carpathians constituting Europe’s largest unfragmented forested area.
The Carpathians consist of a chain of mountain ranges that stretch in an arc from the Czech Republic (3%) in the northwest through Slovakia (17%), Poland (10%), Hungary (4%) and Ukraine (11%) to Romania (53%) in the east and on to the Iron Gates on the River Danube between Romania and Serbia (2%) in the south. The highest range within the Carpathians is the Tatras, on the border of Poland and Slovakia, where the highest peaks exceed 2,600 m (8,530 ft). The second-highest range is the Eastern Carpathians in Romania, where the highest peaks exceed 2,500 m (8,202 ft).

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Cherkasy
Cherkasy (Ukrainian: Черкаси, transliterated: Čerkasy, pronounced [tʃerˈkɑsɪ]) or Cherkassy (Russian: Черкасcы), is a city in central Ukraine. It is the capital of the Cherkasy Oblast (province), as well as the administrative center of the surrounding Cherkasky Raion (district) within the oblast. The city itself is also designated as its own separate raion within the oblast.
The city is the cultural, educational and industrial center of Cherkasy Oblast and Central Economical Region of Ukraine. Cherkasy has been known since the 13th century and played a great role in the history of Ukraine. Cherkasy was the center of Cossacks, citizens took part in Khmelnychchyna and Koliyivschyna (cossacks and peasants rebellions).
The city is located on the right bank of Dnieper River (specifically at the Kremenchuk Reservoir), about 200 km (124 mi) south of the nation's capital, Kiev. The city is divided into 2 boroughs (raions): Sosnivskiy (with Orshanets village) and Pridniprovskiy. The current population of Cherkasy is 287,583 (as of 2011). In June 2011, the city celebrated its 725th anniversary.

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Chernivtsi
Chernivtsi (Ukrainian: Чернівці́, Ukrainian pronunciation: [t͡ʃerniu̯ˈt͡sʲi]; Romanian: Cernăuți, Romanian pronunciation: [t͡ʃernəˈut͡sʲ]; Russian: Черновцы́ Chernovtsy; Polish: Czerniowce; German and Yiddish: Czernowitz, טשערנאוויץ; see also other names) is a city in southwestern Ukraine, situated on the upper course of the River Prut. Chernivtsi is the administrative center of Chernivtsi Oblast (province) - the northern, Ukrainian part of the European historic region of Bukovina. At the time of the 2001 Ukrainian Census, the population of the city was 240,600.
Together with the city of Lviv, Chernivtsi is viewed at present to be a cultural center of western Ukraine. The city is also considered one of modern Ukraine's greatest cultural, educational and architectural centers. Historically in that role, Chernivtsi was even dubbed "Little Vienna," "Jerusalem upon the Prut", or the "European Alexandria."^{[citation needed]} Chernivtsi is currently twinned with seven other cities around the world. The city is also a major point of railway and highway crossings in the region, and houses an international airport.

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Chervonohrad
Chervonohrad (Ukrainian: Червоноград) is a city located in the Lviv Oblast (province) of western Ukraine. The city is designated as a separate raion (district) within the oblast. It about 62 km north of Lviv and 7 km from Sokal. The population numbers 68,300 inhabitants.
Prior to 1953, the city was known as Krystynopol (Ukrainian: Кристинопіль, translit. Krystynopil’). The German name for it was Krisnipolye. The city is known for mining that started in the 1950s. It passed from Poland to USSR after the territory exchange in 1951.
Municipality of Chervonohrad also includes the town of Sosnivka and the settlement of urban type Hirnyk.
Increase in the number of inhabitants:
Since 1951 the city became the center of newly emerged coal mining basin. Other enterprises, besides the mining works, include:
80100-80110
In May 1685 the royal hetman, Kraków Voivode Feliks Kazimierz Potocki, bought himself a new piece of land - on the Bug River. In 1692, he founded a city on the lands of the village Novyi Dvir (literally New Garden, Polish Nowy Dwór), which he named after the wife of the magnate, Krystyna (maiden last name Lubomirski, 1661–1699). Potocki made Krystonopil his family centre. He died here on September 22, 1702. His grandson Franz Salezy Potocki built a palace and founded (1763) a monastery of Basilians (barocco church of Saint George; prior to 1946 р. - mircale place with wonder icon of Mother of God).

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Chyhyryn
Chyhyryn (Ukrainian and Russian: Чигирин, Polish: Czehryń) is a city located in Cherkasy Oblast of central Ukraine. In 1648 to 1669 the city was the capital of Ukraine (Cossack Hetmanate).
Today the city resting on the banks of Tiasmyn River is the administrative center of the Chyhyryn Raion with its current population estimated just over 10,000. The city lies at the altitude of 124 metres above mean sea level. Minor industry, such as food and furniture factories, exist in the town today.
The area (1320–1569) had been part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. It was ceded to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (in the Kijów Voivodeship of the Crown of Poland) since before the Union of Lublin. It was granted Magdeburg Rights in 1592 by Sigismund III Vasa.
Chyhyryn is first mentioned as a fortified Cossack winter station. In 1638, Bohdan Khmelnytsky became its starosta (regional leader), and in 1648 it became the newly elected hetman's residence and the capital of the Cossack state, the Zaporozhian Host. In 1669 upon the election of Demian Mnohohrishny as the hetman of Ukraine, the capital was moved to Baturyn. During the Russo-Turkish War (1676–1681) it was the center of two bloody campaigns (1675–76 and 1677–78). In 1678 the castle of Chyhyryn was blown by the retreating Russian garrison that was stationed there, while the Turkish forces sacked the rest of the city. After this, it gradually lost its significance. It remained the center of the Chyhyryn regiment until 1712 and upon the final incorporation into the Russian Empire (1793) it became part of the Kiev region.

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Crimea
Crimea ( /kraɪˈmiːə/), or the Autonomous Republic of Crimea (Ukrainian: Автономна Республіка Крим, Avtonomna Respublika Krym; Russian: Автономная Республика Крым, Avtonomnaya Respublika Krym; Crimean Tatar: Qırım Muhtar Cumhuriyeti, Къырым Мухтар Джумхуриети), is a sub-national unit, an autonomous republic, of Ukraine. It is located on the northern coast of the Black Sea, occupying a peninsula of the same name. It was often referred to with the definite article, as the Crimea, until well into the 20th century.
The territory of Crimea was conquered and controlled many times throughout its history. The Cimmerians, Greeks, Scythians, Goths, Huns, Bulgars, Khazars, the state of Kievan Rus', Byzantine Greeks, Kipchaks, Ottoman Turks, Golden Horde Tatars and the Mongols all controlled Crimea in its early history. In the 13th century, it was partly controlled by the Venetians and by the Genovese; they were followed by the Crimean Khanate and the Ottoman Empire in the 15th to 18th centuries, the Russian Empire in the 18th to 20th centuries, Germany during World War II and the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic and later the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, within the Soviet Union during most of the rest of the 20th century.

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Dnipropetrovsk
Dnipropetrovsk (Ukrainian: Дніпропетровськ [ˌdɲiprope̝ˈtrɔu̯sʲk]) or Dnepropetrovsk (Russian: Днепропетровск) formerly Yekaterinoslav (Russian: Екатеринослав, Ukrainian: Катеринослав, translit. Katerynoslav, also Catharinoslav on old maps) is Ukraine's fourth largest city with one million inhabitants. It is located southeast of Ukraine's capital Kiev on the Dnieper River, in the south-central part of the country. Dnipropetrovsk is the administrative centre of the Dnipropetrovsk Oblast (province).
Within the Dnipropetrovsk Metropolitan area the population is about 1,004,000 to 1,360,000 people.
A vital industrial centre of Ukraine, Dnipropetrovsk was one of the key centres of the nuclear, arms, and space industries of the former Soviet Union. In particular, it is home to Yuzhmash, a major space and ballistic missile design bureau and manufacturer. Because of its military industry, Dnipropetrovsk was a closed city until the 1990s.
In 1917 Yekaterinoslav was renamed Sicheslav by the Ukrainian People's Republic; this name lapsed in 1919.

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Drohobych
Drohobych (Ukrainian: Дрогóбич; Polish: Drohobycz; Cities' alternative names) is a city located at the confluence of the Tysmenytsia River and Seret, a tributary of the former, in the Lviv Oblast (province), in western Ukraine. The current estimated population is around 78 368 (as of 2010).
Serving as the administrative center of the Drohobych Raion (district), Drohobych itself is a city of oblast subordinance, thus being subject directly to the oblast authorities rather to the raion administration housed in the city itself.
While there are only legendary accounts of it, Drohobych probably existed in the Kievan Rus' period. According to one legend there was a settlement, called Bych, of the salt-traders. When Bych was destroyed in the Cumans raid, the survivors rebuilt the settlement at the nearby location under the current name which means the Second or Another Bych. In the time of the Kievan Rus' the Tustan fortress was built near Drohobych. However, scholars view this legend with skepticism, pointing out that Drohobych is a Polish pronunciation of Dorogobuzh, a common East Slavic toponym applied to three different towns of Kievan Rus'.

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Dubliany
Dubliany ({Ukrainian: Дубляни; Polish: Dublany) is a town in Lviv Oblast (province) of Ukraine. Population is 8,469 (2001). In the early 20th century, it was famous as the seat of the Agricultural Academy.
Coordinates: 49°53′46″N 24°5′33″E / 49.89611°N 24.0925°E / 49.89611; 24.0925

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Gdańsk
Gdańsk ( /ɡəˈdænsk/ or /ɡəˈdɑːnsk/; Polish: [ˈɡdaɲsk]; German: Danzig, pronounced [ˈdantsɪç]) is a Polish city on the Baltic coast, at the center of the country's fourth-largest metropolitan area.
The city lies on the southern edge of Gdańsk Bay (of the Baltic Sea), in a conurbation with the city of Gdynia, spa town of Sopot, and suburban communities, which together form a metropolitan area called the Tricity (Trójmiasto), with a population of over 800,000. Gdańsk itself has a population of 455,830 (June 2010), making it the largest city in the Pomerania region of Northern Poland.
Gdańsk is Poland's principal seaport as well as the capital of the Pomeranian Voivodeship. It is also historically the largest city of the Kashubian region. The city is close to the former late medieval/modern boundary between West Slavic and Germanic lands and it has a complex political history with periods of Polish rule, periods of German rule, and extensive self-rule, with two spells as a free city. It has been part of modern Poland since 1945.

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General Government
The General Government (German: Generalgouvernement, Polish: Generalne Gubernatorstwo, Ukrainian: Генеральна губернія) was an area of Second Republic of Poland under Nazi German rule during World War II; designated as a separate region of the Third Reich (Großdeutsches Reich) between 1939–1945. Following Operation Barbarossa in June 1941, the former Polish eastern voivodeships (districts) of Kresy (earlier invaded by the Red Army in Nazi–Soviet pact) were added to the General Government by a decree issued by Adolf Hitler.
In terms of international and civil law, all of these acts were illegal from their inception, according to section III of the Fourth Hague Convention (1907) accepted by Germany. The area was not a puppet state; its rulers had no goal of collaborating with Poles throughout the war, regardless of their political orientation. The Nazi authorities made a determined effort to avoid even mentioning the name "Poland" in government correspondence. The only exception to this were the German-backed banknotes and coins (called 'zloty' and 'grosz') printed in 1940 in which the word was used for propaganda purposes. The government and administration of the General Government was composed entirely of Germans, with the intent that the area was eventually to become an ethnic German province. According to Heim ins Reich initiative the only locals remaining were to be those of German descent.

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Georgia (country)
Georgia ⁱ/ˈdʒɔrdʒə/ (Georgian: საქართველო Sakartvelo, IPA: [sɑkʰɑrtʰvɛlɔ] ( listen)) is a sovereign state in the Caucasus region of Eurasia. Located at the crossroads of Western Asia and Eastern Europe, it is bounded to the west by the Black Sea, to the north by Russia, to the south by Turkey and Armenia, and to the southeast by Azerbaijan. The capital of Georgia is Tbilisi. Georgia covers a territory of 69,700 km² and its population is almost 4.7 million. Georgia is a unitary, semi-presidential republic, with the government elected through a representative democracy.
During the classical era independent kingdoms became established in what is now Georgia. The kingdoms of Colchis and Iberia adopted Christianity in the early 4th century. A unified Georgia reached the peak of its political and economic strength during the reign of King David IV and Queen Tamar in the 11th–12th centuries. At the beginning of the 19th century, Georgia was annexed by the Russian Empire. After a brief period of independence following the Russian Revolution of 1917, Georgia was occupied by Soviet Russia in 1921, becoming the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic and part of the Soviet Union. After independence in 1991, post-communist Georgia suffered from civil unrest and economic crisis for most of the 1990s. This lasted until the Rose Revolution of 2003, after which the new government introduced democratic and economic reforms.

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Germany
Germany (ⁱ/ˈdʒɜrməni/), officially the Federal Republic of Germany (German: Bundesrepublik Deutschland, pronounced [ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant] ( listen)), is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km² and has a largely temperate seasonal climate. With 81.8 million inhabitants, it is the most populous member state and the largest economy in the European Union. It is one of the major political powers of the European continent and a technological leader in many fields.
A region named Germania, inhabited by several Germanic peoples, was documented before AD 100. During the Migration Period, the Germanic tribes expanded southward, and established successor kingdoms throughout much of Europe. Beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation while southern and western parts remained dominated by Roman Catholic denominations, with the two factions clashing in the Thirty Years' War, marking the beginning of the Catholic–Protestant divide that has characterized German society ever since. Occupied during the Napoleonic Wars, the rise of Pan-Germanism inside the German Confederation resulted in the unification of most of the German states into the German Empire in 1871 which was Prussian dominated. After the German Revolution of 1918–1919 and the subsequent military surrender in World War I, the Empire was replaced by the Weimar Republic in 1918, and partitioned in the Treaty of Versailles. Amidst the Great Depression, the Third Reich was proclaimed in 1933. The latter period was marked by Fascism and World War II. After 1945, Germany was divided by allied occupation, and evolved into two states, East Germany and West Germany. In 1990 Germany was reunified.

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Grozny
Grozny (Russian: Гро́зный; Chechen: Соьлжа-ГIала, ГIалитIа, Sölƶa-Ġala, or Жовхар, Ƶovxar) is the capital city of the Chechen Republic, Russia. The city lies on the Sunzha River. According to the preliminary results of the 2010 Census, the city had a population of 271,596; up from 210,720 recorded in the 2002 Census, but still only about two-thirds of 399,688 recorded in the 1989 Census.
In Russian, "Grozny" means "fearsome". During the existence of the separatist republic, it was renamed to Dzokhar-Ghala in 1996, and Chechen separatists sometimes continue refer to the city as Dzhokhar or Djohar (Chechen: Джовхар-ГIала, Dƶovxar-Ġala); it was named so after Dzhokhar Dudaev, the first president of the separatist Chechen Republic of Ichkeria. As of December 2005, the Chechen parliament voted to rename the city Akhmadkala after Akhmad Kadyrov, a proposition which was rejected by his son Ramzan Kadyrov, the prime minister and later president of the republic.

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Halych
Halych (Ukrainian and Russian: Галич, German: Halytsch, Polish: Halicz, Lithuanian: Halyčas) is a historic city on the Dniester River in western Ukraine. The town gave its name to the historic province and kingdom of Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia, of which it was the capital until the early 14th century, when the seat of the local princes was moved to Lviv. In 1340-1772, the province included the Ruthenian Voivodeship.
Today Halych is a small city and is located right next to the former capital of the Galicia Kingdom although it preserved its former name. It also is the administrative center of the Halych Raion (district) of the Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast (province). It lies 26 km (16 mi) north of the oblast capital, Ivano-Frankivsk. Halych's population is estimated at 6,406.
The city's name, though spelled identically in modern East Slavic languages (Галич), is pronounced Halych in Ukrainian and Galich in Russian. The Russian transliteration should not be confused with the Russian town of Galich. In Polish the name is rendered Halicz; in the Yiddish language Helitsh or Heylitsh (העליטש); in Latin, Galic; in Hungarian, Halics.

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Hlukhiv
Coordinates: 51°40′43″N 33°54′41″E / 51.67861°N 33.91139°E / 51.67861; 33.91139
Hlukhiv (Ukrainian: Глухів) or Glukhov (Russian: Глухов) is a historic town in the Sumy region of Ukraine, just south of the Russian border (see map). As of 2001, the city's population is 35,800. It is near the Chervone Pustohorod air base.
First noticed by chroniclers as a Severian town in 1152, Hlukhiv became the seat of a branch of the princely house of Chernigov following the Mongol invasion of Rus. Between 1320 and 1503 it was part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania before being conquered by the Grand Duchy of Moscow. In 1618 it became part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (in the Czernihów Voivodeship of the Crown of Poland) and was granted Magdeburg Rights in 1644 by Władysław IV Vasa. 1654 it became part of Russia in accordance with the Treaty of Pereyaslav. In 1664, during the siege of Hlukhiv the Russo-Cossack garrison of the town successfully defended against a superiour Polish army which suffered great losses during the following retreat. Hlukhiv was revived by Peter the Great who transferred the hetman's capital from Baturin to Hlukhiv in 1708. It served as the capital of the Cossack Hetmanate in 1708-22 and 1727-34. Under the last hetmans of Ukraine, the town was remodeled in the Baroque style. Subsequently it declined in consequence of frequent fires, so that very few of its architectural gems survive.

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Hlyniany
Hlyniany (Ukrainian: Глиняни, Polish: Gliniany) is a small city in Lviv Oblast (province) of Ukraine. Population is 3,378 (2001).
The Jewish population was 2,418 in 1910.
Coordinates: 49°49′24″N 24°31′00″E / 49.82333°N 24.5166667°E / 49.82333; 24.5166667

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Horodok, Lviv Oblast
Horodok (Ukrainian: Городок, Polish: Gródek Jagielloński) is a city in Lviv Oblast (province) of Ukraine. It is administrative center of the Horodok Raion. Population is 16,082 (2001).
This is the place where King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania Jogaila died on 1 June 1434.
A battle took place there in 1655 (see battle of Horodok).
Horodok is twinned with:
Coordinates: 49°46′56″N 23°38′37″E / 49.78222°N 23.64361°E / 49.78222; 23.64361

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Hungary
Hungary ⁱ/ˈhʌŋɡəri/ (Hungarian: Magyarország [ˈmɒɟɒrorsaːɡ] ( listen)) is a country, which is located in Central Europe. It is situated in the Carpathian Basin and is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine and Romania to the east, Serbia and Croatia to the south, Slovenia to the southwest and Austria to the west. The country's capital, and largest city, is Budapest. Hungary is a member of the European Union, NATO, the OECD, the Visegrád Group, and is a Schengen state. The official language is Hungarian, also known as Magyar, which is part of the Finno-Ugric group and is the most widely spoken non-Indo-European language in Europe.
Following a Celt (after c. 450 BC) and a Roman (AD 9 - c. 430) period, the foundation of Hungary was laid in the late 9th century by the Hungarian prince Árpád, whose great-grandson Saint Stephen I was crowned with a crown sent by the pope from Rome in 1000 AD. The Kingdom of Hungary lasted for 946 years, and at various points was regarded as one of the cultural centres of the Western world. After about 150 years of partial Ottoman occupation (1541–1699), Hungary was integrated into the Habsburg Monarchy, and later constituted half of the Austro-Hungarian dual monarchy (1867–1918).

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Israel
Coordinates: 31°N 35°E / 31°N 35°E / 31; 35
Israel, officially the State of Israel ( /ˈɪzriːəl/ or /ˈɪzreɪəl/; Hebrew: מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל‎, Medīnat Yisrā'el, IPA: [me̞diˈnät jisʁäˈʔe̞l] ( listen); Arabic: دَوْلَة إِسْرَائِيل‎, Dawlat Isrāʼīl, IPA: [dawlat ʔisraːˈʔiːl]), is a parliamentary republic in the Middle East, along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea. It borders Lebanon in the north, Syria in the northeast, Jordan and the West Bank in the east, Egypt and the Gaza Strip on the southwest, and the Gulf of Aqaba in the Red Sea to the south, and it contains geographically diverse features within its relatively small area. Israel is defined as a Jewish and Democratic State in its Basic Laws and is the world's only Jewish-majority state.
Following the adoption of a resolution by the General Assembly of the United Nations on 29 November 1947 recommending the adoption and implementation of the United Nations plan to partition Palestine, on 14 May 1948 David Ben-Gurion, the Executive Head of the World Zionist Organization and president of the Jewish Agency for Palestine, declared the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel, to be known as the State of Israel, a state independent from the British Mandate for Palestine. Neighboring Arab states invaded the next day in support of the Palestinian Arabs. Israel has since fought several wars with neighboring Arab states, in the course of which it has occupied the West Bank, Sinai Peninsula, Gaza Strip and the Golan Heights. Portions of these territories, including east Jerusalem, have been annexed by Israel, but the border with the neighboring West Bank has not yet been permanently defined.^{[neutrality is disputed]} Israel has signed peace treaties with Egypt and Jordan, but efforts to resolve the Israeli–Palestinian conflict have so far not resulted in peace.

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Ivano-Frankivsk
Ivano-Frankivsk (Ukrainian: Івано-Франківськ; formerly Stanyslaviv,Stanislau, or Stanisławów see below) is a historic city located in the western Ukraine. It is the administrative centre of the Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast (province), and is designated as its own separate raion (district)^{[clarification needed]} within the oblast, municipality.
Built in the mid 17th century as a private fortress of the Potocki family, with the partition of Poland in 1772 it was passed to the Habsburg Empire, after which it became a property of the State authorities of the Austrian Empire. It was during that time that the fortress was transformed into one of the most prominent cities at the foothills of the Carpathian Mountains. After World War I for a short stint it served a temporary capital of the West Ukrainian People's Republic, after the fall of which Stanisławów became part of the Second Polish Republic. At the dawn of World War II the city was "liberated" by the Soviet forces which were soon overran by Nazi Germany. With the liberation of Ukraine in 1944, Soviet regime was established in the city for the next 45 years. A few years before the fall of the Soviet Union the blue-yellow flag was raised in the city as the symbol of independent Ukraine.

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Kamianka-Buzka
Kamianka-Buzka (Ukrainian: Кам'янка-Бузька, translit. Kam'ianka-Buz'ka, Polish: Kamionka Bużańska) is a city in the Lviv Oblast, of western Ukraine. It is the administrative center of the Kamianka-Buzkyi Raion (district). The city was previously known as Kamianka Strumilowa, and was a district city in Galicia. From 1918 to 1939 it was part of Poland, and called Kamionka Strumilowa, was the capital of a county of the Tarnopol Voivodship.
The current estimated population is around 11,700 (as of 2001).
40 km (25 mi) to the north-east of Lviv and 26 km (16 mi) to the north of the nearest Karol Ludwik Railway station in Zadworze; between the latitude of 50.5° and 50.8° North and the longitude of 41.58° and 42.4° East.
There are two villages to the north of the city: Lapajowka and Jazienica Polska; Jazienica Polska and Tadanie to the east; Tadanie, Krzywolanka and Derniow to the south; Batiatycze to the west.
The whole area is situated in the Vistula river basin, on the Bug River. The latter flows along the south-eastern border; from the east to the west; it turns to the north-west later and, then, it flows across the middle part of the area in the northern direction forming arms to fall into the village of Lapajowka. The Kamianka river (or Sosnowiec) is one of the tributaries; it falls into the Bug River on the left bank-side. The Kamianka river flows on the small area along the border, then, it crosses the city centre flowing from the south to the north where it falls into the Bug River. There are city and suburban buildings in the Bug River valley. They are in the Kamianka river valley, too. The city takes up the valley space and there are brick houses in the market square but the wooden houses prevail; the suburbs on the left bank of the Kamianka river are called: Belzkie, Podzamcze and Lwowskie; there is the Zabuzanskie suburb on the right river bank.

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Kharkiv
Kharkiv (Ukrainian: Харків, pronounced [ˈxɑrkiw]) or Kharkov (Russian: Ха́рьков) is the second-largest city in Ukraine.
The city was founded in 1654 and was a major centre of Ukrainian culture in the Russian Empire. Kharkiv became the first city in Ukraine where the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic was proclaimed in December 1917 and Soviet government was formed. Kharkiv became and remained the capital of the Ukrainian SSR until 1934, when the administrative capital was moved to Kiev. Currently, it is the administrative centre of the Kharkiv oblast (province), as well as the administrative centre of the surrounding Kharkivskyi Raion (district) within the oblast. The city is located in the northeast of the country. As of 2006, its population was 1,461,300.
Kharkiv is a major cultural, scientific, educational, transport and industrial centre of Ukraine, with 60 scientific institutes, 30 establishments of higher education, 6 museums, 7 theatres and 80 libraries. Its industry specializes primarily in machinery. There are hundreds of industrial companies in the city. Among them are world renown giants like the Morozov Design Bureau and the Malyshev Tank Factory, leaders in tank production since the 1930s; Khartron (aerospace and nuclear electronics); and the Turboatom turbines producer.

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Kherson
Kherson (Ukrainian and Russian: Херсо́н) is a city in southern Ukraine. It is the administrative center of the Kherson Oblast (province), and is designated as its own separate raion (district) within the oblast. Kherson is an important port on the Black Sea and Dnieper River, and the home of a major ship-building industry. The current estimated population is 329,000 (as of 2007).
Until 1774, the region belonged to the Crimean Khanate. Kherson was founded in 1778 by Grigori Aleksandrovich Potemkin, on the orders of Catherine the Great. The city was built under the supervision of General Ivan Gannibal on the site of a small fortress called Aleksanderschanz. The name Kherson is a contraction of Chersonesos, an ancient Greek colony founded approximately 2500 years ago in the southwestern part of Crimea. One of the first buildings in the Kherson Fort was the Church of St. Catherine where Potemkin was eventually buried. The last tarpan was caught near Kherson in 1866.^{[citation needed]}
As of Ukrainian National Census (2001), the ethnic groups living within Kherson are:

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Kherson Oblast
Kherson Oblast (Ukrainian: Херсонська область, translit. Khersons’ka oblast’; also referred to as Khersonshchyna – Ukrainian: Херсонщина) is an oblast (province) in southern Ukraine, just north of Crimea. Its administrative center is Kherson. The area of the region is 29000 km², its population (as of 1 May 2004) is 1.12 million.
Important cities in the oblast include:
The Kherson Oblast is bordered by the Dnipropetrovsk Oblast on the north, the Black Sea and the Crimea on the south, the Mykolayiv Oblast on the west, and the Azov Sea and the Zaporizhzhia Oblast on the east.
The Dnieper River runs through the oblast which includes the Kakhovka Reservoir.
The following data incorporates the number of each type of administrative divisions of the Kherson Oblast:
The local administration of the oblast' is controlled by the Kherson Oblast Rada. The governor of the oblast' is the Kherson Oblast Rada speaker, appointed by the President of Ukraine.
The population of the oblast is 1,367,685 (2004), which is 2.4% of the total population of Ukraine. It is also ranked 21st by its population. The population density is 43 p/km²

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Khodoriv
Coordinates: 49°24′16″N 24°18′44″E / 49.40444°N 24.31222°E / 49.40444; 24.31222
Khodoriv (Ukrainian: Ходорів; Polish: Chodorów) is a city in the Lviv Oblast of western Ukraine. It has a population of 10,080.
The city was first mentioned in 1394. In many historic documents it is referred to as Khodoriv-stav. In many documents it is named Khodoriv-stav. It is connected with a male name Fedir and the situation of the town above a big lake. In the 15th century, Khodoriv was granted city status and a coat of arms.
Khodoriv was one of the major industrial hubs in Zhydachiv Raion and Lviv Oblast, with more than 10 manufacturing and other plants including the Sugar Plant and the Plant of Manufacturing Polygraph Machines. Within the city, there are three secondary education schools and two colleges. The city also has some monuments of architecture, including the St. Michael's Church. In addition, new church will rise in early 2000s, designed by Oleksandr Matviiv. Khodoriv has always been a big railroad hub in the region.

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Khyriv
Khyriv (Ukrainian: Хирів, Polish: Chyrów) is a small town in Lviv Oblast (province) of Ukraine.
It housed a Jesuit college, Zakład Naukowo-Wychowawczy Ojców Jezuitów w Chyrowie, then in Poland.
Population is 4,590 (2001).
Coordinates: 49°32′N 22°51′E / 49.533°N 22.85°E / 49.533; 22.85

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Kiev Oblast
Kyiv Oblast, sometimes written as Kiev Oblast (Ukrainian: Київська область, translit. Kyivs’ka oblast’; also referred to as Kyivshchyna – Ukrainian: Київщина) is an oblast (province) in central Ukraine.
The administrative center of the oblast is the city of Kyiv (Ukrainian: Київ, Kyiv), also being the capital of Ukraine. Despite being located in the center of the Kyiv Oblast, and hosting the governing bodies of the oblast, Kyiv itself is a self-governing city with special status and not under oblast jurisdiction.
Kyiv Oblast has a total area of 28,100 km² (10,849 sq mi) (approximately 35 times the area of Kyiv city) and is located in north-central Ukraine. On the west it borders the Zhytomyr Oblast, on the Southwest – Vinnytsia Oblast, on the South – Cherkasy Oblast, on the Southeast – Poltava Oblast, on the East and Northeast – Chernihiv Oblast, and on the North – Homyel Voblasts of Belarus.
The oblast is equally split between the both banks of Dnieper River (Dnipro) north and south of Kyiv. Other significant rivers in the oblast are the Dnieper's tributaries: Pripyat (Prypiat) (R), Desna (L), Teteriv (R), Irpin' (R), Ros' (R) and Trubizh (L).

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Kiev Pechersk Lavra
Coordinates: 50°26′3″N 30°33′33″E / 50.43417°N 30.55917°E / 50.43417; 30.55917
Kiev Pechersk Lavra or Kyiv Pechersk Lavra (Ukrainian: Києво-Печерська лавра, Kyievo-Pechers’ka lavra), also known as the Kiev Monastery of the Caves, is a historic Orthodox Christian monastery which gave its name to one of the city districts where it is located in Kiev, the capital of Ukraine.
Since its foundation as the cave monastery in 1051 the Lavra has been a preeminent center of the Eastern Orthodox Christianity in Eastern Europe. Together with the Saint Sophia Cathedral, it is inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The monastery complex is considered a separate national historic-cultural preserve (sanctuary), the national status to which was granted on March 13, 1996. The Lavra also not only located in another part of the city, but is part of a different national sanctuary than Saint Sophia Cathedral. While being a cultural attraction, the monastery is currently active. It was named one of the Seven Wonders of Ukraine on August 21, 2007, based on voting by experts and the internet community.

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Kirovohrad
Kirovohrad (Ukrainian: Кіровогра́д, [kirowoˈɦrɑd̪]; Russian: Кировогра́д, Kirovograd), formerly Yelisavetgrad, is a city in central Ukraine. It is located on the Inhul River. It is a motorway junction. Pop. 239,400 (2004 est.).
Developed around a military settlement the city got to prominence in the 19th century when it became an important trade centre enjoying the rights of the Ukrainian culture promoter with the first professional theatrical company both in Central and Eastern Ukraine being established here in 1882.
In Soviet times the city rose to the status of an agricultural and light industry centre whose fame was due to such enterprises as Chervona Zirka Agricultural Machinery Plant (which once provided more than 50% of the USSR need in tractor seeders), Hydrosila Hydraulic Units Plant, Radiy Radio Component Plant, Pishmash Typewriter Plant (de facto defunct nowadays) etc.
The recent history of Kirovohrad saw the imminent decline of the city's industrial potential and general socioeconomic value. The latter plus the poor reputation of local authorities with the city's population led to the widespread settled opinions that Kirovohrad belongs to the group of the low-developed regional capitals of Ukraine. Since 2002 the economics of Kirovohrad has been slowly reviving.

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Komarno, Ukraine
Komarno (Polish: Komarno, Ukrainian: Комарно, Yiddish: קאָמאַרנע) is a city located in the Horodok Raion (district) of the Lviv Oblast (province) in western Ukraine. It has 4,000 inhabitants. It was founded in 1324. In the center of town is an old Polish Kostel (Catholic Church), as well as an old wooden Orthodox church complete with ancient icons. The river Vereshytsia flows through the town.
The Hasidic dynasty of Komarno originates from this town.
Coordinates: 49°38′N 23°42′E / 49.633°N 23.7°E / 49.633; 23.7

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Kraków
Kraków (Polish pronunciation: [ˈkrakuf] ( listen)) also Cracow, or Krakow (English /ˈkrækaʊ/), is the second largest and one of the oldest cities in Poland. Situated on the Vistula River (Polish: Wisła) in the Lesser Poland region, the city dates back to the 7th century. Kraków has traditionally been one of the leading centres of Polish academic, cultural, and artistic life and is one of Poland's most important economic hubs. It was the capital of Poland from 1038 to 1569; the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth from 1569 to 1596; the Grand Duchy of Kraków from 1846 to 1918; and Kraków Voivodeship from the 14th century to 1999. It is now the capital of the Lesser Poland Voivodeship.
The city has grown from a Stone Age settlement to Poland's second most important city. It began as a hamlet on Wawel Hill and was already being reported as a busy trading centre of Slavonic Europe in 965. With the establishment of new universities and cultural venues at the emergence of the Second Polish Republic and throughout the 20th century, Kraków reaffirmed its role as a major national academic and artistic centre. The city has a population of approximately 760,000 whereas about 8 million people live within a 100 km radius of its main square.

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Kutaisi
Kutaisi (Georgian: ქუთაისი; ancient names: Aea/Aia, Kutatisi, Kutaïssi) is Georgia's second largest city and the capital of the western region of Imereti. It is 221 km to the west of Tbilisi.
Kutaisi is located along both banks of the Rioni River. The city lies at an elevation of 125–300 meters (410–984 feet) above sea level. To the east and north-east, Kutaisi is bounded by the Northern Imereti Foothills, to the north by the Samgurali Range, and to the west and the south by the Colchis Plain.
Kutaisi is surrounded by deciduous forests to the northeast and the northwest. The low-lying outskirts of the city have a largely agricultural landscape. Because of the many gardens in the city centre and the high leafy trees alongside the sidewalks of its streets and boulevards, Kutaisi is painted in bright green in the spring and in yellow-red in the autumn. In the springtime, when the snow starts to melt in the nearby mountains, the storming Rioni River in the middle of the city is heard far beyond its banks.

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Lemberg Ghetto
The Lviv Ghetto or the Lwów Ghetto (also known as Lvov or Lemberg Ghetto, Polish: getto lwowskie) was a World War II ghetto set up in the city of Lwów (now Lviv, Ukraine) on the territory of Nazi-administered General Government in German-occupied Poland. It was one of the largest Jewish ghettos established by Nazi Germany after the joint Nazi-Soviet invasion of Poland. The city was a home to over 120,000 Jews before the outbreak of World War II in 1939, and by the time the Nazis occupied the city in 1941 that number had increased to over 220,000 Jews, since Jews fled for their lives from Nazi-controlled western Poland into the then relative safety of Soviet-controlled eastern Poland, which included Lviv (Lwow). The ghetto, set up in the second half of 1941 after the Germans arrived, was liquidated in June 1943 with all its inhabitants who survived prior killings, sent to their deaths in cattle trucks at Bełżec extermination camp and the Janowska concentration camp.

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Lublin
Coordinates: 51°14′N 22°34′E / 51.233°N 22.567°E / 51.233; 22.567
Lublin [ˈlublʲin] ( listen) (Ukrainian: Люблін, Liublin, Yiddish: לובלין Lublin) is the ninth largest city in Poland, and the second largest city of Lesser Poland. It is the capital of Lublin Voivodeship (province) with a population of 350,392 (June 2009). Lublin is also the largest Polish city east of the Vistula River. Lublin was a candidate for the title of European Capital of Culture in 2016. Lublin is situated around 170 km (105 miles) away from the capital, Warsaw.
The first permanent settlements on the Lublin site were established in the early Middle Ages, though archeological finds indicate a long, earlier presence of various cultures in the general area. The earliest, most significant settlement began in the 6th century, on a hill located in the suburb of Czwartek (in Polish Thursday, most likely in reference to the market day of the settlement). It is likely that the surrounding hills, notably the site of the present day Old Town, were also settled at around this time. In the 10th and 11th centuries the Czwartek settlement developed into an important trade centre. The location of Lublin at the eastern borders of the Polish lands gave it a military significance. The first fortification on the site may have been built as early as the 8th century, possibly on the Castle Hill. Certainly at the end of the 10th century a significant fortification existed there. As the castle grew, the Old Town hill adjacent to it became the main focus of settlement, and the Czwartek settlement declined in relative importance. The castle became the seat of a Castellan, first mentioned in historical sources from 1224, but quite possibly present from the start of the 12th, or even 10th century. The oldest historical document mentioning Lublin dates from 1198, so the name must have come into general use some time earlier.

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Luhansk
Coordinates: 48°34′N 39°18′E / 48.567°N 39.3°E / 48.567; 39.3
Luhansk (Ukrainian: Луга́нськ, pronounced [luˈɦɑɲsʲk]) (formerly Voroshilovgrad) also known as Lugansk (Russian: Луга́нск; pronounced [luˈɡansk]) is a city in southeastern Ukraine. It is the administrative center of the Luhansk Oblast (province). The city itself is also designated as its own separate municipality within the oblast. The current estimated population is around 445,900 (as of 2004).
The city traces its history to 1795, when the British industrialist Charles Gascoigne founded a metal factory there. It was the beginning of an industry that still thrives there today. Lugansk achieved the status of city in 1882. Located in the Donets Basin, Lugansk was developed into an important industrial center of Eastern Europe, particularly a home to the major locomotive-building company. On November 5, 1935, the city was renamed Voroshilovgrad (Russian and Ukrainian: Ворошиловград) in honour of Soviet military commander and politician Kliment Voroshilov. On March 5, 1958, with the call of Khrushchev not to give names of living people to cities, the old name was reinstated. On January 5, 1970, after Voroshilov died, the name was changed again to Voroshilovgrad. Finally, on May 4, 1990, a decree of the Supreme Soviet of the Ukrainian SSR gave the city back its original name.

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Lutsk
Lutsk (Ukrainian: Луцьк, translit. Luts'k, Polish: Łuck, Belarusian: Луцак or Луцк, transliterated Lutchak or Lutsk) is a city located by the Styr River in northwestern Ukraine. It is the administrative center of the Volyn Oblast (province) and the administrative center of the surrounding Lutskyi Raion (district) within the oblast. The city is also designated as a separate raion of its own within the oblast.
The estimated population was around 206,000 (as of 2007^[update]).
Lutsk is an ancient Slavic town, mentioned in the Hypatian Chronicle as Luchesk in the records of 1085. The etymology of the name is unclear. There are three hypotheses:
Its historical name in Ukrainian is Луцьк; in Bielarusian, Луцак or Луцк; in Russian, Луцк; and in Polish, Łuck.
According to legends Luchesk was founded in the 7th century. The first known documental reference is from the year 1085. The town was the capital of Halych-Volynia until the foundation of Volodymyr-Volynsky.
The town was founded around a wooden castle built by a local branch of the Rurik Dynasty. At certain times the stronghold was the capital of the duchy, but since there was no need for a fixed capital in medieval Europe, the town did not become an important centre of commerce or culture. In 1240 the nearby town was seized and looted by the Tatars, but the castle was not harmed. In 1321 George son of Lev, the last of the line, died in a battle with the forces of Gediminas, Grand Duke of Lithuania and the castle was seized by the Lithuanian forces. In 1349 the town was captured by the forces of Casimir III, but it was soon retaken by Lithuania.

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Lviv
Lviv (Ukrainian: Львів L’viv, IPA: [lʲwiu̯] ( listen); Polish: Lwów, pronounced [lvuf]; Russian: Львов, L'vov; German: Lemberg and Yiddish Lemberg, לעמבערג; Latin: Leopolis; see also other names) is a city in western Ukraine. The city is regarded as one of the main cultural centres of today's Ukraine and historically had also been a major Polish and Jewish cultural center; as Poles and Jews comprised a demographic majority of the city for a period leading up to the outbreak of World War II, the Holocaust, and Polish population transfers (1944–1946) that followed. The historical heart of Lviv with its old buildings and cobblestone roads has survived World War II and ensuing Soviet presence largely unscathed. The city has many industries and institutions of higher education such as the Lviv University and the Lviv Polytechnic. Lviv is also a home to many world-class cultural institutions, including a philharmonic orchestra and the famous Lviv Theatre of Opera and Ballet. The historic city centre is on the UNESCO World Heritage List. Lviv celebrated its 750th anniversary with a son et lumière in the city centre in September 2006.

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Lviv High Castle
The Lviv High Castle or Lviv Castle Hill (Ukrainian: Високий замок / Замкова гора, Vysokyi zamok / Zamkova hora; Polish: Wysoki Zamek) is a historic castle located on the top of the Castle Hill of the city of Lviv. It is currently the highest point in the city, 413 metres (1,355 ft) above sea level. The castle currently stands in ruins.
The High Castle is located in close proximity of the historic centre of Lviv (see picture), formerly being surrounded by a fortification wall. The Castle Hill took its name from the High Castle (as opposite to the other, Low Castle), which used to be located on the hill from the 13th century to the late 19th century. The castle was a main defensive fort of the city during its existence.
As it follows from Rus' Chronicles, the first fortifying structures appeared on the Castle Hill in the time Halych-Volhynia, and were built by Leo I of Halych from wood. It was originally a wood and soil construction, as most others at that time. In 1259 by a request of Burunday Khan they were destroyed, but in 1270 were rebuilt. In 1340, when Lviv was captured by Casimir III of Poland the wooden castle was put under fire. In 1353 it was destroyed again by Lithuanians. A new brick castle appeared on the hill in 1362 by the king Casmimir III. It became the residence of Polish nobles.

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Lviv Oblast
Lviv Oblast (Ukrainian: Львівська область, translit. L’vivs’ka oblast’; also referred to as L’vivshchyna – Ukrainian: Львівщина) is an oblast (province) in western Ukraine. The administrative center of the oblast is the city of Lviv.
The oblast was created as part of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic on December 4, 1939. The territory of the former Drohobych Oblast was incorporated into the Lviv Oblast in 1959.
The oblast's strategic position at the heart of central Europe and as the gateway to the Carpathians has caused it to change hands many times over the centuries. It was ruled variously by Great Moravia, Kievan Rus', Poland and by one of Kievan Rus' successors, the state of Galicia-Volhynia (circa 1200 to 1340), then by the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1340 to 1772), the Austro-Hungarian Empire (1772 to 1918), and Poland (1918 to 1939), when it was part of the Lwów Voivodship of the Second Republic of Poland. The region's historically dominant Ukrainian population declared the area to be a part of an independent West Ukrainian National Republic in 1918, but this endured only briefly. Local autonomy was provided in international treaties but later on those were not honoured by the Polish government and the area experienced much ethnic tension between the Polish and Ukrainian population.

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Market Square (Lviv)
Coordinates: 49°50′29″N 24°01′53″E / 49.841466°N 24.031265°E / 49.841466; 24.031265
The Rynok Square in Lviv (Ukrainian: Площа Ринок, Polish: Rynek we Lwowie) is a central square of the city of Lviv, Ukraine. It was planned in the second half of the 14th century, following granting city rights by Polish king Casimir III, who annexed Red Ruthenia. The king ordered Lviv to be moved more to the south, where a new city was built to the plan of a traditional European settlement: a central square surrounded by living quarters and fortifications. Old, Ruthenian Lviv had become a suburb of the new city.
The square is rectangular in shape, with measurements of 142 meters by 129 meters and with two streets radiating out of every corner. In the middle there was a row of houses, with its southern wall made by the Town Hall. However, when in 1825 the tower of the Town Hall burned, all adjacent houses were demolished and a new hall, with a 65-meter tower, was built in 1835 by architects J. Markl and F. Trescher.

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Mickiewicz Square
Coordinates: 49°50′22″N 24°01′48″E / 49.83944444°N 24.03°E / 49.83944444; 24.03
The Mickiewicz Square (Ukrainian: Площа Міцкевича, trans. Ploshcha Mitskevycha) is one of the main squares in the city of Lviv, Ukraine.
The square laying between Lviv's old town and the southern part of midtown, was planned and created in the first half of 19th century, after the demolition of the old town's defensive walls in the late 18th century. Primarily, from 1843 it was known as Ferdinand Square (German: Ferdinandplatz, Polish: Plac Ferdynanda), in honour of the Austrian governor of Galicia, Ferdinand Habsburg-d'Este. In 1862 it was renamed St Mary's Square (Polish: Plac Mariacki) when a monument dedicated to her was erected in the area. Today it bears the name of Polish-Lithuanian poet Adam Mickiewicz, whose monument was placed in the central part of the square in 1904.
Lviv prior to World War II was inhabited mostly by Poles and Jews, and belonged to pre-war Poland. In 1939, the Soviet Union in the course of the Invasion of Poland annexed the city. As the new occupant administration perceived St Mary to be a rather inappropriate patron for a square in the centre of a Soviet city, the square underwent peculiar "secularisation" and was renamed Mickiewicz Square (Polish: Plac Mickiewicza, Russian: Площадь Мицкевича).

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Morshyn
Morshyn (Ukrainian: Моршин) is a city in Ukraine's Lviv Oblast (province). Population is 6,482 (2001).
In 1918-1939 Morshyn was in Polish territory and, as "Morszyn-Zdrój," was a popular spa. The spa belonged to the Medical Association (Towarzystwo Lekarskie) from Lwow, in late 1920s almost 1000 guests came there yearly. During the times when western Ukraine was under Polish authority, the city was part of the Ivano-Frankivsk regional administration, Stanisławów Voivodeship back then. Currently the town is located in the close proximity to Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast and Carpathian Mountains. Currently the city is one of the major national tourist resort as well as health resorts. The city continues to carry on its legacy of one of the best health resorts in Europe.
Coordinates: 49°09′N 23°52′E / 49.15°N 23.867°E / 49.15; 23.867

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Mostyska
Mostyska (Ukrainian: Мостиська, Polish: Mościska) is a city in Lviv Oblast (province) of Ukraine. It is administrative center of the Mostyska Raion. Population is 9,150 (2001). There is a break of gauge where the railway systems of the two countries meet. To speed up though traffic, a track gauge changing facility of the SUW 2000 variable gauge axle system has been installed to allow fitted trains to pass through the break of gauge at walking pace.
Coordinates: 49°47′39″N 23°09′09″E / 49.79417°N 23.1525°E / 49.79417; 23.1525

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Mykolaiv
Coordinates: 46°58′N 32°0′E / 46.967°N 32°E / 46.967; 32
Mykolaiv (Ukrainian: Миколаїв Ukrainian pronunciation: [mɪkoˈlɑjiu̯]), also known as Nikolayev (from Russian Николаев), is a city in southern Ukraine, administrative center of the Mykolaiv Oblast. Mykolaiv is the main ship building center of the Black Sea, and, arguably, the whole Eastern Europe; also a riverport.
Mykolaiv's orderly layout reflects the fact that its development has been well planned from the founding of the city. Its main streets, including the three main East-West Avenues, (including Lenin Prospect shown in the photo to the right) are very wide and tree lined. A significant part of Mykolaiv's land area is beautiful parks. Park Pobedy (Victory) is a large park on the peninsula just north of the city center of Mykolaiv, on the North side of the Inhul river.
Mykolaiv has a population of about 500,000.
There are several variations of the city's name. In Ukrainian, the city is named Микола́їв, for which the transliteration is Mykolaiv, or, more rarely, Mykolayiv. The Russian name is Никола́ев, which transliterates as Nikolaev or Nikolayev.

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NKVD
The People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs (Народный комиссариат внутренних дел, Narodnyy Komissariat Vnutrennikh Del), abbreviated NKVD (НКВД listen (help·info)) was the public and secret police organization of the Soviet Union that directly executed the rule of power of the Soviets, including political repression, during the era of Joseph Stalin.
The NKVD contained the regular, public police force of the USSR (including traffic police, firefighting, border guards and archives) but is better known for the activities of the Gulag and the Main Directorate for State Security (GUGB), which eventually became the Committee for State Security (KGB). It conducted mass extrajudicial executions, ran the Gulag system of forced labor camps, suppressed underground resistance, conducted mass deportations of entire nationalities and Kulaks to unpopulated regions of the country, guarded state borders, conducted espionage and political assassinations abroad, was responsible for influencing foreign governments, and enforced Stalinist policy within communist movements in other countries.

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Novi Sad
Novi Sad (Serbian Cyrillic: Нови Сад, pronounced [nɔ̝̂v̞iː sâːd] ( listen)) is the second largest city in Serbia, capital of the northern Serbian province of Vojvodina, and the administrative centre of the South Bačka District.
According to preliminary results of the latest census in Serbia conducted in October 2011, the urban area of Novi Sad has a population of 221,854, while its municipal area has a population of 335,701. It is located in the southern part of Pannonian Plain, on the border of the Bačka and Srem regions, on the banks of the Danube river and Danube-Tisa-Danube Canal, facing the northern slopes of Fruška Gora mountain.
The city was founded in 1694, when Serb merchants formed a colony across the Danube from the Petrovaradin fortress, a Habsburg strategic military post. In the 18th and 19th centuries, it became an important trading and manufacturing centre, as well as a centre of Serbian culture of that period, earning the nickname Serbian Athens. The city was heavily devastated in the 1848 Revolution, but it was subsequently restored. During the city's long history, it has maintained its multi-cultural identity, with Serbs, Hungarians and Germans being the main ethnic groups. Today, Novi Sad is an industrial and financial centre of the Serbian economy, as well as a major cultural hub.

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Novyi Kalyniv
Novyi Kalyniv (Ukrainian: Новий Калинів) is a small city in Lviv Oblast (province) of Ukraine. Population is 3,582 (2001).
Coordinates: 49°32′36.7″N 23°1′20.5″E / 49.543528°N 23.022361°E / 49.543528; 23.022361

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Odessa
Odessa (Russian: Одесса, pronounced [ɐˈdʲesːə]) or Odesa (Ukrainian: Одеса, pronounced [ɔˈdɛsɑ]) is the third largest city in Ukraine, with a population of 1,003,705. The city is a major seaport located on the northwest shore of the Black Sea and the administrative center of the Odessa Oblast.
The predecessor of Odessa, a small Tatar settlement, was founded by Hacı I Giray, the Khan of Crimea, in 1240 and originally named after him as "Hacıbey"^{[citation needed]}. After a period of Lithuanian control, it passed into the domain of the Ottoman Sultan in 1529 and remained in Ottoman hands until the Ottoman Empire's defeat in the Russo-Turkish War of 1792. The city of Odessa was founded by a decree of the Empress Catherine the Great in 1794. From 1819 to 1858 Odessa was a free port. During the Soviet period it was the most important port of trade in the Soviet Union and a Soviet naval base. On 1 January 2000 the Quarantine Pier of Odessa trade sea port was declared a free port and free economic zone for a term of 25 years.

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Odessa Oblast
Odesa Oblast, also written as Odessa Oblast (Ukrainian: Одеська область, translit. Odes’ka oblast’; also referred to as Odeshchyna—Ukrainian: Одещина), (Greek: Οδησσός) is the southernmost and largest^{[clarification needed]}oblast (province) of south-western Ukraine. The administrative center of the oblast is the city of Odessa.
The evidence of the earliest inhabitants in this area comes from the settlements and burial grounds of the Neolithic Gumelniţa, Cucuteni-Trypillian and Usatovo cultures, as well as tumuli and hoards of the Bronze Age Proto-Indo-Europeans. In the 1st millennium B.C. the Milesian Greeks built colonies along the North Black Sea Coast, including the towns of Olbia, Tyras, Niconium, Panticapaeum, and Chersonesus. The Greeks left behind painted vessels, ceramics, sculptures, inscriptions, arts and crafts that indicate the prosperity of their ancient civilisation.
The culture of Scythian tribes inhabiting the Black Sea littoral steppes is represented by finds from settlements and burial grounds. There are weapon items, bronze cauldrons, other utensils, adornments. By the beginning of the 1st millennium A.D. the Sarmatians displaced the Scythians. In the 3rd–4th centuries A.D. the tribal alliance, represented by the items of Chernyakhov culture, was created. Since the middle of the first millennium the formation of Slavic people began. In the 9th century they were united into a state with Kiev as a centre. The Khazars, Polovtsy, Pechenegs were the Slavs' neighbours during the different times. The period of the 9th–14th centuries is reflected by the materials from the settlements and cities of Kievan Rus', Belgorod, Caffa-Theodosia, Berezan Island.

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Peremyshliany
Peremyshliany (Ukrainian: Перемишляни, Polish: Przemyślany) is a town in Lviv Oblast (province) of Ukraine. It is administrative center of the Peremyshliany Raion. Population is 7,565 (2001).
It had a Jewish population of 2,934 in 1900.
Coordinates: 49°40′12″N 24°33′34″E / 49.67°N 24.55944°E / 49.67; 24.55944

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Poland
Poland ⁱ/ˈpoʊlənd/ (Polish: Polska), officially the Republic of Poland (Polish: Rzeczpospolita Polska; Kashubian: Pòlskô Repùblika; Silesian: Polsko Republika), is a country in Central Europe, bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north. The total area of Poland is 312,679 square kilometres (120,726 sq mi), making it the 69th largest country in the world and the 9th largest in Europe. Poland has a population of over 38 million people, which makes it the 34th most populous country in the world and the sixth most populous member of the European Union, being its most populous post-communist member. Poland is a unitary state made up of 16 voivodeships. Poland is a member of the European Union, NATO, the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), European Economic Area, International Energy Agency, Council of Europe, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, International Atomic Energy Agency, G6, Council of the Baltic Sea States, Visegrád Group, Weimar Triangle and Schengen Agreement.

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Poltava
Poltava (Ukrainian: Полта́ва) is a city located on the Vorskla River in central Ukraine. It is the administrative center of the Poltava Oblast (province), as well as the surrounding Poltava Raion (district) of the oblast. Poltava's estimated population is 298,652 (as of 2011).
It is still unknown when Poltava was founded, although the town was not attested before 1174. However, for reasons unknown, municipal authorities chose to celebrate the town's 1100th anniversary in 1999. The settlement is indeed an old one, as archeologists unearthed a Paleolithic dwelling as well as Scythian remains within the city limits.
The present name of the city is traditionally connected to the settlement Ltava which is mentioned in the Hypatian Chronicle in 1174. The region belonged to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania from the 14th century. The Polish administration took over in 1569. In 1648, Poltava was captured by the Ruthenian-Polish magnate Jeremi Wiśniowiecki (1612–51). Poltava was the base of a distinguished regiment of the Ukrainian Cossacks, and served as a Cossack stronghold during the Khmelnytsky Uprising. After the pro-Polish hetman Ivan Vyhovsky came to power and a civil war broke out, In 1658 Poltava, under polkovnyk Martyn Pushkar, was the leading town of the rebels. However, it was ultimately burned down and pillaged by the troops of Vyhovsky, while many of its women and children were enslaved by the Crimean Tatars. In 1667 the town passed to the Russian Empire.

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Poltava Oblast
Poltava Oblast (Ukrainian: Полтавська область, translit. Poltavs’ka oblast’; also referred to as Poltavshchyna – Ukrainian: Полтавщина) is an oblast (province) of central Ukraine. The administrative center of the oblast is the city of Poltava.
Other important cities within the oblast include: Komsomolsk, Kremenchuk, Lubny and Myrhorod.
Poltava Oblast is situated in the central part of Ukraine. It has an area of 28,800 km². The oblast’ borders upon Chernihiv, Sumy, Kharkiv, Dnipropetrovs’k, Kirovohrad, Cherkasy and Kiev regions.
The following historic-cultural sites were nominated for the Seven Wonders of Ukraine.
At 2005-05-01, its population was 1,584,446, and population density was 59 people per 1 km².
The oblast’ is a center of Ukraine's oil and natural gas industry, with many wells and pipelines situated here. There is a major oil refinery plant in the city of Kremenchuk. Important iron ore processing facilities also present. In general there are 374 large industrial organization and 618 small industrial organizations.

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Przemyśl
Przemyśl ([ˈpʂɛmɨɕl] ( listen)) (Ukrainian: Перемишль, Peremyshl’) is a city in south-eastern Poland with 66,756 inhabitants, as of June 2009. In 1999, it became part of the Podkarpackie Voivodeship; it was previously the capital of Przemyśl Voivodeship.
Przemyśl owes its long and rich history to the advantages of its geographic location. The city lies in an area connecting mountains and lowlands known as the Przemyśl Gate, with open lines of transportation, and fertile soil. It also lies on the navigable San River. Important trade routes passed through Przemyśl and ensured the city's importance.
Different names in various languages have identified the city throughout its history. Selected languages include: Bulgarian: Пшемишъл (Pshemishl); German: Premissel; Latin: Premislia; Russian: Перемышль (P^jer^jemyshl^j); Ukrainian: Перемишль (Peremyshl^j); and Yiddish: פּשעמישל (Pshemishl).
Przemyśl, the second-oldest city in southern Poland (after Kraków), appears to date from as early as the 8th century. The region subsequently became part of the 9th-century Great Moravian state. Archeological remains testify to the presence of a monastic settlement as early as the 9th century. Upon the invasion of the Hungarian tribes into the heart of the Great Moravian Empire around 899, the Lendians of the area declared allegiance to the Hungarian authorities. The Przemyśl region then became a site of contention between Poland, Kievan Rus and Hungary beginning in at least the 9th century. The area was mentioned for the first time in 981 by Nestor, when Vladimir I of Kievan Rus took it over on the way into Poland. In 1018 Przemyśl returned to Poland, and in 1031 it was retaken by Rus. Between the 11th and 12th century the city was a capital of the Principality of Peremyshl, one of the principalities that made up the Kievan Rus' state. Sometime before 1218 an Eastern Orthodox eparchy was founded in the city. Przemyśl later became part of the Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia.

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Pustomyty
Pustomyty (Ukrainian: Пустомити) is a city in Lviv Oblast (province) of Ukraine. It is administrative center of the Pustomyty Raion. Population is 9,798 (2001).
Coordinates: 49°42′50″N 23°54′39″E / 49.71389°N 23.91083°E / 49.71389; 23.91083

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Racławice Panorama
The Racławice Panorama (Polish: Panorama racławicka) is a monumental (15 × 114 meter) cycloramic painting depicting the Battle of Racławice, during the Kościuszko Uprising. It is currently located in Wrocław, Poland. The painting is one of only a few preserved relics of a genre of 19th century mass culture, and the oldest in Poland. The panorama stands in a circular fashion and, with the viewer in the center, presents different scenes at various viewing angles. A special kind of perspective used in the painting and additional effects (lighting, artificial terrain) create a feeling of reality.
The idea came from the painter Jan Styka in Lwów who invited the renowned battle-painter Wojciech Kossak to participate in the project. They were assisted by Ludwik Boller, Tadeusz Popiel, Zygmunt Rozwadowski, Teodor Axentowicz, Włodzimierz Tetmajer, Wincenty Wodzinowski and Michał Sozański.
The project was conceived as a patriotic manifestation commemorating the 100th anniversary of the victorious Battle of Racławice, a famous episode of the Kościuszko Insurrection, a heroic but in the end fallen attempt to defend Polish independence. The battle was fought on 4 April 1794 between the insurrectionist force of regulars and peasant volunteers (bearing homemade scythes) under Kościuszko (1746–1817) himself and the Russian army commanded by General Alexander Tormasov. For the nation which had lost its independence, the memory of this glorious victory was particularly important.

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Radekhiv
Radekhiv (Ukrainian: Радехів, Polish: Radziechów) is a city in Lviv Oblast (province) of Ukraine. It is administrative center of the Radekhiv Raion. Population is 9,230 (2001).
Ed Stelmach, the premier of the Canadian province of Alberta from 2006 to 2011, is descended from immigrants who arrived in Canada from Radekhiv.[1]
Coordinates: 50°16′58″N 24°38′15″E / 50.28278°N 24.6375°E / 50.28278; 24.6375

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Rishon LeZion
Rishon LeZion (Hebrew: רִאשׁוֹן לְצִיּוֹן‎‎ (audio) (help·info), lit. First to Zion), is the fourth-largest city in Israel, located along the central Israeli coastal plain 12 kilometers south of Tel Aviv. It is part of the Gush Dan metropolitan area.
The city had a population of 228,200 at the end of 2009. Founded in 1882 by European Jewish immigrants, it was the second Jewish farm colony established in Land of Israel in the 19th century, after Petah Tikva.
The name Rishon LeZion is derived from a biblical verse: "First to Zion are they, and I shall give herald to Jerusalem" (Hebrew: ראשון לציון הנה הינם, ולירושלים מבשר אתן‎) (Isaiah 41:27) and literally translates as "First to Zion".
Rishon LeZion was founded on July 31, 1882 by ten Hovevei Zion pioneers from Kharkov, Ukraine (then the Russian Empire) headed by Zalman David Levontin. Reuven Yudalevich was also a member of the group. The pioneers purchased 835 acres (337.91 ha) of land southeast of present-day Tel Aviv, part of the townland of the Arab village of Ayun Kara (literally ' fountain of the crier'). Ayun Kara was the scene of a bloody battle between Turkish and New Zealand troops on November 14, 1917. A stone cenotaph was erected by the people of Rishon LeZion to the memory of the New Zealanders who fell that day, but it has since been destroyed.

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Rivne
Rivne (Ukrainian: Рівне) or Rovno (Polish: Równe; Russian: Ровно; Yiddish: ראָוונע) is a historic city in western Ukraine. It is the administrative center of the Rivne Oblast (province), as well as the administrative center of the surrounding Rivne Raion (district) within the oblast.
Rivne is an important transportation hub, with the international Rivne Airport, and rail links to Zdolbuniv, Sarny and Kovel, as well as highways linking it with Brest, Kiev and Lviv.
The estimated population was around 247,750 as of 2010.
Rivne was first mentioned in 1283 as one of the inhabited places of Halych-Volhynia. From the second half of the 14th century it was under the Great Duchy of Lithuania and from 1569 in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. In 1492 the city was granted Magdeburg rights. Following the partition of Poland, in 1793 Rivne became a part of Russian Empire, and in 1797 it was declared as a regional town of the Volhynian Governorate.
During World War I and the period of chaos shortly after, it was briefly under German, Ukrainian, Bolshevik, and Polish forces. In April–May 1919 Rivne served as the temporary capital of Ukrainian People's Republic. At the conclusion of the conflict, in accordance with the Riga Peace Treaty of 1921 it became a part of Polish Volhynian Voivodeship for the period between the two World Wars.

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Rudky
Rudky (Ukrainian: Рудки, Polish: Rudki) is a city in Lviv Oblast (province) of Ukraine. Population is 4,942 (as of the 2001 Ukrainian Census).
Coordinates: 49°39′11″N 23°29′17″E / 49.65306°N 23.48806°E / 49.65306; 23.48806

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Russia
Russia ⁱ/ˈrʌʃə/ or /ˈrʊʃə/ (Russian: Россия, tr. Rossiya; IPA: [rɐˈsʲijə] ( listen)), also officially known as the Russian Federation (Russian: Российская Федерация, tr. Rossiyskaya Federatsiya; IPA: [rɐˈsʲijskəjə fʲɪdʲɪˈratsɨjə] ( listen)), is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects. From northwest to southeast, Russia shares borders with Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland (both via Kaliningrad Oblast), Belarus, Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia, and North Korea. It also has maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, and the US state of Alaska by the Bering Strait. At 17,075,400 square kilometres (6,592,800 sq mi), Russia is the largest country in the world, covering more than one eighth of the Earth's inhabited land area. Russia is also the eighth most populous nation with 143 million people. It extends across the whole of northern Asia and 40% of Europe, spanning nine time zones and incorporating a wide range of environments and landforms. Russia has the world's largest reserves of mineral and energy resources and is the largest producer of oil and natural gas globally. Russia has the world's largest forest reserves and its lakes contain approximately one-quarter of the world's fresh water.

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Rzeszów
Rzeszów [ˈʐɛʂuf] ( listen) (Ukrainian: Ряшiв, Riashiv; Russian: Ряшев; German: Reichshof; Latin: Resovia; Yiddish: ריישע-rayshe) is a city in southeastern Poland with a population of 179,455 in 2010. It is located on both sides of the Wisłok River, in the heartland of the Sandomierska Valley. The city, which was granted a town charter in 1354, has been the capital of the Subcarpathian Voivodeship since 1999, and is also the seat of Rzeszów County.
Rzeszów is served by an international airport, is a member of Eurocities, and is home to a number of higher education schools, company headquarters, and foreign consulates.
First humans appeared in the area of Rzeszów in late Paleolithic Age, as archeologists found a tool made in that period, discovered on site Rzeszów 25. In the mid-6th century BC, ancient farmers came to the area of the city, most likely through the Moravian Gate. Later on, Rzeszów was a settlement of the Lusatian culture, which then was replaced with the Przeworsk culture.
In the 5th century, first Slavs appeared in the area, which is confirmed by numerous archeological findings. Most probably, Rzeszów was then inhabited by the Vistulans. Some time between 11th and 13th century, the town was annexed by the Ruthenians, and Polish princes of the Piast dynasty confirmed it in 1264, when in Tarnów, there was a meeting of Prince Bolesław V the Chaste, and Prince Daniel of Galicia, during which both sides agreed that the border would go between Rzeszów and Czudec (Rzeszów belonged to Red Ruthenia, while Czudec and Strzyżów to Lesser Poland).

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Saint Petersburg
Saint Petersburg (Russian: Санкт-Петербург, tr. Sankt-Peterburg; IPA: [sankt pʲɪtʲɪrˈburk] ( listen)) is a city and a federal subject (a federal city) of Russia located on the Neva River at the head of the Gulf of Finland on the Baltic Sea. In 1914 the name of the city was changed to Petrograd (Russian: Петроград; IPA: [pʲɪtrɐˈgrat]), in 1924 to Leningrad (Russian: Ленинград; IPA: [lʲɪnʲɪnˈgrat]) and in 1991 back to Saint Petersburg.
In Russian literature, informal documents, and discourse, the "Saint" (Санкт-) is usually omitted, leaving Petersburg (Петербург, Peterburg). In common parlance Russians may drop "-burg" (-бург) as well, leaving only Peter (Питер, Russian: [ˈpʲitʲɪr]).
Saint Petersburg was founded by Tsar Peter the Great on May 27 [O.S. 16] 1703. From 1713 to 1728 and from 1732 to 1918, Saint Petersburg was the Imperial capital of Russia. In 1918 the central government bodies moved from Saint Petersburg (then named Petrograd) to Moscow. It is Russia's second largest city after Moscow with almost 5 million inhabitants. Saint Petersburg is a major European cultural center, and also an important Russian port on the Baltic Sea.

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Samarkand
Coordinates: 39°39′15″N 66°57′35″E / 39.65417°N 66.95972°E / 39.65417; 66.95972
Samarkand (Tajik: Самарқанд; Persian: سمرقند‎; Uzbek: Samarqand; from Sogdian: "Stone Fort" or "Rock Town") is the second-largest city in Uzbekistan and the capital of Samarqand Province. The city is most noted for its central position on the Silk Road between China and the West, and for being an Islamic centre for scholarly study. In the 14th century it became the capital of the empire of Timur (Tamerlane) and is the site of his mausoleum (the Gur-e Amir). The Bibi-Khanym Mosque remains one of the city's most notable landmarks. The Registan was the ancient center of the city.
In 2001, UNESCO added the city to its World Heritage List as Samarkand – Crossroads of Cultures.
The city was known by an abbreviated name of Marakanda when Alexander the Great took it in 332BC. There are various theories of how Marakanda evolved into Samarkanda/Samarkan. One derives the name from the Old Persian asmara, "stone", "rock", and Sogdian kand, "fort", "town". Others less convincingly derive the name from the old Turkic "Semiz-Kent" meaning "Rich City".^{[citation needed]}. Since the name Marakanda was already in existence 2300 years ago and long before anyone had heard of Turks in that region of Transoxiana, this version is likely a folk etymology.

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Sambir
Sambir (Ukrainian: Самбір, Polish: Sambor) is a city in the Lviv Oblast, Ukraine. Serving as the administrative center of the Sambir Raion (district), the city itself is also designated as a separate raion within the oblast. It is located at around 49°31′0″N 23°12′10″E / 49.516667°N 23.20278°E / 49.516667; 23.20278, close to the border with Poland.
The settlement called Pohonych was first mentioned in the 13th century, when it was destroyed by the Tatars. The inhabitants founded a new village, called New Sambir, about two kilometres from the old place. On 13 December 1390, the village was granted the Magdeburg rights, and was then owned by voivode Spytek of Melsztyn. On 5 June 1419 Polish King Władysław Jagiełło built there a wooden castle. In 1498, the city was destroyed by the Tatars, and because of that, King Jan I Olbracht released it from taxes. In 1637, the city partly burnt down, together with a local church. Famous Ukrainian cossacks - hetman Petro Konashevych-Sahaidachny and Yuriy Kulchytsky were born 7 km (4.35 mi) away from the city - in the village of Kulchytsi. Petro Sagaydachnyi played a major role in helping the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth win battle of Khotyn (1621), and led a large Cossack regiment in the war with Moscow.

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Scottish Café
The Scottish Café (Polish: Kawiarnia Szkocka) was the café in Lwów (now Lviv) where, in the 1930s and 1940s, mathematicians from the Lwów School collaboratively discussed research problems, particularly in functional analysis and topology.
Stanislaw Ulam recounts that the tables of the café had marble tops, so they could write in pencil, directly on the table, during their discussions. To keep the results from being lost, and after becoming annoyed with their writing directly on the table tops, Stefan Banach's wife provided the mathematicians with a large notebook, which was used for writing the problems and answers and eventually became known as the Scottish Book. The book—a collection of solved, unsolved, and even probably unsolvable problems—could be borrowed by any of the guests of the café. Solving any of the problems was rewarded with prizes, with the most difficult and challenging problems having expensive prizes (during the Great Depression and on the eve of World War II), such as a bottle of fine brandy.

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Serbia
Serbia ⁱ/ˈsɜrbiə/, officially the Republic of Serbia (Serbian: Република Србија / Republika Srbija, pronounced [rɛpǔblika sř̩bija]), is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central and Southeast Europe, covering the southern part of the Carpathian basin and the central part of the Balkans. Serbia borders Hungary to the north; Romania and Bulgaria to the east; the Republic of Macedonia to the south; and Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Montenegro to the west; additionally, it borders Albania through Kosovo, whose status as part of Serbia is disputed. Serbia covers an area of 88,361 km² and has a population of just over 7.1 million, while the capital and largest city is Belgrade.
The arrival of the Serbs to the Balkans in the 7th century, established several states, eventually forming the Serbian Empire in the 14th century. By the 16th century, Serbia was conquered and occupied by the Ottoman Empire, at times interrupted by the Habsburgs. In the early 19th century the Serbian revolution re-established the country as the region's first constitutional monarchy, which subsequently expanded its territory and pioneered the abolition of feudalism in the Balkans. The former Habsburg crownland of Vojvodina united with Serbia in 1918. Following World War I, Serbia formed Yugoslavia with other South Slavic peoples which existed in several forms up until 2006, when the National Assembly of Serbia declared independence and the legal succession to the former State Union. In February 2008 the parliament of UNMIK-governed Kosovo, Serbia's southern province, declared independence, with mixed responses from international governments.

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Sevastopol
Sevastopol ( /ˌsɛvəˈstoʊpəl/ or /səˈvæstəpoʊl/; previously Sebastopol; Ukrainian and Russian: Севасто́поль; Crimean Tatar: Aqyar) is one of two cities with special status in Ukraine (the other being the capital, Kiev), located on the Black Sea coast of the Crimean peninsula. It has a population of 342,451 (2001). Sevastopol is the second largest port in Ukraine, after the Port of Odessa.
The unique geographic location and navigation conditions of the city's harbours make Sevastopol a strategically important naval point. It is also a popular seaside resort and tourist destination, mainly for visitors from the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) countries. The city, formerly the home of the Russian then Soviet Black Sea Fleet, is now home to a Ukrainian naval base and a Russian naval base in facilities leased by the Russian Navy. The headquarters of both the Ukrainian Naval Forces and Russia's Black Sea Fleet are located in the city. In 1993, the city was the subject of a territorial dispute between the Russian Federation and Ukraine.

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Simferopol
Simferopol (English pronunciation: /ˌsɪmfəˈroʊpəl/; Ukrainian: Сімферополь; Russian: Симферополь; Greek: Συμφερόπολις, Sympheropolis, meaning city of common good; Crimean Tatar: Aqmescit, literally: The white mosque) is the capital of the Autonomous Republic of Crimea in southern Ukraine. As the capital of Crimea, Simferopol is an important political, economic, and transport center of the peninsula. As of 2006, the city's population is 340,600.
Archaeological evidence in Simferopol indicates the existence of an ancient Scythian city, collectively known as the Scythian Neapol. The location was also home to a Crimean Tatar town, Aqmescit. After the annexation of the Crimean Khanate to the Russian Empire, the city's name was changed to its present Simferopol.
Archaeological evidence in the Chokurcha cave shows the presence of ancient people living in the territory of modern Simferopol. The Scythian Neapol, known by its Greek name, is also located in the city, which is the remnants of an ancient capital of the Crimean Scythians who lived on the territory from the 3rd century BC to the 4th century AD.

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Skole
Skole (Ukrainian: Сколе) is a city in the Lviv Oblast (province) of Ukraine. It is administrative center of the Skole Raion. As of 2001, the population is 6,742.^{[citation needed]}
The first official date recorded for Skole was in the year 1397. A very important route from Kiev to Hungary ran through Skole; as a result, it was frequently fought over by other nations. When the Skole region was under Polish rule, the Polish king parceled out the land among the Polish nobility. German colonists, particularly craftspeople, who settled in the Skole region promoted the development of it economy. A great influence on the economy and cultural development of the region was Baron Groedl and his family. In Skole, the coins of Baron Groedl were used. They were minted at Vien, a mint which continued to be in use until 1930.
Modern Skole is a small town at the center of Skole district, with favorable conditions for the tourist trade.
There are many notable places in the Skole region. The village of Grebeniv, for example, was once renowned for its sanitarium where Metropolit Sheptytskyy and prime minister Cherchel were treated. Verchne Synevydne is the first remembrance in the Galician–Volhynian Chronicle (1240). This history is concerned with the person of Danylo Galytskyy.

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Slavske
Slavske (Ukrainian: Славське, Polish: Sławsko) is a town and a popular ski resort in the Skole Beskids range of the Carpathian mountains in western Ukraine with a population of 3,700. It's one of the biggest Ukrainian winter sports centers. Slavske is located 600 metres (2,000 ft) above sea level in the Skole Raion (district) of Lviv Oblast, close to the city of Skole, 130 kilometres (81 mi) southwest of Lviv.
Slavske is situated in the valley of the Opir and Slavka rivers in an area traditionally inhabited by the Boyko highlanders, adjacent to southeast Poland and northeast Slovakia. The mountains surrounding Slavske are of volcanic origin with forest cover, with an average height of about 1,200 m to 1,400 m.
The town is conveniently located on an important rail line which connects Ukrainian cities with Uzhorod as well as Slovakia and Hungary.
According to tradition, Slavske takes its name from a band of intrepid warriors of Early East Slavs (Drevlians) led by Prince Sviatoslav Volodymyrovich, one of the ill-fated sons of Vladimir I of Kiev killed by his half-brother Sviatopolk I in 1015. Sviatoslav was attempting to escape to Hungary after the murder of his brothers Boris and Gleb when he was intercepted by Sviatopolk's men and killed in the upper reaches of the Opir River. Opir, incidentally, means "resistance."

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Slovakia
The Slovak Republic (short form: Slovakia ⁱ/sloʊˈvɑːkiə/ or /sləˈvækiə/; Slovak: Slovensko (help·info), long form Slovenská republika (help·info)) is a landlocked state in Central Europe. It has a population of over five million and an area of about 49,000 square kilometres (19,000 sq mi). Slovakia is bordered by the Czech Republic and Austria to the west, Poland to the north, Ukraine to the east and Hungary to the south. The largest city is the capital, Bratislava, and the second largest is Košice. Slovakia is a member state of the European Union, NATO, United Nations, OECD and WTO among others. The official language is Slovak, a member of the Slavic language family.
The Slavs arrived in the territory of present day Slovakia in the 5th and 6th centuries during the migration period. In the course of history, various parts of today's Slovakia belonged to Samo's Empire (the first known political unit of Slavs), Principality of Nitra (as independent polity, as part of Great Moravia and as part of Hungarian Kingdom), Great Moravia, Kingdom of Hungary, the Austro-Hungarian Empire or Habsburg Empire, and Czechoslovakia. A separate Slovak state briefly existed during World War II, during which Slovakia was a dependency of Nazi Germany between 1939 and 1944. From 1945 Slovakia once again became a part of Czechoslovakia. The present-day Slovakia became an independent state on 1 January 1993 after the peaceful dissolution of Czechoslovakia.

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Sokal
Sokal (Ukrainian: Сокаль, translit. Sokal’, Polish: Sokal) is a city located on the banks of the Bug River in the Lviv Oblast of western Ukraine. Serving as the administrative center of the Sokal Raion (district), the city itself also ranks as a separate raion within the oblast. As of 2001^[update] Sokal had an estimated population of 21,700.
Sokal lay in Polish territory from 1918 to 1944. Its western part (the village of Zhvirka) remained in Poland between 1944 and 1951. Before the Holocaust, Sokal had a Jewish population of 6,000, of whom only 30 survived. The town was liberated by the Soviet army in July 1944.
Coordinates: 50°29′0″N 24°17′0″E / 50.483333°N 24.283333°E / 50.483333; 24.283333

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Sosnivka
Sosnivka (Ukrainian: Соснівка, Polish: Sosnówka) is a city in Lviv Oblast (province) of Ukraine. Population is 11,889 (2001).
Coordinates: 50°17′41″N 24°53′02″E / 50.29472°N 24.88389°E / 50.29472; 24.88389

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Soviet Union
The Soviet Union (Russian: Советский Союз, tr. Sovetsky Soyuz), officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR; Russian: Сою́з Сове́тских Социалисти́ческих Респу́блик, tr. Soyuz Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik; IPA: [sɐˈjus sɐˈvʲetskʲɪx sətsɨəlʲɪˈstʲitɕɪskʲɪx rʲɪsˈpublʲɪk] ( listen); abbreviated СССР, SSSR), was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991.
The Soviet Union was a single-party state ruled by the Communist Party from its foundation until 1990. A union of 15 subnational Soviet republics, the Soviet state was structured under a highly centralized government and economy.
The Russian Revolution of 1917 caused the downfall of the Russian Empire. Following the Russian Revolution, there was a struggle for power between the Bolshevik party, led by Vladimir Lenin, and the anti-communist White movement. In December 1922, the Bolsheviks won the civil war, and the Soviet Union was formed with the merger of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic and the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic.

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Stanyslaviv
Ivano-Frankivsk (Ukrainian: Івано-Франківськ; formerly Stanyslaviv,Stanislau, or Stanisławów see below) is a historic city located in the western Ukraine. It is the administrative centre of the Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast (province), and is designated as its own separate raion (district)^{[clarification needed]} within the oblast, municipality.
Built in the mid 17th century as a private fortress of the Potocki family, with the partition of Poland in 1772 it was passed to the Habsburg Empire, after which it became a property of the State authorities of the Austrian Empire. It was during that time that the fortress was transformed into one of the most prominent cities at the foothills of the Carpathian Mountains. After World War I for a short stint it served a temporary capital of the West Ukrainian People's Republic, after the fall of which Stanisławów became part of the Second Polish Republic. At the dawn of World War II the city was "liberated" by the Soviet forces which were soon overran by Nazi Germany. With the liberation of Ukraine in 1944, Soviet regime was established in the city for the next 45 years. A few years before the fall of the Soviet Union the blue-yellow flag was raised in the city as the symbol of independent Ukraine.

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Stockholm
Stockholm (Swedish pronunciation: [ˈstɔkːˈhɔlm, ˈstɔkːˈɔlm, ˈstɔkːɔlm]( listen to the second one)) is the capital and the largest city of Sweden and constitutes the most populated urban area in Scandinavia. Stockholm is the most populous city in Sweden, with a population of 864,324 in the municipality (2010), 1.4 million in the urban area (2010), and around 2.1 million in the 6,519 km² (2,517.00 sq mi) metropolitan area (2010). As of 2010, the Stockholm metropolitan area is home to approximately 22% of Sweden's population.
Founded no later than c. 1250, possibly as early as 1187, Stockholm has long been one of Sweden's cultural, media, political, and economic centres. Its strategic location on 14 islands on the south-central east coast of Sweden at the mouth of Lake Mälaren, by the Stockholm archipelago, has been historically important. Stockholm has been nominated by GaWC as a global city, with a ranking of Alpha-. In The 2008 Global Cities Index, Stockholm ranked 24th in the world, 10th in Europe, and first in Scandinavia. Stockholm is known for its beauty, its buildings and architecture, its abundant clean and open water, and its many parks. It is sometimes referred to as Venice of the North.

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Sudova Vyshnia
Sudova Vyshnia (Ukrainian: Судова Вишня, Polish: Sądowa Wisznia) is a small city of Mostyska Raion in Lviv Oblast (province) of Ukraine. The population was 6,668 in 2001.
Sudova Vyshnia is located about 50 km west of Lvov (Lviv), on an asphalt highway and railroad to Przemyśl in Poland. The Vishnya river flows through the town in a westerly direction, eventually joining San in Poland. The town is a center of raion (district) in West Ukraine, has a number of Catholic cathedrals, a secondary school, is a market centre for surrounding agricultural area. The town contains a horse farm, providing horse stud service for the area, some of the horse studs being very expensive. The railway line (twin track) leads to Krakow and Silesia in Poland, being a main route carrying coal to the former USSR.
When captured by the USSR in the Second World War, the town had a large main square, cobbled and with a podium - suitable for public meetings. Under Communism, the square was planted over by trees and bushes - no more public meetings. When under German administration during the Second World War, being in the area called Galicia since ancient times, it was not considered occupied but a part of the German Reich. The currency at that time was the Reichsmark, whereas in occupied territories German administration was using Ostmark. German armed forces included a number of SS divisions, considered to be elite units. And there was a division SS Galicia.

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Sumy Oblast
Sumy Oblast (Ukrainian: Сумська область, translit. Sums’ka oblast’; also referred to as Sumshchyna – Ukrainian: Сумщина) is an oblast (province) in the northeastern part of Ukraine. The administrative center of the oblast is the city of Sumy.
Other important cities within the oblast include Konotop, Okhtyrka, Romny, and Shostka.
As of 1 May 2004, the population is 1,255,866, which includes 886,100 city/town-dwellers, and 483,700 villagers.
The Sumy Oblast is situated in the northeastern part of Ukraine. The area of the oblast' (23,800 km²), comprises about 3,95% of the total area of the country.
The obalst' borders the Bryansk Oblast (Russia) on the northeast, the Kursk Oblast (Russia) on the east, the Poltava on the southwest, the Kharkiv Oblasts on the south, and the Chernihiv Oblast on the west.
The following historic-cultural sited were nominated for the Seven Wonders of Ukraine.
The Sumy Oblast was established on 10 December 1939. Today it comprises 18 raions (districts), 15 cities, 7 city municipalities, 20 Urban-type settlements, 384 village councils, and 1500 villages.

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Szczecin
Szczecin ([ˈʂt͡ʂɛt͡ɕin] ( listen); German: Stettin [ʃtɛˈtiːn] ( listen)}), is the capital city of the West Pomeranian Voivodeship in Poland. In the vicinity of the Baltic Sea, it is the country's seventh-largest city and the largest seaport in Poland. As of June 2011 the population was 407,811.
Szczecin is located on the Oder River, south of the Szczecin Lagoon and the Bay of Pomerania. The city is situated along the southwestern shore of Dąbie Lake, on both sides of the Oder and on several large islands between the western and eastern branches of the river. Szczecin borders with the town of Police.
The city's beginnings were as an 8th century Slavic Pomeranian stronghold, built at the site of today's castle. In the 12th century, when Szczecin had become one of Pomerania's main urban centres, it lost its independence to Piast Poland, Saxony, the Holy Roman Empire and Denmark. At the same time, the Griffin dynasty established themselves as local rulers, the population was converted to Christianity, and German settlers arrived. The native Slavic population was assimilated and sometimes discriminated against in the following centuries. In 1237/43, the town was built anew and granted vast autonomy rights, and it joined the Hanseatic League.

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Ternopil
Ternopil (Ukrainian: Тернопіль, translit. Ternopil’, Polish: Tarnopol, German: Tarnopol Russian: Тернополь, translit. Ternopol’), is a city in western Ukraine, located on the banks of the Seret River. Ternopil is one of the major cities of Western Ukraine and the historical region of Galicia. It is served by Ternopil Airport.
In 2010, the population was 218,641.
The city is the administrative center of the Ternopil Oblast (province), as well of the surrounding Ternopil Raion (district) within the oblast. However, Ternopil is a city of oblast subordinance, thus being subject directly to the oblast authorities rather to the raion administration housed in the city itself.
The city was founded in 1540 by Jan Amor Tarnowski as a Polish military stronghold and a castle. In 1544 the Ternopil Castle was constructed and repelled its first Tatar attacks. In 1548 Ternopil was granted city rights by king Sigismund I of Poland. In 1567 the city passed to the Ostrogski family. In 1575 it was plundered by Tatars. In 1623 the city passed to the Zamoyski family.

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Ternopil Oblast
Ternopil Oblast' (Ukrainian: Тернопільська область, translit. Ternopil’s’ka oblast’; also referred to as Ternopilshchyna - Ukrainian: Тернопільщина) is an oblast' (province) of Ukraine. Its administrative center is Ternopil, through which flows the Seret River, a tributary of the Dnister.
The area of the oblast is 13,800 km². The Dnister forms the southern border with the Chernivtsi Oblast. Some of its tributaries flowing through the oblast are the Zbruch, the Seret and the Strypa Rivers. The Seret River, not to be confused with the Siret River nor the smaller Seret in Lviv Oblast, is a left tributary of the Dnister flowing through the oblast capital, i.e. Ternopil.
Before World War I, most of the current Ternopil oblast was part of Austro-Hungarian province Galicia. Only the northern-most section was within the borders of Russia. From 1918 until World War II, the area formed the Tarnopol Voivodeship in the newly independent country of Poland. As was common throughout the western Ukraine, the non-Ukrainian population was concentrated in the cities. Before World War II, the population of Ternopil was 40% Polish, 20% Ukrainian, and 40% Jewish. The oblast is sometimes associated with the Ukrainian nationalist movement, as during the Polish-Ukrainian War, Ukrainian nationalist forces launched the Chortkiv offensive to stop Polish attempts to topple the newly established West Ukrainian People's Republic. Later the local ethnically Ukrainian population was loyal to the revolutionary UPA.

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Truskavets
Truskavets (Ukrainian: Трускавець, translit. Truskavets’; Polish: Truskawiec) is a city in western Ukraine's Lviv Oblast (province), near the border with Poland. The city is designated as a separate raion (district) within the oblast.
Truskavets is famous for its mineral springs, which have made it one of Ukraine's great resorts. For most visitors the primary goal is consuming the various 'local waters.' The most famous is the sulfur-scented, slightly saline 'Naftusia.' The town lies in an attractive little valley in the Carpathian foothills and is easily reached from L'viv by bus or train. The vast majority of tourists who come to Truskavets are either Ukrainian or Russian.
In 2000 a special economic zone (SEZ) was established in Truskavets for the period of 20 years. Known as "Kurortopolis Truskavets", the SEZ offers various tax privileges for businesses and investors. Some 13 investment projects have been approved under its framework, with the majority focusing on health and medical treatment.

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Tsardom of Russia
The Tsardom of Russia (also known as Tsardom of Muscovy; officially Русское царство (Tsardom of Rus') or, in hellenized form, Российское царство) was the name of the centralized Russian state from Ivan IV's assumption of the title of Tsar in 1547 until Peter the Great's foundation of the Russian Empire in 1721.
From 1550 to 1700, Russia grew 35,000 km² (Holland's size) a year. The period includes the upheavals of the transition from the Rurik to the Romanov dynasties, drawn-out military conflict with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth as well as the Russian conquest of Siberia, leading up to the 42-year reign of Peter the Great, who ascended in 1682 and transformed the Tsardom into a major European power, after a military victory over Sweden and Poland implemented substantial reforms and proclaimed the Russian Empire (Российская Империя) in 1721 making it a recognized European power.
While Ivan assumed the title of "Tsar and Grand Duke of the entire Rus'" (Царь и Великий князь всея Руси), officially renaming the Grand Duchy of Moscow to Tsardom of Russia, the state remained partly referred to as Muscovy (Moscovia) throughout Europe, predominantly in its Catholic part. The two names "Russia" and "Muscovy" appear to have co-existed as interchangeable during the later 16th and throughout the 17th century with different maps and sources using different names.

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Turka Raion
Turka Raion (Ukrainian: Турківський район) is a raion in Lviv Oblast in western Ukraine. Its administrative center is Turka. It has a population of 54 906.
It was established in 1939.
Coordinates: 49°05′24″N 22°59′20″E / 49.09°N 22.9888°E / 49.09; 22.9888

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Turka, Ukraine
Turka (Ukrainian: Турка, Турка над Стрийом (old), Polish: Turka, Turka nad Stryjem(old), German: Turka, French: Tourka, Yiddish — טורקא) — is a city located at the confluence of the Stryi River and Jablun'ka River (Ukrainian: Яблунька) in the Lviv Oblast (province) of western Ukraine (in the Carpathian Mountains).
The name Turka originates from Ukrainian word, тур (English: тur, meaning aurochs or urus (Latin: Bos primigenius), the ancestor of domestic cattle — a type of huge wild cattle which inhabited in the surrounding forests (it survived in Europe until 1627). In another version the city's name derives from the Ukrainian name of the gate-towers,"Turia" (Ukrainian: Tурія), "Turja" (Ukrainian: Тур'я), "Turnia"(Ukrainian: Турня), which stood at the entrance to an ancient settlement. Origin of name in no way is linked to the Turks.
The city is located in the south Lviv Oblast, in the Carpathian Mountains, on the left bank of the Stryi River, with its tributaries, the Yablunka River (Ukrainian: Яблунька) and Litmyr River (Ukrainian: Літмир), and between the mountains Shymenka (Ukrainian: Шименка), Kychera (Ukrainian: Кичера), Vinets' (Ukrainian: Вінець) and Osovnya (Ukrainian: Осовня).
City is located 137 km from Lviv, 107 km from Uzhhorod, 75 km from Drohobych, at an altitude of 557 meters above sea level.
The location of initial settlement outpost, from which arose Turka, was determined by the so-called "Path of Rus" - Neolithic trade route that connected through the Turka Western Europe to Hungary, Moldova and the Balkan countries.

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Uhniv
Uhniv (Ukrainian: Угнів, Polish: Uhnów, Yiddish: הובנוב) is a city in the Lviv Oblast (province) of western Ukraine. Population is 1,021 (2001).
Uhniv (or Uhnow, Uchnów or Hivniv) is the smallest city of Ukraine aside couple of cities in the Zone of alienation in the northern Ukraine. It is part of Sokal Raion and is located 22 km from Belz and 21 km from Rava Ruska. The capital of the district is Lviv (Lwów). It is located almost on the Ukrainian-Polish border.
At the end of 2nd century AD the Goths invaded Galicia. They conquered the Hivniv area and settled there. At the end of the 4th century the Huns conquered and replaced the Goths. In the middle of the 5th century the Slovenes took control of the area. In 1019 the area was conquered by Polish Crown; until 1462 the area was under ducal control. In that year Belz was established as a capital of voivodeship (pol. województwo) under Polish rule - this district included the town that was later called Hivniv. The settlements in the Belz area belonged to various owners; some to the kingdom (these were called crown cities) and some individuals calles squires. In that year (1462) King Casimir IV Jagiellon gave town privileges and the name Uhnów (Hivniv) to the place, so the village became an independent town, free of wider supervision. The inhabitants were not under the squires control but under the king's rule.

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Ukraina Stadium
Ukraina Stadium (Ukrainian: стадіон Україна) is a multi-purpose stadium in Lviv, Ukraine. It is currently used mostly for football matches, and is the home of FC Karpaty Lviv. "Ukraina" is also an alternative stadium for the Ukraine national football team where it played several of its qualification games for various tournaments. The stadium is located in the central part of the city in the Snopkiv Park which is classified as the monument of park architecture (landscape art).
The stadium was erected in three years by the method of public construction (collective construction), meaning that each big company of Lviv was responsible for construction of its own part of the future stadium. The construction was headed by the third secretary of the Communist Party City Committee, Vasyl Mazur, who also took part in the construction. The architects were Yaroslav Nazarkevych, Larysa Skoryk, Yaroslav Porokhnavets, Volodymyr Blyusyuk. The official debut game took place on August 18, 1963 when the local Karpaty Lviv were playing against the visiting Zalgiris Vilnius. On the 86th minute Ivan Dykovets failed to convert a penalty kick and the game ended in the loss by the home team, 0:1.

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Ukraine
Ukraine (ⁱ/juːˈkreɪn/ yew-KRAYN; Ukrainian: Україна, transliterated: Ukrayina, [ukrɑˈjinɑ]; Russian: Украина; Crimean Tatar: Ukraina) is a country in Central and Eastern Europe. Ukraine borders the Russian Federation to the east and northeast, Belarus to the northwest, Poland, Slovakia and Hungary to the west, Romania and Moldova to the southwest, and the Black Sea and Sea of Azov to the south and southeast, respectively. It has an area of 603,628 km², making it the second largest contiguous country on the European continent, after the Russian Federation.
According to a popular and well established theory, the medieval state of Kievan Rus was established by the Varangians in the 9th century as the first historically recorded East Slavic state which emerged as a powerful nation in the Middle Ages until it disintegrated in the 12th century. By the middle of the 14th century, Ukrainian territories were under the rule of three external powers—the Golden Horde, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and the Kingdom of Poland. After the Great Northern War (1700–1721) Ukraine was divided between a number of regional powers and, by the 19th century, the largest part of Ukraine was integrated into the Russian Empire with the rest under Austro-Hungarian control. A chaotic period of incessant warfare ensued, with several internationally recognized attempts at independence from 1917 to 1921, following World War I and the Russian Civil War. Ukraine emerged from its own civil war, and on December 30, 1922 Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic became one of the founding republics of the Soviet Union. The Ukrainian SSR's territory was enlarged westward during the civil war shortly before, and after World War II, and further south in 1954 with the Crimea transfer. In 1945, the Ukrainian SSR became one of the founding members of the United Nations.

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Ukrainian SSR
The Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic or in short, the Ukrainian SSR (Ukrainian: Українська Радянська Соціалістична Республіка, Українська РСР; Russian: Украинская Советская Социалистическая Республика, Украинская ССР; See Name section) or Soviet Ukraine was a sovereign Soviet Socialist state (Article 68, Constitution of Ukraine 1978) and one of the fifteen constituent republics of the Soviet Union lasting from its inception in 1922 (the Ukrainian SSR was formally established in 1919) to the breakup in 1991.
Although the Ukrainian SSR was a founding member of the United Nations formed after the end of World War II, it practically had no say in its foreign affairs, which was tightly controlled by Moscow authorities. Upon the Soviet Union's dissolution and perestroika, the Ukrainian SSR was transformed into the modern nation-state of Ukraine, although Ukraine's new constitution was only ratified on June 28, 1996.
Throughout its 72-year history, the republic's borders changed many times, with a significant portion of what is now Western Ukraine being annexed by Soviet forces in 1939 and the addition of formerly Russian Crimea in 1954. From the start, the eastern city of Kharkiv served as the republic's capital. However, in 1934, the seat of government was subsequently moved to the city of Kiev, which remained the capital of newly-independent Ukraine.

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United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK, or Britain) is a sovereign state located off the north-western coast of continental Europe. The country includes the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland and many smaller islands. Northern Ireland is the only part of the UK that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. Apart from this land border the UK is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea, the English Channel and the Irish Sea.
The United Kingdom is a unitary state governed under a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary system, with its seat of government in the capital city of London. It is a country in its own right and consists of four countries: England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales. There are three devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in Belfast, Edinburgh and Cardiff, the capitals of Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales. Associated with the UK, but not constitutionally part of it, are three Crown Dependencies. The United Kingdom has fourteen overseas territories. These are remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in 1922, encompassed almost a quarter of the world's land surface and was the largest empire in history. British influence can still be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former territories.

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USSR
The Soviet Union (Russian: Советский Союз, tr. Sovetsky Soyuz), officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR; Russian: Сою́з Сове́тских Социалисти́ческих Респу́блик, tr. Soyuz Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik; IPA: [sɐˈjus sɐˈvʲetskʲɪx sətsɨəlʲɪˈstʲitɕɪskʲɪx rʲɪsˈpublʲɪk] ( listen); abbreviated СССР, SSSR), was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991.
The Soviet Union was a single-party state ruled by the Communist Party from its foundation until 1990. A union of 15 subnational Soviet republics, the Soviet state was structured under a highly centralized government and economy.
The Russian Revolution of 1917 caused the downfall of the Russian Empire. Following the Russian Revolution, there was a struggle for power between the Bolshevik party, led by Vladimir Lenin, and the anti-communist White movement. In December 1922, the Bolsheviks won the civil war, and the Soviet Union was formed with the merger of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic and the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic.

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Uzbekistan
Uzbekistan ⁱ/ʊzˌbɛkɨˈstɑːn/, officially the Republic of Uzbekistan (Uzbek: O‘zbekiston Respublikasi, Ўзбекистон Республикаси) is the only doubly landlocked country in Central Asia and one of only two such countries worldwide. It shares borders with Kazakhstan to the west and to the north, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan to the east, and Afghanistan and Turkmenistan to the south. Before 1991, it was part of the Soviet Union.
Uzbekistan is one of the Turkic states in Central Asia.
Once part of the Persian Samanid and later Timurid empires, the region was conquered in the early 16th century by Uzbek nomads, who spoke an Eastern Turkic language. Most of Uzbekistan’s population today belong to the Uzbek ethnic group and speak the Uzbek language, one of the family of Turkic languages.
Uzbekistan was incorporated into the Russian Empire in the 19th century, and in 1924 became a constituent republic of the Soviet Union, known as the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic (Uzbek SSR). It became independent on 31 August 1991 (officially, from the following day).

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Uzhhorod
Uzhhorod or Uzhgorod (Ukrainian: Ужгород pronounced [ˈuʒɦoˌrɔd]; Hungarian: Ungvár; Slovak: Užhorod; Russian: Ужгород, German: Ungwar, Ungarisch Burg; Polish: Użhorod; Romanian: Ujhorod) is a city located in western Ukraine, at the border with Slovakia and near the border with Hungary. It is the administrative center of the Zakarpattia Oblast (region), as well as the administrative center of the surrounding Uzhhorodskyi Raion (district) within the oblast. The city itself is also designated as its own separate raion within the oblast.
The city gets its name from the Uzh River, which divides the city into two halves (the old and new sections). Uzh (Уж) means ringed snake (Natrix natrix), and horod (город) is Rusyn for city, coming from Old Slavonic grad (градъ). However, this name is a recent construct, and has been used only since the beginning of the 20th century. Before then, the city was known as Ungvar, also spelled Ongvar, Hungvar, and Unguyvar.
The city's name is spelled Ужгород in Rusyn, Ukrainian and Russian, transliterated "Uzhhorod" from Rusyn and Ukrainian, "Uzhgorod" from Russian. Until the end of the 20th century, the city was known in English as Uzhgorod.

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Velyki Mosty
Velyki Mosty (Ukrainian: Великі Мо́сти; Polish: Mosty Wielkie; Hebrew: מוסט רבתי‎) is a city in the Sokalskyi Raion of the Lviv Oblast (province) of Western Ukraine. Population is 5,925 (2001).
Coordinates: 50°14′24″N 24°08′22″E / 50.24°N 24.13944°E / 50.24; 24.13944

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Vienna Secession
The Vienna Secession (also known as the Union of Austrian Artists, or Vereinigung Bildender Künstler Österreichs) was formed in 1897 by a group of Austrian artists who had resigned from the Association of Austrian Artists, housed in the Vienna Künstlerhaus. This movement included painters, sculptors, and architects. The first president of the Secession was Gustav Klimt, and Rudolf von Alt was made honorary president. Its official magazine was called "Ver Sacrum".
The Vienna Secession was founded on 3 April 1897 by artists Gustav Klimt, Koloman Moser, Josef Hoffmann, Joseph Maria Olbrich, Max Kurzweil, and others. Although Otto Wagner is widely recognised as a fundamental member of the Vienna Secession he was not a founding member. The Secession artists objected to the prevailing conservatism of the Vienna Künstlerhaus with its traditional orientation toward Historicism. The Berlin and Munich Secession movements preceded the Vienna Secession, which held its first exhibition in 1898.
The group earned considerable credit for its exhibition policy, which made the French Impressionists somewhat familiar to the Viennese public. The 14th Secession exhibition, designed by Josef Hoffmann and dedicated to Ludwig van Beethoven, was especially famous. A statue of Beethoven by Max Klinger stood at the center, with Klimt's Beethoven frieze mounted around it.

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Vienna State Opera
The Vienna State Opera (Wiener Staatsoper) is an opera house – and opera company – with a history dating back to the mid-19th century. It is located in the centre of Vienna, Austria. It was originally called the Vienna Court Opera (Wiener Hofoper). In 1920, with the replacement of the Habsburg Monarchy by the First Austrian Republic, it was renamed the Vienna State Opera. The members of the Vienna Philharmonic are recruited from its orchestra.
The building was the first major building on the Vienna Ringstraße commissioned by the controversial Viennese "city expansion fund". Work commenced on the building in 1861 and was completed in 1869, following plans drawn up by architects August Sicard von Sicardsburg and Eduard van der Nüll, who lived together in the 6. Bezirk. It was built in the Neo-Renaissance style.
The Ministry of the Interior had commissioned a number of reports into the availability of certain building materials, with the result that stones long not seen in Vienna were used, such as Wöllersdorfer Stein, for plinths and free-standing, simply-divided buttresses, the famously hard stone from Kaisersteinbruch, whose colour was more appropriate than that of Kelheimerstein, for more lushly decorated parts. The somewhat coarser-grained Kelheimerstein (also known as Solnhof Plattenstein) was intended as the main stone to be used in the building of the opera house, but the necessary quantity was not deliverable. Breitenbrunner stone was suggested as a substitute for the Kelheimer stone, and stone from Jois was used as a cheaper alternative to the Kaiserstein. The staircases were constructed from polished Kaiserstein, while most of the rest of the interior was decorated with varieties of marble.

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Vinnytsia
Vinnytsia (Ukrainian: Ві́нниця, pronounced [ˈwinːɪt͡sʲɑ]; also known by other names) is a city located on the banks of the Southern Bug, in central Ukraine. It is the administrative center of Vinnytsia Oblast.
Vinnytsia is also known by a variety of other names, such as Vinnytsya, Vinnitsa (Russian: Ви́нница), Vinnica (Polish: Winnica), German: Winniza, and Romanian: Vinniţa. All of the variations of the city's name originate with the Slavic word for Vineyards, ultimately derived from Latin vīnea for the word vine. Some of these reflect names in foreign languages that have had historical influences on the city.
Vinnytsia is located about 260 km (160 mi) from the Ukrainian capital, Kyiv, 429 km (267 mi) from the port city Odesa, and 369 km (229 mi) from L’viv.
It is the administrative center of the Vinnytsia Oblast (province), as well as the administrative center of the surrounding Vinnytskyi Raion (district) within the oblast. The city itself is also designated as its own separate raion within the oblast, and rests in the historic region of Podillia.

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Volodymyr-Volynskyi
Volodymyr-Volynsky (Ukrainian: Володимир-Волинський, Latin: Lodomeria, Polish: Włodzimierz) is a city located in Volyn Oblast, in north-western Ukraine. Serving as the administrative centre of the Volodymyr-Volynskyo Raion, the city itself is also designated as a separate raion within the oblast. The city is the historic centre of the region of Volhynia and the historic capital of the Principality of Volhynia.
The mediaeval Latin name of the town became the namesake of the 19th century Austro-Hungarian Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, of which the town itself was not a part. The current estimated population is around 38,000 (as of 2004). 5 km (3 mi) south from Volodymyr is Zymne, where the oldest Orthodox monastery in Volynia is located.
The city is one of the oldest towns in Ruthenia. It was most likely founded in the second half of 10th century; the first documented mention of its name dates back to 988. Early on it became the capital of a separate principality and a seat of an Orthodox bishopric. By 13th century it became part of Galicia–Volhynia as one of the most important trading towns in the region. In the 14th century, Metropolitan Theognostus of all Rus' resided in the city for several years before moving to Moscow.

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Vynnyky
Vynnyky (Ukrainian: Ви́нники) is a city in Lviv Oblast (province) of Ukraine. Population is 13,654 (2001).
The city is part of Lviv-city municipality and is part of Lychakiv Raion of Lviv city.
In 1925 population of the city accounted for 5000 residents out which 3300 were Polish, 2150 - Ruthenians, 350 - Jewish, and 200 - Germans.

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Warsaw
Warsaw (Polish: Warszawa [varˈʂava] ( listen); see also other names) is the capital and largest city of Poland. It is located on the Vistula River, roughly 260 kilometres (160 mi) from the Baltic Sea and 300 kilometres (190 mi) from the Carpathian Mountains. Its population in 2010 was estimated at 1,716,855 residents with a greater metropolitan area of 2,631,902 residents, making Warsaw the 10th most populous city proper in the European Union. The area of the city covers 516.9 square kilometres (199.6 sq mi), while the city's agglomeration covers 6,100.43 square kilometres (2,355.39 sq mi).
Warsaw is an Alpha- global city, a major international tourist destination and an important economic hub in Central Europe. It is also known as the "phoenix city" because it has survived many wars throughout its history. Most notably, the city had to be painstakingly rebuilt after the extensive damage it suffered from World War II, during which 80% of its buildings were destroyed. On 9 November 1940 the city was awarded Poland's highest military decoration for heroism, the Virtuti Militari, for the Siege of Warsaw (1939).

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Whitstable
Coordinates: 51°21′39″N 1°01′33″E / 51.3607°N 1.0257°E / 51.3607; 1.0257
Whitstable ( /ˈwɪtstəbəl/, locally [ˈwɪʔstəbl]) is a seaside town in Northeast Kent, Southeast England. It is approximately 8 kilometres (5 mi) north of the city of Canterbury and approximately 3 kilometres (2 mi) west of the seaside town of Herne Bay. It is part of the City of Canterbury district and has a population of about 30,000.
Whitstable is famous for its oysters, which have been collected in the area since at least Roman times. The town itself dates back to before the writing of the Domesday Book. Whitstable's distinctive character is popular with tourists, and its maritime heritage is celebrated with the annual oyster festival. Freshly caught shellfish are available throughout the year at several seafood restaurants and pubs in the town.
In 1830 one of the earliest passenger railway services was opened by the Canterbury and Whitstable Railway Company, and in 1832 the company opened Whitstable harbour and extended the line to enable passage to London from the port. The railway has since closed but the harbour still plays an important role in the town's economy.

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Winnipeg
Winnipeg ⁱ/ˈwɪnɪpɛɡ/ is the capital and largest city of Manitoba, Canada, and is the primary municipality of the Winnipeg Capital Region, with more than half of Manitoba's population. It is located near the longitudinal centre of North America, at the confluence of the Red and Assiniboine Rivers (a point commonly known as The Forks).
The name "Winnipeg" comes from the Cree for "muddy waters". The Winnipeg area was a trading centre for Aboriginal peoples prior to the arrival of Europeans. The first fort was built there in 1738 by French traders. A settlement was later founded by the Selkirk settlers in 1812, the nucleus of which was incorporated as the City of Winnipeg in 1873 with a population of 1,869. Winnipeg is the seventh-largest municipality in Canada, with a population of 663,617 in the Canada 2011 Census.
Winnipeg has a diversified economy, with sectors in finance, manufacturing, food and beverage production, culture, retail and tourism. Winnipeg is a major transportation hub, served by Richardson International Airport. The city has railway connections to the United States and Eastern and Western Canada through three Class I rail carriers.

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Wrocław
Wrocław ( /ˈvrɒtswəf/; Polish pronunciation: [ˈvrɔt͡swaf] ( listen); German: Breslau [ˈbʁɛslaʊ̯] ( listen); Czech: Vratislav), situated on the River Oder (Polish: Odra), in Lower Silesia. It is the largest city in western Poland.
Wrocław was the historical capital of Silesia, and today is the capital of the Lower Silesian Voivodeship. Over the centuries, the city has been part of either Poland, Bohemia, Austria, Prussia, or Germany, and has been part of Poland since 1945 as a result of border changes after World War II. According to official figures for 2010, its population is 632,996, making it the fourth largest city in Poland.
Wrocław is one of the hosts of UEFA Euro 2012, and has been selected as a European Capital of Culture for 2016. In 2017, Wrocław will host the World Games, a competition in 37 non-olympic sport disciplines.
The city's name was first recorded, in Latin, in the form "Wrotizlava", in the chronicle of Thietmar of Merseburg, which mentions it as a seat of a newly installed bishopric in the context of the Congress of Gniezno. The first municipal seal stated Sigillum civitatis Wratislavie. A simplified name is given, in 1175, as Wrezlaw, Prezla or Breslaw. The Czech spelling was used in Latin documents as Wratislavia or Vratislavia. At that time, Prezla was used in Middle High German, which became Preßlau. In the middle of the 14th century the Early New High German (and later New High German) form of the name Breslau began to replace its earlier versions.

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Yalta Conference
The Yalta Conference, sometimes called the Crimea Conference and codenamed the Argonaut Conference, held February 4–11, 1945 , was the wartime meeting of the heads of government of the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union, represented by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and General Secretary Joseph Stalin, respectively, for the purpose of discussing Europe's post-war reorganization. The conference convened in the Livadia Palace near Yalta, in the Crimea.
The meeting was intended mainly to discuss the re-establishment of the nations of war-torn Europe. Within a few years, with the Cold War dividing the continent, Yalta became a subject of intense controversy. To some extent, it has remained controversial.
Yalta was the second of three wartime conferences among the Big Three (Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin). It had been preceded by the Tehran Conference in 1943, and it was followed by the Potsdam Conference in July 1945, which was attended by Harry S Truman, who replaced the late Roosevelt, Stalin, and Churchill, who was replaced mid-point by the newly elected British Prime Minister Clement Attlee.

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Yalta conference
The Yalta Conference, sometimes called the Crimea Conference and codenamed the Argonaut Conference, held February 4–11, 1945 , was the wartime meeting of the heads of government of the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union, represented by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and General Secretary Joseph Stalin, respectively, for the purpose of discussing Europe's post-war reorganization. The conference convened in the Livadia Palace near Yalta, in the Crimea.
The meeting was intended mainly to discuss the re-establishment of the nations of war-torn Europe. Within a few years, with the Cold War dividing the continent, Yalta became a subject of intense controversy. To some extent, it has remained controversial.
Yalta was the second of three wartime conferences among the Big Three (Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin). It had been preceded by the Tehran Conference in 1943, and it was followed by the Potsdam Conference in July 1945, which was attended by Harry S Truman, who replaced the late Roosevelt, Stalin, and Churchill, who was replaced mid-point by the newly elected British Prime Minister Clement Attlee.

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Yavoriv
Yavoriv (Ukrainian: Яворів; Polish: Jaworów) is a city located in the Lviv Oblast (province) of western Ukraine. It is the administrative center of the Yavoriv Raion and rests approximately 50 km west of the oblast capital, Lviv.
The current estimated population is around 13,500 (as of 2001).
Not far from it is the watering-place of Shklo with sulphur springs. The town was first mentioned in written documents in 1376 and received Magdeburg rights in 1569. It was a favorite residence of king John III Sobieski, who there received the congratulations from the Pope on his success against the Turks at Vienna (1683).
Yavoriv is twinned with:
Coordinates: 49°56′49″N 23°23′35″E / 49.94694°N 23.39306°E / 49.94694; 23.39306

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Zamość
Zamość ([ˈzamɔɕt͡ɕ]; Ukrainian: Замостя Zamostia) is a town in southeastern Poland with 66,633 inhabitants (2004), situated in the south-western part of Lublin Voivodeship (since 1999), about 90 km (55.92 mi) from Lublin, 247 km (153.48 mi) from Warsaw and 60 km (37.28 mi) from the border with Ukraine. About 20 kilometres from the town is the Roztocze National Park.
Before the outbreak of World War II, more than 12,500 Jews lived in Zamosc, accounting for 43 percent of its population. The current Jewish population is 3.
The historical city centre was added to the UNESCO World Heritage List (in 1992) as a result of the decision taken during the sixteenth ordinary session of the World Heritage Committee, held in Santa Fe, New Mexico, USA, from 7 to 14 December 1992.

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Zaporizhia Oblast
Zaporizhia Oblast (Ukrainian: Запорізька область, translit. Zaporiz'ka oblast’; also referred to as Zaporizhzhya – Ukrainian: Запоріжжя) is an oblast (province) of southern Ukraine. Its capital is Zaporizhia.
This oblast is an important part of Ukraine's industry and agriculture.
The area of the province is 27,200 km²; its population (as of 2004-05-01) is 1.9 million.
Important cities include:
The Zaporizhia Oblast was created as part of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic on January 10, 1939.
The territory of the oblast came under the dominion of the Golden Horde after the fall of Kievan Rus'. The steppes off of the Dnieper River were subsequently ruled by the Crimean Khanate, beginning in 1445.
From the 15th century to the 18th century, the northern parts of the province belonged to the Zaporizhian Sich – a self-governed military republic of the Ukrainian Kozaks.
The following sites were nominated for the Seven Wonders of Ukraine.
The Zaporizhia Oblast is administratively subdivided into 20 raions (districts) as well as 5 cities (municipalities) which are directly subordinate to the oblast government: Berdiansk, Enerhodar, Melitopol, Tokmak, and the administrative center of the oblast, Zaporizhia.

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Zhovkva
Zhovkva (Ukrainian: Жовква, Ukrainian pronunciation: [ˈʒɔu̯kwɑ]; Polish: Żółkiew; Yiddish: Zholkva) is a city in the Lviv Oblast (province) of western Ukraine, north of Lviv. It is the administrative center of the Zhovkivskyi Raion (district). The current estimated population is 13,500.
The site of Zhovkva has been inhabited since the 14th century. In 1594, the Polish military commander Stanisław Żółkiewski fortified the settlement and built Żółkiew Castle. Due to its strategic location at the intersection of important trade routes, the town prospered.
In the 17th century, it became the royal residence for King John III Sobieski of Poland, and a hub of religious life, arts and commerce. From its earliest days, the population was a mix of Poles, Ukrainians and Jews. Landmark buildings include a fortress-like synagogue, churches and monasteries.
Before World War II, the town's 4,500 Jews accounted for nearly half the population, but few survived the Holocaust. The synagogue was blown up by the Nazis in 1941, leaving only the outside walls. In 2000, the building was declared one of the world's most endangered sites by the World Monuments Fund.

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Zhytomyr
Zhytomyr (Ukrainian: Жито́мир pronounced [ʒɪˈtɔmɪr], Russian: Жито́мир, Zhitomir, Polish: Żytomierz, Yiddish: זשיטאָמיר) is a city in the North of the western half of Ukraine. It is the administrative center of the Zhytomyr Oblast (province), as well as the administrative center of the surrounding Zhytomyr Raion (district). Note that the city of Zhytomyr is not a part of the Zhytomyr raion: the city itself is designated as its own separate raion within the oblast; moreover Zhytomyr consists of two so-called "raions in a city": the Bohunskyi raion and the Koroliovskyi raion (named in honour of Sergey Korolyov). Zhytomyr is located at around 50°16′N 28°40′E / 50.267°N 28.667°E / 50.267; 28.667, occupying an area of 65 km² (25 sq mi).
The current estimated population is 277,900 (as of 2005).
Zhytomyr is a major transportation hub. The city lies on a historic route linking the city of Kiev with the west through Brest. Today it links Warsaw with Kiev, Minsk with Izmail, and several major cities of Ukraine. Zhytomyr was also the location of Ozerne, a key Cold War strategic aircraft base located 11 km (6.8 mi) southeast of the city.

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Zolochiv
Zolochiv (Ukrainian: Зо́лочів, Polish: Złoczów) is a town located in the Lviv Oblast (province) of western Ukraine. It is the administrative center of the Zolochiv Raion (district).
Zolochiv was incorporated as a town on 15 September 1523 by the Polish king Sigismund I the Old. Located in the Ruthenian Voivodship of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, it belonged to several noble families. In 1772, following the First Partition of Poland, it was annexed by Austria, and in 1918, following the World War I, it passed to Poland. Zolochiv, known then as Złoczów, belonged to the Tarnopol Voivodship until the Polish September Campaign, when it was occupied by the Soviet Union. Now, it is part of independent Ukraine.
Coordinates: 49°48′30″N 24°54′04″E / 49.80833°N 24.90111°E / 49.80833; 24.90111

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Łódź
Łódź ([wut͡ɕ] ( listen); Yiddish: לאדז', Lodzh) is the third-largest city in Poland. Located in the central part of the country, it had a population of 742,387 in December 2009. It is the capital of Łódź Voivodeship, and is approximately 135 kilometres (84 mi) south-west of Warsaw. The city's coat of arms is an example of canting: depicting a boat, it alludes to the city's name which translates literally as "boat".
Łódź first appears in the written record in a 1332 document giving the village of Łodzia to the bishops of Włocławek. In 1423 King Władysław Jagiełło granted city rights to the village of Łódź. From then until the 18th century the town remained a small settlement on a trade route between Masovia and Silesia. In the 16th century the town had fewer than 800 inhabitants, mostly working on the nearby grain farms.
With the second partition of Poland in 1793, Łódź became part of the Kingdom of Prussia's province of South Prussia, and was known in German as Lodsch. In 1798 the Prussians nationalised the town, and it lost its status as a town of the bishops of Kuyavia. In 1806 Łódź joined the Napoleonic Duchy of Warsaw and in 1810 it had 190 inhabitants. In the 1815 Congress of Vienna treaty it became part of Congress Poland, a client state of the Russian Empire.

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Adam Ulam
Adam Bruno Ulam (1922–2000) was a Polish and American historian and political scientist at Harvard University. Ulam was one of the world's foremost authorities on Russia and the Soviet Union, and author of twenty books and many articles.
Ulam was born on April 8, 1922 in Lwów (Lviv), then Poland now Ukraine. After graduating from high school, he emigrated to the United States on or around August 20, 1939, to go to college. This was but days before the German invasion of Poland which marked the beginning of the Second World War. His father had, at the last minute, changed his departure date from September 3 to August 20, most likely saving his life since Poland was invaded by Germany on September 1. His entire family, save for his brother Stanisław Ulam, a famous mathematician and key contributor to the Manhattan Project, perished in the Holocaust. After the United States entered the war, he tried to enlist in the army, but was rejected at first for having "relatives living in enemy territory" and later, after a second attempt, for near-sightedness.

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Adam Zagajewski
Adam Zagajewski (born 21 June 1945 in Lwów) is a Polish poet, novelist, translator and essayist. He was awarded the 2004 Neustadt International Prize for Literature.
Adam Zagajewski was born in Lwów (since January 1, 1946 Lvov, Ukrainian SSR). The Zagajeski family was expelled from Lwów by the Ukrainians to central Poland the same year. In 1982 he emigrated to Paris, but in 2002 he returned to Poland, and resides in Kraków. His poem "Try To Praise The Mutilated World", printed in The New Yorker, became famous after the 11 September attacks. He is currently a faculty member at the University of Chicago and a member of its Committee on Social Thought. He teaches two classes, one of which is on fellow Polish poet Czesław Miłosz.
He was awarded the Bronze Cross of Merit, and twice received the Officer's Cross of the Order of Polonia Restituta. In 1992, he received a Guggenheim Fellowship. He won the 2004 Neustadt International Prize for Literature, and is the second Polish writer to be awarded, after Czesław Miłosz.

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Aleksander Fredro
Aleksander Fredro (June 20, 1793 – July 15, 1876) was a Polish poet, playwright and author.
Count Aleksander Fredro, of the Bończa coat of arms, was born in the village of Surochów near Jarosław, then a crown territory of Austria. A landowner's son, he was educated at home. He entered the Polish army at age 16 and saw action in the Napoleonic wars, including the Moscow campaign. His memoir Topsy Turvy Talk, which echoes the style of Laurence Sterne's Tristram Shandy, recounts his military experiences during Bonaparte's last campaign. While in France in 1814, he took an active interest in French drama. After leaving the army he settled on his estate and began as a writer.
Fredro made his literary debut in 1817, but he was not interested in the problems of Romanticism. He wrote social comedies about the lifestyle of the Polish nobility and is known for his skill in characterization and plot, as well as the flexibility of his language. His work also features humor typical of folk theatre from the period, or farce.

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Aleksander Myszuga
Aleksander Myszuga (sometimes spelled Ołeksandr Mishuga or Olexander Myshuga) was a Polish operatic tenor and voice teacher of Ukrainian descent. He studied voice with Walery Wysocki in Lwów and with Giovanni Sbriglia in Paris. During the last two decades of the 19th century and the first decade of the 20th century he performed with major European opera houses, including making appearances at the Teatr Wielki, Warsaw, the Mariinsky Theatre, the Paris Opera, and the Vienna State Opera. After retiring from the stage, he taught singing in Kiev from 1905–1911 and then in Warsaw from 1911–1914. He established a music school in Stockholm in 1918.

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Andrei Volokitin
Andriy Volokitin (born 18 June 1986 in Lviv) is a Ukrainian chess player and International Grandmaster of Chess.
As a junior, he was twice a medallist at the World Youth Chess Championship, taking silver in 1998 at Oropesa del Mar at under-12 level, and bronze at the same venue a year later in the under-14 category. In 1999, he was a member of the Ukrainian national youth team, which won the U-16 Chess Olympiad in Artek, Ukraine. He achieved the grandmaster title in 2001, when only 15 years old. In 2004 he entered the top 100 of the FIDE world ranking list, won the 73rd Ukrainian Chess Championship and was a member of the gold-medal winning national team at the 36th Chess Olympiad. In 2005 he won the Lausanne young Masters Tournament with a 2984 performance rating. As of January 2012, he is ranked number 48 in the world, with a FIDE listed Elo rating of 2695.

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Andriy Sadovyi
Andriy Ivanovych Sadovyi (Ukrainian: Андрій Іванович Садовий, Andríj Ivanovych Sadovýj) is a Ukrainian politician. He is the mayor of Lviv, the administrative center of the Lviv Oblast of western Ukraine.
Andriy Sadovyi was born on August 19, 1968 in the city of Lviv. In 1987 he graduated at the L’viv Technical School of Radioelectronics. In the following years he got three other degrees. He graduated the Lviv Polytechnic State University, having obtained a degree in Electronic Engineering Technology in 1995 and an economic degree in Finance and Credits in 1997. In 1999, he graduated from the Academy of State Governance under the auspices of the President of Ukraine, having acquired MA. During 1987-1989, he did military service in the army of the USSR.
His first employment was in 1989: he worked as an adjuster of radio-electronic devices at the Lvivprylad Manufacturers. In 1992—1995 he was a deputy director of the Lviv branch of Social Adaptation of Youth Fund under the auspices of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine.

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Armenians
Armenian people or Armenians (Armenian: հայեր, Armenian pronunciation: [hɑˈjɛɾ]) are a nation and ethnic group native to the Armenian Highland.
The largest concentration is in Armenia, having a nearly homogeneous population with 97.9% or 3,145,354 being ethnic Armenian. Because of wide-ranging and long-lasting diaspora, an estimated total of 3 million people of full or partial Armenian ancestry live outside of Armenia. As a result of the Armenian Genocide, a large number of survivors fled to many countries throughout the world, most notably the Russian Empire, the Near East, the United States, France, Iran, Georgia and other parts of Europe (see Armenian diaspora).
Christianity began to spread in Armenia soon after Jesus's death, due to the efforts of two of his apostles, St. Thaddeus and St. Bartholomew In the early 4th century, the Kingdom of Armenia became the first nation to adopt Christianity as a state religion. Most Armenians adhere to the Armenian Apostolic Church, a non-Chalcedonian church, which is also the world's oldest national church.

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Aryan
Aryan /ˈɛərjən/ is an English language loanword derived from the Sanskrit ārya ('Noble'). In present-day academia, the terms "Indo-Iranian" and "Indo-European" have, according to many, made most uses of the term 'Aryan' minimal, and 'Aryan' is now mostly limited to its appearance in the term "Indo-Aryan" to represent (speakers of) North, West and Central Indian languages.
Western notions of an "Aryan race" rose to prominence in late-19th and early-20th century racialist thought, an idea most notably embraced by Nazi ideology (see master race). The Nazis believed that the "Nordic peoples" (who were also referred to as the "Germanic peoples") represent an ideal and "pure race" that was the purest representation of the original racial stock of those who were then called the Proto-Aryans. The Nazis declared that the Nordics were the true Aryans because they claimed that they were more "pure" (less racially mixed with non-native Indo-European peoples) than other people of what were then called the Aryan peoples (now generally called the Indo-European peoples).

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Belarusians
Belarusians (Belarusian: беларусы, biełarusy, Russian: белорусы, byelorusy) are an East Slavic ethnic group who populate the majority of the Republic of Belarus. There are over 8 million people who associate themselves with the Belarusian nationality today.
Belarusians also form minorities in neighboring Poland (especially in the Podlaskie Voivodeship), Russia and Lithuania. At the beginning of 20th century Belarusians constituted a majority in the regions around Smolensk.^{[citation needed]}
Noticeable numbers have emigrated to the United States, Brazil and Canada in the early 20th century. During Soviet times, many Belarusians were deported or migrated to various regions of the USSR, including Siberia, Kazakhstan and Ukraine.
Since the breakup of the USSR several hundred thousand have emigrated to the European Union, United States, Canada and Russia.
The most spoken language in Belarus is Russian, principally spoken by 72% of the population, while the other official language, Belarusian, is only used by 11.9% in every day life. Statistical data shows that Belarusian is fluently communicated, read and written by 29.4%, while 52.5% of the population can communicate and read in Belarusian. Belarusian is a language of the Eastern Slavic group.

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Bohdan Khmelnytsky
Bohdan Zynoviy Mykhailovych Khmelnytsky (Ukrainian: Богдан Зиновій Михайлович Хмельницький, commonly transliterated as Khmelnytsky; Polish: Bohdan Zenobi Chmielnicki; Russian: Богдан Хмельницкий, tr. Bogdan Khmelnitsky) (c. 1595 – 6 August 1657) was a hetman of the Zaporozhian Cossack Hetmanate of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (now part of Ukraine). He led an uprising against the Commonwealth and its magnates (1648–1654) which resulted in the creation of a Cossack state. In 1654, he concluded the Treaty of Pereyaslav with the Tsardom of Russia, which led to the eventual loss of independence to the Russian Empire.
Although there is no definite proof of the date of his birth, it has been suggested by Ukrainian historian Mykhaylo Maksymovych that it is likely 27 December 1595 (St. Theodore's day). As it was the custom in the Orthodox Church, he was baptized with one of his middle names—Theodor, translated into Ukrainian as Bohdan.
The latest biography of Khmelnytsky by Smoliy and Stepankov, however, challenges the 27 December date and suggests that it is more likely he was born on 9 November (feast day of St Zenoby, 30 October in Julian Calendar) and was baptised on 11 November (feast day of St. Theodore in the Catholic Church)

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Bohdan-Ihor Antonych
Bohdan Ihor Antonych (5 October 1909, Novytsia – 6 July 1937, Lviv) was a 20th century Ukrainian poet. In 1934 Antonych received third prize honours from the Ivan Franko Society of Writers and Journalists for his work Three Signet Rings.
Antonych was born and raised in the Lemkos village of Novytsia where his father, Vasyl, was a parish priest. In 1928 Antonych left Novytsia to study at Lviv University, where he remained until he received his degree in Slavic studies in 1933. In order to help finance his chosen career of professional writer, he occasionally worked as an editor for journals such as Dazhboh and Karby. Antonych died from pneumonia on 6 July 1937. In October 2009, the National Bank of Ukraine issued a commemorative coin in his honor as a part of their "Outstanding Personalities of Ukraine" series.

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Boroldai
Boroldai (or Burulday, Borolday), also known as Burundai, (Cyrillic: Боролдай) (died 1262) was a notable Mongol general of the mid 13th century. He participated in the Mongol invasion of Russia and Europe in 1236-1242.
The clan of Borolday is not clear. He was probably from one of four tribes that Chinggis Khaan (1162–1227) assigned to his eldest son, Jochi,: the Sanchi'ud (or Salji'ud), Keniges, Uushin, and Je'ured clans.
Serving under Jochi's successor and son, Batu Khan, Borolday's vanguard surprised and crushed the great army of Yuri II, the Grand Prince of Vladimir, at the battle of the Sit River in 1238. He also participated the Siege of Kiev in 1240. After the conquest of Rus, the Mongols invaded Eastern and eastern Central Europe. His name appears as Bujgai or Bujakh in The Secret History of the Mongols. According to the Secret History of the Mongols, Ogedei, Khagan of the Mongol Empire, praised Subotai and Bujgai's merit when he blamed his son Guyuk's arrogant behaviour. Borolday assisted Subotai to prepare the strategy of the final assault during the battle of Mohi (1241). Borolday's division directly attacked the main camp of King Béla IV of Hungary. Batu's brother Shiban's vanguard supported this attack. After a very hard fight, Batu's army crushed the Hungarians and their allies, Croats and Templar Knights at Mohi on April 11, 1241.

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Bruno Schulz
Bruno Schulz (July 12, 1892 – November 19, 1942) was a Polish writer, fine artist, literary critic and art teacher born to Jewish parents, and regarded as one of the great Polish-language prose stylists of the 20th century. Schulz was born in Drohobych, in the province of Galicia then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and spent most of his life there. He was killed by a German Nazi officer.
Bruno Schulz was the son of cloth merchant Jakub and Henrietta Schulz née Kuhmerker. At a very early age, he developed an interest in the arts. He attended school in Drohobych from 1902 to 1910, after which he studied architecture at Lviv Polytechnic. His studies were interrupted by illness in 1911 but he resumed them in 1913 after two years of convalescence. In 1917 he briefly studied architecture in Vienna.
After World War I, the region of Galicia, which included Drohobych, returned to Poland. Schulz taught drawing in a Polish school from 1924 to 1941. His employment kept him in his hometown, although he disliked his profession as a teacher, apparently maintaining it only because it was his sole source of income.

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Casimir Zeglen
Kazimierz Żegleń (Casimir Zeglen), born in 1869 near Tarnopol (today Ternopil, Ukraine), invented the first bulletproof vest. At the age of 18 he entered the Resurrectionist Order in Lwow (today Lviv, Ukraine). In 1890, he moved to the United States. In 1893, after the assassination of Carter Harrison, Sr., the mayor of Chicago, he invented the first bulletproof vest. In 1897, he improved it together with Jan Szczepanik who was the inventor of the first bulletproof armour in 1901. It saved the life Alfonso XIII, the King of Spain - his carriage was covered with Szczepanik's bulletproof armour when a bomb exploded near it.
He was a Catholic priest of St. Stanislaus Kostka Roman Catholic Church in Chicago, then the largest Polish church in the country, with 40,000 in the parish. In his early 20s he began experimenting with the cloth, using steel shavings, moss, hair, etc. but nothing stood the test until he made use of silk. All early experiments produced an inflexible cloth which was more in the nature of a coat of chainmail. After the assassination of Mayor Carter Harrison, Zeglen renewed his efforts to find a bulletproof material and determined to use silk. In his mid 30s he discovered a way to weave the silk, to enable it to capture the bullet, while visiting weaving mills in Vienna, Austria, and Aachen, Germany.

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Crimean Karaites
The Crimean Karaites (Crimean Karaim: sg. къарай - qaray, pl. къарайлар - qaraylar; Trakai Karaim: sg. karaj, pl. karajlar, Hebrew קָרָאִים - qara'im, 'readers', tr. Karaylar), also known as Karaim and Qarays, are a community of ethnic Turkic adherents of Karaite Judaism in Eastern Europe. "Qaray" is a Romanized spelling of the original name "къарай", while "Karaim" is a Russian, Ukrainian, Lithuanian, and Polish name for the community. Originally centered in Crimea, Karaim were established in Lithuania and elsewhere in Europe from late medieval times.
The name "Crimean Karaites" has often been considered as something of a misnomer, as many branches of this community found their way to locations throughout Europe and the Middle East. Historians distinguish between Karaite Jews and Jews who simply left the Levant before the canonization of the Talmud and therefore had no way of being Rabbinic Jews. Whether descended from the non-Rabbinic sects of the Second Temple Period, or from Rabbinate families rebelling against Talmudic rules, these communities started in present day Iran.

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Daniel of Galicia
Daniel I of Galicia or Daniel Romanovych or Danylo Halytskyi (Ukrainian: Данило I Галицький) was a King of Galicia (Halych) (1205–1255), Peremyshl (1211), and Volodymyr (1212–1231). He was crowned by a papal archbishop in Dorohochyn 1253 as the first King of Rus' (1253–1264).
In 1205, after the death of his father, Roman II Mstyslavich, the ruler of Galicia–Volhynia, the boyars of Galicia forced the four-year-old Daniel into exile with his mother Anna of Byzantium and brother Vasylko Romanovich. After the boyars proclaimed one of their own as prince in 1213, the Poles and Hungarians invaded the principality, ostensibly to support the claims of young Daniel and Vasylko, and divided it between themselves. In 1219 he renounced his claims to Galicia in favor of his father-in-law Mstislav the Bold.
In 1221 Daniel re-established his rule over Volhynia, where the boyars and populace had remained loyal to his dynasty. In 1234 he defeated Alexander Vsevolodovich, taking the Duchy of Belz. By 1238, he had defeated the Dobrzyń Knights, and regained most of Galicia, including the capital at Galicia. While the Prussians were under pressure from the Teutonic Order, Daniel attempted to conquer the related Yatvingians.

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Elena Vesnina
Elena Sergeevna Vesnina (Russian: Елена Сергеевна Веснина) (born Lviv, Ukrainian SSR, Soviet Union, on 1 August 1986) is a professional female tennis player from Russia. Her career high rank was #22, achieved on 12 October 2009. She is coached by former ATP tour player Andrei Chesnokov.
In October 2002, aged sixteen years and two months, she gained direct entry into the qualifying draw for her first $10,000 tournament at Giza, Egypt, and succeeded in qualifying for the main draw before losing a close three-set match.
The very next week, once again qualifying at Al-Mansoura to enter the main draw, where she won two further matches in straight sets, beating Hana Šromová of the Czech Republic in Round Two, to reach her first ever $10,000 quarter-final in just her second event played. However, she defaulted her quarter-final tie to her opponent.
In 2003 she began the year entering two successive ITF events India. at Chennai and Bangalore, and not only succeeded in qualifying both times, but also reached her first semi-final and another quarter-final in the main draws, notably losing to future star Akgul Amanmuradova at the quarter-final stage at Bangalore.

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Eliza Orzeszkowa
Eliza Orzeszkowa (June 6, 1841 – May 18, 1910), was a Polish novelist and a leading writer of the Positivism in Poland during foreign Partitions. She was born to a noble Pawłowski family in Milkowszczyzna, and died in Grodno (now Hrodna, Belarus) nearby. At the age of sixteen, Eliza married Piotr Orzeszko, a Polish nobleman twice her own age, who was exiled to Siberia after the January Uprising of 1863. They were legally separated in 1869. She married again in 1894, after a 30-year-long loving relationship with Stanisław Nahorski who died a few years later.
Orzeszkowa wrote a series of 30 novels and 120 powerful sketches, dramas and novellas, dealing with the social conditions of her occupied country. Her novel Eli Makower (1875) describes the relations between the Jews and the Polish nobility; and Meir Ezofowicz (1878), the conflict between Jewish orthodoxy and modern liberalism. In 1888 Orzeszkowa wrote two novels about the Niemen River (now part of Belarus): Cham (The Boor) focused on the life of fishermen; and her most famous novel, Nad Niemnem (On the Niemen) – often compared to Pan Tadeusz – dealing with the issues of Polish aristocracy against the backdrop of political and social order. Her study on patriotism and cosmopolitanism appeared in 1880. A uniform edition of her works was published in Warsaw between 1884–1888. Much of her output is available also in German translation.

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Emanuel Ax
Emanuel Ax (born 8 June 1949) is a Grammy-winning American classical pianist. He is currently a teacher on the faculty of the Juilliard School. He is considered one of the best known concert pianists of the 21st century.
Ax was born in Lviv, Ukraine, to Joachim and Hellen Ax, both Nazi concentration camp survivors. Ax began to study piano at the age of six; his father was his first piano teacher. When he was eight the family moved to Warsaw, Poland (where he studied piano playing at Miodowa school) and then two years later to Winnipeg, Canada where he continued to study music, including as a member of The Junior Musical Club of Winnipeg. In 1961 the family moved to New York City and Ax continued his studies at the Juilliard School under Mieczysław Munz. In 1970 he received his B.A. in French at Columbia University and became an American citizen. In 1973 he won the Young Concert Artists International Auditions.
Ax is a particular supporter of contemporary composers and has given three world premieres in the last few seasons; Century Rolls by John Adams, Seeing by Christopher Rouse and Red Silk Dance by Bright Sheng. He also performs works by such diverse figures as Sir Michael Tippett, Hans Werner Henze, Joseph Schwantner and Paul Hindemith, as well as more traditional composers such as Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, and Chopin.

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Ethnic Poles
The Polish people, or Poles (Polish: Polacy [pɔˈlat͡sɨ]; singular: Polak), are a nation indigenous to Poland. They speak the Polish language, which belongs to the historical Lechitic subgroup of West Slavic languages of Central Europe. The Polish word for a Polish person is "Polak" (masculine) and "Polka" (feminine).
The preamble to the Constitution of the Republic of Poland defines the Polish nation as comprising all the citizens of Poland. Poland's inhabitants live in the following historic regions of the country: Wielkopolska, Małopolska, Mazovia, Pomerania, Warmia, Mazury, Podlasie, Kujawy and Silesia. A wide-ranging Polish diaspora exists throughout Europe (Germany, France, the United Kingdom, Belarus, Lithuania and Ukraine), the Americas (the United States, Brazil and Argentina) and Australia. Chicago, in the United States, has the world's largest urban Polish population after Warsaw.
Over a thousand years ago, the Polans of Giecz, Gniezno and Poznań — an influential tribe in Wielkopolska — succeeded in uniting Lechitic tribes under what became the Piast dynasty, thus giving rise to the Polish state.

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Filaret Kolessa
Filaret Mykhailovych Kolessa (Ukrainian: Філарет Михайлович Колесса) (1871 - February 4, 1947) was a Ukrainian ethnographer, folklorist, composer, musicologist and literary critic. He was a member of the Shevchenko Scientific Society from 1909, The Free Ukrainian Academy of Sciences from 1929, and the founder of Ukrainian ethnographic musicology.
Filaret Mykhailovych Kolessa was born in the village of Tatarsk (now the village of Pishchane, Lviv oblast). He studied at the University of Vienna under Anton Bruckner from 1891 - 1892 and he completed his studies at the Lviv University in 1896. Filaret taught in various high schools in Lviv, Stryi, and Sambir. He worked with Ivan Franko, Mykola Lysenko, Lesia Ukrainka. In 1918 he defended his dissertation at the University of Vienna and received the title "Doctor of Philology". He studied the rhythms of Ukrainian folk songs of Galicia, Volhyn and Lemkivshchyna. From 1939 he was a professor at the Lviv University, from 1940 the director of the State museum of ethnography in Lviv, director of the Lviv section of the Institute for Art studies, Folklore and Ethnography of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR (from 1940), and a participant at international conferences of musicologists and philologists at Prague, Warsaw, Vienna, and Antwerp.

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Gabriela Moyseowicz
Gabriela Maria Moyseowicz(b. May 4, 1944 in Lwów) is a Polish composer and pianist.
Gabriela Moyseowicz played piano skillfully at the age of three. She was recognized as a musical prodigy at music schools in Gdańsk, Bytom and Gliwice. At the age of 13, Gabriela composed a 25-minute concerto for two pianos. She performed it before a group of respected professors-musicians in Kraków and was instantly admitted to the prestigious Academy of Music in Kraków. The concerto was both classical & romantic in style. The work and a number of superb fugues she composed as school-exercises were the first indicators of the scope of the composer’s talent.
A renowned musical critic in Kraków¹ highly praised the first atonal composition of Gabriela - “The Piano Sonata No. 1” (1960). Also, the atonal chamber work “Media Vita” (1961) was met with a warm reaction by both the public and musical critics.
From 1962 Moyseowicz attended composition classes at the Academy of Music in Kraków and the State Conservatory in Katowice, and graduated from the latter in 1967. She was awarded the degree of Master of Arts after submitting her second piano concerto. A stormy discussion resulted, among the local professors, over Gabriela’s dissertation in which she had presented her artistic attitudes.

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Gabriela Zapolska
Maria Gabriela Stefania Korwin-Piotrowska (1857–1921), known as Gabriela Zapolska, was a Polish novelist, playwright, naturalist writer, feuilletonist, theatre critic and stage actress. Zapolska wrote 41 plays, 23 novels, 177 short stories, 252 works of journalism, one film script, and over 1,500 letters.
Zapolska received most recognition for her socio-satirical comedies. Among them, Moralność pani Dulskiej (The Morality of Mrs. Dulska) – a tragic-farce about petty-bourgeois – is considered the most famous internationally. It is regarded as a landmark of early modernist Polish drama. Her stage plays were translated into foreign languages, and performed at Polish and European theatres, as well as adapted for radio and film. Zapolska herself acted on stage in over 200 plays in Warsaw, Kraków, Poznań, Lwów, Saint Petersburg and Paris.
Zapolska was born on 30 March 1857 in Podhajce, Volhynia, to a family of Polish gentry; on the territory ruled by Austria-Hungary after the Third and final Partition of Poland, (now Pidhaitsi, Ukraine). Her father was a marshal of Volhynian szlachta. Zapolska studied at the Sacré Coeur Institute and in the Institute of Education and Science in Lwów. In 1876 she was forced by her family to marry a Polish lieutenant in the Tsarist guard, Konstanty Śnieżko-Błocki, but soon left him and divorced in 1888. During the years of 1879–1880 she lived in Warsaw, where she acted in an amateur theatre ran by the Philanthropy Society. In 1881 Zapolska became pregnant by an out-of-wedlock relationship and left her family. The same year she made her own short story debut by Jeden dzień z życia róży (One Day in the Life of a Rose). The following year, in 1882, she became a professional actress in the Kraków theatre, and assumed the pseudonym of Gabriela Zapolska. She also acted in Poznań, and in travelling troupes throughout the Congress Poland. In October 1888 she reportedly made a suicide attempt.

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Henryk Sienkiewicz
Henryk Adam Aleksander Pius Sienkiewicz (Polish pronunciation: [ˈxɛnrɨk ˈadam alɛˈksandɛr ˈpʲus ɕɛŋˈkʲevʲit͡ʂ]; also known as "Litwos" [ˈlitfɔs]; May 5, 1846 – November 15, 1916) was a Polish journalist and Nobel Prize-winning novelist. A Polish szlachcic (noble) of the Oszyk coat of arms, he was one of the most popular Polish writers at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, and received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1905 for his "outstanding merits as an epic writer."
Born into an impoverished noble family in Russian-ruled Poland, Sienkiewicz wrote historical novels set during the Rzeczpospolita (Polish Republic, or Commonwealth). Many of his novels were first serialized in newspapers, and even today are still in print. In Poland, he is best known for his historical novels "With Fire and Sword", "The Deluge", and "Fire in the Steppe" (The Trilogy) set during the 17th-century Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, while internationally he is best known for Quo Vadis, set in Nero's Rome. Quo Vadis has been filmed several times, most notably the 1951 version.

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Henryk Vogelfänger
Henryk Vogelfänger (4 October 1904 – 6 October 1990), stage name Tońko, was a Polish actor. He worked and lived in prewar Lwów (now Lviv, Ukraine). Together with Kazimierz Wajda he was the star of the radio comedy duo "Szczepko and Tońko", which was widely popular in Poland.

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Henryk Wars
Henryk Wars (birth name Warszawski, Varshavski, or Warszowski) (December 29, 1902, Warsaw - September 1, 1977, USA) was a Polish and later an American neutralized citizen pop music composer. He wrote the music for 50 films in the interwar period in Poland and sixty more in the United States.
He wrote dozens of hits for the revue-theatres and films including Miłość ci wszystko wybaczy (Love Will Forgive You Everything) sung by Hanka Ordonówna, Umówiłem się z nią na dziewiatą (I Have A Date With Her At Nine) and Sex Appeal sung by Eugeniusz Bodo, Ach, jak przyjemnie (Ah, How Lovely!) and Już nie zapomnisz mnie (Now, You Will Remember Me) sung by Aleksander Żabczyński.
Wars was born to a Jewish musical family in the Russian partition of Poland. He began studies at the Academy of Fine Arts, but soon obtained a scholarship to the Music Conservatory in Warsaw, where he finished in 1925, having studied composition with Professor Roman Statkowski and Emil Młynarski. He was long-time music director for Syrena Rekord. In 1927 he composed a song called New York Times ("I do nothing all day but read the New York Times"), sung in the theatre Karuzela (Merry-Go-Round) by Tadeusz Olsza and recorded by Henryk Gold's Orchestra for Syrena Rekord. His first big hit, though, was Zatańczmy tango (Let's Dance a Tango), composed in 1928 for Stanisława Nowicka and Eugeniusz Bodo. He was hired as a pianist for the Perskie Oko theater and joined Henryk Gold's band.

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Hugo Steinhaus
Władysław Hugo Dionizy Steinhaus (January 14, 1887 – February 25, 1972) was a Polish mathematician and educator. Steinhaus obtained his PhD under David Hilbert at Göttingen University in 1911 and later became a professor at the University of Lwów, where he helped establish what later became known as the Lwów School of Mathematics. He is credited with "discovering" mathematician Stefan Banach, with whom he gave a notable contribution to functional analysis through the Banach-Steinhaus theorem. After World War II Steinhaus played an important part in the establishment of the mathematics department at Wrocław University and in the revival of Polish mathematics from the destruction of the war.
Author of around 170 scientific articles and books, Steinhaus has left its legacy and contribution on many branches of mathematics, such as functional analysis, geometry, mathematical logic, and trigonometry. Notably he is regarded as one of the early founders of the game theory and the probability theory preceding in his studies, later, more comprehensive approaches, by other scholars.

wn.com/Hugo_Steinhaus
Hungarians
Hungarians, also known as Magyars (Hungarian: magyarok), are a nation and ethnic group who speak Hungarian and are primarily associated with Hungary. There are around 14-15 million Hungarians, of whom 10 million live in today's Hungary (as of 2011). About 2.2 million Hungarians live in areas that were part of the Kingdom of Hungary before the 1918-1920 dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy and the Treaty of Trianon, and are now parts of Hungary's seven neighbour countries, especially Romania, Slovakia, Serbia and Ukraine. Significant groups of people with Hungarian ancestry live in various other parts of the world, most of them in the United States, Germany, the United Kingdom, Brazil, Argentina, Chile, Canada and Australia. Unlike the Hungarians living on the former territory of pre-1918-20 Kingdom of Hungary, only some of the ethnic Hungarians in other areas preserve the Hungarian language and traditions. The Hungarians can be classified into several subgroups according to local linguistic and cultural characteristics; subgroups with distinct identities include the Székely, the Csángó, the Palóc, and the Jassic people.

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Hutsuls
Hutsuls (Ukrainian: Гуцули, singular Гуцул; alternatively spelled Huculs, Huzuls, Hutzuls, Gutsuls, Guculs, Guzuls, or Gutzuls; Polish: Hucuł, plural Huculi, Hucułowie) are an ethno-cultural group of Ukrainian highlanders who for centuries have inhabited the Carpathian mountains, mainly in Ukraine, the northern extremity of Romania (in the areas of Bukovina and Maramureş).

There are different versions for the origins of the name Hutsul. An explanation is that it comes from the Romanian word for "outlaw" (cf. Rom. hoţ - "thief", hoţul - "the thief"). Other explanations place their origins in the Slavic kochul - "wanderer","migrant", in reference to their semi-nomadic lifestyle, to the name of the Turkic tribe of the Uzy, and even to the name of the Moravian Grand Duke Hetsyla.
Hutsuls inhabit areas situated between the south-east of those inhabited by the Boykos, down to the northern part of the Romanian segment of the Carpathians. There are several hypotheses concerning the origin of Hutsuls. According to one of them, Hutsuls are descendants of White Croats, Slavic tribe that inhabited area from 4th until 12th century or Slavic tribe Ulichs, that had to leave their previous homes near the Buh river under the pressure of Pechenegs. Hutsuls identify themselves as a part of Ukrainian ethnos, having at the same time their local identity as a sub-ethnos.

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Ignacy Łukasiewicz
Jan Józef Ignacy Łukasiewicz (Polish pronunciation: [wukaˈɕɛvʲitʂ]; 1822–1882) was a Polish pharmacist and petroleum industry pioneer who in 1856 built the first oil refinery in the world. Among his other achievements were the discovery of how to distill kerosene from seep oil, the invention of the modern kerosene lamp (1853), the introduction of the first modern street lamp in Europe (1853), and the construction of the first oil well in Poland (1854).
Łukasiewicz became a wealthy man and one of the most prominent philanthropists in Galicia. Because of his support for the economical development of the region, a popular saying was coined attributing all paved roads to his guldens.

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Ioan Potcoavă
Ioan al IV-lea Potcoavă (or Ivan Pidkova - Іван Підкова in Ukrainian; also known as Ioan Sarpega, Ioan Creţul, and allegedly baptized as Nicoară Potcoavă; died June 16, 1578) was a Hetman of Ukrainian Cossacks (1577 - 1578; possibly the first one in history to be elected by the entire Zaporizhian Sich), and Voivode (Prince) of Moldavia (November - December 1577). His moniker ("potcoavă" in Romanian/"pidkova" in Ukrainian - "horseshoe") is said to originate in the fact that he used to ride his stallions to the point of breaking off their horseshoes; another version says that he could break and unbend both horseshoes and coins with his fists.
After rising to prominence as a successful soldier, he was elected Hetman by the Cossacks of the Zaporozhian Host neighbouring Moldavia. Such elections do not appear to have been uncommon; Stefan Batory, the Prince of Transylvania stated that:
In 1574, Ioan Vodă cel Cumplit named the territory "Our Country from over the Dniester". Other Moldavian Hetmans of the Cossacks were Grigore Lobodă (Hryhoriy Loboda; 1593–1596) and Dănilă Apostol (Danylo Apostol; 1727–1734).

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Ivan Franko
Ivan Yakovych Franko (Ukrainian: Іван Якович Франко, pronounced [iˈvɑn ˈjɑkovɪt͡ʃ frɑnˈko]) (August 27 [O.S. August 15] 1856 – May 28 [O.S. May 15] 1916) was a Ukrainian poet, writer, social and literary critic, journalist, interpreter, economist, political activist, doctor of philosophy, the author of the first detective novels and modern poetry in the Ukrainian language.
He was a political radical, and a founder of the socialist and nationalist movement in western Ukraine. In addition to his own literary work, he also translated the works of such renowned figures as William Shakespeare, Lord Byron, Pedro Calderón de la Barca, Dante, Victor Hugo, Adam Mickiewicz, Goethe and Schiller into the Ukrainian language. Along with Taras Shevchenko, he has had a tremendous impact on modern literary and political thought in Ukraine.
Franko was born in the Ukrainian village of Nahuievychi (Ukrainian: Нагуєвичі) located then in the Austrian kronland Galicia, today part of Drohobych Raion, Lviv Oblast, Ukraine. As a child he was baptized as Ivan by Father Yosyp Levytsky known as a poet and the author of the first Galician-Ruthenian Hramatyka and who was exiled to Nahuyevychi for a "sharp tongue". At home, however, Ivan was called Myron because of a local superstitious belief that naming a person by different name will dodge a death. Franko's family in Nahuyevychi was considered "well-to-do", with their own servants and 24 hectares (59 acres) of their own property.

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Ivan Trush

Ivan Trush (Ukrainian: Іван Труш, pronounced as Troosh) was a Ukrainian impressionist painter, a master of landscape and portraiture, an art critic, and active community patron of arts in Galicia or Halychyna - a historical region in western Ukraine.
Trush was born in Verkhnye Vysotske, Lviv Oblast in 1869. His studies were undertaken between 1891-1897 at the Kraków Academy of Art under Jan Stanisławski and Leon Wyczółkowski. Trush also studied in Vienna (1894) and in Munich (1897).
Starting from 1898, Trush lived and worked in Lviv where he became acquainted with Ivan Franko, a poet and writer. In 1899, his first art exhibit was presented to the public in Lviv. It was at this time that Trush became involved with the Shevchenko Scientific Society, for which he completed "a number of works of art, primarily portraits".
Trush's travels took him to Italy, Egypt, and Palestine. When back at home, Trush founded and organized the first professional art societies in Galicia, the Society for the Development of Rus' Art (1898), the Society of Friends of Ukrainian Art (1905) and its first exhibition of Ukrainian artists, which drew participation from Kiev-based artists.

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Jadwiga of Poland
Jadwiga (1373/4 – 17 July 1399) was monarch of Poland from 1384 to her death. Her official title was 'king' rather than 'queen', reflecting that she was a sovereign in her own right and not merely a royal consort. She was a member of the Capetian House of Anjou, the daughter of King Louis I of Hungary and Elizabeth of Bosnia. She is known in Polish as Jadwiga, in English and German as Hedwig, in Lithuanian as Jadvyga, in Hungarian as Hedvig, and in Latin as Hedvigis.
Queens regnant being relatively uncommon in Europe at the time, Jadwiga was officially crowned a King. She is venerated by the Roman Catholic Church as Saint Hedwig, where she is the patron saint of queens.^{[citation needed]}
Jadwiga was the youngest daughter of Louis I of Hungary and of Elizabeth of Bosnia. Jadwiga could claim descent from the House of Piast, the ancient native Polish dynasty on both her mother's and her father's side. Her paternal grandmother Elisabeth of Kujavia was the daughter of King Władysław I the Elbow-high, who had reunited Poland in 1320.

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Jan Kasprowicz
Jan Kasprowicz (December 12, 1860 – August 1, 1926) was a poet, playwright, critic and translator; a foremost representative of Young Poland.
Kasprowicz was born in the village of Szymborze (now part of Inowrocław) within the Province of Posen, to an illiterate peasant family. From 1870 he studied in Prussian gymnasia in Inowrocław, Poznań, Opole, Racibórz, and in 1884 graduated from Mary Magdalen Gymnasium in Poznań. He studied philosophy and literature in German universities in Leipzig and Wrocław. During his studies he began having articles and poetry published, working with various Polish magazines. For his activities in socialist circles he was twice arrested by Prussian police and spent half a year in prison.
After his release from prison, at the age of 28 Kasprowicz moved to Lwów, where he spent the next 35 years of his life. He worked as a journalist and critic of literature and theatre, working for two years in the editorial department of the newspaper, the Polish Courier (Kurier Polski) and for the following four years (1902–1906) editorializing for the newspaper, the Polish Word (Słowo Polskie). At the same time, with unusual productivity, Kasprowicz wrote and had published his own works and poetry, to critical acclaim.

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Jan Kiliński
Jan Kiliński (1760 in Trzemeszno - 28 January 1819 in Warsaw) was one of the commanders of the Kościuszko Uprising. A shoemaker by trade, he commanded the Warsaw Uprising of 1794, an uprising against the Russian garrison in Warsaw. He became a member of Polish provisional government as well.
Jan Kiliński was born in Trzemeszno, a minor town in the historical region of Greater Poland. In 1780 he settled in Warsaw, where he became a shoemaking master in 1788. One of the most prominent burghers of the time, he was elected member of the city council three times in a row between 1791 and 1793. During the Warsaw Uprising of 1794, Kiliński formed a unit of National Militia and lead his forces, along with the forces of the regular army, against the Russian occupation forces. On April 19 of that year, following the Russian withdrawal, he signed the Access of the city of Warsaw to the Kościuszko's Uprising and entered the Provisional Temporary Council, a temporary ruling body of the city.
The council was soon disbanded and passed its powers to Tadeusz Kościuszko, and Kiliński focused on strengthening his militias. His forces grew to over 20,000 men at arms and on June 28, 1794 were dispatched to the front to link up with the regular Polish Army. On July 2 of the same year Kościuszko promoted Kiliński to the rank of Colonel. After the failure of the uprising, Kiliński was arrested by the Prussian authorities and handed over to the Russians, who then imprisoned him in the Peter and Paul Fortress, in St. Petersburg. Upon his release in 1796, he lived in Vilna for a short time. However, he was yet again arrested for conspiracy against the tsarist authorities and forcibly resettled to Russia. Upon his return he settled in Warsaw, where he died January 28, 1819. Kiliński was buried in a crypt at the Powązki Cemetery Church. His memoirs were posthumously published in 1830 and 1899 (1st and 2nd volume, respectively).

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Jan Matejko
Jan Matejko ( Polish pronunciation (help·info)) (also known as Jan Mateyko; June 24, 1838 – November 1, 1893) was a Polish painter known for paintings of notable historical Polish political and military events. His most famous works include oil on canvas paintings like Battle of Grunwald, paintings of numerous other battles and court scenes, and a gallery of Polish kings. He is counted among the most famous Polish painters.
Matejko born on June 24, 1838 in the Free City of Kraków. His father, Franciszek Ksawery Matejko (Czech: František Xaver Matějka) (born 1789 or 13 January 1793, died 26 October 1860), a Czech from the village of Roudnice, was a graduate of the Hradec Králové school; who later became a tutor and music teacher. He first worked for the Wodzicki family in Kościelniki, Poland, then moved to Kraków, where he married the half-German, half-Polish Joanna Karolina Rossberg. Jan was the ninth child from eleven that his parents had. After the death of his mother in 1846, Jan and his siblings were taken care of by his aunt, Anna Zamojska.

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Jerzy Żuławski
Jerzy Żuławski (pronounced [ˈjɛʐɨ ʐuˈwafski]; 14 July 1874 – 9 August 1915) was a Polish literary figure, philosopher, translator, alpinist and nationalist whose best-known work is the science-fiction epic, Trylogia Księżycowa (The Lunar Trilogy), written between 1901 and 1911.
In a twenty-year writing career, from his first book of poems in 1895, at the age of 21, to his final World War I dispatches in 1915, Jerzy Żuławski created an impressive body of work—seven volumes of poetry, three collections of literary criticism, numerous cultural and philosophical essays, ten plays and five novels. He was considered an important and influential intellectual figure in the early years of the 20th century, but a century later, the only creation which has remained in print and assured him literary immortality is The Lunar Trilogy. Stanisław Lem (1921–2006), renowned as the "most widely read science-fiction writer in the world", contributed an introduction to the 1956 and 1975 editions of the Trilogy's initial volume, Na Srebrnym Globie (On the Silver Globe), crediting Żuławski's words with inspiring him to become "a writer of the fantastic" and describing the time he spent reading The Lunar Trilogy as "one of the most fascinating and life-changing experiences" of his youth.

wn.com/Jerzy_Żuławski
Jews
The Jews (Hebrew: יְהוּדִים‎‎ ISO 259-3 Yhudim Israeli pronunciation [jehuˈdim]), also known as the Jewish people, are a nation and an ethnoreligious group, originating in the Israelites or Hebrews of the Ancient Near East. The Jewish ethnicity, nationality, and religion are strongly interrelated, as Judaism is the traditional faith of the Jewish nation.Converts to Judaism, whose status as Jews within the Jewish ethnos is equal to those born into it, have been absorbed into the Jewish people throughout the millennia.
In Jewish tradition, Jewish ancestry is traced to the Biblical patriarchs Abraham, Isaac and Jacob in the second millennium BCE. The modern State of Israel defines itself as a Jewish state in its Basic Laws, and Israel's Law of Return states: "Every Jew has the right to come to this country as an oleh." Israel is the only country where Jews are a majority of the population. Jews achieved political autonomy twice before in ancient history. The first of these periods lasted from 1350 to 586 BCE, and encompassed the periods of the Judges, the United Monarchy, and the Divided Monarchy of the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah, ending with the destruction of the First Temple. The second was the period of the Hasmonean Kingdom spanning from 140 to 37 BCE. Since the destruction of the First Temple, most Jews have lived in diaspora. A minority in every country in which they live (except Israel), they have frequently experienced persecution throughout history, resulting in a population that has fluctuated both in numbers and distribution over the centuries.

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Jimmy Carter
James Earl "Jimmy" Carter, Jr. (born October 1, 1924) is an American politician who served as the 39th President of the United States (1977–1981) and was the recipient of the 2002 Nobel Peace Prize, the only U.S. President to have received the Prize after leaving office. Before he became President, Carter served as a U.S. Naval officer, was a peanut farmer, served two terms as a Georgia State Senator and one as Governor of Georgia (1971–1975).
During Carter's term as President, two new cabinet-level departments were created: the Department of Energy and the Department of Education. He established a national energy policy that included conservation, price control, and new technology. In foreign affairs, Carter pursued the Camp David Accords, the Panama Canal Treaties, the second round of Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT II), and returned the Panama Canal Zone to Panama. Throughout his career, Carter strongly emphasized human rights. He took office during a period of international stagflation, which persisted throughout his term. The end of his presidential tenure was marked by the 1979–1981 Iran hostage crisis, the 1979 energy crisis, the Three Mile Island nuclear accident, the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan (at the end of 1979), 1980 Summer Olympics boycott by the United States of the Moscow Olympics and the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens.

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Jogaila
Jogaila, later Władysław II Jagiełło (help·info) (ca. 1362 – 1 June 1434) was Grand Duke of Lithuania (1377–1434), king consort of Kingdom of Poland (1386–1399), and sole King of Poland (1399–1434). He ruled in Lithuania from 1377, at first with his uncle Kęstutis. In 1386 in Kraków he was baptized as Władysław, married the young queen regnant Jadwiga of Poland, and was crowned King of Poland as Władysław II Jagiełło. In 1387 he converted Lithuania to Christianity. His own reign in Poland started in 1399, upon death of Queen Jadwiga, and lasted a further thirty-five years and laid the foundation for the centuries-long Polish–Lithuanian union. Władysław II was the founder of the Jagiellon dynasty that bears his name, while pagan Jogaila was an heir to the already established house of Gediminids in Grand Duchy of Lithuania; the royal dynasty ruled both states until 1572, and became one of the most influential dynasties in the late medieval and early modern Central and Eastern Europe.
Jogaila was the last pagan ruler of medieval Lithuania. After he became King of Poland, as a result of Union of Krewo, the newly formed Polish-Lithuanian union confronted the growing power of the Teutonic Knights. The allied victory at the Battle of Grunwald in 1410, followed by the Peace of Thorn (1411), secured the Polish and Lithuanian borders and marked the emergence of the Polish–Lithuanian alliance as a significant force in Europe. The reign of Władysław II Jagiełło extended Polish frontiers and is often considered the beginning of Poland's Golden Age.

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John III Sobieski
John III Sobieski (Polish: Jan III Sobieski, Lithuanian: Jonas Sobieskis) (17 August 1629 – 17 June 1696) was one of the most notable monarchs of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, from 1674 until his death King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania. Sobieski's 22-year-reign was marked by a period of the Commonwealth's stabilization, much needed after the turmoil of the Deluge and Khmelnytsky Uprising. Popular among his subjects, he was an able military commander, most famous for the victory over the Turks in the 1683 Battle of Vienna. Following his victories over the Ottoman Empire, he was called by the Turks the "Lion of Lechistan" and held as the saviour of European Christendom by the pope.
John Sobieski was born 1629 in Olesko, a small town near Lwów in Poland (now Lviv, Ukraine) to a notable noble family de Sobieszyn Sobieski of Clan Janina. His father, Jakub Sobieski, was the Palatine of Ruthenia and Castellan of Kraków; his mother, Zofia Teofillia Daniłowicz was a granddaughter of Hetman Stanisław Żółkiewski. After graduating from the Nowodworski College in Kraków, young John Sobieski then graduated from the philosophical faculty of the Jagiellonian University. After finishing his studies, together with his brother Marek Sobieski, John left for western Europe, where he spent more than two years travelling. During that time he met major political figures: Louis II de Bourbon, Charles II of England and William II, Prince of Orange, and learnt French, German and Italian, in addition to Latin. This proved to be vital during his later military career.

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Joseph Roth
Joseph Roth, born Moses Joseph Roth (September 2, 1894 – May 27, 1939), was an Austrian-Jewish journalist and novelist, best known for his family saga Radetzky March (1932) about the decline and fall of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and for his novel of Jewish life, Job (1930) as well as the seminal essay 'Juden auf Wanderschaft' (1927; translated into English as The Wandering Jews), a fragmented account about the Jewish migrations from eastern to western Europe in the aftermath of World War I and the Russian Revolution. In the 21st century, publications in English of Radetzky March and of collections of his journalism from Berlin and Paris created a revival of interest in the author. Roth committed suicide through alcohol abuse in 1939.
Born to a Jewish family, Roth grew up in Brody, a small town near Lemberg (later annexed by the Soviet Union and called Lvov and now annexed by Ukraine and renamed Lviv) in East-Galicia, part of the easternmost reaches of what was then Austro-Hungarian empire. Jewish culture played an important role in the life of the town, which had one of the biggest Jewish populations in Europe. Roth grew up with his mother and her relatives; he never saw his father, who disappeared before he was born.

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Joseph Stalin
Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin (Russian: Иосиф Виссарионович Сталин; born Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili, Russian: Иосиф Виссарионович Джугашвили; 18 December 1878 – 5 March 1953) was the Premier of the Soviet Union from 6 May 1941 to 5 March 1953. He was among the Bolshevik revolutionaries who brought about the October Revolution in Russia in 1917 and later held the position of General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union's Central Committee from 1922 until his death in 1953. While the office of the General Secretary was officially elective and not initially regarded as the top position in the Soviet state, Stalin managed to use it to consolidate more and more power in his hands after the death of Vladimir Lenin in 1924 and gradually put down all opposition groups within the Communist Party. This included Leon Trotsky, a socialist theorist and the principal critic of Stalin among the early Soviet leaders, who was exiled from the Soviet Union in 1929. Whereas Trotsky was an exponent of permanent revolution, it was Stalin's concept of socialism in one country that became the primary focus of Soviet politics.

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Juliusz Schauder
Juliusz Paweł Schauder (September 21, 1899, Lemberg, Austria-Hungary (now Lviv, Ukraine) – September 1943, Lemberg, Occupied Poland) was a Polish mathematician of Jewish origin, known for his work in functional analysis, partial differential equation and mathematical physics.
Born on September 21, 1899 in Lemberg, he had to fight in World War I right after his graduation from school. He was captured and imprisoned in Italy. He entered the university in Lwów in 1919 and received his doctorate in 1923. He got no appointment at the university and continued his research while working as teacher at a secondary school. Due to his outstanding results, he obtained a scholarship in 1932 that allowed him to spend several years in Leipzig and, especially, Paris. In Paris he started a very successful collaboration with Jean Leray. Around 1935 Schauder obtained the position of a senior assistant in the University of Lwów.
Schauder was Jewish, and after the invasion of German troops in Lwów it was impossible for him to continue his work. In his letters to Swiss mathematicians, he wrote that he had important new results, but no paper to write them down. He was executed by the Gestapo, probably in October 1943.

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Józef Piłsudski
Józef Klemens Piłsudski (Polish: [ˈjuzɛf piwˈsutski] ( listen), 5 December 1867 – 12 May 1935) was a Polish statesman—Chief of State (1918–22), "First Marshal" (from 1920), and leader (1926–35) of the Second Polish Republic. From mid-World War I he had a major influence in Poland's politics, and was an important figure on the European political scene. He is considered largely responsible for Poland's regaining its independence in 1918, after 123 years of partitions. Piłsudski successfully annexed Vilnius from Lithuania following Żeligowski's Mutiny but was unable to incorporate most of his Lithuanian homeland into the newly resurrected Polish State.
Early in his political career, Piłsudski became a leader of the Polish Socialist Party. Concluding, however, that Poland's independence would have to be won by force of arms, he created the Polish Legions. In 1914 he anticipated the outbreak of a European war, the Russian Empire's defeat by the Central Powers, and the Central Powers' defeat by the western powers. When World War I broke out, he and his Legions fought alongside the Austro-Hungarian and German Empires to ensure Russia's defeat. In 1917, with Russia faring badly in the war, he withdrew his support from the Central Powers.

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Karl Radek
Karl Bernhardovic Radek (Russian: Карл Бернга́рдович Ра́дек) (31 October 1885 – 19 May 1939) was a socialist active in the Polish and German movements before World War I and an international Communist leader after the Russian Revolution.
He was born in Lemberg, Austria-Hungary (now L'vov in Ukraine), as Karol Sobelsohn, to a Jewish family, his father, Bernhard, worked in the post office and died whilst Karl was young. He took the name Radek from a favourite character, Andrej Radek, in Syzyfowe prace (The Labor of Sisyphus) by Stefan Żeromski.
He joined the Social Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania (SDKPiL) in 1904 and participated in the 1905 Revolution in Warsaw where he was responsible for the party's newspaper Czerwony Sztandar.
In 1907, after being arrested in Poland and escaping, he moved to Leipzig, Germany and joined the Social Democratic Party of Germany(SPD) working on the Party's Leipziger Volkszeitung. He moved to Bremen, where he worked for Bremer Bürgerzeitung, in 1911 and was one of several who attacked Karl Kautsky's analysis of imperialism in Die Neue Zeit in May 1912.

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Karol Borsuk
Karol Borsuk (May 8, 1905, Warsaw – January 24, 1982, Warsaw) was a Polish mathematician. His main interest was topology.
Borsuk introduced the theory of absolute retracts (ARs) and absolute neighborhood retracts (ANRs), and the cohomotopy groups, later called Borsuk-Spanier cohomotopy groups. He also founded the so called Shape theory. He has constructed various beautiful examples of topological spaces, e.g. an acyclic, 3-dimensional continuum which admits a fixed point free homeomorphism onto itself; also 2-dimensional, contractible polyhedra which have no free edge. His topological and geometric conjectures and themes stimulated research for more than half a century.
Borsuk received his master's degree and doctorate from Warsaw University in 1927 and 1930, respectively; his Ph.D. thesis advisor was Stefan Mazurkiewicz. He was a member of the Polish Academy of Sciences from 1952. Borsuk's students included Samuel Eilenberg, Krystyna Kuperberg and Włodzimierz Kuperberg.

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Karol Mikuli
Karol Mikuli, often seen as Carl Mikuli or Charles Mikuli (Armenian: Կարոլ Միկըլի or Կարոլ Պստիկյան; 20 October 1819 – 21 May 1897) was a Armenian-Polish pianist, composer, conductor and teacher.
Mikuli (aka Bsdikian) was born in Czerniowce, then part of the Austrian Empire (now Chernivtsi, Ukraine) to an Armenian family. He studied under Frédéric Chopin for piano (later becoming his teaching assistant) and Anton Reicha for composition. He toured widely as a concert pianist, becoming Director of the Lviv Conservatory in 1858. He founded his own school there in 1888.
His students included Moriz Rosenthal, Raoul Koczalski, Aleksander Michałowski, Jaroslaw Zieliński and Kornelia Parnas. He died in Lemberg, then part of Austria-Hungary (now Lviv, Ukraine) and is buried in the courtyard of the Armenian church in Lviv.
He is most well known as an editor of works by Chopin. Dover Publications currently publishes reprints of his 1879 editions of Chopin's piano music, originally published by F. Kistner (Leipzig). His goal, as stated in the foreword of the edition, was to provide more reliable editions. He used several verified sources, most of which were written or corrected by Chopin himself. His editions of Chopin's works were first published in America in 1895.

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Kazimierz Górski
Kazimierz Klaudiusz Górski (March 2, 1921 – May 23, 2006) was a coach of Poland national football team and honorary president of Polish Football Union (Polski Związek Piłki Nożnej, PZPN). He was also a football player, capped once for Poland.
He was born in Lwów, now Ukraine. He played as a forward in several Polish football teams: RKS Lwów, Spartak Lwów, Dynamo Lwów, Legia Warsaw. Football nickname: "Sarenka" ("Roe-deer"). His glorious career was broken by World War II. In 1948 he participated in his only international match Poland-Denmark (0-8).
He graduated in football training from Higher School of Physical Education in Kraków (Wyższa Szkoła Wychowania Fizycznego, today Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego w Krakowie) and Physical Education Academy in Wrocław (Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego we Wrocławiu) in 1980. He was the coach of Legia Warsaw (3 times), Marymont Warszawa (first independent training job started in 1954), Gwardia Warszawa, Lublinianka Lublin, ŁKS Łódź.
He started as a coach of Polish national junior team from 1956 to 1966, Polish U-23 national team from 1966 to 1970, and finally the first Poland national football team from 1970 to 1976. His first international match was held on 5 May 1971 in Lausanne with Switzerland. His major successes were winning gold medal in the 1972 Olympic Games in Munich; bronze medal for 3rd place in the 1974 World Cup held in Germany; and another silver medal for 2nd place in the 1976 Olympic Games in Montreal. Kazimierz Górski was the coach for the Polish national team in 73 matches (with 45 wins).

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Kazimierz Kuratowski
Kazimierz Kuratowski (February 2, 1896 – June 18, 1980) was a Polish mathematician and logician. He was one of the leading representatives of the Warsaw School of Mathematics.
Kazimierz Kuratowski was born in Warsaw, then part of the Russian Empire, on February 2, 1896. He was a son of Marek Kuratow, a barrister, and Róża Karzewski. He completed a Warsaw secondary school, which was named after general Paweł Chrzanowski. In 1913, he enrolled in an engineering course at the University of Glasgow in Scotland, in part because he did not wish to study in Russian; instruction in Polish was prohibited. He completed only one year of study when the outbreak of World War I precluded any further enrollment. In 1915, Russian forces withdrew from Warsaw and Warsaw University was reopened with Polish as the language of instruction. Kuratowski restarted his university education there the same year, this time in mathematics. He obtained his Ph.D. in 1921, in newly independent Poland.
In autumn 1921 Kuratowski was awarded the Ph.D. degree for his groundbreaking work. His thesis statement consisted of two parts. One was devoted to an axiomatic construction of topology via the closure axioms (Sur la notion de l'ensemble fini, "Fundamenta Mathematicae", 1/1920). This first part (republished in a slightly modified form in 1922) has been cited in hundreds of scientific articles.

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Kazimierz Twardowski
Kazimierz Jerzy Skrzypna-Twardowski (20 October 1866 – 11 February 1938) was a Polish philosopher and logician.
Twardowski's family belonged to the Ogończyk coat-of-arms.
Twardowski studied philosophy in Vienna with Franz Brentano and Robert Zimmermann. In 1892 he received his doctorate with his dissertation, Idee und Perzeption (Idea and Perception), and in 1894 he presented his habilitation thesis, Zur Lehre vom Inhalt und Gegenstand der Vorstellungen (On the Doctrine of the Content and Object of Presentations). He originated many novel ideas related to metaphilosophy. He lectured in Vienna in the years 1894-95, then was appointed professor at Lemberg in Austrian Galicia (later Lwów, now Lviv in the Ukraine) .
There Twardowski established the Lwów-Warsaw School of logic and also became the "father of Polish logic", beginning the tradition of scientific philosophy in Poland. Among his students were the logicians Stanisław Leśniewski, Jan Łukasiewicz and Tadeusz Czeżowski, the historian of philosophy Władysław Tatarkiewicz, the phenomenologist and aesthetician Roman Ingarden, as well as philosophers close to the Vienna Circle such as Tadeusz Kotarbiński and Kazimierz Ajdukiewicz.

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Kazimierz Wajda
Kazimierz Wajda (1905-5/1955), stage name Szczepko, was a Polish actor, comedian. He worked and lived in prewar Polish Lwów (now Lviv, Ukraine). Together with Henryk Vogelfänger he was a star of the radio comedy duo "Szczepko and Tońko", which was widely popular in Poland and abroad. Three movies were made also, along with comedian Stanisław Sielański (8/8/1899-5/5/1955).

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King Jan Sobieski
John III Sobieski (Polish: Jan III Sobieski, Lithuanian: Jonas Sobieskis) (17 August 1629 – 17 June 1696) was one of the most notable monarchs of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, from 1674 until his death King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania. Sobieski's 22-year-reign was marked by a period of the Commonwealth's stabilization, much needed after the turmoil of the Deluge and Khmelnytsky Uprising. Popular among his subjects, he was an able military commander, most famous for the victory over the Turks in the 1683 Battle of Vienna. Following his victories over the Ottoman Empire, he was called by the Turks the "Lion of Lechistan" and held as the saviour of European Christendom by the pope.
John Sobieski was born 1629 in Olesko, a small town near Lwów in Poland (now Lviv, Ukraine) to a notable noble family de Sobieszyn Sobieski of Clan Janina. His father, Jakub Sobieski, was the Palatine of Ruthenia and Castellan of Kraków; his mother, Zofia Teofillia Daniłowicz was a granddaughter of Hetman Stanisław Żółkiewski. After graduating from the Nowodworski College in Kraków, young John Sobieski then graduated from the philosophical faculty of the Jagiellonian University. After finishing his studies, together with his brother Marek Sobieski, John left for western Europe, where he spent more than two years travelling. During that time he met major political figures: Louis II de Bourbon, Charles II of England and William II, Prince of Orange, and learnt French, German and Italian, in addition to Latin. This proved to be vital during his later military career.

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Laurel and Hardy
Laurel and Hardy were one of the most popular and critically acclaimed comedy double acts of the early Classical Hollywood era of American cinema. Composed of thin Englishman Stan Laurel (1890–1965) and fat American Oliver Hardy (1892–1957), they became well known during the late 1920s to the mid-1940s for their slapstick comedy, with Laurel playing the clumsy and childlike friend of the pompous Hardy. They made over 100 films together, initially two-reelers (short films) before expanding into feature length films in the 1930s. Their films include Sons of the Desert (1933), the Academy Award winning short film The Music Box (1932), Babes in Toyland (1934), and Way Out West (1937). Hardy's catchphrase "Well, here's another nice mess you've gotten me into!" is still widely recognized.
Prior to the double act both were established actors with Laurel appearing in over 50 films and Hardy in over 250 films. Although the two comedians first worked together on the film The Lucky Dog (1921), this was a chance pairing and it was not until 1926, when both separately signed contracts with the Hal Roach film studio, that they began appearing in movie shorts together. Laurel and Hardy officially became a team the following year in the silent short film Putting Pants on Philip (1927). The pair remained with the Roach studio until 1940, then appeared in eight "B" comedies for 20th Century Fox and Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer from 1941 to 1945. After finishing their movie commitments at the end of 1944, they concentrated on stage shows, embarking on a music hall tour of England, Ireland, and Scotland. In 1950 they made their last film, a French/Italian co-production called Atoll K, before retiring from the screen. In total they appeared together in 107 films. They starred in 40 short sound films, 32 short silent films and 23 full-length feature films, and made 12 guest or cameo appearances, including the recently discovered Galaxy of Stars promotional film (1936).

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Lemko
Lemkos (Ukrainian: Лeмки, Polish: Łemkowie, Lemko: Лeмкы, translit. Lemky; sing. Лeмкo, Lemko), one of several quantitatively and territorially small ethnic groups who also call themselves Rusyns (Ukrainian: Русини, Lemko: Руснакы, Rusnaky; sing. Руснак, Rusnak), are one of the ethnic groups inhabiting the Carpathian Mountains. Their language has been variously described as a Lemko language in its own right or a dialect of the Ukrainian language.
The Lemkos' homeland is commonly referred to as Lemkivshchyna (Ukrainian: Лeмкiвщина, Lemko: Lemkovyna (Лeмкoвина), Polish: Łemkowszczyzna). Up until 1945, this included the area from the Poprad River in the west to the valley of Oslawa River in the east, areas situated primarily in present-day Poland, in the Lesser Poland and Subcarpathian Voivodeships (provinces). This part of the Carpathian mountains is mostly deforested, which allowed for an agrarian economy, alongside such traditional occupations as ox grazing and sheep herding.
The Lemko region became part of Poland in medieval Piast times. Lemkos were made part of the Austria province of Galicia in 1772. This area was part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire until its dissolution in 1918, at which point the Lemko-Rusyn Republic (Ruska Lemkivska) declared its independence. Independence did not last long however, and the republic was incorporated into Poland in 1920.

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Lemkos
Lemkos (Ukrainian: Лeмки, Polish: Łemkowie, Lemko: Лeмкы, translit. Lemky; sing. Лeмкo, Lemko), one of several quantitatively and territorially small ethnic groups who also call themselves Rusyns (Ukrainian: Русини, Lemko: Руснакы, Rusnaky; sing. Руснак, Rusnak), are one of the ethnic groups inhabiting the Carpathian Mountains. Their language has been variously described as a Lemko language in its own right or a dialect of the Ukrainian language.
The Lemkos' homeland is commonly referred to as Lemkivshchyna (Ukrainian: Лeмкiвщина, Lemko: Lemkovyna (Лeмкoвина), Polish: Łemkowszczyzna). Up until 1945, this included the area from the Poprad River in the west to the valley of Oslawa River in the east, areas situated primarily in present-day Poland, in the Lesser Poland and Subcarpathian Voivodeships (provinces). This part of the Carpathian mountains is mostly deforested, which allowed for an agrarian economy, alongside such traditional occupations as ox grazing and sheep herding.
The Lemko region became part of Poland in medieval Piast times. Lemkos were made part of the Austria province of Galicia in 1772. This area was part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire until its dissolution in 1918, at which point the Lemko-Rusyn Republic (Ruska Lemkivska) declared its independence. Independence did not last long however, and the republic was incorporated into Poland in 1920.

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Leo Fuchs
Leo Fuchs (May 15, 1911 — December 31, 1994) was a Polish-born Jewish American actor. According to YIVO, born Avrum Leib Fuchs in Warsaw; according to Schechter, born in Lemberg, Galicia, then Poland, now Lviv, Ukraine).
Fuchs performed in many Yiddish and English plays and movies throughout the mid-twentieth century, and was famed as a comic, a dancer, and a coupletist. He wrote much of his own material and toured widely.
Fuchs was born into a Yiddish theatrical family: his father, Yakov Fuchs, was a character actor; his mother, Ruzha Fuchs, was "a leading lady of the musical theatre who perished in the Holocaust." He began acting (in Polish) when he was five years old, and was praised when he performed at the Warsaw cabaret Qui Pro Quo when he was 17.
His American debut was at the Second Avenue Theater in Lucky Boy with Moishe Oysher in 1929. He moved to New York City in 1935, In his prime, he was known as "The Yiddish Fred Astaire", appearing both on Broadway and in film. In 1936, he married fellow actor Mirele Gruber and toured with her through Poland for a year next year. In 1937 he made two movies, the short I want to be a boarder (in which he sang his famous song Trouble) and I Want to Be a Mother with Yetta Zwerling. In 1940 he starred in Americaner Shadchen (American Matchmaker). He divorced in 1941 and later married Rebecca Richman.

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Leonid Stein
Leonid Zakharovich Stein (Леонид Захарович Штейн; November 12, 1934 – July 4, 1973) was a Soviet chess Grandmaster from Ukraine. He won three USSR Chess Championships in the 1960s (1963, 1965, and 1966), and was among the world's top ten players during that era.
Leonid Stein was born in Kamenets-Podolsky. He was a Jewish Ukrainian who served in the Soviet Army.
In both 1955 and 1956, he tied for first place in the individual Army Championship. He achieved the national Master title for chess at the relatively late age of 24, but, as his Army titles against strong competition attest, he was likely at that strength somewhat earlier. At 24, he competed for the first time in the USSR Chess Championship at Tbilisi, 1959. In the following year he won the Ukrainian Championship at Kiev, winning it again in 1962. He played board one for the Soviet team at the Helsinki 1961 Student Olympiad, scoring a strong +8, =3, -1, and helping his team to the overall gold medals.
He tied for third place in the 1961 Soviet Championship, at Moscow, defeating Tigran Petrosian on the way. He won his first Soviet title at Leningrad 1963; he tied with Boris Spassky and Ratmir Kholmov in the tournament itself, then won the playoffs. He won again at Tallinn, 1965, and repeated the next year, 1966, at Tbilisi. Two outstanding international tournament victories were attained at Moscow 1967 (commemorating the 50th anniversary of the 1917 October Revolution), and Moscow 1971 (Alekhine Memorial, equal with Anatoly Karpov). Further international tournament victories were scored at East Berlin 1962, Sarajevo 1967, Hastings 1967-68, Kecskemét 1968, Tallinn 1969, Pärnu 1971, and Las Palmas 1973. From 1962–1973, Stein was in the top ten players in the world, or just outside that range.

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Leopold Staff
Leopold Staff (14 November 1878 in Lemberg [now Lviv, Ukraine] – 31 May 1957 in Skarżysko-Kamienna) was a Polish poet and one of the greatest artists of European modernism honored two times by honorary degrees (honoris causa). He was also nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature. Representative of classicism and symbolism in the poetry of Young Poland, an author of many philosophical poems strong influenced by the idea of the Übermensch, the ideas of the Franciscan order, and paradoxes of Christianity.
He was born in Lviv (Lemberg), Austria-Hungary and died in Skarżysko-Kamienna. Staff was highly influential in the literary life of Julian Tuwim, one of Poland's most renowned poets.
Staff's writing can be divided into three periods: Young Poland, Interwar period, and postwar Poland.
In the early 20th century, Staff became probably the most famous and influential Polish poet. He called his popularity as a retiring, soft glory. In the 1950s, he faced to blank verse close up to avant-garde. He was also the main guru for Polish group of experimental poets named Skamander.

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Les Kurbas
Oleksandr-Zenon Stepanovych Kurbas (Ukrainian: Олександр-Зенон Степанович Курбас, 1887–1937), a Ukrainian movie and theater director, is considered by many to be the most important Ukrainian theater director of the 20th century. He formed together with Vsevolod Meyerhold, Yevgeny Vakhtangov and several other directors the Soviet theater avantgarde in the 1920s and 30s.
Kurbas was born in Sambir (then part of Austria-Hungary) on February 25, 1887 and was given a double name Oleksandr-Zenon, for short Les or Oles. He was born to a well known Austrian-Ruthenian family of actors Stepan Pylypovych Yanovych (1862–1908) and Vanda Adolfivna (1867–1950) (née - Teikhman). Parents' last name Yanovych was their pseudonym, for which they were better known, particularly in theater of "Ruska besida". Beside Les who was the first child there were three other children Kornylo, Nestor, and Nadia, however none of them survived past their teenage years.
At fist Kurbas studied at Ternopil gymnasium. In 1907 he enrolled into the Philosophy Department of University of Vienna from where he transferred out in 1908, due to his father death enrolling later in Lviv University (1908–1910). This was determined by the need to lead Ukrainian culture out of the provincialism it had fallen into as a result of the century-long occupation by Poland and Russia.

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List of Leopolitans
The inhabitants of Lviv are commonly known in English as Leopolitans (from the Latin name for the city, Leopolis). The following is a list of notable Leopolitans.

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Louis I of Hungary
Louis the Great (Hungarian: I. (Nagy) Lajos, Croatian: Ludovik I, Polish: Ludwik Węgierski, Ukrainian: Людвік I Великий, Slovak: Ľudovít Veľký, Italian: Luigi I d'Ungheria, German: Ludwig der Große, Bulgarian: Лудвиг I, Serbian: Лајош I Анжујски, Czech: Ludvík I. Veliký, Lithuanian: Liudvikas I Vengras (5 March 1326, Visegrád – 10 September 1382, Nagyszombat/Trnava) was King of Hungary and Croatia from 1342 and King of Poland from 1370 until his death.(See Titles section)
Louis was the head of the senior branch of the Angevin dynasty. He was one of the most active and accomplished monarchs of the Late Middle Ages, extending territorial control to the Adriatic and securing Dalmatia, with part of Bosnia and Bulgaria, within the Holy Crown of Hungary. During his reign Hungary reached the peak of its political influence.
He spent much of his reign in wars with the Republic of Venice. He was in competition for the throne of Naples, with huge military success and the latter with little lasting political results. Louis is the first European monarch who came into collision with the Ottoman Turks.

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Lubomyr Husar
Lubomyr Husar, MSU (Ukrainian: Любомир Гузар) (born 26 February 1933) is the major archbishop emeritus of the Ukrainian Catholic Church, a minority church in Ukraine but the largest sui juris Eastern church in full communion with the Holy See. He is also a Cardinal of the Catholic Church. After the transfer of the see of Lviv to Kiev in 2005, he was the Ukrainian Catholic Major Archbishop of Kiev-Galicia. In February 2011 he became Major Archeparch Emeritus after he resigned due to ill health.
Born in Lviv, Husar fled with his parents in 1944 during World War II. They briefly lived in Salzburg, Austria, then emigrated to the United States in 1949.
From 1950 to 1954 he studied at St. Basil College Seminary in Stamford, Connecticut. He studied at The Catholic University of America and Fordham University in the United States, and was ordained a priest on 30 March 1958 for the Ukrainian Catholic Eparchy of Stamford.
From 1958 to 1969, he taught at St. Basil College Seminary and was pastor at Holy Trinity Ukrainian Catholic Church in Kerhonkson, New York between 1966 and 1969. In 1969, Husar went to Rome, where he spent three years earning a doctorate in theology at the Pontifical Urbaniana University. He then entered the Monastery of the Studites in Grottaferrata in Italy, and was named its Superior in 1974.

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Ludwig von Mises
Ludwig Heinrich Edler von Mises (German pronunciation: [ˈluːtvɪç fɔn ˈmiːzəs]; September 29, 1881 – October 10, 1973) was a philosopher, Austrian School economist, and classical liberal. He became a prominent figure in the Austrian School of economic thought and is best known for his work on praxeology. Fearing a Nazi takeover of Europe, Mises emigrated to the United States in 1940. Mises had a significant influence on the libertarian movement in the United States in the mid-20th century.
Ludwig von Mises was born to wealthy Jewish parents in the city of Lemberg, in Galicia, Austria-Hungary (now Lviv in Ukraine). The family of his father Arthur Edler von Mises had been elevated to the Austrian nobility in the 19th century, and was involved in building and financing railroads. Ludwig's mother, Adele (née Landau), was a niece of Dr. Joachim Landau, a Liberal Party deputy to the Austrian Parliament. Arthur was stationed there as a construction engineer with Czernowitz railway company. At the age of twelve Ludwig spoke fluent Yiddish, German, Polish, and French, read Latin, and could understand Ukrainian. Mises was the older brother of the famous applied physicist Richard von Mises, a member of the Vienna Circle. Another brother, Karl von Mises, died as a child from scarlet fever.^{[citation needed]} When Ludwig and Richard were children, his family moved back to their ancestral home of Vienna.

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Ludwik Fleck
Ludwik Fleck (July 11, 1896 – July 5, 1961) was a Polish Israeli medical doctor and biologist who developed in the 1930s the concept of Denkkollektiv (or thought collectives). This concept is important in philosophy of science and sociology of science in that it helps explain how scientific ideas change over time, similar to Thomas Kuhn's later notion of paradigm shift or Foucault's episteme.
Fleck wrote that the development of truth in scientific research was an unattainable ideal as different researchers were locked in thought collectives (or thought-styles). He felt that the development of scientific insights was not unidirectional and does not consist of just accumulating new pieces of information, but also in overthrowing the old ones. This approach anticipated later developments in social constructionism, and especially the development of critical science and technology studies.
Fleck was born in Lemberg (now L'viv), and grew up in the cultural autonomy of Austrian province of Galicia. He graduated from the Polish Lyceum in 1914 and he enrolled at the Jan Kazimierz University of L'viv, where he received his medical degree. In 1920 he became an assistant of the famous typhus specialist Rudolf Weigl when he was appointed to the chair in Biology at the University of L'viv in 1921. From 1923 to 1935 he worked firstly in the Department of Internal Medicine of the General Hospital in L'viv and then became Director of the Bacteriological Laboratory of the local social assurance authority. From 1935 he worked in the private bacteriological laboratory which he had earlier founded.

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Lwów Eaglets
Lwów Eaglets (Polish: Orlęta Lwowskie) is a term of affection applied to the Polish teenagers who defended the city of Lviv (Polish: Lwów, German: Lemberg) in Eastern Galicia, during the Polish-Ukrainian War (1918–1919).
The nowadays western Ukrainian Lviv (Polish: Lwów, German: Lemberg) before the breakdown of Austro-Hungarian empire, was the biggest and capital city of one of Habsburg's dominions - the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria. While Poles were the prevailing ethnicity in the province, in the eastern galician territories Ukrainians constituted a majority (65%), Poles were a significant minority (22%) and dominated the cities, together with the Jewish residents. In Lviv, according to the Austrian census of 1910, which listed religion and language, 51% of the city's population were Roman Catholics, 28% Jews, and 19% belonged to the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church. Linguistically, 86% of the city's population used the Polish language and 11% preferred the Ukrainian language.

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Maria Konopnicka
Maria Konopnicka née Wasiłowska (May 23, 1842 - October 8, 1910) was a Polish poet, novelist, writer for children and youth, a translator, journalist and critic, as well as an activist for women's rights and Polish independence. She used the pseudonym Jan Sawa and others. She was born in Suwałki.
Maria Konopnicka also composed a poem about the execution of the Irish patriot, Robert Emmett. Emmett was executed by the British authorities in Dublin in 1802, but Konopnicka published her poem on the topic in 1908.
She died in Lwów (modern Lviv, Ukraine) in 1910.

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Marian Jaworski
Marian Jaworski (Ukrainian: Мар'ян Яворський, born August 21, 1926) is a Cardinal Priest and the former Archbishop of Lviv of the Latins in the Roman Catholic Church.
Born as son of Wincenty and Stanisława Łastowiecka in Lwów, Poland (now Lviv, Ukraine), Jaworski studied at the Lwów Major Seminary and was ordained in Kraków on June 25, 1950. He served as a priest for two years (1950–1952) before returning to school, obtaining three doctorates by 1965 – one in theology from the Jagiellonian University, and Ph.D.s from the Lublin Catholic University and Warsaw Theological Academy.
In 1970, he was made secretary of the Polish Bishops' Scientific Council from 1970 to 1984. He was Dean of the Pontifical Theological Faculty in Kraków from 1976 to 1981, and its Rector from 1981–1987.
Appointed apostolic administrator of Lviv for territories within Poland in May 1984, he was consecrated bishop on June 23. He was made archbishop on January 16, 1991.
With the consistory of February 21, 1998, Jaworski was created Cardinal by John Paul II in pectore, one of four such secret cardinal appointments made by the pontiff during his tenure; Jaworski's cardinalate was publicly proclaimed at the consistory of February 21, 2001. He was one of the cardinal electors who participated in the 2005 papal conclave that selected Pope Benedict XVI. On October 2008 the Pope accepted his resignation as archbishop.

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Mark Kac
Mark Kac (pronounced kahts, Polish: Marek Kac, b. 3 August 1914, Krzemieniec, Russian Empire, now in Ukraine; d. 26 October 1984, California, USA) was a Polish mathematician. His main interest was probability theory. His question, "Can one hear the shape of a drum?" set off research into spectral theory, with the idea of understanding the extent to which the spectrum allows one to read back the geometry. (In the end, the answer was "no", in general.)
Kac completed his Ph.D. in mathematics at the Polish University of Lwów in 1937 under the direction of Hugo Steinhaus. While there, he was a member of the Lwów School of Mathematics. After receiving his degree he began to look for a position abroad, and in 1938 was granted a scholarship from the Parnas Foundation which enabled him to go work in the United States. He arrived in New York City in November, 1938. With the onset of World War II, Kac was able to remain in America, while his parents and brother who remained in Poland were murdered by the Germans in the mass executions in Krzemieniec (1942-43) for being Jewish. From 1939 until 1961 he was at Cornell University, first as an instructor, then from 1943 as assistant professor and from 1947 as full professor. While there, he became a naturalized US citizen in 1943. In 1961 he left Cornell and went to Rockefeller University in New York City. After twenty years there, he moved to the University of Southern California where he spent the rest of his career.

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Markiyan Shashkevych
Markiyan Shashkevych (November 6, 1811, Pidlyssia, Złoczów powiat, Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria – June 7, 1843, Nowosiółki, Lesko powiat, Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria) was a priest of the Ukrainian Greek-Catholic Church, a poet, a translator, and the leader of the literary revival in Right Bank Ukraine.
In 1832, they organized a group of students aimed at the rise of the Ukrainian dialect free of Church Slavonic and alien 'styles' up to the literary language. He graduated from the Greek Catholic Theological Seminary at University of Lviv in 1838 and worked as a priest in the rural Lwow powiat. During his studies he met Yakiv Holovatsky and Ivan Vahylevych, with whom he formed the Ruthenian Triad (aka Ruska Triytsia).
He also organized nationally conscious Ukrainian young people to work for national and cultural revival in Western Ukrainian lands, particularly to reintroduce the use of spoken Ukrainian language in writing and sermons. The activities of the Shashkevych circle constituted not only a literary phenomenon, but a social and democratic movement. Its greatest achievement was the publication of an almanac entitled Rusalka Dnistrova ('The Mermaid of the Dniester'), which was the first collection of Ukrainian literature to appear in Western Ukraine (1837). The almanac had a decisive effect on the revival and development of Ukrainian literature in Galicia.

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Martin Buber
Martin Buber (Hebrew: מרטין בובר‎; February 8, 1878 – June 13, 1965) was an Austrian-born Jewish philosopher best known for his philosophy of dialogue, a form of religious existentialism centered on the distinction between the I-Thou relationship and the I-It relationship. Born in Vienna, Buber came from a family of observant Jews, but broke with Jewish custom to pursue secular studies in philosophy. In 1902, Buber became the editor of the weekly Die Welt, the central organ of the Zionist movement, although he later withdrew from organizational work in Zionism. In 1923 Buber wrote his famous essay on existence, Ich und Du (later translated into English as I and Thou), and in 1925 he began translating the Hebrew Bible into the German language.
In 1930 Buber became an honorary professor at the University of Frankfurt am Main, and resigned in protest from his professorship immediately after Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933. He then founded the Central Office for Jewish Adult Education, which became an increasingly important body as the German government forbade Jews to attend public education. In 1938, Buber left Germany and settled in Jerusalem, Palestine, receiving a professorship at Hebrew University and lecturing in anthropology and introductory sociology.

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Maurice Goldhaber
Maurice Goldhaber (April 18, 1911 – May 11, 2011) was an Austrian-born American physicist, who in 1957 (with Lee Grodzins and Andrew Sunyar) established that neutrinos have negative helicity.
He was born on April 18, 1911 in Lemberg, Austria now called Lviv, Ukraine.
After beginning his physics studies at the University of Berlin, he earned his doctorate at Cambridge University in 1936.
In 1934, working at the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge, England he and James Chadwick, through what they called the nuclear photo-electric effect, established that the neutron has a great enough mass over the proton to decay.
He moved to the University of Illinois in 1938. In the 1940s with his wife Gertrude Scharff-Goldhaber he established that beta particles are identical to electrons.
He joined Brookhaven National Laboratory in 1950. With Edward Teller he proposed that the so-called "giant-dipole nuclear resonance" was due to the neutrons in a nucleus vibrating as a group against the protons as a group (Goldhaber-Teller model).

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Michał Boym
Michał Piotr Boym (Chinese: 卜弥格; pinyin: Bǔ Mígé; c. 1612–1659) was a Polish scientist, explorer and a Jesuit missionary to China. He is notable as one of the first westerners to travel within the Chinese mainland, and the author of numerous works on Asian fauna, flora and geography.
Michał Boym was born in Lwów, then one of the major cities of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, around 1612 or 1614, to a well-off family of distant Hungarian ancestry. His grandfather Jerzy Boim came to Poland from Hungary with the king Stefan Batory, and married Jadwiga Niżniowska. Michał's father, Paweł Jerzy Boim (1581–1641), was said to be a physician to King Sigismund III of Poland. Out of Pawel Jerzy's six sons, the eldest, the never-do-well Jerzy was disinherited; Mikołaj and Jan became merchants; Paweł, a doctor; while Michał and Benedykt Paweł joined the Society of Jesus. The family had their own family chapel in Lvov's central square, which was constructed around the time of Michał's birth.
In 1631, Boym joined the Jesuits, and was ordained a priest. In 1643, after almost a decade of intensive studies in the monasteries of Kraków, Kalisz, Jarosław and Sandomierz, Boym embarked on a voyage to Eastern Asia. He first travelled to Rome, where he obtained a blessing for his mission from Pope Urban VIII, and then proceeded to Lisbon. Later that year he embarked with a group of nine other priests and clerics on a voyage to Portuguese Goa, and then Macau. Initially he taught at St. Paul Jesuit College (Macau). He then moved to the island of Hainan, where he opened a small Catholic mission. After the island had been conquered by the Manchus, Boym had to flee to Tonkin in 1647.

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Michał Matyas
Michał Franciszek Mieczysław Matyas (28 September 1910 in Brzozów - 22 October 1975 in Kraków) was a Polish football player, who represented such teams as Pogoń Lwów and Polonia Bytom, as well as Poland.
In mid-1920s he moved to Lwów where started playing in junior team of Pogoń. His debut in the national team took place on July 10, 1932 in Warsaw (Poland - Sweden 2-0). Altogether he played in 18 international games (including the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin), scoring 7 goals. In Pogoń, in 1935 he was the top-scorer of the Polish Football League, with 22 goals.
During World War II Matyas shortly played for FC Dynamo Kiev, after the war he returned to Poland. As Lwów was transferred to Ukraine, together with a group of Pogon’s players and activists, he settled in Bytom, where he played for Polonia Bytom. After finishing his career, he became a coach, in 1950-1952 he was in charge of the national team of Poland. Later, he coached such teams as Stal Mielec and Cracovia. He died on October 22, 1975 in Kraków.

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Moriz Rosenthal
Moriz Rosenthal (December 17, 1862 – September 3, 1946) was a great Polish pianist. He was an outstanding pupil of Franz Liszt and a friend and colleague of some of the greatest musicians of his age, including Johannes Brahms, Johann Strauss, Anton Rubinstein, Hans von Bülow, Camille Saint-Saëns, Jules Massenet and Isaac Albéniz.
Rosenthal was born in Lemberg, Austria–Hungary (now Lviv, Ukraine), where his father was professor at the chief academy. At eight years of age he commenced his piano studies under Galoth.
In 1872, Rosenthal became a pupil of Karol Mikuli, Chopin's pupil and editor, who trained him along more academic lines at Lviv Conservatory. Rosenthal then studied with Rafael Joseffy, student of Carl Tausig and Liszt. A tour through Romania followed when he was fourteen. In 1878 Rosenthal became a pupil of Liszt, with whom he studied in Weimar and Rome.
As Liszt's pupil, Rosenthal made appearances in St. Petersburg, Paris, and elsewhere. His general education, however, was not neglected, and in 1880 Rosenthal qualified to take the philosophical course at the University of Vienna. Six years later he resumed his career with the piano, achieving brilliant success in Leipzig, and in Boston, where he made his U.S. debut in 1888, and subsequently in England in 1895. From 1939, he taught in his own piano school in New York City, where he died in 1946.

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Morris L. West
Morris Langlo West AO (26 April 1916 – 9 October 1999) was an Australian novelist and playwright, best known for his novels The Devil's Advocate (1959), The Shoes of the Fisherman (1963), and The Clowns of God (1981). His books were published in 27 languages and sold more than 60 million copies worldwide. Each new book he wrote after he became an established writer sold more than 1 million copies.
His works often were focused on international politics and the role of the Roman Catholic Church in international affairs. One of his most famous works, The Shoes of the Fisherman (1963), described the election and career of a Slavic Pope, 15 years before the historic election of Karol Wojtyła as Pope John Paul II.
He was born in St Kilda, Victoria and attended Christian Brothers College, St Kilda. He graduated from the University of Melbourne in 1937, and worked as a teacher in New South Wales and Tasmania. He spent 12 years in a monastery of the Christian Brothers, taking annual vows, but left in 1941 without taking final vows. That same year, he married (this first marriage did not survive), and enlisted in the Royal Australian Air Force. He was seconded from the RAAF to work for Billy Hughes, former Australian Prime Minister, for a time. After becoming well known for producing radio serials, he left Australia in 1955 to write, and lived in Austria, Italy, England and the United States, finally returning to Australia in 1980. During this time he had a stint as the Vatican correspondent for the Daily Mail. His son, C. Chris O’Hanlon, said that he spent his first 12 birthdays in 12 different countries.

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Muhammad Asad
Muhammad Asad (2 July 1900 - 23 February 1992, Urdu: محمد اسد), born Leopold Weiss, was a Austrian Jew who converted to Islam, and a 20th century journalist, traveler, writer, social critic, linguist, thinker, reformer, diplomat, political theorist, translator and scholar. Asad was one of the 20th century's most influential European Muslims.
In 1947, Asad was given Pakistani citizenship by the newly established Muslim state of Pakistan and appointed the Director of the Department of Islamic Reconstruction by the Government of Pakistan, where he made recommendations on the drafting of Pakistan's first Constitution. In 1949, Asad joined Pakistan's Ministry of Foreign Affairs as head of the Middle East Division and, in 1952, was appointed Pakistan's Minister Plenipotentiary to the United Nations in New York.
Muhammad Asad is famously known for his two publications - The Road to Mecca, a biographical account of his life up to the age of 32, his conversion to Islam from Judaism and his journey to Mecca, and his magnum opus, The Message of the Qur'an, a translation and commentary of the sacred book of Islam, the Qur'an.

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Mykhailo Hrushevskyi
Mykhailo Serhiyovych Hrushevsky (Ukrainian: Михайло Сергійович Грушевський; Chełm, 29 September [O.S. 17 September] 1866 – Kislovodsk, 26 November 1934) was a Ukrainian academician, politician, historian, and statesman, one of the most important figures of the Ukrainian national revival of the early 20th century. He was the country's greatest modern historian, foremost organizer of scholarship, leader of the pre-revolution Ukrainian national movement, head of the Central Rada (Ukraine's 1917–1918 revolutionary parliament), and a leading cultural figure in Soviet Ukraine in the 1920s. He died under mysterious circumstances in 1934.
Mykhailo Hrushevsky was born on September 29, 1866 in a Ukrainian noble family (according to Timothy Snyder, his parents were Ukrainian) of religious and humanist scholars in city of Chełm, in the Lublin Governorate of the Russian Empire (in present-day Poland). Hrushevsky grew up in the foothills of the Caucasian mountains in Stavropol and Vladikavkaz. His spiritual native land became Podolia in the area of the village of Sestrynivka, Podolia Governorate, where his mother (Hlafira Zakharivna Okopova) was born, and where her father was a local Russian Orthodox priest. In the same village she married the professor of the Kiev Ecclesiastical Seminary, Serhiy Fedorovych Hrushevsky. Serhiy Hrushevsky's father was a highly decorated official (his awards included the two Orders of Saint Anna and the Bronze Cross, and a title of nobility). Fedir Hrushevsky was a graduate of the history department of the Kiev University and later personally blessed his grandson when he was enrolling into the Saint Vladimir University in Kiev.

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Mykola Kolessa
Mykola Kolessa (6 December 1903 – 8 June 2006) was a prominent Ukrainian composer and conductor, born in the village of Sambir near Lviv and died in Lviv.
His father Filaret was a prominent Ukrainian ethnomusicologist and composer and his cousin was the celebrated pianist Lubka Kolessa. He studied in Prague under Vítězslav Novák and Otakar Ostrčil, and taught at Lviv Conservatory.
His works include two symphonies (1949 and 1966), symphonic variations (1931), a 'Ukrainian Suite' (1928), all for orchestra, and 'In the Mountains' for string orchestra (1972), and a number of chamber and incidental works as well as some song cycles. His composition style was tonal and conservative and has been likened to that of Alexander Glazunov.

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Myroslav Skoryk
Myroslav Skoryk (Ukrainian: Мирослав Михайлович Скорик, born July 12, 1938 in Lviv) is a Ukrainian composer. His music is contemporary in style and contains stylistic traits from two disparate folk traditions: Ukrainian and American.
Myroslav Skoryk was born in western Ukraine's main city of Lviv, which at that time was under Polish control. His parents were both educated in Austria at the University of Vienna and both subsequently became educators. His father was a historian and an ethnographer, while his mother was an accomplished chemist. Although his parents did not have special musical training, his mother played piano and his father played the violin. Their son, young Myroslav, was exposed to music in the household from an early age and took a particular liking to it. Although his parents influenced Myroslav's early interest in music, no less important was the fact that in his family was a very famous diva of the 20th century — Myroslav Skoryk's great aunt was the famous Ukrainian soprano Solomiya Krushelnytska.

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Nikifor
Nikifor (21 May 1895,Krynica-Zdrój - 10 October 1968) (also known as Nikifor Krynicki and Epifaniusz Drowniak¹) was a Polish folk and naïve painter of Lemko descent. Nikifor painted over 40,000 pictures - on sheets of paper, pages of notebooks, cigarette cartons, and even on scraps of paper glued together. The topics of his art include self-portraits and panoramas of Krynica, with its spas and Orthodox and Catholic churches. Underestimated for most of his life, in his late days he became famous as a primitivist painter.
Little is known of private life of Nikifor. For most of his life he lived alone in extreme poverty in Krynica, and was considered a mentally challenged person. He had difficulties talking and was almost illiterate. It was not until late in his life that it was discovered that in fact his tongue was attached to his palate, which was the reason why his speech was unintelligible to most. In 1930 his first paintings were discovered by Roman Turyn, who brought them to Paris. That made Nikifor gain some fame among the Kapists, a group of young painters formed around Józef Pankiewicz. However, this did not change his fate as his art was still being underestimated in Poland. In 1938 Jerzy Wolff published an enthusiastic review of Nikifor's art in Arkady monthly and bought some of his works. However, the war prevented Nikifor from gaining any notoriety.

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Oleh Luzhny
Oleh Romanovych Luzhny (Ukrainian: Олег Романович Лужний, born 5 August 1968 in Lviv) is a retired Ukrainian footballer and former interim manager of FC Dynamo Kyiv. His name is alternatively Romanised as Oleg Luzhny.
Luzhny first played for Ukrainian clubs Torpedo Lutsk (1985–88) and SKA Karpaty Lviv (1988). He signed for Dynamo Kyiv in 1989 and became a regular at right back, winning the USSR domestic double in 1990 and seven consecutive Ukrainian league titles between 1993 and 1999. He was the captain of Dynamo Kyiv's Champions League sides that defeated FC Barcelona 3–0 at home and 4–0 away in the group stage of the 1997–98 season and eliminated holders Real Madrid 3–1 on aggregate in the quarter finals en route to the semi-finals in 1998–99.
Luzhny signed for English club Arsenal in the summer of 1999 after impressing manager Arsène Wenger in Kyiv's clashes with Arsenal in the Champions League. He was signed as cover for Lee Dixon, although he was unable to fully displace the England international. While never a regular starter with the Gunners (the young Spanish-Cameroonian Lauren was signed a year later as Dixon's long-term replacement), Luzhny still played 110 matches in four years at the club, either at right back or, less frequently, at centre back, and even captained the team once in the League Cup. In the 2001–02 season he won a double (the FA Premier League and the FA Cup) with Arsenal. His last match for the Gunners was the 2003 FA Cup Final (which Arsenal won, beating Southampton 1–0), Luzhny's best performance for the club.

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Orest Subtelny
Orest Subtelny is a Canadian historian. Born in Kraków, Poland, he received his Ph.D. from Harvard University in 1973. Since 1982 he has been a professor in the departments of History and Political Science, York University, Toronto, Canada.
Subtelny's major work is the general textbook Ukraine: A History (1988), a work of Ukrainian historiography. During the Mikhail Gorbachev reforms, the book was quickly translated into both Ukrainian and Russian and affected the growth of Ukrainian historical and national consciousness during the initial years of Ukrainian independence.
Under the influence of his mentors, the orientalist Omeljan Pritsak and the Ivan Mazepa specialist Oleksander Ohloblyn, Subtelny's earlier work dealt with the Cossack era, especially the revolt of Hetman Ivan Mazepa against Tsar Peter the Great. In this work, he sought to avoid the extremes of labeling Mazepa either an evil traitor to Russia or a heroic defender of Ukrainian national independence and portrayed him as a typical partisan of aristocratic local autonomy before the encroaching absolute monarchies of his time.

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Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire or Turkish Empire or Sublime Ottoman State or sometimes also referred to as Turkey (Ottoman Turkish: دَوْلَتِ عَلِيّهٔ عُثمَانِیّه Devlet-i ʿAliyye-yi ʿOsmâniyye (also عثمانلى دولتى Osmanlı Devleti),Modern Turkish: Osmanlı Devleti or Osmanlı İmparatorluğu) was a Turkish empire which lasted from 27 July 1299 to 1 November 1922, when the Sultanate was abolished.
The Ottoman Empire was one of the largest and longest lasting empires in history; such that the Ottoman State, its politics, conflicts, and cultural heritage in a vast geography provide one of the longest continuous narratives. During the 16th and 17th centuries, in particular at the height of its power under the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, the empire was one of the most powerful states in the world – a multinational, multilingual empire that stretched from the southern borders of the Holy Roman Empire to the outskirts of Vienna, Royal Hungary (modern Slovakia) and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in the north to Yemen and Eritrea in the south; from Algeria in the west to Azerbaijan in the east; controlling much of southeast Europe, Western Asia and North Africa. At the beginning of the 17th century the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states, some of which were later absorbed into the empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy during the course of centuries.

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Paul Muni
Paul Muni (born Meshilem Meier Weisenfreund; 22 September 1895 – 25 August 1967) was an Austrian-born American stage and film actor. During the 1930s, he was considered one of the most prestigious actors at Warner Brothers studios, and one of the rare actors who was given the privilege of choosing which parts he wanted.
His acting quality, usually playing a powerful character, such as Scarface, was partly a result of his intense preparation for his parts, often immersing himself in study of the real character's traits and mannerisms. He was also highly skilled in using makeup techniques, a talent he learned from his parents, who were also actors, and from his early years on stage with the Yiddish Theater, in New York. At the age of 12, he played the stage role of an 80-year-old man; in one of his films, Seven Faces, he played seven different characters.
He was nominated six times for an Oscar, winning once as Best Actor in The Story of Louis Pasteur.
Muni was born to a Jewish family in Lemberg, Galicia, a province of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, now Lviv, Ukraine (formerly Lwów, Poland). His family emigrated to the United States in 1902.

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Paul Robert Magocsi
Paul Robert Magocsi (born January 26, 1945, Englewood, New Jersey, USA) is an American professor of history, political science, and Chair of Ukrainian Studies at the University of Toronto. He has been with the University since 1980, and became a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada in 1996. He currently acts as Honorary Chairman of the World Congress of Rusyns, and has authored many books on Rusyn history.
Born in Englewood, New Jersey, Magocsi is of partial Rusyn descent. He completed his undergraduate studies at Rutgers University B.A. in 1966, M.A. 1967, Princeton University in M.A. 1969, Ph.D. 1972. He then went to Harvard University, where he was a member of the Society of Fellows between 1973 and 1976.
Magocsi has taught at Harvard University and the Hebrew University in Jerusalem. In 1996 he was appointed permanent fellow of the Royal Society of Canada - Canadian Academies of Arts, Humanities and Sciences.^{[citation needed]}
Among his over 675 publications are 30 books including:

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Poles
The Polish people, or Poles (Polish: Polacy [pɔˈlat͡sɨ]; singular: Polak), are a nation indigenous to Poland. They speak the Polish language, which belongs to the historical Lechitic subgroup of West Slavic languages of Central Europe. The Polish word for a Polish person is "Polak" (masculine) and "Polka" (feminine).
The preamble to the Constitution of the Republic of Poland defines the Polish nation as comprising all the citizens of Poland. Poland's inhabitants live in the following historic regions of the country: Wielkopolska, Małopolska, Mazovia, Pomerania, Warmia, Mazury, Podlasie, Kujawy and Silesia. A wide-ranging Polish diaspora exists throughout Europe (Germany, France, the United Kingdom, Belarus, Lithuania and Ukraine), the Americas (the United States, Brazil and Argentina) and Australia. Chicago, in the United States, has the world's largest urban Polish population after Warsaw.
Over a thousand years ago, the Polans of Giecz, Gniezno and Poznań — an influential tribe in Wielkopolska — succeeded in uniting Lechitic tribes under what became the Piast dynasty, thus giving rise to the Polish state.

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Pope John Paul II
Blessed Pope John Paul II (Latin: Ioannes Paulus PP. II, Italian: Giovanni Paolo II, Polish: Jan Paweł II), born Karol Józef Wojtyła (Polish: [ˈkarɔl ˈjuzɛf vɔjˈtɨwa]; 18 May 1920, Wadowice, Republic of Poland – 2 April 2005, Apostolic Palace, Vatican City), reigned as Pope of the Catholic Church from 1978 until his death in 2005. He was the second-longest serving Pope in history and the first non-Italian since 1523.
John Paul II was acclaimed as one of the most influential leaders of the 20th century. He was instrumental in ending communism in his native Poland and eventually all of Europe. John Paul II significantly improved the Catholic Church's relations with Judaism, Islam, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the Anglican Communion. Though criticised by progressives for upholding the Church's teachings against artificial contraception and the ordination of women, and by traditionalists for his support of the Church's Second Vatican Council and its reform, he was also widely praised for his firm, orthodox Catholic stances.

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Primo Levi
Primo Michele Levi (pronounced [ˈpriːmo ˈlɛːvi]; July 31, 1919 – April 11, 1987) was an Italian Jewish chemist and writer. He was the author of two novels and several collections of short stories, essays, and poems. His best-known works include If This Is a Man (1947), his account of the year he spent as a prisoner in the Auschwitz concentration camp in Nazi-occupied Poland; and The Periodic Table (1975) which the Royal Institution of Great Britain named the best science book ever written.
Levi was born in Turin at Corso Re Umberto 75 into a liberal Jewish family. His father Cesare worked for the manufacturing firm Ganz and spent much of his time working abroad in Hungary, where Ganz was based. Cesare was an avid reader and autodidact. Levi’s mother Ester, known to everyone as Rina, was well educated, having attended the Istituto Maria Letizia. She too was an avid reader, played the piano and spoke fluent French. The marriage between Rina and Cesare was arranged by Rina’s father. On their wedding day, Rina’s father, Cesare Luzzati, gave Rina the apartment at Corso Re Umberto where Primo Levi was to live for almost his entire life.

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Rachel Korn
Rachel (Rokhl) Häring Korn (15 January 1898 - 9 September 1982) was a Yiddish poet and author. In total, she published eight collections of poetry and two of prose.
Korn was born near Podliski, East Galicia and started writing poetry at an early age. At the start of the First World War, her family fled to Vienna, returning to Poland in 1918. It was in this year that Korn's first published works appeared, in Nowy Dziennik, a Zionist newspaper, and in Glos Przemyski, a socialist journal. These items were published in Polish, but a year later she published her first Yiddish poem in the Lemberger Tageblatt. Her recognition grew with the publication of her first volumes of poetry: 'Dorf' ('Village', 1928) and 'Royter mon' ('Red Poppies', 1937). Her first collection of prose, 'Erd' ('Land') was published in 1936.
Following the German invasion of eastern Galicia in June 1941, Korn fled to Uzbekistan, before moving to Moscow, where she remained until the end of the war. She returned to Poland in 1946, immigrating to Montreal, Canada in 1948. Her next collection of poetry, Heym un heymlozikayt (Home and Homelessness) was published in 1948. She remained in Montreal, writing poetry, until her death in 1982.

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Richard von Mises
Richard Edler von Mises ( 19 April 1883, Lviv – 14 July 1953, Boston, Massachusetts) was a scientist and mathematician who worked on solid mechanics, fluid mechanics, aerodynamics, aeronautics, statistics and probability theory. He held the position of Gordon-McKay Professor of Aerodynamics and Applied Mathematics at Harvard University. He described his work in his own words shortly before his death as being on
Although best known for his mathematical work, he also contributed to the philosophy of science as a neo-positivist, following the line of Ernst Mach. Historians of the Vienna Circle of logical empiricism recognize a "first phase" from 1907 through 1914 with Philipp Frank, Hans Hahn, and Otto Neurath.^{[citation needed]} His older brother, Ludwig von Mises, held an opposite point of view with respect to positivism and epistemology.
During his time in Istanbul, von Mises maintained close contact with Philipp Frank, a logical positivist and Professor of Physics in Prague until 1938. His literary interests included the Austrian novelist Robert Musil and the poet Rainer Maria Rilke, on whom he became a recognized expert.^{[citation needed]}

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Ruslana
Ruslana Stepanivna Lyzhychko (Ukrainian: Руслана Степанівна Лижичко, Ruslana Stepanivna Lyžyčko; born on 24 May 1973) is a World Music Award winning and MTV Europe Music Award nominated artist, and the winner of the Eurovision Song Contest 2004.
She is a singer, songwriter, producer, conductor, and pianist. She writes, composes and produces her own songs and music videos. Since 28 December 1995 she has been married to Oleksandr Ksenofontov, a Ukrainian record producer. Together they have run the company LuxenBourg Studio since 1993, producing radio and film trailers.
She won the Eurovision Song Contest 2004 with the song "Wild Dances" receiving points from 34 of the 35 countries participating in the contest.
In 2009 she was invited as a Special Guest Star to the 6th annual Asia Song Festival, where she received two trophies. The first of them was the golden statue of The Best Artist Award of The Asia Song Festival (which was awarded to each participant), the main award of the festival and the second special award was for the contribution to the cultural exchange between Ukraine and Asia in music.

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Ruslana Lyzhychko
Ruslana Stepanivna Lyzhychko (Ukrainian: Руслана Степанівна Лижичко, Ruslana Stepanivna Lyžyčko; born on 24 May 1973) is a World Music Award winning and MTV Europe Music Award nominated artist, and the winner of the Eurovision Song Contest 2004.
She is a singer, songwriter, producer, conductor, and pianist. She writes, composes and produces her own songs and music videos. Since 28 December 1995 she has been married to Oleksandr Ksenofontov, a Ukrainian record producer. Together they have run the company LuxenBourg Studio since 1993, producing radio and film trailers.
She won the Eurovision Song Contest 2004 with the song "Wild Dances" receiving points from 34 of the 35 countries participating in the contest.
In 2009 she was invited as a Special Guest Star to the 6th annual Asia Song Festival, where she received two trophies. The first of them was the golden statue of The Best Artist Award of The Asia Song Festival (which was awarded to each participant), the main award of the festival and the second special award was for the contribution to the cultural exchange between Ukraine and Asia in music.

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Rusyns
Carpatho-Rusyns or Ruthenes (Rusyn: Русины, Rusyns, also sometimes referred to as Carpatho-Russians or Rusnaks) are a primarily diasporic ethnic group who speak an Eastern Slavic language, known as Rusyn. Carpatho-Rusyns descend from a minority of Ruthenians who did not adopt the use of the ethnonym "Ukrainian" in the early twentieth century. The use of the term Rusyn was prohibited by some governments, as seen after 1945 in Soviet Transcarpathia, Poland, and Czechoslovakia.
Today, Slovakia, Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Serbia and Croatia officially recognize contemporary Rusyns (or Ruthenes) as an ethnic minority. In 2007, Carpatho-Rusyns were recognized as a separate ethnicity in Ukraine by the Zakarpattia Regional Council. Rusyns within Ukraine have Ukrainian citizenship, and most have adopted a Ukrainian ethnic identity. Most contemporary self-identified ethnic Rusyns live outside of Ukraine.
Of the estimated 1.2 million people of Rusyn origin, only 55,000 have officially identified themselves politically or ethnically as such, according to contemporary censuses.^[who?] The ethnic classification of Rusyns as a separate East Slavic ethnicity distinct from Russians, Ukrainians, and Belarusians is, however, controversial. The majority of Ukrainian scholars, as well as some Rusyns when considering their self-identification, consider Rusyns to be an ethnic subgroup of the Ukrainian people. This is disputed by some Lemko scholars.

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Ruthenians
The name Ruthenian (Ukrainian: Русини, Руські, Rusyns, Rus') is a culturally loaded term and has different meanings according to the context in which it is used. Initially, it was the ethnonym used for the East Slavic peoples who lived in Rus'. Later it was used predominantly for Ukrainians. With the emergence of Ukrainian nationalism in the mid nineteenth-century, the term went out of use, first in eastern and central Ukraine, and later in western Ukraine.^{[citation needed]} In western Ukraine (namely Carpathian Ruthenia), and among some émigré populations outside of Ukraine, its use has been retained on a small scale (see Pannonian Rusyns).
Originally, the term Rusyn was an ethnonym applied to the eastern Slavic-speaking ethnic group who inhabited the cultural and ethnic region of Rus' (Русь); often written through its Latin variant Ruthenia.
The names "Ruthenians" or "Ruthenes" were the Latin terms referring to Slavic Orthodox people (those who spoke the Ruthenian language) living in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. They inhabited the area that is now Belarus, Ukraine and Western Russia (area around Bryansk, Smolensk, Velizh and Vyazma). It was also the ethnonym used by the Ukrainian kozaks to describe themselves.

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Ryszard Koncewicz
Ryszard Tadeusz Koncewicz (born April 12 in Lwów, died March 15, 2001 in Warsaw) was a Polish soccer player as well as a coach. In the interbellum period, Koncewicz played without notable successes for Lechia Lwów (1927–1939). Caught by the Wehrmacht during the Polish September Campaign), he spent the war in a German POW camp Oflag IIC Woldenberg, where he represented the unofficial team of the city of Lwów, which consisted of POWs from there.
After the war he returned to Poland, and as Lwów was annexed by the Soviet Union, Koncewicz, together with numerous Poles expelled from the city, settled in Bytom, where he played in Polonia Bytom. In 1950 he became a coach of Ruch Chorzów, winning next year the Cup of Poland. Then he coached Polonia Bytom (1954 champions), Legia Warsaw (1956 champions and winners of Cup of Poland) and Gwardia Warszawa.
As early as 1948, Koncewicz started cooperating with then-coach of Polish National Team, Wacław Kuchar, who himself was from Lwów as well. Then, he trained Poland for several short periods (1953, 1956–1957, 1964–1966 and 1968–1970). After retiring, he was an activist of the Polish Football Association (PZPN).

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Saint George
Saint George (c. 275/281 – 23 April 303) was, according to tradition, a Roman soldier from Syria Palaestina and a soldier in the Guard of Diocletian, who is venerated as a Christian martyr. In hagiography Saint George is one of the most venerated saints in the Catholic (Western and Eastern Rites), Anglican, Eastern Orthodox, and the Oriental Orthodox churches. He is immortalized in the tale of Saint George and the Dragon and is one of the Fourteen Holy Helpers. His memorial is celebrated on 23 April, and he is regarded as one of the most prominent military saints.
Many Patronages of Saint George exist around the world, including: Georgia, England, Egypt, Bulgaria, Aragon, Catalonia, Romania, Ethiopia, Greece, India, Iraq, Lithuania, Palestine, Portugal, Serbia, Ukraine and Russia, as well as the cities of Genoa, Amersfoort, Beirut, Botoşani, Drobeta Turnu-Severin, Timişoara, Fakiha, Bteghrine, Cáceres, Ferrara, Freiburg, Kragujevac, Kumanovo, Ljubljana, Pérouges, Pomorie, Preston, Qormi, Rio de Janeiro, Lod, Lviv, Barcelona, Moscow, Tamworth and the Maltese island of Gozo, as well as of the Scout Movement and a wide range of professions, organizations and disease sufferers.

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Salomon Buber
Solomon (or Salomon) Buber (1827–1906) was a Jewish Galician scholar and editor of Hebrew works. He is especially remembered for his editions of Midrash and other medieval Jewish manuscripts, and for the pioneering research surrounding those texts.
Solomon Buber was born at Lemberg (then Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, Austria, now Lviv, Ukraine) on February 2, 1827. His father, Isaiah Abraham Buber, was versed in Talmudic literature and Jewish philosophy, and was Solomon's teacher in the latter subject; but for his son's Biblical and Talmudic studies he carefully selected competent professional teachers. Buber soon desired to conduct independent research and put the results in literary form—a disposition that proved valuable to Jewish literature.
At twenty years of age, Buber married and entered commercial pursuits. He rose rapidly to become Handelskammerrath, and auditor of the Austro-Hungarian bank, the national bank, and the Galician savings-bank. Buber was also president of the Geschäftshalle, vice-president of the free kitchen, and honorary member of a working men's union. For more than a quarter of a century was one of the directors of the Lemberg congregation; he was on the committee of the Bernstein foundation, and took a leading part in various philanthropic associations. He died in 1906.

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Sholem Aleichem
Sholem Aleichem (Yiddish: שלום־עליכם, Russian and Ukrainian: Шолом-Алейхем) (March 2, 1859 – May 13, 1916) was the pen name of Solomon Naumovich Rabinovich, a leading Yiddish author and playwright. The musical Fiddler on the Roof, based on his stories about Tevye the Milkman, was the first commercially successful English-language stage production about Jewish life in Eastern Europe.
Solomon Naumovich Rabinovich (Salomon Nochem Vevik) was born in 1859 into a Hasidic family in Pereyaslav and grew up in the nearby shtetl (small town with a large Jewish population) of Voronko, in the Poltava Governorate of the Russian Empire (now in the Kiev Oblast of central Ukraine). His father, Menachem-Nukhem Rabinovich, was a rich merchant at that time. However, a failed business affair plunged the family into poverty and Solomon subsequently grew up in reduced circumstances. When he was 13 years old, the family moved back to Pereiaslav, where his mother, Chaye-Esther, died in a cholera epidemic.
His first venture into writing was an alphabetic glossary of the epithets used by his stepmother. At the age of fifteen, inspired by Robinson Crusoe, he composed a Jewish version of the novel. He adopted the pseudonym Sholem Aleichem, a Yiddish variant of the Hebrew expression shalom aleichem, meaning "peace be with you" or "hello".

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Stanislaw Ulam
Stanislaw Marcin Ulam (13 April 1909 – 13 May 1984) was a renowned mathematician of Polish-Jewish origin. He participated in America's Manhattan Project, originated the Teller–Ulam design of thermonuclear weapons, invented the Monte Carlo method of computation, and suggested nuclear pulse propulsion. In pure and applied mathematics, he produced many results, proved many theorems, and proposed several conjectures.
Ulam was born in Lemberg, Galicia, on April 13, 1909. At this time, Galicia was in the Austro-Hungarian Empire, but in 1918, it became part of the Second Polish Republic, and the city took its Polish name, Lwów. In 1939, following the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, the Soviets invaded Poland, and the city was renamed Lviv, which is the Ukrainian form of its name, and by which it is known today.
The Ulams were a wealthy Polish Jewish family of bankers, industrialists, and other professionals. Ulam's immediate family was "well-to-do but hardly rich". His father, Józef Ulam, was born in Lwów and was a lawyer, and his mother, Anna Auerbach, was born in Stryj. His uncle, Michael Ulam, was an architect, building contractor, and lumber industrialist. He also served on the Polish National Wood Industry Council and on the board of the Central Bank of Lwów. From 1916 until 1918, Józef's family lived temporarily in Vienna. After they returned, Lwów became the epicenter of the Polish-Ukrainian War, during which the city experienced a Ukrainian siege and a pogrom.

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Stanisław Grabski
Stanisław Grabski (April 5, 1871 in Borów, Łowicz County - May 6, 1949 in Sulejówek) was a Polish economist and politician, member of the Sejm, associated with the National Democracy political camp. Stanisław was the brother of another prominent Polish politician, economist and Prime Minister Władysław Grabski, and political activist Zofia Kirkor-Kiedroniowa.
Stanisław Grabski became a political activist early in his life. In 1890 he was the editor of the Workers Gazette in Berlin. In 1892 he co-founded the Polish Socialist Party (PPS) but in 1901 he detached himself from that political movement to become a member of Roman Dmowski's "nationalist" camp (later known as National Democracy).
A member of the National League since 1905, a year later he become one of its leaders. From 1907 he was a member of Dmowski's party, the National-Democratic Party. During World War I Grabski, like Dmowski, supported the idea that Poles should ally with Russia, and later he joined Dmowski's Polish National Committee (Komitet Narodowy Polski) in Paris.

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Stanisław Głąbiński
Stanisław Głąbiński (1862-1941) was a Polish politician, academic, lawyer and writer.
Born 25 February, 1862 in the city of Skole, now in Lviv Oblast, Ukraine, but then within the Habsburg Monarchy.
Professor of Lwów University, dean of its law department (1889-1890) and the University's rector (1908-1909), he was also an activist in the Polish National Democracy movement. In 1918 he was the third and last Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Kingdom of Poland (1916–1918) before the Kingdom's transformation into the Second Polish Republic.
In 1923 he served as Minister of Education and Religion. He was a leading member of the National Populist Union and later of the National Party, in 1919-1928 deputy to the Sejm, and in 1928-1935 deputy to the Senate.
After the 1939 Soviet invasion of Poland, he was arrested by the Soviet NKVD, transported to Lubyanka Prison, and died in 1941.

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Stanisław Lem
Stanisław Lem (Polish pronunciation: [staˈɲiswaf ˈlɛm] ( listen); 12 September 1921 – 27 March 2006) was a Polish writer of science fiction, philosophy and satire. He was named a Knight of the Order of the White Eagle. His books have been translated into 41 languages and have sold over 27 million copies. He is perhaps best known as the author of the 1961 novel Solaris, which has been made into a feature film three times. In 1976 Theodore Sturgeon said that Lem was the most widely read science fiction writer in the world.
His works explore philosophical themes; speculation on technology, the nature of intelligence, the impossibility of mutual communication and understanding, despair about human limitations and mankind's place in the universe. They are sometimes presented as fiction, but others are in the form of essays or philosophical books. Translations of his works are difficult due to passages with elaborate word formation, alien or robotic poetry, and puns. Multiple translated versions of his works exist.

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Stanisław Ulam
Stanislaw Marcin Ulam (13 April 1909 – 13 May 1984) was a renowned mathematician of Polish-Jewish origin. He participated in America's Manhattan Project, originated the Teller–Ulam design of thermonuclear weapons, invented the Monte Carlo method of computation, and suggested nuclear pulse propulsion. In pure and applied mathematics, he produced many results, proved many theorems, and proposed several conjectures.
Ulam was born in Lemberg, Galicia, on April 13, 1909. At this time, Galicia was in the Austro-Hungarian Empire, but in 1918, it became part of the Second Polish Republic, and the city took its Polish name, Lwów. In 1939, following the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, the Soviets invaded Poland, and the city was renamed Lviv, which is the Ukrainian form of its name, and by which it is known today.
The Ulams were a wealthy Polish Jewish family of bankers, industrialists, and other professionals. Ulam's immediate family was "well-to-do but hardly rich". His father, Józef Ulam, was born in Lwów and was a lawyer, and his mother, Anna Auerbach, was born in Stryj. His uncle, Michael Ulam, was an architect, building contractor, and lumber industrialist. He also served on the Polish National Wood Industry Council and on the board of the Central Bank of Lwów. From 1916 until 1918, Józef's family lived temporarily in Vienna. After they returned, Lwów became the epicenter of the Polish-Ukrainian War, during which the city experienced a Ukrainian siege and a pogrom.

wn.com/Stanisław_Ulam
Stanyslav Lyudkevych
Stanyslav Pylypovych Lyudkevych (Ukrainian: Станіслав Пилипович Людкевич, born January 24, 1879 in Jarosław - September 10, 1979 in Lviv) was a Ukrainian composer, theorist, teacher, and musical activist. He was the People's Artist of the USSR in 1969. He earned a Ph.D. in musicology in Vienna, 1908. His name may alternatively be spelled as Stanislaw Ludkiewicz (Polish) or Stanislav Filipovich Ludkevich (Russian).
Lyudkevych was born in 1879 in Jarosław in present-day Poland. From 1898 to 1907 he studied philosophy in the Lviv University. Although he initially learned music theory privately from his mother who was a pianist, Lyudkevych studied with Mieczyslaw Soltys in Lviv and with O. Tsemlinsky and H. Hredener in Vienna. From 1901, Lyudkevych worked as a teacher in Lviv and Przemyśl.
From 1905 to 1907, Lyudkevych was an editor of the magazine "Artistic Bulletin". He was one of the organizers of the higher musical institute in Lviv named after Mykola Lysenko, in 1910—1915 he was its director, and from 1919, teacher of theoretical disciplines and inspector of legal entities. He worked with the choirs Boyan, Bandurist, Surma. In 1936, Lyudkevych became head of the musicological commission of the Shevchenko Scientific Society. In 1939-72, he was a professor in the institute named after Mykola Lysenko.

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Stefan Banach
Stefan Banach ([ˈstɛfan ˈbanax] ( listen); March 30, 1892 – August 31, 1945) was a Polish mathematician. He is generally considered to have been one of the 20th century's most important and influential mathematicians.
Banach was the founder of modern functional analysis and a founder of the Lwów School of Mathematics. Among his most prominent achievements was the 1932 book, Théorie des opérations linéaires (Theory of Linear Operations), the first monograph on the general theory of functional analysis.
Some of the notable mathematical concepts named after Banach include Banach spaces, Banach algebras, the Banach–Tarski paradox, the Hahn–Banach theorem, the Banach–Steinhaus theorem, the Banach-Mazur game, the Banach–Alaoglu theorem and the Banach fixed-point theorem.
Stefan Banach was born on 30 March 1892 at St. Lazarus General Hospital in Kraków, then part of Austro-Hungarian Galicia. Banach's parents were Stefan Greczek and Katarzyna Banach, both natives of the Podhale region. Stefan Greczek was born in Ostrowsko near the town of Nowy Targ and at one time was a soldier in the Austro-Hungarian Army stationed in Kraków. Banach's mother left him after he was baptized at four days old.

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Stefan Bastyr
Stefan Bastyr (August 17, 1890 – August 6, 1920) was a Polish aviator and military pilot, one of the pioneers of the Polish aviation. He is credited with the first military flight in the history of the Polish Air Force on November 5, 1918, almost a week before Poland officially regained her independence, at the opening stages of the Polish-Ukrainian War.
Initially he was a military pilot in Austria-Hungary during the World War I. From February 1916 he served as an observer in Flik 10 reconnaissance squadron on the eastern front, from December 1917 in Flik 12D on Austro-Italian front. In 1918 he himself trained as a pilot and was assigned to Flik 37P from June 1918. He undertook about 100 sorties during the war and scored at least 1 air victory on June 4, 1916.
In the Polish Air Force, he took part in the Battle of Lwów (1918). He died in an aircrash of Fokker D.VII in Lviv (probably due to a hear failure) during the Battle of Lwów (1920) and is buried at the Łyczaków cemetery in Lwów (modern Lviv).

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Stefan Drzewiecki
Stefan Drzewiecki (July 26, 1844 in Kunka, Podolia, Russian Empire (today Ukraine) – April 23, 1938 in Paris) was a Polish scientist, journalist, engineer, constructor and inventor, working in Russia and France.
Drzewiecki left Poland early in life to complete his education in France. With a knack for creativity and invention, he invented such useful tools as the kilometric counter for cabs. At the specific request of Grand Duke Konstantin, Drzewiecki moved to St. Petersburg in 1873. While in Russia, he constructed an instrument that drew the precise routes of ships onto a map.
Drzewiecki distinguished himself mainly in aviation and ship building. Beginning in 1877, during the Russo-Turkish War, he developed several models of propeller-driven submarines that evolved from single-person vessels to a four-man model. He developed the theory of gliding flight, developed a method for the manufacture of ship and plane propellers (1892), and presented a general theory for screw-propeller thrust (1920). He also developed several models of early submarines for the Russian Navy.

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Stepan Bandera
Stepan Andriyovych Bandera (Ukrainian: Степан Андрійович Бандера) (1 January 1909 – 15 October 1959) was a Ukrainian politician and one of the leaders of Ukrainian national movement in Western Ukraine (Galicia), who headed the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN). The son of a clerical family, Bandera was an activist, a scout, and eventually the leader of the Ukrainian nationalist movement.
During his political career, the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalist (OUN) split into two factions: the OUN-M and the OUN-B. Stepan Bandera was responsible for the proclamation of an Independent Ukrainian State in Lviv on 30 June 1941.
Soviet authorities authorised the KGB to assassinate him which took place in Munich, West Germany, on 15 October 1959.
Bandera is a controversial figure in contemporary Ukraine due to his cooperation with Nazi Germany in 1939-1941. In September 1941 Bandera was imprisoned by the Nazis; in September 1944 he was released. Assessments have ranged from totally apologetic to sharply negative. On 22 January 2010, the outgoing President of Ukraine Viktor Yushchenko awarded to Bandera the title of Hero of Ukraine (posthumously). The award was condemned by Jewish and Russian opinion, and was declared illegal by a Ukrainian court in April 2010. In January 2011, under President Viktor Yanukovych, the award was officially annulled.

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Svyatoslav Vakarchuk
Svyatoslav Yvanovych Vakarchuk (Ukrainian: Святосла́в Іва́нович Вакарчу́к, born May 14, 1975) is the lead vocalist of Okean Elzy, the most successful post-Soviet rock band in Ukraine. He is the son of Ivan Vakarchuk, a professor of physics at Lviv University and the former Minister of Education and Science in Ukraine.
He was active in supporting the Orange Revolution, and is involved in many social and cultural projects. He is one of the most successful musicians in Ukraine and has a degree in theoretical physics. By the year 2010, he had released seven (7) studio albums together with his band Okean Elzy:
and also one (1) acoustic album Tviy format (Your format, 2003).
The Ukrainian magazine Korrespondent ranks him as one of the 100 most influential people of Ukraine (in 2008 ranked 55).
In the early parliamentary elections on September 30, 2007 he appeared as an independent candidate on the Our Ukraine–People's Self-Defense Bloc's list (as nr 15). In the Verkhovna Rada (Ukrainian parliament) he was a member of the parliamentary committee for freedom of speech questions. In early September 2008 he renounced his seat in the Verkhovna Rada due to the political situation.

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Symon Petliura
Symon Vasylyovych Petliura (Ukrainian: Симон Васильович Петлюра, also known as Simon Petlura,Symon Petlura, or Symon Petlyura, May 10, 1879 – May 25, 1926) was a publicist, writer, journalist, Ukrainian politician, statesman, and national leader who led Ukraine's struggle for independence following the Russian Revolution of 1917.
During the period of Ukrainian independence in 1918–1920, he was Head of the Ukrainian State.
On May 25, 1926 Petliura was assassinated in Paris by the Jewish anarchist Sholom Schwartzbard.
Petliura was born on May 10, 1879, in Poltava, Ukraine, the son of Vasyl Petliura and Olha Marchenko, urban dwellers of Cossack extraction. Cossack, as opposed to peasant heritage, allowed certain privileges regarding land ownership, taxes and access to education in the Russian Empire, of which most of Ukraine was then part. Petliura's initial education was obtained in parochial schools, and he planned to become an Orthodox priest.
In 1898 while attending the Russian Orthodox Seminary in Poltava, Petliura joined the Ukrainian Revolutionary Party (RUP). When his membership was discovered in 1901, he was expelled from the seminary. In 1902, under threat of arrest, he moved to Yekaterinodar in the Kuban where he worked for 2 years initially as a schoolteacher and later in the archives of the Kuban Cossack Host where he helped organize over 200 thousand documents. In December 1903, he was arrested for organizing a RUP branch in Yekaterinodar and for publishing inflammatory anti-tsarist articles in the Ukrainian press outside of Imperial Russia. He was released in March 1904, moving briefly to Kiev and then emigrating to the Western Ukrainian city of Lviv then in the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

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Tadeusz Brzeziński
Tadeusz Brzeziński (February 21, 1896 – January 7, 1990) was a Polish consular official and the father of President Jimmy Carter's national security adviser, Zbigniew Brzezinski.
Brzeziński was born in the town of Złoczów, in what was then the Austro-Hungarian Empire (today Zolochiv, Lviv Oblast, Ukraine). He received his university education in Lwów (now the Ukrainian city Lviv), and in Vienna. As a volunteer in the Polish independence movement from 1918 to 1920, Brzeziński saw action in the Battle of Lwów during the Polish-Ukrainian War and against Soviet forces in the final Warsaw campaign of 1920. He entered the diplomatic-consular service of the new Polish Republic, serving in Essen, Germany; Lille, France; Leipzig, Germany; Kharkov, in the Soviet Ukraine, and Montreal, where he lived after the Communist takeover in Poland after World War II.
While in Leipzig, Germany, before World War II, Brzeziński became involved in efforts to rescue European Jews from Nazi concentration camps. In 1978, his efforts on behalf of the Jewish people were recognized by Israeli Prime Minister, Menachem Begin.

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Tadeusz Rychter
Tadeusz Rychter (Lviv, circa 1873 – 1943, Warsaw) was a Polish early twentieth century artist best remembered for his watercolors of the Holy Land.
Rychter studied at the Jan Matejko Academy of Fine Arts in Kraków, where he became the contributing artist to the legendary Zielony Balonik art-and-literary cabaret. He married a fellow Cracovian artist Bronisława Janowska, but left her for a German artist from an aristocratic family, Anna May-Rychter, whom he met while in Munich. He was Catholic and could not obtain a divorce; they could not be legally wed, which may also explain their decision to settle in Palestine in 1920–1923. While still in Europe, the two worked with Rudolf Steiner on the construction of the first Goetheanum in Switzerland and were members of the artist's group "Aenigma".
In Palestine, Rychter earned a living restoring art in old churches, and selling watercolor paintings of Christian holy sites to tourists. Many of his surviving paintings are in the possession of British families whose ancestors purchased them while stationed with the British administration in Mandate Palestine. In 1935 Tadeusz Rychter applied for membership in the Palestine Artists' Association but was turned down because of his religion. He returned to Poland at the time of the German invasion in 1939, and disappeared in Warsaw in 1941. He died in 1943, murdered by the Nazis.

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Taras Shevchenko
Taras Hryhorovych Shevchenko (Ukrainian: Тара́с Григо́рович Шевче́нко, Russian: Тара́с Григо́рьевич Шевче́нко, Taras Grigoryevich Shevchenko), ( March 9 [O.S. February 25] 1814 – March 10 [O.S. February 26] 1861) was a Ukrainian poet, artist and humanist. His literary heritage is regarded to be the foundation of modern Ukrainian literature and, to a large extent, the modern Ukrainian language. Shevchenko also wrote in Russian and left many masterpieces as a painter and an illustrator.
Born into a serf family of Hryhoriy Ivanovych Shevchenko (1782? - 1825) and Kateryna Yakymivna Shevchenko (Boiko) (1782? - August 6, 1823) in the village of Moryntsi, of Kiev Governorate of the Russian Empire (now in Cherkasy Oblast, Ukraine) Shevchenko was orphaned at the age of eleven. He was taught to read by a village precentor, and loved to draw at every opportunity. Shevchenko went as a household servant with his Russian aristocrat lord Pavel Engelhardt to Vilnius (1828–31) and then to Saint Petersburg.

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Tatar
Tatars (Tatar: Tatarlar / Татарлар, sometimes spelled Tartars) are a Turkic people, numbering around 7 million. The majority of Tatars live in the Russian Federation, with a population of 5.5 million, 2 million of which in the republic of Tatarstan, 1 million in the republic of Bashkortostan and other 2.5 million in different regions of Russia. Significant minority populations are found in Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Ukraine.
The Tatars originated with the Tatar confederation in the north-eastern Gobi desert in the 5th century. After subjugation in the 9th century by the Khitans, they migrated southward. In the 13th century Mongol Empire, they were subjugated under Genghis Khan and reassigned once again particularly by his son Jochi. Under the leadership of his grandson Batu Khan, they moved westwards, forming part of the Golden Horde which dominated the Eurasian steppe during the 14th and 15th centuries. In Europe, they were assimilated by the local populations or their name spread to the conquered peoples: Kipchaks, Kimaks and others; and elsewhere with Uralic-speaking peoples, as well as with remnants of the ancient Greek colonies in the Crimea and Caucasians in the Caucasus.

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Ukrainians
Ukrainians (Ukrainian: Українці, Ukrayintsi, [ukrɑˈjinʲtsʲi]) are an East Slavic ethnic group native to Ukraine, which is the sixth-largest nation in Europe. The Constitution of Ukraine applies the term 'Ukrainians' to all its citizens. According to some dictionary definitions, a descriptive name for the "inhabitants of Ukraine" is Ukrainian or Ukrainian people.Russians and Belarusians are considered the closest relatives of Ukrainians, while Rusyns are either considered another closely related group, or an ethnic subgroup of Ukrainians.
Ethnonym Ukrainians became widely accepted only in the 20th century, so modern Ukrainians identify their ancestry with differently named historical Slavic groups, who are often called Ukrainians too, in retrospect. The oldest recorded ethnonyms used for Ukrainian ancestors are Rusy, Rusyny, and Rusychi (from term Rus'). From the 9th to 12th centuries those names applied to the population of Kievan Rus', as the united state of Rusy is restrospectively called. Similar names were adopted by the proto-Russian and proto-Belarusian inhabitants of the northern principalities of Rus', reflecting the common origin of all those East Slavic peoples.

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Vassily Ivanchuk
Vasyl Mykhaylovych Ivanchuk, also transliterated as Vasyliy or Vasyl (Ukrainian: Василь Михайлович Іванчук; Russian: Васи́лий Михайлович Иванчу́к) (born March 18, 1969 in Kopychyntsi, Ukrainian SSR), is a Ukrainian chess grandmaster.
Ivanchuk has been a leading player in the world since 1988, ranking as high as No. 2 on the official FIDE Elo rating list (July 1991, July 1992, October 2007) and No. 1 briefly on the unofficial live rating updates from September 10–12, 2008. Ivanchuk often has erratic results, dropping as low as 30th in July 2009 before returning to the top ten in the very next list.
He was the 2007–2008 World Blitz Chess champion. He won the Amber blindfold and rapid chess championship in 1992 and 2010.
In 2011, by the decree of the President of Ukraine, Ivanchuk was awarded the Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise IV degree.
Ivanchuk was born in Kopychyntsi, Ukraine. He won the 1987 European Junior Chess Championship in Groningen and first achieved international notice by winning the 1988 New York Open with 7.5/9, ahead of a field of Grandmasters. He tied for first place in the 1988 World Junior Chess Championship at Adelaide, but lost the title on tiebreak to Joël Lautier. He was awarded the Grandmaster title in 1988, and entered the world top 10 the same year.

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Vasyl Stefanyk
Vasyl' Semenovych Stefanyk (1871 — 1936) was a classical Ukrainian prose writer and political activist. He was a member of the Austrian parliament 1908-1918.
Vasyl Stefanyk was born on May 14, 1871 in the village of Rusiv in the family of a well established peasant. He was born in the historical region of Pokuttya, in Austro-Hungary. Today it is part of the Sniatyn Raion, Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast. He died on December 7, 1936 in the same village, Rusiv, at that time the part of Poland.

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Viktor Yushchenko
Viktor Andriyovych Yushchenko (Ukrainian: Ві́ктор Андрі́йович Ю́щенко (help·info); born February 23, 1954) is a former President of Ukraine. He took office on January 23, 2005, following a period of popular unrest known as the Orange Revolution. He failed to secure a runoff spot during the 2010 Ukrainian presidential election.
As an informal leader of the Ukrainian opposition coalition, he was one of the two main candidates in the October–November 2004 Ukrainian presidential election. Yushchenko won the presidency through a repeat runoff election between him and Viktor Yanukovych, the government-supported candidate. The Ukrainian Supreme Court called for the runoff election to be repeated because of widespread election fraud in favor of Viktor Yanukovych in the original vote. Yushchenko won in the revote (52% to 44%). Public protests prompted by the electoral fraud played a major role in that presidential election and led to Ukraine's Orange Revolution.
Following an assassination attempt in late 2004, Yushchenko was confirmed to have ingested hazardous amounts of TCDD, the most potent dioxin and a contaminant in Agent Orange. He suffered disfigurement as a result of the poisoning, but has been slowly recovering in recent years.

wn.com/Viktor_Yushchenko
Volodymyr Ivasyuk
Volodymyr Mykhailovych Ivasyuk or Volodymyr Ivasiuk (Ukrainian: Володи́мир Миха́йлович Івасю́к) (March 4, 1949 – May 18, 1979) was a very popular Ukrainian songwriter, composer and poet. He is the author and composer of the widely popular song "Chervona Ruta" popularized by Sofia Rotaru in 1971, and later covered by other singers.
Ivasyuk was born in the city of Kitsman, Chernivtsi Oblast, on March 4, 1949. His father Mykhaylo Ivasyuk was a well-known writer from Bukovyna. His mother Sofiya Ivasyuk, from the Zaporizhia Oblast by birth, was a teacher in a local school. As early as the age of five, Volodymyr began learning to play the violin at a music school. Later, he learnt to play the piano as well. In 1964 he created an ensemble - "Bukovyna" - in his school and wrote their first songs, the first of which was "Lullaby".
After Volodymyr had already graduated from secondary school, his family moved to the city of Chernivtsi where his father was offered a teaching position at the University of Chernivtsi. Volodymyr went on to study at the Lviv Medical Institute while he continued his musical career. He joined the "Karpaty Ensemble" at a local community centre and played the violin and offered his songs to be performed.

wn.com/Volodymyr_Ivasyuk
Volodymyr Kubiyovych
Volodymyr Mykhailovych Kubiyovych, also spelled Kubiiovych or Kubijovyč (Ukrainian: Володи́мир Миха́йлович Кубійо́вич; (23 September 1900, Neu Sandez, Austria-Hungary - 2 November 1985, Paris, France) was a Ukrainian geographer with a specialty in demography, a cartographer, an encyclopedist, politician, and statesman. Of mixed Ukrainian and Polish ethnic background, he was an important intellectual supporting the Ukrainian national movement in inter-war Poland, and his scholarly works from this period dealt with the Ukrainian ethnic presence in Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Romania, and with the geographical boundaries of ethnographic Ukraine.
During World War II he headed the Cracow-based Ukrainian Central Committee which organized social and charitable work among Ukrainians in occupied Poland. Kubiyovych became a main proponent of the cooperation between certain Ukrainian Nationalist organizations and Nazi Germany with the ultimate goal of achieving an independent Ukrainian national state. After the war, he retired from political work but became one of the leading scholars of the Ukrainian diaspora in the West. After 1945, and throughout the Cold War, Kubiyovych remained a target of vicious attacks by the Soviet propaganda, focusing on some of his wartime activities, in particular his sponsoring of the Ukrainian division of Waffen-SS.

wn.com/Volodymyr_Kubiyovych
Wacław Kuchar
Wacław Michał Kuchar (September 16, 1897 in Łańcut – February 13, 1981 in Warsaw) was a Polish sports champion, olympian, and multiple soccer, track and field and ice skating champion of the country.
Kuchar excelled in many sports - track and field, soccer (firstly - forward, then midfielder, at the end of his career - defender), skiing, speed skating and ice hockey. Even though born in Łańcut, his whole life was connected with Lwów, where he played for Pogoń Lwów - one of the most important and most popular sports clubs of interwar Poland. After finishing his career, he became a referee, coach and sports official. To this day Kuchar is regarded as an excellent example of fair play.
In 1926, in a poll held by the Polish sports daily Przegląd Sportowy, Kuchar was chosen as the athlete of the year. A year later he came in 10th in the same poll. In 1924, at the Paris Olympic Games, he played on the Poland national football team.
Wacław Kuchar was champion of Poland in:
As a soccer player representing Pogoń Lwów, Kuchar achieved these successes:

wn.com/Wacław_Kuchar
Wojciech Bobowski
Wojciech Bobowski or Ali Ufki (also Albertus Bobovius, Ali Bey, Santurî Ali Ufki; 1610–1675) was a Polish musician and dragoman in the Ottoman Empire. He translated the Bible into Ottoman Turkish, composed an Ottoman Psalter, based on the Genevan metrical psalter, and wrote a grammar of the Ottoman Turkish language. His musical works are considered among the most important in 17th-century Ottoman music.
Bobowski was born as a Pole in Lwów (Ruthenian Voivodeship), then part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (now Lviv in the Ukraine). He was raised in a Protestant family and started a career as a church musician. At some point, he was taken prisoner (jasyr) by Crimean Tatars during one of their common raids across the border.
Because he had enjoyed musical training and was capable of reading and notating music [4], he was sold to the court of sultan Murad IV (and later Ibrahim I and Mehmed IV), where he converted to Islam and became known as علي افقي ‘Alī Ufqī. At the court he served as an interpreter, treasurer and musician in the sultan's seraglio. He was also known to master sixteen languages, next to Polish and Turkish also Arabic, French, German, Greek, Hebrew, Italian, and Latin.

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Władysław Opolczyk
Władysław II of Opole (Polish: Władysław Opolczyk, German: Władysław von Oppeln, Ukrainian: Владислав Опольчик) (ca. 1332 – 18 May 1401) was a Duke of Opole from 1356 (only formally from 1396), Count palatine of Hungary during 1367–1372, ruler over Lubliniec since 1368, Duke of Wieluń during 1370–1392, ruler over Bolesławiec from 1370 (only for his life), Governor of Galicia–Volhynia during 1372–1378, ruler over Pszczyna during 1375–1396, Count palatine of Poland in 1378, Duke of Dobrzyń and Kujawy during 1378–1392 (as a Polish vassal), ruler over Głogówek from 1383 and ruler over Karniów during 1385–1392.
He was the eldest son of Duke Bolko II of Opole by his wife Elisabeth, daughter of Duke Bernard of Świdnica.
Little is known about Władysław's first years. As a young prince and in order to gain more political experience, he went to Hungary around 1353, where he probably remained until the death of his father in 1356.
After Duke Bolko II's death, Władysław and his brothers Bolko III and Henry inherited Opole as co-rulers; however, the strong personality of Władysław soon dominated the whole government and encourage his brothers to accept a modest part of their inheritance. Bolko III and Henry remained as co-Dukes of Opole, but only formally.

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Władysław Orkan
Władysław Orkan (27 November 1875 - 14 May 1930) (actually born as Franciszek Ksawery Smaciarz, changed surname to Smreczyński, but primarily known under his pen name, Orkan) was a Polish writer from the Young Poland period. He is known as one of the greatest Polish writers from Podhale region and Górale folk; most famous of his works portray the common people from that region.
Born in Poręba Wielka, Limanowa County as Franciszek Ksawery Smaciarz, he attended the elementary school in Szczyrzyc. He started publishing while in the fourth grade; he also joined many extracurricular clubs and organization, including pro-Polish independence ones. Due to his involvement in such activities, his grades suffered, and he never passed the matura exam. He returned to Poręba village, and continued writing. He debuted in 1896 with a publication of a poem, patriotic poem Nad grobem matki and several satirical verses. In 1898 he published his first work, collection of short stories, Nowele; that year he also changed his surname in to Smreczyński. He published more works soon thereafter: another collection short stories Nad urwiskiem in 1900, a novel Komornicy (1900), drama Postronni (1903), a verse volume Z tej smutnej ziemi (1903), novel W roztokach (1908) and others.

wn.com/Władysław_Orkan
Władysław Reymont
Władysław Stanisław Reymont (Kobiele Wielkie, May 7, 1867 – December 5, 1925, Warsaw) was a Polish novelist and the 1924 laureate of the Nobel Prize in Literature. His best-known work is the award-winning four-volume novel Chłopi (The Peasants).
Reymont's baptism certificate lists his original surname as Stanisław Władysław Rejment. The change of name from "Rejment" to "Reymont" was made by the author himself during his publishing debut, as it was supposed to protect him, in the Russian part of Poland, from any potential trouble for having already published in Galicia a work not allowed under the Tsar's censorship. Kazimierz Wyka, an enthusiast of Reymont's work, believes that the correction could also have been meant to remove any association with the word rejmentować, which in some local Polish dialects means "to swear".
Reymont was born in the village of Kobiele Wielkie, near Radomsko as one of nine children to Józef Rejment, an organist. He spent his childhood in Tuszyn near Łódź, to which his father had moved in order to work at a richer church parish. Reymont was defiantly stubborn; after a few years of education in the local school he was sent by his father to Warsaw into the care of his eldest sister and her husband to teach him his vocation. In 1885, after passing his examinations and presenting "a tail-coat, well-made", he was given the title of journeyman tailor – his only formal certificate of education.

wn.com/Władysław_Reymont
Władysław Sadłowski
Władysław Sadłowski was a renowned Polish architect and a graduate of the Lwów Technical Academy. In 1888, Sadłowski was delegated to design a new train station for Austrian-ruled Lemberg (Lviv in present day Ukraine).
The final project, prepared in less than a year, encompassed a large, horizontally-oriented main hall, with two large train yards located in the background. The main entrance was topped with a large dome made of bolted steel and stained glass. Both wings of the symmetrical building were constituted by two pavilions, each with a smaller cupola.
Some of his other projects in Lviv include: Industrial School Building (47 Snopkowska Street), 1907–1908, and rebuilding of Baczewski residence, 1908

wn.com/Władysław_Sadłowski
Włodzimierz Chomicki
Włodzimierz Michał Chomicki (April 19, 1878 in Lwow – July 12, 1953 in Chocianow) was a scorer of the first officially registered soccer goal in Poland.
The historic goal was scored on July 14, 1894 in Lwow, during the Second Meeting of Polish Falcons. On that day, numerous sports tournaments took place, among them there was a soccer game between the teams from Lwow and Krakow. Chomicki, who was 16 at the time, netted the ball in the 6th minute, soon afterwards referee Zygmunt Wyrobek from Krakow finished the game, as gymnastics competition was planned on the same pitch.
Chomicki himself never sought for fame. He took up a job of a gymnastics teacher in Lwow’s 9th High School, retiring in 1938. Somewhere in 1945 or 1946 he was forced to move to Poland’s ‘recovered territories and settled in Chocianow in Lower Silesia.
Chomicki’s feat was honored not only by the Poles, but also the Ukrainians. On May 18, 1999 Ukrainian Football Federation announced that July 14 would be officially regared as beginning of Ukrainian football.

wn.com/Włodzimierz_Chomicki
Yaroslav Stetsko
Yaroslav Stetsko (Ukrainian: Ярослав Стецько) (19 January 1912, Ternopil, Austria–Hungary – 5 July 1986, Munich, Germany) was the leader of the Bandera's Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN), from 1968 until death. In 1941, during Nazi Germany invasion into the Soviet Union he was self-proclaimed temporary head of the self-proclaimed Ukrainian statehood. Stetsko was the head of the Anti-Bolshevik Bloc of Nations from the time of foundation until 1986, the year of his death.
Yaroslav Stetsko was born on 12 January 1912 in Ternopil, Austria–Hungary (now Ukraine) into a Ukrainian Catholic priest's family. His father, Semen, and his mother, Teodoziya, née Chubaty, encouraged him to pursue a higher education, which was very difficult for ethnic Ukrainians. Yaroslav not only graduated high school in Ternopil, but later studied Law and Philosophy at the Kraków and Lwów Universities, graduating in 1934.
Yaroslav Stetsko was active in Ukrainian nationalist organizations from an early age. He was a member of three separate organizations: "Ukrayinska Natsionalistychna Molod'" (Ukrainian Nationalist Youth; Ukrainian: Українська Націоналістична Молодь) where he became a member of the National Executive in 1932, Ukrainian Military Organization the UVO (Ukrainian: Українська Військова Організація) and eventually the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN) (Ukrainian: Організація Українських Націоналістів).

wn.com/Yaroslav_Stetsko
Zbigniew Brzeziński
Zbigniew Kazimierz Brzezinski (Polish: Zbigniew Kazimierz Brzeziński, pronounced [ˈzbʲiɡɲiɛf kaˈʑimʲiɛʐ bʐɛˈʑiɲski]; born March 28, 1928) is a Polish American political scientist, geostrategist, and statesman who served as United States National Security Advisor to President Jimmy Carter from 1977 to 1981.
Major foreign policy events during his term of office included the normalization of relations with the People's Republic of China (and the severing of ties with the Republic of China); the signing of the second Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT II); the brokering of the Camp David Accords; the transition of Iran from an important U.S. client state to an anti-Western Islamic Republic, encouraging dissidents in Eastern Europe and emphasizing certain human rights in order to undermine the influence of the Soviet Union; the financing of the mujahideen in Afghanistan in response to the Soviet deployment of forces there and the arming of these rebels to counter the Soviet invasion; and the signing of the Torrijos-Carter Treaties relinquishing overt U.S. control of the Panama Canal after 1999.

wn.com/Zbigniew_Brzeziński
Zbigniew Herbert
Zbigniew Herbert ['zbiɡɲɛf ˈxɛrbɛrt] ( listen) (29 October 1924 in Lwów [then Poland, now Lviv, Ukraine] – 28 July 1998 in Warsaw) was a Polish poet, essayist, drama writer, author of plays, and moralist. A member of the Polish resistance movement, Home Army (AK), during World War II, he is one of the best known and the most translated post-war Polish writers. While he was first published in the 1950's (a volume titled String of light was issued in 1956), soon after he voluntarily ceased submitting most of his works to official Polish government publications. He resumed publication in the 1980's, initially in the underground press.
He was a distant relative of the 17th century poet George Herbert.
Herbert was educated as an economist and a lawyer. Herbert was one of the main poets of the Polish opposition to communism. Starting in 1986, he lived in Paris, where he cooperated with the journal Zeszyty Literackie. He came back to Poland in 1992. On 1 July 2007 the Polish Government instituted 2008 as the Year of Zbigniew Herbert.

wn.com/Zbigniew_Herbert
Zygmunt Janiszewski
Zygmunt Janiszewski (June 12, 1888 – January 3, 1920) was a Polish mathematician.
His mother was Julia Szulc-Chojnicka. His father, Czeslaw Janiszewski, was a graduate of the University of Warsaw and was an important person in finance, being the director of the Société du Crédit Municipal in Warsaw.
Janiszewski taught at the University of Lwów and was professor at the University of Warsaw. At the outbreak of World War I he was a soldier in the Polish Legions of Józef Piłsudski, fighting for Polish independence. With Piłsudski himself and other officers, he refused to swear an oath of allegiance to the Austrian government. He left the Legions and hid under the false name Zygmunt Wicherkiewicz in Boiska, near Zwoleń. From Boiska he moved on to Ewin, near Włoszczowa, where he directed a shelter for homeless children.
At the end of World War I, Janiszewski was the driving force behind the creation of one of the strongest schools of mathematics in the world. This is all the more remarkable, given Poland's difficult situaltion at war's end.

wn.com/Zygmunt_Janiszewski

Lviv, the 'Little Paris'

The city of Lviv in the west of Ukraine is perhaps the best example of the stark differenc...

published: 22 Aug 2011

author: Euronews

Chocolate, beer and coffee in Lviv - BBC

Next summer the eyes of football fans from all over the world will be on Ukraine as it pla...

published: 21 Mar 2011

author: comandoslviv

Lviv

Weekend in Lviv. Video created by Igor Alexandrov Music by The Temper Trap (Sweet Disposit...

published: 25 May 2012

author: 737646

05 Lviv+Kiev Ukraine's Got Talent 4

videovik.net...

published: 08 Apr 2012

author: videoviknet

trip to lviv

Поездка во Львов))))...

published: 13 Dec 2012

author: Антон Гиря

Armin van Buuren Lviv 14.12.2012 (Full HD)

Armin van Buuren Lviv 14.12.2012 (Full HD) all parts...

published: 17 Dec 2012

author: redserg

CHAI: Lviv Vlog!

Kate and I tour Lviv with some new friends!!...

published: 03 Oct 2011

author: DexterityBonus

A Night in L'viv

I think you could call this a short film... I set out to ask as many people as I could 5 q...

published: 23 Nov 2011

author: psa234

Welcome to Lviv

People welcome everyone to Lviv...

published: 01 Jun 2012

author: LvivLive

Кубок Львову - The Lviv cup

created by: Nebelskiy Vitalii vk.com Lysyk Bohdan vk.com soundtrack: Audiomachine -- Guard...

published: 13 Apr 2012

author: Богдан Лисик

The Lviv Cup - Spirit of Karpaty

created by: Nebelskyi Vitalii - vk.com Lysyk Bohdan - vk.com Special thanks to: Andrew Osa...

published: 03 Nov 2012

author: Богдан Лисик

Lviv welcomes U

created by "Ukraine welcomes U" project: Mykola Nosok www.facebook.com , Andrew Ilin www.f...

published: 06 Nov 2012

author: Mykola Nosok

Levyts'kogo street - hotel Lviv

Rush hour in Lviv...

published: 19 Aug 2011

author: yprokopyak

Scorpions - Wind Of Change (live @ Lviv, 27.10.12)

lviv-online.com vk.com...

published: 27 Oct 2012

author: ihateyournickname

Plato

.Annecy 2011: Best graduation short & junior jury award .SICAF 2011: Special distinction...

published: 23 Sep 2011

author: Léonard Cohen

awesome rain

Personal work. After Effects, mouse logitech :) P.S.: no 3D. MUSIC: Hans Zimmer - 'Attack'...

published: 21 Feb 2009

author: versa

Місто для Закоханих

FEST-Холдинг Емоцій : fest.lviv.ua BeautifulDay production-відео продакшин : beautifulday....

published: 28 Sep 2012

author: BeautifulDay

Night City Road (Lviv) - vistoff.com

2012 © www.Vistoff.com | production factory...

published: 08 Feb 2012

author: Family Tree {emotion production}

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photo: AP / Guang Niu, Pool

A Chinese Navy nuclear-powered submarine sails during an international fleet review to celebrate the 60th anniversary of the founding of People's Liberation Army Navy Thursday, April 23, 2009 off Qingdao, China's Shandong Province. China on Thursday displayed for the first time its nuclear-powered submarines, a sign of the navy's growing confidence and its aspirations to become a major sea pow

Russian expert warns America about Chinese nukes

The Examiner

16 Dec 2012

Retired Col. Gen. Viktor Yesin yesterday wrapped up a visit to the United States during which he met with officials at the Pentagon, State Department as well as members of Congress warning about underestimating China’s tactical nuclear weapons buildup ... Yesin warns that U.S. and Western arms specialists are dramatically underestimating China’s nuclear arsenal ... Somewhere between the higher and lower estimates is no doubt the truth ... Mr ... Mr ... ....(size: 4.0Kb)

photo: AP / Jason DeCrow

Newtown Police Officer Maryhelen McCarthy carries flowers near a memorial for shooting victims Sunday, Dec. 16, 2012 in Newtown, Conn.

Gunman forced his way into Connecticut school, governor says

Chicago Sun-Times

16 Dec 2012

NEWTOWN, Conn. — The gunman in the Connecticut shooting rampage committed suicide as first responders closed in, the governor said Sunday, raising the specter that Adam Lanza had planned an even more gruesome massacre and was stopped short. Lanza blasted his way into the building and used a high-power rifle to kill 20 children and six adults, including the principal who tried to stop him, authorities said ... Among the questions ... H ... The Rev....(size: 8.8Kb)

photo: AP / Charles Krupa

Police officers cross the road after searching a strip mall near an elementary school, which was in a lockdown, in Ridgefield, Conn., Monday, Dec. 17, 2012, after a suspicious person was seen near a train station close by.

Gunspicuous Consumption and Bio-Cultures of Violence

WorldNews.com

18 Dec 2012

Article by WN.com Correspondent Dallas Darling. "Most people reason dramatically, not quantitatively." -Oliver Wendell Holmes. On the same day that a 20-year-old, described as brilliant but remote, walked into an elementary school in Connecticut and massacred 26 children and adults, the school where I teach went on "lock-down." Four students with a handgun were arrested ... That morning before school, he had posted on Twitter and Facebook....(size: 14.0Kb)

photo: AP / Khalil Hamra

Egyptian women line up outside a polling station to cast their votes during a referendum on a disputed constitution drafted by Islamist supporters of President Morsi in Cairo, Egypt, Saturday, Dec. 15, 2012.

Egypt's Muslim Brotherhood Is No Longer a 'State Within a State'

WorldNews.com

16 Dec 2012

Article by WN.com Correspondent Dallas Darling. "Fundamentalism is good for protest, good for revolution, and good for war, but not so good for development.". After a century of being persecuted and driven underground, mainly for their vibrant nationalism and their anti-imperialist and pro-Palestinian views, Egypt's Islamist Muslim Brotherhood has finally taken center-state ... Such actions will have to be avoided....(size: 6.9Kb)

photo: AP / Jason DeCrow

A victim's name is spelled out in wooden letters at a memorial to shooting victims, Monday, Dec. 17, 2012, in Newtown, Conn. A gunman walked into Sandy Hook Elementary School in Newtown Friday and opened fire, killing 26 people, including 20 children.

US school killings spark gun control debate

Al Jazeera

18 Dec 2012

An increasing number of US congressmen have called for a national dialogue about measures to curb gun violence following the shooting last week at a primary school in Connecticut that killed 26 people, including 20 children and six adults. White House officials have said that President Barack Obama would make preventing gun-related violence a priority in his second term in office and stricter laws would be part of the effort.  ... ....(size: 19.2Kb)

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Olexandr Petrakov announced U18 squad (FFU - Football Federation of Ukraine)

noodls

18 Dec 2012

Yevhen Chumak ("Dynamo" Kyiv), Ihor Kharatin ("Dynamo" Kyiv), Artem Habelok ("Shakhtar" Donetsk), Vyacheslav Tankovs'kyy ("Shakhtar" Donetsk), Serhiy Sizyy ("Metalist" Kharkiv), Dmytro Kravchenko ("Vorskla" Poltava), Yuriy Yastrub ("Karpaty" Lviv); ... ("Karpaty" Lviv)....(size: 2.4Kb)

Rescuers of the Ministry of Emergencies assist in liquidation of consequences of bad weather (Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine)

noodls

18 Dec 2012

For twenty-four hours, December 17, due to adverse weather conditions (snow and wind gusts) in some districts of Lviv, Ternopil, Chernivtsi, Vinnytsiaand ZhytomyrRegions, in some areas of roads were traffic snags through snowbanks....(size: 1.5Kb)

Ukraine and Russia hit by extreme cold snap and heavy snow

The Daily Telegraph

18 Dec 2012

PREVIOUS. 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 ... Night temperatures are expected to drop to -28C in northern, central and eastern Ukraine this week ... Cars were blocked for 18 kilometres (11 miles) overnight on Saturday on the main road between the capital Kiev and Lviv, officials said. Picture. REUTERS/Marian Striltsiv.   ... ... ... ....(size: 7.4Kb)

Yuri Vynnychuk and Lesya Voronyna win the BBC Ukrainian book awards (BBC - British Broadcasting Corporation)

noodls

18 Dec 2012

(Source. BBC - British Broadcasting Corporation). The Tango of Death ("Танго смерті") (Kharkiv, Folio, 2012) by Yuri Vynnychuk has been named the BBC Ukrainian Book of the Year 2012 ... "Yuriy Vynnychuk's novel has an exciting storyline and a strong emphasis on historical facts - a combination which results in wonderful scenes from the life in Lviv between the first and second world wars ... Commenting on the winning book, Vira Ageyeva says....(size: 6.2Kb)

BBC Book prize winners in partnership with EBRD Cultural Programme (EBRD - European Bank for Reconstruction and Development)

noodls

18 Dec 2012

(Source ... Author(s). Press Office Date ... Professor of the National University of Kyiv-Mohyla Academy and member of the panel of the BBC Ukrainian Book of the Year awards, Vira Ageyeva, comments on "The Tango of Death". "Yuriy Vynnychuk's novel has an exciting storyline and a strong emphasis on historical facts - a combination which results in wonderful scenes from the life in Lviv between the first and second world wars....(size: 7.1Kb)

Rescuers of the Ministry for Emergencies assist in liquidation of consequences of bad weather (Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine)

noodls

17 Dec 2012

(Source ... During December 16, due to adverse weather conditions (heavy snowfall, wind gusts) in some districts of Lviv, Ternopil, Chernivtsi, Ivano-Frankivsk, Vinnytsiaand ZhytomyrRegions on some sections of roads were traffic snags and formation of road jams through snowbanks....(size: 1.6Kb)

The PM keeps under the personal control the work to eliminate the consequences of the elements in Ukraine (Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine)

noodls

17 Dec 2012

(Source. Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine). Ukrainian Prime Minister MykolaAzarovkeeps under the personal control the work to eliminate the consequences of the elements in a number of settlements of Ukraine. During the night of December 16, in some districts of Lviv, Ternopil, Luhansk, Khmelnytskand ZhytomyrRgionbad weather caused the blackout of settlements, seriously complicate traffic due to snowbankson roads etc ... distributed by....(size: 2.5Kb)

Double Check the Full List of 288 IMAX Theaters Showing 9 Minutes of STAR TREK INTO DARKNESS Starting December 14

Collider

14 Dec 2012

The Star Trek Into Darkness teaser released last week was great, but with one obvious drawback. it was one short minute. Paramount and director J.J. Abrams want to show you more footage, but you will have to go seek it out. The studio has put together a 9-minute preview that will play before screenings of The Hobbit. An Unexpected Journey in IMAX 3D ... The full list is below ...  . Alabama ... . Alaska ... ... Idaho ... Planeta Kino IMAX – Lviv....(size: 20.0Kb)

Warner Bros. Pictures', Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Pictures' And New Line Cinema's The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey To ...

Stockhouse

13 Dec 2012

Film to Open in IMAX Theatres Across North America Dec. 14. LOS ANGELES, Dec. 12, 2012 /CNW/ - IMAX Corporation (NYSE. IMAX; TSX. IMX) today announced that Peter Jackson's The Hobbit. An Unexpected Journey, a production of New Line Cinema and Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Pictures (MGM), the first of a trilogy of films adapting the enduringly popular masterpiece The Hobbit, by J.R.R ... 14. (Logo ... "The Hobbit ... The Hobbit ... Lviv – Planeta Kino IMAX**....(size: 36.8Kb)

Warner Bros. Pictures', Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Pictures' And New Line Cinema's The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey To Open In IMAX® Theatres Around The World Starting Dec. 12

StreetInsider

12 Dec 2012

Film to Open in IMAX Theatres Across North America Dec. 14. Tweet. LOS ANGELES, Dec. 12, 2012 /PRNewswire/ -- IMAX Corporation (NYSE. IMAX; TSX. IMX) today announced that Peter Jackson's The Hobbit. An Unexpected Journey, a production of New Line Cinema and Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Pictures (MGM), the first of a trilogy of films adapting the enduringly popular masterpiece The Hobbit, by J.R.R ... 14. (Logo ... "The Hobbit ... 14. ... Lviv – Planeta Kino IMAX** ... ....(size: 36.0Kb)

The production of fruit and vegetable hits record in 2012 (Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine)

noodls

11 Dec 2012

(Source. Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine). The Ukrainians will be provided with fruit and vegetables ... Thus, the production of vegetables is about 9.1 million tons ... During 2010-2012, the status of the wholesale markets for agricultural products is provided to 11 wholesale markets - in Lviv, Kyiv, Donetsk, these markets are already operates and in Zaporizhya, Kharkov, Odessa, Kherson, Rivne, Luhansk, MykolaivRegions and in Mariupol ... (noodl....(size: 2.6Kb)

Full List of Theaters Playing the 9-Minute IMAX Preview of STAR TREK INTO DARKNESS Released

Collider

06 Dec 2012

In case you somehow missed it, the excellent debut announcement teaser for J.J. Abrams’ upcoming sequel Star Trek Into Darkness was released online early this morning. A different, longer trailer will be attached to screenings of The Hobbit ... The folks over at IMAX have just released a full list of the theaters that will be playing the preview next weekend ... List via IMAX.. The extended preview of J. J ... Alabama ... Planeta Kino IMAX – Lviv....(size: 20.2Kb)

Participants in talks on Transdniestrian settlement review 2012 progress (OSCE - Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe)

noodls

01 Dec 2012

L-r ... (OSCE/Frane Mareovic). DUBLIN, 30 November 2012 - The latest round of talks on the Transdniestrian settlement concluded today in Dublin ... Resolution of these issues will benefit people on both sides of the river," said Brush ... On behalf of the incoming Ukrainian OSCE Chairmanship Ambassador Andrii Deshchytsia announced that the next official 5+2 meeting will take place in the second half of February in Lviv, Ukraine ... distributed by....(size: 4.0Kb)

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"Lwów", "Lvov", and "Lemberg" redirect here. For other uses, see Lwów (ship), Lvov (disambiguation), and Lemberg (disambiguation).

Lviv
Львів

View of the historic Old Town of Lviv.

Flag
Coat of arms	Logo

Motto: "Semper fidelis"

Map of Ukraine (blue) with Lviv (red) highlighted.

Coordinates: 49°51′0″N 24°01′0″E / 49.85°N 24.016667°ECoordinates: 49°51′0″N 24°01′0″E / 49.85°N 24.016667°E

Country

Ukraine

Oblast

Lviv Oblast

Raion

Lviv City Municipality

Founded

1256

Magdeburg law

1353

Government

• City Chairman

Andriy Sadovyi

Area

• City

182.01 km² (70.27 sq mi)

Elevation

296 m (971 ft)

Population (2010)

• City

760,000

• Density

4,298/km² (11,130/sq mi)

• Metro

1,498,000

Time zone

EET (UTC+2)

• Summer (DST)

EEST (UTC+3)

Postal code

79000

Area code(s)

+380 32(2)

Licence plate

BC (before 2004: ТА,ТВ,ТН,ТС)

Sister cities

Corning, Freiburg, Grozny, Kraków, Novi Sad, Przemyśl, Saint Petersburg, Whitstable, Winnipeg, Rochdale

Website

http://lviv.travel/en/index ^(English)
http://www.city-adm.lviv.ua ^(Ukrainian)

Lviv (Ukrainian: Львів L’viv, IPA: [lʲwiu̯] ( listen); Polish: Lwów, pronounced [lvuf]; Russian: Львов, L'vov; German: Lemberg and Yiddish Lemberg, לעמבערג; Latin: Leopolis; see also other names) is a city in western Ukraine. The city is regarded as one of the main cultural centres of today's Ukraine and historically had also been a major Polish and Jewish cultural center; as Poles and Jews comprised a demographic majority of the city for a period leading up to the outbreak of World War II, the Holocaust, and Polish population transfers (1944–1946) that followed. The historical heart of Lviv with its old buildings and cobblestone roads has survived World War II and ensuing Soviet presence largely unscathed. The city has many industries and institutions of higher education such as the Lviv University and the Lviv Polytechnic. Lviv is also a home to many world-class cultural institutions, including a philharmonic orchestra and the famous Lviv Theatre of Opera and Ballet. The historic city centre is on the UNESCO World Heritage List. Lviv celebrated its 750th anniversary with a son et lumière in the city centre in September 2006.

As a medieval city in Red Ruthenia, Lviv was founded on the existent settlement most probably in 1247 by King Danylo Halytskyi of the Ruthenian principality of Halych-Volhynia, and named in honour of his son, Lev. The first record belongs to the cronicles mentioning the events of 1256, when the fire in the city of Cholm was seen from Lviv. Together with the rest of Red Ruthenia, Lviv was captured by the Kingdom of Poland in 1349 during the reign of Polish king Casimir III the Great. Lviv belonged to the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland 1349–1772, the Austrian Empire 1772–1918 and the Second Polish Republic 1918–1939. With the joint German-Soviet Invasion of Poland at the outbreak of the second World War, the city of Lviv with adjacent land were annexed and incorporated into the Soviet Union, becoming part of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic from 1939 to 1941. Between July 1941 and July 1944 Lviv was under German occupation and was located in the General Government. In July 1944 it was captured by the Soviet Red Army and the Polish Home Army. According to the agreements of the Yalta Conference, Lviv was again integrated into the Ukrainian SSR. Most of the Poles living in Lviv were resettled into Polish territories annexed from Germany.

After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the city remained a part of the now independent Ukraine, for which it currently serves as the administrative centre of Lviv Oblast, and is designated as its own raion (district) within that oblast.

On 12 June 2009 the Ukrainian magazine Focus assessed Lviv as the best Ukrainian city to live in.^[1] Its more Western European flavor lends it the nickname the "Little Paris of Ukraine". The city is expecting a sharp increase in the number of foreign visitors for the 2012 UEFA European Football Championship, and as a result a major new airport terminal is being built. Lviv is one of 8 Polish and Ukrainian cities that is co-hosting the group stages of the tournament.

1 Geography
- 1.1 Location
- 1.2 Climate
2 History
3 Demographics
- 3.1 Poles
- 3.2 Jews
4 Government
- 4.1 Administrative division
5 Culture
6 Notable people
7 International relations
- 7.1 Twin towns and sister cities
8 Economy
9 Education
- 9.1 Universities
10 Tourism
- 10.1 Tourist attractions
11 Popular culture
12 Transportation
13 See also
14 References
15 External links

Geography [link]

Location [link]

Lviv satellite view (Landsat 5, 2010-11-14)

The city of Lviv is crossed by one of the longest integer land meridians 24° of East longitude in the Eastern Hemisphere (East of Greenwich). According to calculations conducted in April-May 2012 by Dr. Hirnyj, this meridian crosses 3235 km of European, 7346 km of African and 2235 km of Antarctic ice-covered land including islands, which sums up to 12816 km. This is only 341 km shorter than the extent of land crossed by the meridian 22° of East longitude.

Lviv is located on the edge of the Roztochia Upland, approximately 70 km from the Polish border and 160 km (99 mi) from the eastern Carpathian Mountains. The average altitude of Lviv is 296 m (971.13 ft) above sea level. Its highest point is the Vysokyi Zamok (High Castle), 409 m (1,341.86 ft) above sea level. This castle has a commanding view of the historic city centre with its distinctive green-domed churches and intricate architecture.

The old walled city was at the foothills of the High Castle on the banks of the river Poltva. In the 13th century, the river was used to transport goods. In the early 20th century, the Poltva was covered over in areas where it flows through the city; the river flows directly beneath the central street of Lviv, Freedom Avenue (Prospect Svobody) and the renowned Lviv Opera House.

Climate [link]

Lviv's climate is humid continental (Köppen climate classification Dfb) with cold winters and mild summers. The average temperatures are −3.1 °C (26 °F) in January and 18.3 °C (65 °F) in July.^[2] The average annual rainfall is 745 mm (29 in) with the maximum being in summer.^[2] Lviv approximately receives 1809 hours of sunshine annually.^[3]

Climate data for Lviv
Month	Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec	Year
Record high °C (°F)	13.8 (56.8)	17.7 (63.9)	22.4 (72.3)	28.2 (82.8)	32.2 (90.0)	33.4 (92.1)	36.3 (97.3)	35.1 (95.2)	31.0 (87.8)	25.3 (77.5)	21.6 (70.9)	16.5 (61.7)	36.3 (97.3)
Average high °C (°F)	−0.1 (31.8)	1.3 (34.3)	6.3 (43.3)	13.6 (56.5)	19.4 (66.9)	22.0 (71.6)	23.9 (75.0)	23.5 (74.3)	18.3 (64.9)	12.9 (55.2)	6.0 (42.8)	0.9 (33.6)	12.3 (54.1)
Daily mean °C (°F)	−3.1 (26.4)	−2.2 (28.0)	1.9 (35.4)	8.3 (46.9)	13.8 (56.8)	16.4 (61.5)	18.3 (64.9)	17.7 (63.9)	13.0 (55.4)	8.1 (46.6)	2.6 (36.7)	−1.8 (28.8)	7.8 (46.0)
Average low °C (°F)	−6.1 (21.0)	−5.5 (22.1)	−1.7 (28.9)	3.6 (38.5)	8.4 (47.1)	11.3 (52.3)	13.2 (55.8)	12.5 (54.5)	8.4 (47.1)	4.1 (39.4)	−0.3 (31.5)	−4.6 (23.7)	3.6 (38.5)
Record low °C (°F)	−28.5 (−19.3)	−29.5 (−21.1)	−24.8 (−12.6)	−12.1 (10.2)	−5 (23.0)	0.5 (32.9)	4.5 (40.1)	2.6 (36.7)	−3 (26.6)	−13.2 (8.2)	−17.6 (0.3)	−25.6 (−14.1)	−29.5 (−21.1)
Precipitation mm (inches)	40 (1.57)	44 (1.73)	45 (1.77)	52 (2.05)	89 (3.5)	89 (3.5)	96 (3.78)	76 (2.99)	67 (2.64)	51 (2.01)	49 (1.93)	47 (1.85)	745 (29.33)
Avg. rainy days	9	9	11	14	16	17	16	14	14	14	13	11	158
Mean monthly sunshine hours	65.1	79.1	111.6	189.0	226.3	237.0	254.2	223.2	180.0	148.8	57.0	37.2	1,808.5
Source no. 1: Pogoda.ru.net^[2]
Source no. 2: HKO (sun only 1961-1990).^[3]

History [link]

Main article: History of Lviv

Market Square (Ukrainian: Ploshcha Rynok) of Lviv. The Lviv City Hall (Ukrainian: Ratusha) is situated there.

Pre-history [link]

Archeologists have demonstrated that the Lviv area was settled by the 5th century.^[4] This fact places this settlement within the territory of once powerful state of White Chroatia. From the ninth century in the area of present-day Lviv, between Castle Hill and the river Poltva, there existed a Lendian settlement – in the tenth century the Lendians established a fortified settlement on Castle Hill.^[5] In 1977 it was discovered that the Orthodox church of St. Nicholas had been built on a previously functioning cemetery.^[6] In 981, the Cherven Towns area was captured by Vladimir I and fell under the rule of Kievan Rus.

Halych-Volyn Principality [link]

Lviv was founded by King Daniel of Galicia in the Ruthenian principality of Halych-Volhynia and named in honour of his son Lev.^[7]

In 1261 the town was invaded by the Tatars.^[8] Various sources relate the events which range from destruction of the castle through to a complete razing of the town. All the sources agree that it was on the orders of the Mongol general Burundai. The Naukove tovarystvo im. Shevchenka of the Shevchenko Scientific Society say that the order to raze the city was reduced by Burundai; the Galician-Volhynian chronicle states that in 1261 "Said Buronda to Vasylko: 'Since you are at peace with me then raze all your castles'".^[9] Basil Dmytryshyn states that the order was implied to be the fortifications as a whole "If you wish to have peace with me, then destroy [all fortifications of] your towns".^[10] According to the Universal-Lexicon der Gegenwart und Vergangenheit the town's founder was ordered to destroy the town himself.^[11]

After King Daniel's death, King Lev rebuilt the town around the year 1270 at its present location, choosing Lviv as his residence,^[8] and made Lviv the capital of Galicia-Volhynia.^[12] The city is first mentioned in the Halych-Volhynian Chronicle regarding the events that were dated 1256. The town grew quickly due to an influx of Polish people from Kraków, Poland, after they had suffered a widespread famine there.^[11] Around 1280 many Armenians lived in Galicia and were mainly based in Lviv where they had their own Archbishop.^[13] The town was inherited by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in 1340 and ruled by voivode Dmitri Detko, the favourite of the Lithuanian prince Lubart, until 1349.^[14]

Galicia–Volhynia Wars [link]

During the wars over the succession of Galicia-Volhynia Principality in 1339 King Casimir III of Poland undertook an expedition and conquered Lviv in 1340, burning down the old princely castle.^[8] Poland ultimately gained control over Lviv and the adjacent region in 1349. From then on the population was subjected to attempts to both Polonize and Catholicize the population.^[15]

Casimir built two new castles.^[8] In 1356 he brought in German colonists and within 7 years granted the Magdeburg rights which implied that all city matters were to be resolved by a council elected by the wealthy citizens. The city council seal of the 14th century stated: S(igillum): Civitatis Lembvrgensis.

After Casimir had died in 1370, he was succeeded as king of Poland by his nephew, King Louis I of Hungary, who in 1372 put Lviv together with the region of Galicia-Volhynia under the administration of his relative Władysław, Duke of Opole.^[8] When in 1387 Władysław retreated from the post of its governor, Galicia-Volhynia became occupied by the Hungarians, but soon Jadwiga, the youngest daughter of Louis, but also ruler of Poland and wife of King of Poland Władysław II Jagiełło, unified it directly with the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland.^[8]

Kingdom of Poland [link]

Fedorovych's autograph from 23 July 1583

A painting by Jan Matejko of King Jan Kazimierz of Poland pledging his famous oath in L'viv's Latin Cathedral.

Lwów (Lviv), Racławice Panorama opened in 1894

Lemberg (Lviv) in 1915

File:Sejm Galicyjski.jpg

The Galician Sejm (till 1918), since 1920 Polish Jan Kazimierz University

As part of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland Lwów (Lviv) became the capital of the Ruthenian Voivodeship founded in 1389. The city's prosperity during the following centuries is owed to the trade privileges granted to it by Casimir, Jadwiga and the subsequent Polish kings.^[8]

In 1412 the city became the seat of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese, which since 1375 had been in Halych.^[8] In 1444 Lviv was granted with the staple right, which resulted in city's growing prosperity and wealth, as it became one of major trading centres on the merchant routes between Central Europe and Black Sea region. It was also transformed into a one of main fortresses in the kingdom.

As Lviv prospered it became religiously and ethnically diverse with Germans, Poles, Ruthenians, Armenians and Jews being the most important ethnicities living within the city. With passing time many had assimilated into the dominant Polish culture and became polonized.

In 1572 the first publisher of books in Ukraine, Ivan Fedorovych, a graduate of the University of Kraków, settled in Lviv for a brief period. The city became a significant centre for Eastern orthodoxy with the establishment of an orthodox brotherhood, a Greek-Slavonic school and a printery which published the first full versions of the Bible in Church Slavonic in 1580.

The 17th century brought invading armies of Swedes, Hungarians,^[16]^[17] Turks,^[18]^[19] Russians and Cossacks^[17] to its gates. In 1648 an army of Cossacks and Crimean Tatars besieged Lviv. The city was not sacked due to its beauty and the fact that the leader of the revolution Bohdan Khmelnytsky studied there and did not want to see it ruined. As a result a ransom of 250 000 ducat was paid and the Cossacks marched west towards Zamość. Lviv was the only major city in Poland which was not captured. In 1672 it was surrounded by the Ottomans who failed to conquer it. Lviv was captured for the first time by a foreign army in 1704 when Swedish troops under King Charles XII entered the city after a short siege.

Habsburg Empire [link]

In 1772, following the First Partition of Poland, the region was annexed by Austria. Known in German as Lemberg, the city became the capital of the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria. The city grew dramatically under Austrian rule, increasing in population from approximately 30,000 at the time of Austrian annexation in 1772^[20] to 206,100 by 1910.^[21]

In 1773, the first newspaper in Lviv, Gazette de Leopoli, began to be published. In 1784, a German language University was opened; after closing again in 1805, it was re-opened in 1817.

In the 19th century, the Austrian administration attempted to Germanise the city's educational and governmental functioning. Many cultural organizations which did not have a pro-German orientation were closed. After the revolution of 1848, the language of instruction at the University shifted from German to include Ukrainian and Polish. Around that time, a certain sociolect developed in the city known as the Lwów dialect. Considered to be a type of Polish dialect, it draws its roots from numerous other languages besides Polish.

In 1853, it was the first European city to have street lights due to innovations discovered by Lviv inhabitants Ignacy Łukasiewicz and Jan Zeh. In that year kerosene lamps were introduced as street lights which in 1858 were updated to gas and in 1900 to electricity.

After the so-called Ausgleich of February 1867, the Austrian Empire was reformed into a dualist Austria-Hungary and a slow yet steady process of liberalisation of Austrian rule in Galicia started. From 1873, Galicia was de facto an autonomous province of Austria-Hungary with Polish and Ukrainian or Ruthenian, as official languages. Germanisation was halted and the censorship lifted as well. Galicia was subject to the Austrian part of the Dual Monarchy, but the Galician Sejm and provincial administration, both established in Lviv, had extensive privileges and prerogatives, especially in education, culture, and local affairs. The city started to grow rapidly, becoming the 4th largest in Austria-Hungary, according to the census of 1910. Many Belle Époque public edifices and tenement houses were erected, the buildings from the Austrian period, such as the opera theater built in the Viennese neo-Renaissance style, still dominate and characterize much of the centre of the city.

During Habsburg rule, Lviv became one of the most important Polish, Ukrainian and Jewish cultural centres. In Lviv, according to the Austrian census of 1910, which listed religion and language, 51% of the city's population were Roman Catholics, 28% Jews, and 19% belonged to the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church. Linguistically, 86% of the city's population used the Polish language and 11% preferred the Ukrainian language.^[21] Lviv was home to the Polish Ossolineum, with the second largest collection of Polish books in the world, the Polish Academy of Arts, the Polish Historical Society, the Polish Theatre and Polish Archdiocese. At the same time, the city also housed the largest and most influential Ukrainian institutions in the world, including the Prosvita society dedicated to spreading literacy in the Ukrainian language, the Shevchenko Scientific Society, the Dniester Insurance Company and base of the Ukrainian cooperative movement, and it served as the seat of the Ukrainian Catholic Church. Lviv was also a major centre of Jewish culture, in particular as a centre of the Yiddish language, and was the home of the world's first Yiddish-language daily newspaper, the Lemberger Togblat, established in 1904.^[22]

In the early stage of World War I, Lviv was captured by the Russian army in September 1914 but retaken by Austria–Hungary in June the following year.

Polish-Ukrainian War [link]

Further information: Polish-Ukrainian War

File:Orleta.jpg

The Lwów Eaglets, teenage soldiers who fought on Polish side during the Battle of Lwów (1918)

After the collapse of the Habsburg Monarchy at the end of World War I Lviv became an arena of battle between the local Polish population and the Ukrainian Sich Riflemen. Both nations perceived the city as integral part of their new statehoods which at that time were forming in the former Austrian territories. On the night of 31 October – 1 November 1918 the Western Ukrainian National Republic was proclaimed with Lviv as its capital. 2,300 Ukrainian soldiers from the Ukrainian Sich Riflemen (Sichovi Striltsi), which had previously been a corps in the Austrian Army, took control over Lviv. The city's Polish majority opposed the Ukrainian declaration and began to fight against the Ukrainian troops.^[23] During this combat an important role was taken by young Polish city defenders called Lwów Eaglets. For the courage of its inhabitants Lviv was awarded the Virtuti Militari cross by Józef Piłsudski on 22 November 1920.

The Ukrainian forces withdrew outside Lviv's confines by 21 November 1918, after which elements of Polish soldiery begun to loot and burn much of the Jewish and Ukrainian quarters of the city, killing approximately 340 civilians (see: Lwów pogrom (1918)).^[24] The retreating Ukrainian forces besieged the city. The Sich riflemen reformed into the Ukrainian Galician Army (UHA). The Polish forces aided from central Poland, including general Haller's Blue Army, equipped by the French, relieved the besieged city in May 1919 forcing the UHA to the east. Despite Entente mediation attempts to cease hostilities and reach a compromise between belligerents the Polish–Ukrainian War continued until July 1919 when the last UHA forces withdrew east of the river Zbruch. The border on the river Zbruch was confirmed at the Treaty of Warsaw, when in April 1920 Polish government signed an agreement with Symon Petlura where it was agreed that for military support against the Bolsheviks the Ukrainian People's Republic renounced its claims to the territories of Eastern Galicia.

In August 1920 Lviv was attacked by the Red Army under the command of Aleksandr Yegorov and Stalin during Polish-Soviet War but the city repelled the attack.^[25]

Polish sovereignty over Lviv was internationally recognised when the Council of Ambassadors ultimately approved it in March 1923.

Interbellum period [link]

Main languages of Lviv
from the census of 1931^[26]

Polish	198,212	(63.5%)
Yiddish	75,316	(24.1%)
Ukrainian	24,245	(7.8%)
Ruthenian	10,892	(3.5%)
Other	3,566	(1.1%)
Total	312,231

^{Note: In the table above Ruthenian nationality stands

for Ruthenians who did not adopt the Ukrainian

ethnic identity in the early 20th century

and Lemkos, Boykos, Hutsuls and Rusyns.}

In the interbellum period Lviv held the rank of Poland's third most populous city (after Warsaw and Łódź) and became the seat of the Lwów Voivodeship. Right after Warsaw, it was the second most important cultural and academic centre of interwar Poland. In the academic year 1937–38 there were 9,100 students attending 5 higher education facilities including the renowned university and institute of technology.^[27] In 1920 professor Rudolf Weigl of the Lwów University discovered the vaccine against typhus. The major trade fair called Targi Wschodnie was established 1921. Its geographic location gave it an important role in stimulating international trade and fostering city's and Poland's economic development.

While the eastern part of the Lwów Voivodeship had a relative Ukrainian majority in most of the rural areas the city itself did not (see table to the right). Prewar Lviv had also a large and thriving Jewish population. The Polish inhabitants of the city spoke the characteristic Lwów dialect.

Although Polish authorities obliged themselves internationally to provide Eastern Galicia with an autonomy (including a creation of a separate Ukrainian university in Lviv) and even though in September 1922 adequate Polish Sejm's Bill^[28] was enacted, it was not fulfilled. Instead, the Polish government closed down many Ukrainian schools that had previously flourished during Austrian rule^[29] and closed down every Ukrainian university department at the University of Lviv with the exception of one.^[30] Unlike in Austrian times, when the size and amount of public parades or other cultural expressions corresponded to each cultural group's relative population, the Polish government emphasized the Polish nature of the city and limited public displays of Jewish and Ukrainian culture. Military parades and commemorations of battles at particular streets within the city, all celebrating the Polish forces who fought against the Ukrainians in 1918, became frequent, and in the 1930s a vast memorial monument and burial ground of Polish soldiers from that conflict was built in the city's Lychakiv Cemetery. The Polish government fostered the idea of Lviv as an eastern Polish outpost standing strong against eastern "hordes."^[31]

World War II and Soviet occupation [link]

Further information: Battle of Lwów (1939)

Following the signing of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939 and by 14 September Lviv was completely encircled by German units.^[32] Subsequently the Soviets invaded Poland on 17 September. The Soviet Union annexed the eastern part of Second Polish Republic including the city of Lviv which capitulated to the Red Army on 22 September 1939.

The city (named Lvov in Russian) became the capital of the newly formed Lviv Oblast. The Soviets opened many Ukrainian-language schools that had been closed by the Polish government^[33] and Ukrainian was reintroduced in the University of Lviv (where the Polish government had banished it during the interwar years), which became thoroughly Ukrainized and renamed after Ukrainian writer Ivan Franko.^[34]

The Soviets also started repressions against local Poles and Ukrainians deporting many of the citizens. Waves of deportations started with the Poles followed by the Jews who had refused Soviet passports and then the Ukrainian nationalists.

German occupation [link]

On 22 June 1941, Nazi Germany and several of its allies invaded the USSR.

Lviv Holocaust memorial in Israel

In the initial stage of Operation Barbarossa (late June 1941) Lviv was taken by the Germans. The evacuating Soviets killed most of the prison population. Wehrmacht forces arriving in the city discovered evidence of the Soviet mass murders^[35] committed by the NKVD and NKGB. Ukrainian nationalists, organized as a militia, and the civilian population were allowed to take revenge on the "Jews and the Bolsheviks" and indulged in several mass killings in Lviv and the surrounding region, which resulted in the deaths estimated at between 4,000 and 10,000 Jews (see: Lviv pogroms). The Germans during the occupation of the city committed numerous other atrocities including the killing of Polish university professors.

On 30 June 1941 Yaroslav Stetsko proclaimed in Lviv the Government of an independent Ukrainian state allied with Nazi Germany. This was done without pre-approval from the Germans and after 15 September 1941 the organisers were arrested.^[36]^[37]^[38]

The Sikorski–Mayski Agreement signed in London on 30 July 1941 between Polish government-in-exile and USSR's government invalidated the September 1939 Soviet-German partition of Poland, as the Soviets declared it null and void.^[39]

Meanwhile German-occupied Eastern Galicia at the beginning of August 1941 was incorporated into the General Government as Distrikt Galizien with Lviv as district's capital.

Germany viewed Galicia, formerly Austrian crown land, as already aryanised and civilised. As a result the Ukrainian Galicians escaped the full extent of German acts in comparison to Ukrainians who lived in Reichskommissariat Ukraine and other parts of German occupied Ukraine.^[40] German policy towards the Polish population in this area was more harsh and comparable to the situation in the rest of the General Government. According to the Third Reich's racial policies Galician Jews became the main target of German repressions. Almost all of the Jewish Galicians were deported to concentration camps or killed. In 1941 there were approximately 200,000 Jews in Lviv.^[41] By the end of the war the Jewish population was virtually wiped out with only 200 to 300 Jews left alive.^[42]

Soviet re-occupation [link]

The Soviet 3rd Tank Army entered Lviv again after the Lvov–Sandomierz Offensive of 22–24 July 1944. After the city was taken by cooperating Soviet forces and local resistance soldiers of Armia Krajowa (see: Lwów Uprising), the local commanders of the Polish AK were invited to a meeting with the commanders of the Red Army where they were arrested by the NKVD.

In January 1945 the local NKVD arrested many Poles in Lviv where, according to Soviet sources, on 1 October 1944 Poles still made a clear majority – 66.7% of the population, to encourage their emigration from their city. Those arrested were released after they signed papers agreeing to emigrate to Poland which postwar borders were moved westwards with Lviv left within the borders of the Soviet Union, according to the Yalta conference settlements.

It is estimated that from 100,000 to 140,000 Poles were resettled from the city into the so called Recovered Territories as a part of postwar population transfers, many of them to the area of newly acquired Wrocław, formerly the German city of Breslau. Little remains of Polish culture in Lviv except for the Italian-influenced architecture.^[43] The Polish history of Lviv is still well remembered in Poland and those Poles who stayed in Lviv have formed their own organisation the Association of Polish Culture of the Lviv Land.

Lviv and its population suffered greatly during the two world wars as many of the offensives were fought across the local geography causing significant collateral damage and disruption.

On 16 August 1945, a border agreement^[44] between the government of the Soviet Union and the Provisional Government of National Unity, installed by the Soviets, was signed in Moscow. In that treaty, Poland formally ceded its prewar eastern part to the Soviet Union agreeing to the Polish-Soviet border drawn according to the so called Curzon Line. Consequently, the agreement was ratified on 5 February 1946. Thus, in February 1946, Lviv became a part of the Soviet Union.

Soviet Union [link]

Expulsion of the Polish population together with migration from Ukrainian-speaking rural areas around the city and from other parts of the Soviet Union altered the ethnic composition of the city which became mostly Ukrainian.

In the 1950s and 1960s the city significantly expanded both in population and size mostly due to the city's rapidly growing industrial base. Due to the fight of SMERSH with the guerrilla formations of the Ukrainian Insurgent Army the city obtained a nickname with a negative connotation of Banderstadt as the City of Stepan Bandera. The word stadt was added instead of the common Slavic grad to imply alienation. Over the years the residents of the city found this so ridiculous that even people not familiar with Bandera accepted it as a sarcasm in reference to the Soviet perception of western Ukraine. By the time of the fall of the Soviet Union the name became a proud mark for the Lviv natives culminating in the creation of a local rock band under the name Khloptsi z Bandershtadtu (Boys from Banderstadt).^[45]

In the period of liberalisation from the Soviet system in the 1980s the city became the centre of political movements advocating Ukrainian independence from the USSR.

Independent Ukraine [link]

This section requires expansion.

Citizens of Lviv strongly supported Viktor Yushchenko during the 2004 Ukrainian presidential election and played a key role in the Orange Revolution. Hundreds of thousands of people would gather in freezing temperatures to demonstrate for the Orange camp. Acts of civil disobedience forced the head of the local police to resign and the local assembly issued a resolution refusing to accept the fraudulent first official results.^[46]

Lviv remains today one of the main centres of Ukrainian culture and the origin of much of the nation's political class.

Demographics [link]

Population makeup by ethnicity of Lviv 1900-2001, in thousands^[47]^[48]^[49]^[50]^[51]

Ethnicity	1900	%	1931	%	Oct 1944	%	1950	%	1959	%	1979	%	1989	%	2001	%
Ukrainians	33.9	19.9%	49.7	15.9%	40.6	26.4%	144.6	49.9%	246.4	60.0%	492.2	74.0%	622.7	79.1%	639.0	88.1%
Russians			~0.5	0.2%	8.5	5.5%	90.4	31.2%	110.9	27.0%	128.3	19.3%	126.5	16.1%	64.6	8.9%
Jews	45.1	26.5%	99.6	31.9%	1.7	1.1%	18.6	6.4%	24.6	6.0%	17.6	2.7%	12.8	1.6%	1.9	0.3%
Poles	84.1	49.4%	157.5	50.4%	103.4	66.7%	30.0	10.3%	16.4	4.0%	11.9	1.8%	9.7	1.2%	6.4	0.9%
Total	170.2	100.0%	311.5	100.0%	154.0	100.0%	~290.0	100.0%	410.7	100.0%	665.1	100.0%	786.9	100.0%	725.2	100.0%

Language use 1931-1989

Language	1931	1970	1979	1989
Ukrainian	11.3%	65.2%	71.3%	77.2%
Russian		31.1%	25.7%	19.9%
Yiddish	24.1%
Polish	63.5%
Other	1.1%	3.7%	3.0%	2.9%

Ethnic population
of Lviv (2001)^[52]

Ukrainians	88.1%
Russians	8.9%
Poles	0.9%
Belarusians	0.4%
Jews	0.3%
Armenians	0.1%

Ethnicity in Lviv
according to the census of 1989

Ukrainians	622,800	(79.1%)
Russians	126,418	(16.1%)
Jews	12,837	(1.6%)
Poles	9,697	(1.2%)
Belarusians	5,800	(0.7%)
Armenians	1,000	(0.1%)
Total	778,557

^{Numbers do not include regions

and surrounding towns}

1405: approx. 4,500 inhabitants in the old town, and additionally approx. 600 in the two suburbs.^[53]
1544: approx. 3,000 inhabitants in the old town (number had decreased by about 30 % due to the fire of 1527), and additionally approx. 2,700 in the suburbs.^[53]
1840: approx. 67,000 inhabitants, including 20,000 Jews.^[54]
1850: nearly 80,000 inhabitants (together with the four suburbs), including more than 25,000 Jews.^[55]
1890: 127,943 inhabitants (64,102 male, 63,481 female), predominantly Polish (12,162 Germans, 9,067 Ruthenians), among them 67,280 Catholics, 21,876 members of the Greek Uniate Churches, 2,061 Protestants and 36,130 Jews.^[56]
1900: 159,877 inhabitants, including the military (10,326 men). Of these inhabitants, 82,597 were members of the Roman Catholic Church, 29,327 members of the Greek Uniate Churches, and 44,258 were Jews. As their language of communication, 120,634 used Polish, 20,409 German or Yiddish, and 15,159 Ukrainian.^[57]

1921: 219,400 inhabitants, including 112,000 Poles, 76,000 Jews and 28,000 Ukrainians.^[58]

1939: 340.000 inhabitants.^[59]

2001: 725,000 inhabitants, of whom 88 percent were Ukrainians, 9 percent Russians and 1 percent Poles.^[60] A further 200,000 people commuted daily from suburbs.

2007:735,000 inhabitants.

By gender:^[52]

51.5% women

48.5% men

By place of birth:^[52]

56% born in Lviv

19% born in Lviv oblast

11% born in Ukraine, but in the East

07% born in the former republics of the USSR (Russia 4%)

04% born in Poland

03% born in Western Ukraine, but not in Lviv oblast

Religious adherence:^[52]

45% Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church

31% Ukrainian Orthodox Church – Kiev Patriarchate

05% Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church

03% Ukrainian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate)

03% Other faiths

1999: 77.6 percent of Lviv's inhabitants were primarily Ukrainian-speaking.^[61]

Poles [link]

Year	Poles	%	Total
1921 ^[58]	112,000	51	219,400

1989	9,500^[62]	1.2^[60]	790,908^[63]
2001^[60]	6,400	0.9	725,200

Many Poles moved to Lviv after the city was conquered by King Casimir in 1349. It became a major Polish cultural centre and this continued after the partitions of Poland.

Lviv was depolonised mainly through Soviet-arranged population exchange from 1944–46. ^[64] Those that remained found themselves having lost their state status and becoming an ethnic minority. By 1959 Poles made up only 4% of the population after Ukrainians, Russians and Jews.^[64] The Polish population underwent significant assimilation; in 1989 40% considered Ukrainian as their mother tongue, 15% Russian.^[64] During Soviet times two Polish schools continued to function: № 10 (with 8 grades) and № 24 (with 10 grades).^[64]

In the 1980s the process of uniting groups into ethnic associations was allowed. In 1988 a Polish language newspaper was allowed («Gazeta Lwowska»).^[65] The Polish population of the city continues to use the dialect of the Polish language known as Lwów dialect (Polish: gwara lwowska).^[65] The word ment (see militsiya) used in the Soviet Union is derived from that dialect.

Jews [link]

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Holocaust Memorial in Lviv

The first known Jewish settlers in Lviv date back to 1256 and became an important part of this city cultural life, making significant contributions in trade, science and culture.^[66] Apart from the Rabbinate Jews there were many Karaite Jews who had settle in the city after coming from the East and from Byzantium. After Casimir III conquered Lviv in 1349 the Jewish citizens received many privileges equal to that of other citizens of Poland. Lviv had two separate Jewish quarters, one within the city walls and one outside on the outskirts of the city. Each had their separate synagogues, although they both shared a cemetery which was also used by the Karaite community. Before 1939 there were 97 synagogues.

Before the Holocaust about one third of the city's population was made up of Jews (more than 140,000 on the eve of World War II). This number swelled to about 240,000 by the end of 1940 as tens of thousands of Jews fled from the Nazi-occupied parts of Poland into the relative (and temporary) sanctuary of Soviet-occupied Poland (including Lviv) following the Molotov-Rippentrop pact that divided Poland into Nazi and Soviet zones in 1939. Almost all these Jews were killed in The Holocaust. After the war, a new Jewish population was formed from among the hundreds of thousands of Russians and Ukrainians that migrated to the city, then called Lvov. The post-war Jewish population peaked at 30,000 in the 1970s. Currently the Jewish population has shrunk considerably as a result of emigration (mainly to Israel and the United States) and, to a lesser degree assimilation, and is estimated at 1,100. A number of organizations continue to be active.

Government [link]

Lviv city hall.

Administrative division [link]

Lviv is divided into six raions (districts), each with its own administrative bodies:

Halych district (ukr. Галицький район – Halytskyi raion)
Zaliznytsia district (ukr. Залізничний район – Zaliznychnyi raion)
Lychakiv district (ukr. Личаківський район – Lychakivs'kyi raion)
Sykhiv district (ukr. Сихівський район – Sykhivs'kyi raion)
Franko district (ukr. Франківський район – Frankivs'kyi raion)
Shevchenko district (ukr. Шевченківський район – Shevchenkivs'kyi raion)

Notable suburbs include:

Vynnyky (ukr. місто Винники)
Briukhovychi (ukr. селище Брюховичі)
Rudne (ukr. селище Рудне)
Derevach (ukr. село Деревач)

Culture [link]

Lviv – the Ensemble of the Historic Centre *
UNESCO World Heritage Site

Country	Ukraine
Type	Cultural
Criteria	ii, v
Reference	865
Region **	Europe
Inscription history
Inscription	1998 (22nd Session)
* Name as inscribed on World Heritage List ** Region as classified by UNESCO

Lviv's historic centre has been on the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage list since 1998. UNESCO gave the following reasons^[67] for its selection:

Criterion II: In its urban fabric and its architecture, Lviv is an outstanding example of the fusion of the architectural and artistic traditions of eastern Europe with those of Italy and Germany.

Criterion V: The political and commercial role of Lviv attracted to it a number of ethnic groups with different cultural and religious traditions, who established separate yet interdependent communities within the city, evidence for which is still discernible in the modern town's landscape.

Architecture [link]

Lviv's historic churches, buildings and relics date from the 13th century. In recent centuries it was spared some of the invasions and wars that destroyed other Ukrainian cities. Its architecture reflects various European styles and periods. After the fires of 1527 and 1556 Lviv lost most of its gothic-style buildings but it retains many buildings in renaissance, baroque and the classic styles. There are works by artists of the Vienna Secession, Art Nouveau and Art Deco.

The buildings have many stone sculptures and carvings, particularly on large doors,which are hundreds of years old. The remains of old churches dot the central cityscape. Some three- to five-storey buildings have hidden inner courtyards and grottoes in various states of repair. Some cemeteries are of interest: for example the Lychakivskiy Cemetery where the Polish elite were buried for centuries. Leaving the central area the architectural style changes radically as Soviet-era high-rise blocks dominate. In the centre of the city the Soviet era is reflected mainly in a few modern-style national monuments and sculptures.

Monuments in Lviv [link]

Bronze sculpture dedicated to Nikifor, the famed folk and naïve painter of Lemko descent.

Inside the Church of the Transfiguration.

St. George's Cathedral, former seat of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church

The Church of the Assumption.

Chapel of the Boim family

The Lviv Opera and Ballet Theatre, an important cultural centre for residents and visitors.

Renaissance yard of King Jan III Sobieski House

Dominican Church

Palace of Potocki family

Kryvka Church

City sculptures commemorate many people and topics reflecting the rich history of Lviv. There are monuments to:

During the interbellum period there were monuments commemorated to important figures of the history of Poland. Some of these were moved to the Polish Recovered Territories, like the monument of Aleksander Fredro which now is in Wrocław, the monument of King Jan III Sobieski which after 1945 was moved to Gdańsk, and the monument of Kornel Ujejski which now is in Szczecin.

Books [link]

Every day a book market takes place around the monument to Ivan Fеdorovych. He was a typographer in the 16th century who fled Moscow and found a new home in Lviv. New ideas came to Lviv during the Austro–Hungarian Empire. In the 19th century many publishing houses, newspapers and magazines were established. Among these was the Ossolineum which was one of the most important Polish scientific libraries. Most Polish-language books and publications of the Ossolineum library are still kept in a local Jesuit church. In 1997 the Polish government asked the Ukrainian government to hand over these documents and in 2003 Ukraine allowed access to the publications. In 2006 an office of the Ossolineum (which now is located in Wrocław) was opened in Lviv and began a process to scan all its documents.

Literature written in Lviv contributed to Austrian, Ukrainian, Yiddish and Polish literature. Translation work took place between these cultures.

Religion [link]

Lviv is a city of religious variety and there have been conflicts between different faiths. At one point over 60 churches existed in the city. The largest Christian churches have existed in the city since the 13th century. There are three major Christian groups: The Ukrainian Catholic Archeparchy of Lviv, the Roman Catholics, and the Armenian Church. Each have had a diocesan seat in Lviv since the 16th century. The Golden Rose Synagogue was built in Lviv in 1582. At the end of the 16th century the Orthodox community in Ukraine transferred their allegiance to the Pope in Rome and became the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church. This bond was forcibly dissolved in 1946 by the Soviet authorities and the Roman Catholic community was forced out by the expulsion of the Polish population. Since 1989, religious life in Lviv has experienced a revival.

Lviv is the seat of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Lviv, the centre of the Roman Catholic Church in Ukraine and until 21 August 2005 was the centre of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church. About 35 per cent of religious buildings belong to the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church, 11.5 per cent to the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church, 9 per cent to the Ukrainian Orthodox Church – Kiev Patriarchate and 6 per cent to the Roman Catholic Church.

Until 2005 Lviv was the only city with two Catholic Cardinals: Lubomyr Husar (Byzantine Rite) and Marian Jaworski (Latin Rite).

In June 2001 Pope John Paul II visited the Latin Cathedral, St. George's Cathedral and the Armenian Cathedral.

Lviv historically had a large and active Jewish community and until 1941 at least 45 synagogues and prayer houses existed. Even in the 16th century two separate communities existed. One lived in today's old town with the other in the Krakowskie Przedmieście. In the 19th century a more differentiated community started to spread out. Liberal Jews sought more cultural assimilation and spoke German and Polish. On the other hand Orthodox and Hasidic Jews tried to retain the old traditions. Between 1941 and 1944 the Germans in effect completely destroyed the centuries-old Jewish tradition of Lviv. Most synagogues were destroyed and the Jewish population forced first into a ghetto before being forcibly transported to concentration camps where they were murdered.^[68]

Under the Soviet Union, synagogues remained closed and were used as storage facilities or movie houses. Only since the fall of the Iron Curtain has the remainder of the Jewish community experienced a faint revival.

Arts [link]

The "Group Artes" was a young movement founded in 1929. Many of the artists studied in Paris and travelled throughout Europe. They worked and experimented in different areas of modern art: Futurism, Cubism, New Objectivity and Surrealism. Co–operation took place between avant-garde musicians and authors. Altogether thirteen exhibitions by "Artes" took place in Warsaw, Kraków, Łódz and Lviv. The German occupation put an end to this group. Otto Hahn was executed in 1942 in Lviv and Aleksander Riemer was murdered in 1943 in Auschwitz. Henryk Streng and Margit Reich-Sielska were able to escape the Holocaust (or Shoah). Most of the surviving members of Artes lived in Poland after 1945. Only Margit Reich-Sielska (1900–1980) and Roman Sielski (1903–1990) stayed in Soviet Lviv.

For years the city was one of the most important cultural centers of Poland with such writers as Aleksander Fredro, Leopold Staff, Maria Konopnicka and Jan Kasprowicz living in Lviv. It also is home to one of the largest museums in Ukraine the National Museum of Lviv.

Theatre and opera [link]

In 1842 the Skarbek Theatre was opened making it the third largest theatre in Central Europe. In 1903 the Lviv National Opera house, which at that time was called the City-Theatre, was opened emulating the Vienna State Opera house. The house initially offered a changing repertoire such as classical dramas in German and Polish language, opera, operetta, comedy and theatre. The opera house is named after the diva Salomea Krushelnytska who worked here.

Museums and art galleries [link]

The first museum of Lviv was the Lubomirscy Museum opened in 1827. It displayed a wide collection of art and historical objects connected with history of Poland. In 1857 the Baworowski Library was founded whose most precious books are now kept in Kraków.

The most notable of the museums and art galleries are Lviv National Art Gallery, the Lviv National Museum which houses the National Gallery, the Museum of Religion (formerly the Museum of Atheism) and the National Museum (formerly the Museum of Industry).

Music [link]

Lviv has an active musical and cultural life. Apart from the Lviv Opera it has symphony orchestras, chamber orchestras and the Trembita Chorus. Lviv has one of the most prominent music academy and music colleges in Ukraine the Lviv Conservatory and also has a factory for the manufacture of stringed musical instruments.

Lviv has been the home of numerous composers such as Mozart's son Franz Xaver Wolfgang Mozart, Stanislav Liudkevych and Mykola Kolessa.

Lviv is the hometown of the Eurovision Song Contest 2004 winner Ruslana who has since become well known in Europe and the rest of the world.

The classical pianist Mieczysław Horszowski (1892–1993) was born here. The opera diva Salomea Kruszelnicka called Lviv her home in the 1920s to 1930s. Adam Han Gorski (1940– ) an internationally renowned concert violinist was born here. "Polish Radio Lwów" was a Polish radio station that went on-air on 15 January 1930. The programme proved very popular in Poland. Classical music and entertainment was aired as well as lectures, readings, youth-programmes, news and liturgical services on Sunday.

Popular throughout Poland was the Comic Lwów Wave a cabaret-revue with musical pieces. Jewish artists contributed a great part to this artistic activity. Composers such as Henryk Wars, songwriter Emanuel Szlechter, the actor Mieczysław Monderer and Adolf Fleischer ("Aprikosenkranz und Untenbaum") worked in Lviv. The most notable stars of the shows were Henryk Vogelfänger and Kazimierz Wajda who appeared together as the comic duo "Szczepko and Tońko" and were similar to Laurel and Hardy.

After World War II many of the Jewish artists and entertainers were either killed or fled and Polish artists had to leave for Poland as a result of the Yalta Conference.

Universities and academia [link]

Lviv University is one of the oldest in Central Europe and was founded as a Society of Jesus(Jesuit) school in 1608. Its prestige greatly increased through the work of philosopher Kazimierz Twardowski (1866–1938) who was one of the founders of the Lwów-Warsaw School of Logic. This school of thought set benchmarks for academic research and education in Poland. The Polish politician of the interbellum period Stanisław Głąbiński had served as dean of the law department (1889–1890) and as the University rector (1908–1909). In 1901 the city was the seat of the Lwów Scientific Society among whose members were major scientific figures. The most well-known were the mathematicians Stefan Banach, Juliusz Schauder and Stanisław Ulam who were founders of the Lwów School of Mathematics turning Lviv in the 1930s into the "World Centre of Functional Analysis" and who's share in Lviv academia was substantial.

In 1852 in Dublany (eight kilometers from the outskirts of Lviv) the Agricultural Academy was opened and was one of the first Polish agricultural colleges. The Academy was merged with the Lviv Polytechnic in 1919. Another important college of the interbellum period was the Academy of Foreign Trade in Lwów.

Mathematics [link]

Lviv was the home of the Scottish Café where in the 1930s and the early 1940s Polish mathematicians from the Lwów School of Mathematics met and spent their afternoons discussing mathematical problems. Stanisław Ulam who was later a participant in the Manhattan Project and the proposer of the Teller-Ulam design of thermonuclear weapons, Stefan Banach one of the founders of functional analysis, Hugo Steinhaus, Karol Borsuk, Kazimierz Kuratowski, Mark Kac and many other notable mathematicians would gather there.^[69] The café building now houses the Universalny bank at 27 Taras Shevchenko Prospekt (prewar Polish street name: ulica Akademicka).^[70] Mathematician Zygmunt Janiszewski died in Lviv on January 3, 1920.

Print and media [link]

The most popular newspapers in Lviv are "Vysokiy Zamok", "Ekspres", "Lvivska hazeta", "Ratusha", Subotna poshta", "Hazeta po-lvivsky", "Postup" and others. Popular magazines include "Chetver" and "Ї". The Polish community continues to publish the oldest continually published newspaper in eastern Europe known as «Gazeta Lwowska».

The Lviv oblast television company transmits on channel 12. There are 3 private television channels operating from Lviv: "Liuks", "NTA" and "ZIK".

There are 17 regional and all-Ukrainian radio stations operating in the city.

A number of information agencies exist in the city such as "ZIK", «Zaxid.net», «Гал-info», «Львівський портал» and others.

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2011)

This article is missing information about Ukrainian aspects of Print and Media in this section. Pre Polish takeover and post Soviet fall would be nice. This concern has been noted on the talk page where whether or not to include such information may be discussed. (June 2010)

Lviv is home to one of the oldest Polish-language newspapers Gazeta Lwowska which was first published in 1811 and still exists in a bi–weekly form. Lviv is the center of promotion of the Ukrainian Latin alphabet(Latynka).

Among other publications were such titles as

Kurier Lwowski: associated with people's movement which existed from 1883 to 1935. Among the writers who cooperated with it were such renowned names as Eliza Orzeszkowa, Jan Kasprowicz, Bolesław Limanowski, Władysław Orkan as well as Ivan Franko,
Słowo Lwowskie (1895–1939): A right-wing daily which cooperated with Władysław Reymont, Henryk Sienkiewicz, Kazimierz Tetmajer, Leopold Staff, Jerzy Żuławski and Gabriela Zapolska. Among its editors-in-chief was Stanisław Grabski. In the early 20th century Słowo's circulation was 20,000 and it was the first Polish newspaper to publish a serialisation of Reymont's novel Chłopi.^[71] After World War II Słowo was moved to Wrocław with first postwar issue published on 1 November 1946.
Czerwony Sztandar: A Soviet daily published between 1939 and 1941.

Starting in the 20th century a new movement started with authors from Central Europe. In Lviv a small neo-romantic group of authors formed around the lyricist Schmuel Jankev Imber.^[who?]^{[citation needed]} Small print offices produced collections of modern poems and short stories and through emigration a large networkwas established. A second smaller group^[who?] in the 1930s tried to create a connection between avantgarde art and Yiddish culture. Members of this group were Debora Vogel, Rachel Auerbach and Rachel Korn. The Holocaust destroyed this movement with Debora Vogel amongst many other Yiddish authors murdered by the Germans in the 1940s.^{[citation needed]}

In cinema and literature [link]

The 2011 film In Darkness, Poland's entry in the 84th Academy Awards category for Best Foreign Film, is based on a true incident in Nazi-occupied Lviv
Portions of the film Schindler's List were shot in the city centre as this was less expensive than filming in Kraków.
Some of the Austrian road-movie Blue Moon was shot in Lviv.
Parts of the film and novel Everything Is Illuminated take place in Lviv.
Brian R. Banks' Muse & Messiah: The Life, Imagination & Legacy of Bruno Schulz (1892–1942) has several pages which discuss the history and cultural-social life of the Lviv region. The book includes a CD-ROM with many old and new photographs and the first English map of nearby Drohobych.
The book The Girl in the Green Sweater: A Life in Holocaust's Shadow by Krystyna Chiger takes place in Lviv.
Large parts of 1997 film The Truce depicting Primo Levi's war experiences were shot in Lviv.
Large portions of the film d'Artagnan and Three Musketeers were shot in downtown Lviv.
The book The Lemberg Mosaic (2011) by Jakob Weiss describes Jewish L'viv (Lemberg/Lwow/Lvov) during the period 1910–1943, focusing primarily on the Holocaust and related events.
In the book and film The Shoes of the Fisherman the Metropolitan Archbishop of Lviv is released from a Soviet labor camp and later elected Pope.

Sport [link]

Lviv was an important centre for sport in Central Europe and is regarded as the birth–place of Polish football. The first known official goal in a Polish football match was scored there on 14 July 1894 during the Lwów-Kraków game. The goal was scored by Włodzimierz Chomicki who represented the team of Lviv. In 1904 Kazimierz Hemerling from Lviv published the first translation of the rules of football into Polish and another native of Lviv, Stanisław Polakiewicz, became the first officially recognised Polish referee in 1911 the year in which the first Polish Football Federation was founded in Lviv.

The first Polish professional football club, Czarni Lwów opened here in 1903 and the first stadium, which belonged to Pogoń, in 1913. Another club, Pogoń Lwów, was four times football champion of Poland (1922, 1923, 1925 and 1926). In the late 1920s as many as four teams from the city played in the Polish Football League (Pogoń, Czarni, Hasmonea and Lechia). Hasmonea was the first Jewish football club in Poland. Several notable figures of Polish football came from the city including Kazimierz Górski, Ryszard Koncewicz, Michał Matyas and Wacław Kuchar.

Lviv is also the Polish birth-place of other sports. In January 1905 the first Polish ice-hockey match took place there and two years later the first ski-jumping competition was organized in nearby Sławsko. In the same year the first Polish basketball games were organized in Lviv's gymnasiums. In autumn 1887 a gymnasium by Lychakiv Street (pol. ulica Łyczakowska) held the first Polish track and field competition with such sports as the long jump and high jump. Lviv's athlete Władysław Ponurski represented Austria in the 1912 Olympic Games in Stockholm. On 9 July 1922 the first official rugby game in Poland took place at the stadium of Pogoń Lwów in which the rugby team of Orzeł Biały Lwów divided itself into two teams – "The Reds" and "The Blacks". The referee of this game was a Frenchman by the name of Robineau.

Lviv now has several major professional football clubs and some smaller clubs. FC Karpaty Lviv, founded in 1963, plays in the first division of the Ukrainian Premier League. Sometimes citizens of Lviv assemble on the central street (Freedom Avenue) to watch and cheer during outdoor broadcasts of games.

Lviv is building a new separate stadium from its now already established Ukraina Stadium to host three group matches during EURO 2012.

Lviv's chess school enjoys a good reputation; such notable grandmasters as Vassily Ivanchuk, Leonid Stein, Alexander Beliavsky, Andrei Volokitin used to live in Lviv.^[72]

Notable people [link]

Sholem Aleichem

Monument to King Jan Sobieski, moved from Lviv to Gdańsk after World War II.

Sholem Aleichem, Yiddish author and playwright
Bohdan-Ihor Antonych, poet
Muhammad Asad, writer
Emanuel Ax, pianist
Stefan Banach, mathematician
Yuri Bashmet, viola player
Alexander Beliavsky, chess grandmaster
Anatoly Belilovsky, science fiction writer
Wojciech Bobowski, dragoman and musician in the Ottoman Empire, first translated the Bible into Ottoman Turkish
Michał Piotr Boym, preacher, sinologist, traveler, cartographer, translator, diplomat, philosopher, philologist, botanist, biologist, doctor
Solomon Buber (1827–1906), banker, writer, philosopher
Tadeusz Brzeziński, Polish consular official and the father of President Jimmy Carter's national security adviser, Zbigniew Brzeziński
Martin Buber, Austrian-Israelian philosopher
Ludwik Fleck, Polish medical doctor and biologist
Ivan Franko, writer, philosopher
Aleksander Fredro, poet, playwright
Leo Fuchs, actor
Eugeniusz Geppert, painter
Jakob-Ber Gimpel, founder of the Lemberg Yiddish Theater
Maurice Goldhaber, physicist
Zbigniew Herbert, poet, writer
Volodymyr Ivasiuk, composer
Danylo “Dendi” Ishutin, Dota 2 player for Natus Vincere
Faina Kirschenbaum, Israeli politician ^[73]
Filaret Kolessa, ethnographer, composer
Maria Konopnicka, poet, writer
Bohodar Korotovych, violinist
Solomiya Krushelnytska, opera singer
Les Kurbas, actor, director
Stanisław Lem, Polish writer
Oleh Luzhny, former professional footballer, current assistant manager of FC Dynamo Kyiv
Stanislav Liudkevych, composer
Karol Mikuli (1819–1897), pianist, Chopin's student
Ludwig von Mises, Austrian-US American economist
Richard von Mises, Austrian-US American mathematician
Gabriela Moyseowicz, composer, pianist
Franz Xavier Mozart, composer
Paul Muni, actor
Aleksander Myszuga, opera singer
Karl Radek (1885–1939), political activist
Moriz Rosenthal (1862–1946), pianist, composer.
Joseph Roth, Austrian writer
Tadeusz Rychter, painter
Ruslana (1973), pop singer
Leopold von Sacher-Masoch, Austrian writer
Pinchas Sadeh (born Pinchas Feldman, 1929–94), Polish-born Israeli novelist and poet
Markiyan Shashkevych, writer
Myroslav Skoryk, composer
Leopold Staff, Polish modernist poet
Vasyl Stefanyk, writer
Adam Ulam, historian
Stanisław Ulam, mathematician
Svyatoslav Vakarchuk, rock musician
Elena Vesnina, Tennis Player
Debora Vogel (1902–1942), writer, poet
Adam Zagajewski, poet
Gabriela Zapolska, playwright, actress
Casimir Zeglen, Inventor of the Bulletproof vest

International relations [link]

Twin towns and sister cities [link]

Aleksander Fredro monument, moved from Lviv to Wrocław, its sister city, after World War II.

City	State	Year
Winnipeg	Canada	1973
Freiburg im Breisgau	Germany	1989
Rzeszów	Poland	1992^[74]
Rochdale	United Kingdom	1992
Budapest	Hungary	1993
Rishon LeZion	Israel	1993
Przemyśl	Poland	1995
Kraków^[75]	Poland	1995
Grozny	Russia	1998
Novi Sad	Serbia	1999
Samarkand	Uzbekistan	2000
Kutaisi	Georgia	2002
Wrocław^[76]	Poland	2003
Łódź	Poland	2003
Banja Luka	Bosnia and Herzegovina	2004
Lublin	Poland	2004
Saint Petersburg	Russia	2006

Economy [link]

Lviv is one of the largest cities in Ukraine and is growing rapidly. According to the Ministry of Economy of Ukraine the average salary in the Lviv Oblast is a little less than the average for Ukraine which in December 2007 was about 1616 UAH. In 2006 Ukraine's economic freedom was rated at 3.24 (where a rating 1.0 is "freer" than a rating 5.0). According to the World Bank classification Lviv is a lower middle-income city. There are many restaurants and shops as well as street vendors of food, books, clothes, traditional cultural items and tourist gifts. Banking and money trading are an important part of the economy of Lviv with many banks and exchange offices throughout the city.

Lviv Airlines has its head office on the grounds of Lviv Airport.^[77]

Education [link]

The front façade of the Lviv University, the oldest university in Ukraine.

Lviv Polytechnic National University

Main article: List of universities in Ukraine

Lviv is an important education centre of Ukraine. It is home to three major universities and a number of smaller schools of higher education. There are eight institutes of the National Academy of Science of Ukraine, more than forty research institutes, three academies and eleven state-owned colleges.

A considerable scientific potential is concentrated in the city: by the number of doctors of sciences, candidates of sciences, scientific organizations Lviv is the fourth city in Ukraine. Lviv is known for ancient academic traditions, founded by the Assumption Brotherhood School and the Jesuit Collegium. Over 100 thousand students annually study in more than 20 higher educational establishments.

Universities [link]

Ivan Franko National University of Lviv (ukr. Львівський національний університет імені Івана Франка)
Lviv Polytechnic (ukr. Національний університет "Львівська політехніка")
Danylo Halytsky Lviv National Medical University (ukr. Львiвський національний медичний унiверситет iм. Данила Галицького)
Lviv Stepan Gzhytsky national university of veterinary medicine and biotechnologies (ukr. Львівський національний університет ветеринарної медицини та біотехнологій імені Степана Гжицького)
National Forestry Engineering University of Ukraine (ukr. Український національний лісотехнічний університет)
Ukrainian Catholic University (ukr. Український католицький університет)
Lviv National Agrarian University (ukr. Львівський національний аграрний університет)
Lviv State University of Physical Training (ukr. Львівський державний університет фізичної культури)
Lviv State University of Life Safety (ukr. Львівський державний університет безпеки життєдіяльності)
Lviv State University of Interior (ukr. Львівський державний університет внутрішніх справ)

Tourism [link]

Lviv is considered one of Ukraine's major tourist destinations.^[78] Lviv had a 40% increase in tourists in the early 2010s; the highest rate in Europe.^[78]

Tourist attractions [link]

Rynok square.

The Old Town is an ancient historical part of the city.
- Market Square (Ukrainian: Ploshcha Rynok) 18,300 square metre square in the historical center of the city where Lviv City Hall is situated
- Black House (Ukrainian: Chorna Kamyanytsia)
- Armenian Cathedral
- Orthodox Cathedral
- Korniakt Palace
- Latin Cathedral of the Assumption of Mary
- St. George's Cathedral of the Greek-Catholic Church
- Dominican Church of Corpus Christi
- Chapel of the Boim family
Lviv High Castle (Ukrainian: Vysokyi Zamok), hill overlooking the historical center of the city
- Union of Lublin Mound
Lychakivskiy Cemetery, cemetery where the notable people were buried
Svobody Prospekt, Lviv's central street.
- Lviv Theatre of Opera and Ballet
Potocki Palace

Popular culture [link]

The native residents of the city jokingly known as the Lvivian batiary (someone who's mischievous). Lvivians also well known for their way of speaking that was greatly influenced by the Lvivian gwara (talk).^[79] The Shoes of the Fisherman, both Morris L. West's novel and its 1968 film adaptation had the titular pope as having been its former archbishop.

Transportation [link]

Buses [link]

File:Marshrutka bogdan.jpg

The so-called marshrutka, a typical Lviv city transport.

The public bus network is mainly represented by mini-buses. Large buses are inconvenient due to the traffic conditions of the narrow streets in the central historical part of the city. People call these mini-buses marshrutka (route taxi) and they operate over the whole city. Marshrutkas have no fixed stops and stop not only at bus stops but in other places where it is allowed. The marshrutkas are cheap, fast and mostly reliable. This kind of transport is so popular and convenient that mini-buses are often overcrowded during rush hour. Marshrutkas also run on suburban lines to most suburbs and nearby towns, e.g. to Shehyni at the Polish border. There are also two bus routes in Lviv.

The price (as of August 2011^[update]) of a one-way single ride in a marshrutka within the city of Lviv is 2.00 UAH regardless of the distance traveled. No tickets are provided – and the money is paid to the driver. The price (February 2010) of a ride on a city-bus is 1.00 UAH.

Trams [link]

Main article: Trams in Lviv

A Lviv tram on a small sett sidestreet in the Old Town.

LAZ E183 of the Lviv Bus Factory on the city street.

The first tramway lines were horse–drawn opening on 5 May 1880 and the electric tram was opened on 31 May 1894. The last horse-drawn line was transferred to electric traction in 1908. In 1922 the tramways were switched to driving on the right-hand side. After World War II and the annexation of the city by the Soviet Union several lines were closed but most of infrastructure was preserved. The tracks are narrow-gauge, unusual for the Soviet Union, but explained by the fact that the system was built while the city was part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and needed to run in narrow medieval streets in the centre of town.

The Lviv tramway now runs about 220 cars on 75 km of track. Previously in bad shape many tracks were reconstructed in 2006 and even more are due to be reconstructed.

The price (as of February 2011^[update]) of a tram/trolleybus ticket is 1.25 UAH (reduced fare ticket is 0.60 UAH, e.g. for students). The ticket may be purchased form the driver.

Trolleybuses [link]

After the war the city grew rapidly due to evacuees returning from Russia and the Soviet Government's vigorous development of heavy industry. This included the transfer of entire factories from the Urals and others to the newly "liberated" territories of the USSR.

The city centre tramway lines were replaced with trolleybuses on 27 November 1952. New lines were opened to the blocks of flats at the city outskirts. The network now runs about 100 trolleybuses–mostly of the 1980s Skoda 14Tr and LAZ 52522. In 2006–2008 11 modern low-floor trolleybuses (LAZ E183) built by the Lviv Bus Factory were purchased.

The price (as of February 2010^[update]) of a tram/trolleybus ticket is 1 UAH (reduced fare ticket is 0.50 UAH, e.g. for students). It is claimed as of April 2012^[update] that these priced have gone up to 1.25 UAH and 0.60 UAH respectively.^{[citation needed]} The ticket may be purchased from the driver.

Bicycle transport [link]

Cycling is a new but growing mode of transport in Lviv. In 2011 the City of Lviv ratified an ambitious 9-year program^[80] for the set-up of cycling infrastructure - until the year 2019 an overall length of 270 km (168 mi) cycle lanes and tracks shall be realized. A working group formally organised within the City Council, bringing together representatives of the city administration, members of planning and design institutes, local NGOs and other stakeholders. Events like the All-Ukrainian Bikeday^[81] or the European Mobility Week^[82] show the popularity of cycling among Lviv’s citizens.

As of September 2011, 8 km (5 mi) of new infrastructure have been built. It can be expected that until the end of the year 50 km (31 mi) will be ready for use. The cycling advisor in Lviv - the first such position in Ukraine - is supervizing and pushing forward the execution of the cycling plan and coordinates with various actors in the city. The development of cycling in Ukraine is currently hampered by outdated planning norms and the fact, that most planners didn’t yet plan and experience cycling infrastructure. The update of national legislation and training for planners is therefore necessary.

Rail bus [link]

Lviv "rail bus", a motor-rail car

Lviv used to have a "rail bus". This was a motor-rail car that ran from the largest district of Lviv to one of the largest industrial zones going through the central railway station. It made 7 trips a day and was meant to provide a faster and more comfortable connection between the remote urban districts. The price (as of February 2010^[update]) of a one-way single ride in the rail bus was 1.50 UAH. On 15 June 2010 the route was cancelled as unprofitable.

Railways [link]

Main article: Lviv Railways

Lviv's Main Railway Terminal, an Art Nouveau style construction built in 1903 by Władysław Sadłowski.

Modern Lviv remains a hub on which nine railways converge providing local and international services. Lviv railway is one of the oldest in Ukraine. The first train arrived to Lviv on 4 November 1861. The main Lviv Railway Station, designed by Władysław Sadłowski, was built in 1904 and was considered one of the best in Europe from both the architectural and the technical aspects.

In the interbellum period Lviv (known then as Lwów) was one of the most important hubs of the Polish State Railways. The junction at Lviv consisted in mid-1939 of four stations — main station Lwów Główny (now Ukrainian: Lviv Holovnyi), Lwów Kleparów (now Lviv Klepariv), Lwów Łyczaków (now Lviv Lychakiv), and Lwów Podzamcze (now Lviv Pidzamche). In August 1939 just before World War II 73 trains departed daily from the Main Station including 56 local and 17 fast trains. Lviv was directly connected with all major centers of the Second Polish Republic as well as such cities as Berlin, Bucharest, and Budapest.^[83]

Currently several trains cross the nearby Polish–Ukrainian border (mostly via Przemyśl in Poland). There are good connections to Slovakia (Košice) and Hungary (Budapest). Many routes have overnight trains with sleeping compartments.

Lviv railway is often called a main gateway from Ukraine to Europe although buses are often a cheaper and more convenient way of entering the "Schengen" countries.

Air transport [link]

Beginnings of aviation in Lviv reach back to 1884 when the Aeronautic Society was opened there. The Society issued its own magazine Astronauta but soon ceased to exist. In 1909 on the initiative of Edmund Libanski the Awiata Society was founded. Among its members there was a group of professors and students of the Lviv Polytechnic, including Stefan Drzewiecki and Zygmunt Sochacki. Awiata was the oldest Polish organization of this kind and it concentrated its activities mainly on exhibitions such as the First Aviation Exhibition which took place in 1910 and featured models of aircraft built by Lviv students.^[84]

In 1913–1914 brothers Tadeusz and Władysław Floriańscy built a two-seated airplane. When World War I broke out Austrian authorities confiscated it but did not manage to evacuate the plane in time and it was seized by the Russians who used the plane for intelligence purposes. The Floriański brothers' plane was the first Polish-made aircraft. On 5 November 1918, a crew consisting of Stefan Bastyr and Janusz de Beaurain carried out the first ever flight under the Polish flag taking off from Lviv's Lewandówka (now Ukrainian: Levandivka) airport.^[84] In the interbellum period Lviv was a major center of gliding with a notable Gliding School in Bezmiechowa which opened in 1932. In the same year the Institute of Gliding Technology was opened in Lviv and was the second such institute in the world. In 1938 the First Polish Aircraft Exhibition took place in the city.

Interbellum Lviv also was a major center of the Polish Air Force with the Sixth Air Regiment located there. The Regiment was based at the airport in Lviv's suburb of Skniłów (today Ukrainian: Sknyliv) opened in 1924. Sknyliv Airport is now named Lviv International Airport (LWO), and is located 6 km from the city centre.^[85] A new terminal and other improvements are being under a $200 million expansion project in preparation for the 2012 UEFA European Football Championship.^[85]

References [link]

^ Lviv is the best city for living in Ukraine – rating, UNIAN (12 June 2009)
^ ^a ^b ^c "Pogoda.ru.net" (in Russian). May 2011. http://pogoda.ru.net/climate/33393.htm. Retrieved 21 April 2012.
^ ^a ^b Climatological Information for L'vov, Ukraine, Russia, accessed 21 April 2012.
^ Iсторія Львова. У трьох томах / Я. Ісаєвич, М. Литвин, Ф. Стеблій. — Львів : Центр Європи, 2006. — Т. 1. — p7. — ISBN 978-966-7022-59-4 (Ukrainian: History of Lviv in Three Tomes")
^ Antoni Schneider, Badania i poszukiwania archeologiczne w Galicji w ostatnich latach, Przegląd Archeologiczny, R.1.: 1876, z.1, s. 16–22; Oleksij Onysymowyć Ratyć, Drevnorus'ki materiały z rozkopok 1955–56 rr. na Zamkovij hori u L'vovi, Materiały i Doslidżennja z Archeologii Prykarpatt'ja i Vołyni 1961, t. 3, s. 115–127 [in:] Łukasz Walczy, Początki Lwowa w świetle najnowszych badań [in:] Lwów wśród nas, cz. 2, 2006, s. 20–21
^ Vołodymyr Vujcyk, Derżavnyj Istoryczno-Architekturnyj Zapovidnyk u L'vovi. Lwów 1991 r. s. 9 [w:] Łukasz Walczy, Początki Lwowa w świetle najnowszych badań [in:] Lwów wśród nas, cz. 2, 2006, s. 20–21
^ Orest Subtelny. (1988) Ukraine: A History. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, p62
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Meyers Konversations-Lexikon. 6th edition, vol. 12, Leipzig and Vienna 1908, p. 397-398.
^ Vasylʹ Mudryĭ, ed. (1962). Naukove tovarystvo im. Shevchenka – Lviv: a symposium on its 700th anniversary. Shevchenko Scientific Society (U.S.). p. 58. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iT1pAAAAMAAJ&q=lviv+Burundai&dq=lviv+Burundai&hl=en&ei=O1ZATdnSF8aZhQfilIizCA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA. Retrieved 29 January 2011. "on the occasion of the demand of the baskak of the Tatars, Burundai, that the prince Vasylko and Lev raze their cities said Buronda to Vasylko: 'Since you are at peace with me then raze all your castles'"
^ Basil Dmytryshyn (1991). Medieval Russia: a source book, 850-170. Holt, Rinehart and Winston. p. 173. ISBN 978-0-03-033422-1. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WrtoAAAAMAAJ&q=lvov+Burundai&dq=lvov+Burundai&hl=en&ei=qVZATePjLsHPhAeUorGwCA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDoQ6AEwAg. Retrieved 29 January 2011.
^ ^a ^b Universal-Lexikon der Gegenwart und Vergangenheit (edited by H. A. Pierer). 2nd edition, vol. 17, Altenburg 1843, pp. 343–344. Works related to Universal Lexikon der Gegenwart und Vergangenheit at Wikisource
^ B.V. Melnyk, Vulytsiamy starovynnoho Lvova, Vyd-vo "Svit" (Old Lviv Streets), 2001, ISBN 966-603-048-9
^ Allgemeine Enzyklopädie der Wissenschaft und Künste, edited by Johann Samuel Ersch and Johann Gottfried Gruber. Vol. 5, Leipzig 1820, p. 358, footnote 18) (in German).
^ Dobson, Richard Barrie; Walford, Michael Lapidge ; English translation by Adrian (2000). Andre Vauchez ; in conjunction with Barrie. ed. Encyclopedia of the Middle Ages. Chicago: Routledge. p. 879. ISBN 1-57958-282-6.
^ Jacob Caro: Geschichte Polens. Vol. 2, Gotha 1863, p. 286 (in German, online)
^ Cathal J. Nolan. Wars of the age of Louis XIV, 1650-1715: an encyclopedia of global warfare and civilization. ABC-CLIO. 2008. pp. 332, 368.
^ ^a ^b Tony Jaques. Dictionary of battles and sieges: a guide to 8,500 battles from antiquity through the twenty-first century, Vol. 3. Greenwood Publishing Group. 2007. pp. 608, 895, 951
^ Francis Ludwig Carsten. The new Cambridge modern history: The ascendancy of France, 1648-88. Cambridge University Press. 1961. p. 512.
^ Jerzy Lukowski, Hubert Zawadzki. A concise history of Poland. Cambridge University Press. 2001. p. 81. Cambridge University Press. 2001. p. 81.
^ Tertius Chandler. (1987) Four Thousand Years of Urban Growth: An Historical Census. Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellon Press
^ ^a ^b New International Encyclopedia, Volume 13. Lemberg 1915, p. 760
^ Paul Robert Magocsi. (2005) Galicia: a Multicultured Land. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp.12–15
^ Timothy Snyder, The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569–1999, Yale University Press, 2003, p.158
^ Norman Davies. "Ethnic Diversity in Twentieth Century Poland." In: Herbert Arthur Strauss. Hostages of Modernization: Studies on Modern Antisemitism, 1870-1933/39. Walter de Gruyter, 1993.
^ Norman Davies, White Eagle, Red Star. Polish-Soviet War
^ Леонид Соколов (9 December 1931). "Л.Соколов, Кто сделал Львов украинским городом? – Украинские Страницы". Ukrstor.com. http://ukrstor.com/ukrstor/sokolov_lvovua.html. Retrieved 25 January 2010–.
^ Mały Rocznik Statystyczny 1939 (Polish statistical yearbook of 1939), GUS, Warsaw, 1939
^ "Text of the 1922 Bill (in Polish)" (in (Polish)). Pl.wikisource.org. 2012-02-29. http://pl.wikisource.org/wiki/Ustawa_o_zasadach_powszechnego_samorz%C4%85du_wojew%C3%B3dzkiego. Retrieved 2012-05-03.
^ Magoscy, R. (1996). A History of Ukraine. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
^ Subtelny, Orest (1988). Ukraine: A History. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
^ Paul Robert Magocsi. (2005)Galicia: a Multicultured Land. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp.144–145
^ Robert M. Kennedy, The German Campaign In Poland (1939), Major Infantry United States Army DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY DC 1956.
^ Ukraine: A Concise Encyclopedia, Volume I (1963). Edited by Volodymyr Kubiyovych. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp. 831–833 and pp.872–874
^ Paul Robert Magocsi. (1996). A History of Ukraine. Toronto: University of Toronto Press
^ "Lviv massacre". Alfreddezayas.com. http://www.alfreddezayas.com/Chapbooks/Lembergmassacre.shtml. Retrieved 2012-05-03.
^ Організація українських націоналістів і Українська повстанська армія. Інститут історії НАН України.2004р Організація українських націоналістів і Українська повстанська армія,
^ І.К. Патриляк. Військова діяльність ОУН(Б) у 1940—1942 роках. — Університет імені Шевченко \Ін-т історії України НАН України Київ, 2004 (No ISBN)
^ ОУН в 1941 році: документи: В 2-х ч Ін-т історії України НАН України К. 2006 ISBN 966-02-2535-0
^ "Text of Polish-Soviet Treaty of 1941". Avalon.law.yale.edu. 1941-07-30. http://avalon.law.yale.edu/wwii/polsov.asp. Retrieved 2012-05-03.
^ ОУН і УПА в 1943 році: Документи / НАН України. Інститут історії України. – К.: Інститут історії України, 2008. – 347 с. ISBN 978966024911 p.166
^ United States Holocaust Memorial Museum^{[dead link]}
^ the holocaust research project
^ The architecture of Poland: An historical survey by Zbigniew Dmochowski
^ pl:wikisource:Umowa graniczna pomiędzy Polską a ZSRR z 16 sierpnia 1945 roku [1] full text of the agreement (Polish)
^ "Official site of the Khloptsi z Bandershtadtu". Bandershtadt.w6.ru. http://bandershtadt.w6.ru/. Retrieved 2012-05-03.
^ Tchorek, Kamil (26 November 2004). "Protest grows in western city". Times Online. http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article395652.ece. Retrieved 25 July 2009.
^ Russia, Ukraine, and the Breakup of the Soviet Union by Roman Szporluk, Hoover Institution Press, 2000, ISBN 0-8179-9542-0 / ISBN 978-0-8179-9542-3
^ Національний склад Львівського воєводства за переписом 1931 року
^ Населення Східної Галичини за переписом 1900 року
^ "Зміни етносоціального складу населення Львова" (PDF). http://www.anthropos.org.ua/jspui/bitstream/123456789/1622/1/608-615_%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8E%D0%BA_%D0%9A.pdf. Retrieved 2012-05-03.
^ max. "Росіяни та російськомовне населення у сучасному Львові". Homepage.univie.ac.at. http://homepage.univie.ac.at/philipp.ther/lemberg/dierussen_ukr.html. Retrieved 2012-05-03.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d According to the census of 2001
^ ^a ^b Heidemarie Petersen: Judengemeinde und Stadtgemeinde in Polen: Lemberg 1356–1581. Harrasso Verlagm Wiesbaden 2003, p. 50 (in German, limited online preview)
^ Universal-Lexikon der Gegenwart und Vergangenheit (edited by H. A. Pierer). 2nd edition, vol. 7, Altenburg 1843, p. 344.
^ Konversations-Lexikon (edited by Brockhaus). 10th edition, vol. 9, Leipzig 1853, p. 512.
^ Brockhaus' Konversations-Lexikon. 14th edition, vol. 11, Leipzig 1894, p. 76
^ Meyers Konversations-Lexikon. 6th edition, vol. 12, Leipzig and Vienna 1908, pp. 397–398.
^ ^a ^b Der Große Brockhaus. 15th edition, vol. 11, Leipig 1932, pp. 296–297.
^ Meyers Enzyklopädisches Lexikon. 9th edition, vol. 14, Mannheim/Vienna/Zürich 1975, p. 802.
^ ^a ^b ^c Ethnic groups in Lviv, 2001 Ukrainian Census
^ Yaroslav Hrytsak. (2005). Historical Memory and Regional Identity. In Galicia: A Multicultured Land. Christopher Hann and Paul Robert Magocsi (Eds.) Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp. 185–209
^ 1.2% of 790,908
^ (Russian) Всесоюзная перепись населения 1989 г.
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^ ^a ^b Polish Embassy The Poles in Lviv continue to be proud of their identity^{[dead link]}, accessed 21:05, 29 October 2009
^ Heidemarie Petersen: Judengemeinde und Stadtgemeinde in Polen: Lemberg 1356–1581 (=Forschungen zur osteuropäischen Geschichte, Vol. 61, edited by Osteuropa-Institut of the Free University of Berlin). Harrassowitz Verlag, Wiesbadeb 2003, p. 37 ff. (in German, limited online preview)
^ L'viv – the Ensemble of the Historic Centre, UNESCO — World Heritage. URL Accessed: 30 October 2006
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^ "Lviv – the chess capital of Ukraine".
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^ "Serwis informacyjny UM Rzeszów – Informacja o współpracy Rzeszowa z miastami partnerskimi". www.rzeszow.pl. http://www.rzeszow.pl/wspolpraca-miedzynarodowa/informacja-o-wspolpracy-rzeszowa-z-miastami-partnerskimi/668,informacja-o-wsp-lpracy-rzeszowa-z-miastami-partnerskimi.html. Retrieved 2 February 2010. ^{[dead link]}
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External links [link]

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Lviv travel guide from Wikitravel

Official website (Ukrainian)
lvivcenter.org — Multilingual Website of the Center for Urban History in Lviv
wlviv-online.com Lviv Online. The city events guide
Ukrainian Navigational Portal] — Photos and infrastructure objects of Lviv on interactive map
Lviv Map — Download and print
Lviv Rail Terminal — Official website
FC Karpaty Lviv — Official website
Lviv – photographs and information (Czech)
Lviv tramway
“Lviv Reminiscences”, Olena Krushynska’s photogallery (Ukrainian, English, Italian)
Lviv in Photos
lwow.eu — many photos, articles & informations about city and its history (Polish)
Lviv Market Square- Details of the market square
180° High Definition Panorama of Lviv — Gives a panorama view of the entire city at telescopic resolution

v t e Lviv

History	Armenian Statute · Dormition Brotherhood · Jesuit Collegium · First Siege by Cossacks · Second Siege by Cossacks · Lwów Oath · Siege by Turks · Leopolis Triplex · Stauropegion Institute · Stauropegion Press · Ossolineum · Galician Rada · Halytsko-Ruska Matytsia · Prosvita · Ruthenian Triad · Ruthenian National House · Hutsul Secession · Batiars · Lwów Eaglets · Battle 1918 · Pogrom 1918 · Battle 1920 · Secret Ukrainian University · School of Logic · School of Mathematics · Battle 1939 · Massacre of Lviv professors · Lviv pogroms · Lemberg Ghetto · Lwów Uprising · Sknyliv airshow disaster

Religion	Armenian Cathedral · Cathedral of St. George · Chapel of the Boim family · Bernardine Church · Bridgettine Convent · Carmelite Church · Convent of Benedictines · Church of St. Anne · Church of John the Baptist · Church of Mary of Snow · Church of St. Elizabeth · Church of St. Mary Magdalene · Church of St. Onuphrius · Church of the Dormition · Church of the Purification, Lviv · Church of the Transfiguration · Dominican Church · Jesuit Church · Latin Cathedral

Attractions	Arena Lviv · Arsenal Museum · Bandinelli Palace · Black Kamienica · Catholic University · Cemetery of the Defenders of Lwów · Freedom Boulevard · Government House · King Cross Leopolis · Korniakt Palace · Lviv High Castle · Lviv University · Lychakivskiy Cemetery · Market Square · Mickiewicz Square · National Museum · Polytechnic University · Liubomyrsky Palace · Metropolitan Palace · Old Town · Pharmacy Museum · Pototsky Palace · Sapieha Palace · Scottish Café · Shevchenkivskyi Hai · Theatre of Opera and Ballet · Skarbek Theatre · Town Hall · Ukraina Stadium · Union of Lublin Mound

Transport	International Airport · Tramway · Main Rail Terminal · Suburban Rail Terminal

Administrative divisions of Lviv Oblast

Administrative center: Lviv

Districts

Cities

Major cities	Boryslav Chervonohrad Drohobych Lviv Morshyn Novyi Rozdil Sambir Stryi Truskavets

Other cities	Belz Bibrka Brody Busk Dobromyl Dubliany Hlyniany Horodok Kamianka-Buzka Khodoriv Khyriv Komarno Mostyska Mykolaiv Novoiavorivsk Novyi Kalyniv Peremyshliany Pustomyty Radekhiv Rava-Ruska Rudky Skole Sokal Sosnivka Staryi Sambir Stebnyk Sudova Vyshnia Turka Uhniv Velyki Mosty Vynnyky Yavoriv Zhovkva Zhydachiv Zolochiv

List of: urban-type settlements — villages

v t e Administrative divisions of Ukraine

Capital: Kiev

Oblasts	Cherkasy Chernihiv Chernivtsi Dnipropetrovsk Donetsk Ivano-Frankivsk Kharkiv Kherson Khmelnytskyi Kiev Kirovohrad Luhansk Lviv Mykolaiv Odessa Poltava Rivne Sumy Ternopil Vinnytsia Volyn Zakarpattia Zaporizhia Zhytomyr

Cities with special status	Kiev Sevastopol

Autonomous republic	Crimea

Administrative centers	Cherkasy Chernihiv Chernivtsi Dnipropetrovsk Donetsk Ivano-Frankivsk Kharkiv Kherson Khmelnytskyi Kiev Kirovohrad Luhansk Lutsk Lviv Mykolaiv Odessa Poltava Rivne Sevastopol Simferopol Sumy Ternopil Uzhhorod Vinnytsia Zaporizhia Zhytomyr

v t e World Heritage Sites in Ukraine

Kiev: Saint-Sophia Cathedral and Related Monastic Buildings / Kiev Pechersk Lavra · L'viv - the Ensemble of the Historic Centre · Chernivtsi - the Residence of Bukovinian and Dalmatian Metropolitans · Struve Geodetic Arc (with nine other countries) · Primeval Beech Forests of the Carpathians (with Slovakia)

v t e Historical Capitals of Rus' and other Ukrainian states

Medieval Ukrainian states

Kievan Rus'	Kiev

Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia	Volodymyr · Halych · Lviv

Cossack Hetmanate	Chyhyryn · Baturyn · Hlukhiv

Grand Duchy of Rus'	Kiev

Ukrainian states after Russian Empire and before Ukrainian SSR

West Ukrainian People's Republic	Lviv · Ternopil · Stanyslaviv

Ukrainian People's Republic	Kiev (1917–1920)

Ukrainian Soviet Republic (ru)	Kiev

Donetsk-Krivoy Rog Soviet Republic	Kharkiv · Luhansk

Ukrainian SSR (since 1917), independent Ukraine (since 1991)

Ukrainian SSR (part of the SU 1922-91), Ukraine	Kharkiv (1919-1934) · Kiev (since 1934)

Footnotes:	¹Meaning (Cossack) states on the territory of current Ukraine

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Armin van Buuren
Van Buuren performing on Queensday in Amsterdam, 2011
Background information
Birth name	Armin van Buuren
Also known as	Gaia, AVB
Born	(1976-12-25) 25 December 1976 (age 35) Leiden, South Holland, Netherlands^[1]
Origin	Koudekerk aan den Rijn, South Holland, Netherlands
Genres	Trance Progressive Trance Uplifting Trance Neo-trance
Occupations	Remixer, Producer, DJ, Composer, Musician, Pianist, Songwriter
Instruments	Synthesizer, drum machine, equalizer, personal computer
Years active	1995–present
Labels	Armada Music (2003–present), Vandit (Co-Joined), Ministry of Sound Australia
Associated acts	Alibi, Dark Matter, Electrix, Lilmotion, Major League, Monsieur Basculant, Red & White, Technology, Triple A, Wodka Wasters, Nadia Ali,^[2] Christian Burns,^[2] Ferry Corsten,^[2] Adam Young,^[2] BT,^[2] Sophie Ellis-Bextor,^[2] Guy Chambers^[2]
Website	arminvanbuuren.com

Armin van Buuren (Dutch pronunciation: [ˈɑr.mɪn vɑn ˈby.rə(n)]), OON (born 25 December 1976 in Leiden, Netherlands)^[1] is a Dutch trance producer and DJ. Between 2007 and 2010, he was voted number one in DJ Magazine's annual top 100 list of the most popular DJs.^[1] In the 2011 list, he ranked in second place. Since 2001, Van Buuren has hosted a weekly radio show called A State of Trance, which claims to have around 15 million weekly listeners in 26 countries,^[3] which would make it one of the most listened-to radio shows in the world. His 2008 studio album, Imagine, entered the Dutch album chart at #1, a first for a dance music artist in Dutch music history.^[4]

1 Personal life
2 Career
3 Discography
- 3.1 Year Mixes
4 References
5 External links

Personal life [link]

Armin van Buuren was born in Leiden, Netherlands on 25 December 1976,^[1] but grew up in Koudekerk aan den Rijn. Van Buuren started making music when he was 14.^{[citation needed]} He was inspired by French electronic music composer, Jean Michel Jarre, and wished to become a great electronic music composer like Jarre.^{[citation needed]}

He finished high school at the Stedelijk Gymnasium Leiden in 1995, and left for college to study law at Leiden University. While studying law, Van Buuren's interest for making music blossomed, and he began working as a DJ in a local club called Nexus. As his musical career began to take off, he put his law degree on hold, although he did return to finish law school in 2003.

On 18 September 2009, Van Buuren married Erika van Thiel in Wassenaar, Netherlands. They met during a vacation on Crete, and had been together for nine years prior to the marriage.^[5]^[6]

On 12 January 2011, Van Buuren announced the pregnancy of his wife Erika on Twitter.^[7] He hoped the baby, due that summer, would be his "best production ever."^[7] Their daughter, Fenna, was born on 24 July 2011.^[8]

Career [link]

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2012)

1995–1999: Early career and success [link]

In 1995, Van Buuren had his first major success with a track called "Blue Fear", which was released under the Cyber Records label; he was 19 years old at the time. This track, which was produced in the "Euro Trance" mold, made it onto the UK Chart. Another successful track, "Communication" was released under the same label, and became popular in Ibiza, Spain in the summer of 1999. After being signed to AM PM Records, this track entered the UK Chart at No. 18 in 2000.

Armin van Buuren at Lizard Lounge, Dallas, Texas, 9 August 2008

Van Buuren began his DJ career at club Nexus in Leiden, where he learned to play long DJ sets, which were regularly six to seven hours per set.^[9] During school holidays he played more than four times a week. In 1999, he met Dave Lewis who introduced him as a DJ in England and the United States.^[9] His career accelerated, entering the DJ magazine Top-100 in November 2001 at Number 27.^[9] He has played in more than 25 different countries and can often be found on the main stage at big summer festivals. Van Buuren played a record-breaking twelve and a half hour set for Dancetheater in The Hague (the Netherlands).^[10]^[11] In the United Kingdom he performs regularly at Passion (resident 2002), Godskitchen, Gatecrasher, Slinky, Ministry of Sound, Peach and Golden.

In the beginning of 1999, Van Buuren started his label Armind together with United Recordings. The first release, Gig – "One," was well received. The second release "Touch Me," under the name Rising Star was signed to Ministry of Sound in the UK, before the record was released.

By the time of his third release, Gimmick – "Free" was signed to R&S Records, Van Buuren had managed to make his label popular very quickly. Under the surname Gaia he released "4 Elements" on Captivating Sounds, a sub-label of Warner Brothers. Teaming up with Tiësto, two new projects were born: Major League – "Wonder Where You Are?" was released on Black Hole Recordings and Alibi – "Eternity" was released on Armind. "Eternity" received club and chart success and was signed to Paul van Dyk's imprint Vandit Records. Another major collaboration followed this. Together with Ferry Corsten, Van Buuren recorded a riff-classic titled "Exhale" for the System F. album. Released as a single, this track reached gold status in less than a month.

[edit] 2000–2004: A State of Trance and 76

In 2000, Van Buuren started his own Armin van Buuren compilation series. He managed to find a balance between progressive house,and vocal trance music styles. His first compilation album, A State of Trance (not to be confused with his weekly A State of Trance radio shows), sold more than 10,000 copies and contains Van Buuren's well known remix of Moogwai, "Viola." His second album, Basic Instinct featured a new track: "Perpetuous Dreamer" – "The Sound of Goodbye." This track entered the Dutch charts in June 2001 at number 26. Later in the year, the track hit No. 1 on the Hot Dance Music/Club Play chart. The third album, In Motion was released 6 August 2001. This album contained the real trance sound and was very popular in the United States. A fourth album, Transparence, followed in 2002. In 2003, he worked with such artists such as DJ Seth Alan Fannin throughout a global tour on Dance Revolution in Europe, selling out to crowds of 20,000 people in Armin's home country of the Netherlands.

In March 2001, Van Buuren started his own radio show on ID&T Radio (traditionally broadcast in Dutch and later English since ASOT 183). In this weekly two-hour show, entitled A State of Trance, he plays the latest popular trance music tracks. His show and the artists he features are popularized by publishing the artists and track titles on his website. This radio-show/website combination has proven popular internationally. When ID&T Radio changed genres in 2004, Van Buuren left and took A State of Trance with him. The show then moved to Fresh FM, a Dutch radio station. It is now a weekly feature on SLAM!FM, another Dutch radio station, DI.FM, an online radio station, and on XM Satellite Radio, channel 80 in the United States and Canada. A complete list of stations that broadcast A State of Trance can be found at the ASOT section of Armin's website. Also in 2004, Van Buuren remixed the 24 theme song into a trance hit. In June 2005, the 200th episode was celebrated in Amsterdam and subsequently aired on radio. The 250th (eight hour) anniversary episode was celebrated in Club Asta in The Hague, Netherlands, featuring Van Buuren, Jonas Steur, M.I.K.E., John Askew, Rank 1 and Menno de Jong.^{[citation needed]}

In 2002, he had a residency at Glow in Washington D.C.,^[9] and he has played all across North America in San Francisco, Vancouver, Houston, Toronto, Boston, Calgary, Charlotte, Chicago, Montreal, Detroit, Edmonton, Atlanta, Austin, Denver, New York City, Los Angeles, St. Louis, Minneapolis, Seattle and at The Necto (nightclub). He has also regularly appeared at Amnesia on the island of Ibiza, Balearic Islands, Spain. In October that year, Van Buuren was voted Number 5 in the DJ Magazine 100 top DJ's. The following year, he jumped up to the No. 3 spot, and held 3rd place for the next three years. His work left him at the No. 2 spot, just below Paul van Dyk in the 2006 polls, and, in 2007, Armin reached #1, heading the 2007 DJ Mag Top 100. He was voted No. 1 again in 2008, 2009 and again in 2010.^{[citation needed]}

In June 2003, Van Buuren released his debut studio album, 76, a 76-minute album divided into 13 tracks.^[12]

Armin Van Buuren performing at Avalon, Boston, Massachusetts 2007

[edit] 2005–present: Shivers, Imagine and Mirage

On 8 August 2005, Van Buuren released his second studio album, Shivers. On the album Van Buuren worked with artists such as Pakistani-American singer Nadia Ali, English singer Justine Suissa and American trance duo Gabriel & Dresden.

On 11 November 2006, he had a live performance called Armin Only in Ahoy Rotterdam for the second time (after 12 November 2005) with a nine hour solo set, where he performed to over 11,000 fans.

In the summer of 2007, Van Buuren recorded and released a live set at Amnesia, Ibiza. Universal Religion Chapter 3, Live from Amnesia at Ibiza was released on 28 September 2007 as a mix compilation on Armada Records and in the US as "Universal Religion 2008" on Ultra Records on 4 December 2007.

On 17 April 2008, Van Buuren released his third studio album, Imagine. It features collaboration with singers such as Sharon den Adel of Within Temptation and Jacqueline Govaert of Krezip. The album debuted at number one on the Dutch Albums Chart. Since the release of Imagine, Van Buuren has been working with Benno de Goeij and DJ-RA of Rank 1 on solo productions and remixes.^{[citation needed]}

19 April 2008 saw the 3rd edition of Armin Only, this time in the Jaarbeurs in Utrecht, Netherlands. The event was attended by 16,000 fans and (partly) broadcast live on Dutch National TV. During the second half of 2008, Van Buuren took this show abroad, with visits to Australia, Romania, Poland, Belgium, and a special New Years Eve 2008 show at Together As One in Los Angeles, U.S.

On 29 September 2008, Armin won the DJ Award for "Best Trance DJ" at Ibiza along with other nominees, that of Tiësto, Ferry Corsten and Paul van Dyk.

On 12 January 2008, Van Buuren was given the "Buma Cultuur Pop Award," the most prestigious Dutch music award.

In 2009, Foreign Media Games announced the production of In The Mix: Featuring Armin van Buuren, a music game being produced in collaboration with Cloud 9 Music and Van Buuren's Armada Music label. The title is scheduled to be released sometime in 2010 exclusively for the Wii console.^[13]

He has collaborated with his brother, guitarist Eller van Buuren, in such venues as Together As One in Los Angeles, U.S., on New Year's Eve 2009, as well as on Armin's 2008 album Imagine.

On 3 March 2010, Van Buuren was awarded with the prestigious Golden Harp, for his musical work and contribution to Dutch music, by the music collecting society BUMA/STEMRA at the 2010 Buma Harpen Gala in Hilversum, the Netherlands.^[14]^[15]

On 23 June 2010, it was announced that Van Buuren's fourth studio album, Mirage was due to be released on 10 September.^[16] The first single "Full Focus", was released through iTunes Store on 24 June at midnight.^[17] The song peaked at number sixty in the Netherlands. One of the confirmed tracks from the album is a collaboration with English singer Sophie Ellis-Bextor called Not Giving Up On Love, which was released as a single from Bextor's fourth studio album, Make a Scene.^[18]^[19] Armin also wrote a song for English singer Seal, but due to the release of his greatest hits album, Hits, the collaboration never came together.^[20]

On 12 September 2010, Van Buuren launched "A State of Sundays", a new weekly 24-hour radio show aired on Sirius XM Radio ^[21]

On 20 October 2010, Van Buuren won the award for Most Popular International DJ presented by The Golden Gnomes.^[22]

On 27 October 2010, Van Buuren was announced, for the 4th year running, as the number 1 DJ, and thus prolonging his title as 'Most Popular DJ in the World'.^[23]

The 2010 edition of Armin Only: Mirage kicked off on 13 November 2010, in Utrecht, Netherlands, with more shows coming in Saint-Petersburg, Kiev, Buenos Aires, Melbourne, Beirut, Poznań, Moscow and Bratislava .^[24]

On 27 November 2010, Van Buuren made his third appearance in Shanghai, China.

On 2 February 2012, Van Buuren mentioned a new studio album in the works on episode #546 of his radio show, "A State Of Trance".

A State of Trance 500 (ASOT 500)[link]

To mark the 10 year anniversary and 500th episode of his weekly radio show A State of Trance, Van Buuren performed at five shows across five continents over five consecutive weeks along with various artists.

The first show was held on 19 March 2011 in Johannesburg, South Africa at the MTN Expo Center. In addition to Armin, Blake Jarrell, Protoculture, Lange, Leon Bolier, and Jorn van Deynhoven were performers. Super8 & Tab were to be part of the South African show, however a flight cancellation caused them to be absent for the event. The event was attended by over 20,000 people.

Miami's show was performed at the Ultra Music Festival on 27 March, and part of the show were Marcus Schossow, Alex M.O.R.P.H., Cosmic Gate, Gareth Emery, Ferry Corsten, ATB, and Sander van Doorn.

Argentina held the third celebration of ASOT 500 in club G.E.B.A Buenos Aires, with Heatbeat, Jochen Miller, Dash Berlin, Markus Schulz, John O'Callaghan and W & W. It was the only of the five ASOT 500 celebrations that was held outdoors. Van Buuren recorded a live video with his cell phone and uploaded it to Twitter while playing his live set.

ASOT 500 was celebrated in the Netherlands in Den Bosch. Accompanied by more than 30 DJs from countries all over the world, the event was attended by over 30,000 people. DJs present included Markus Schulz, Gareth Emery, Above & Beyond, Paul Oakenfold and Sean Tyas. The event was radio broadcast live to over 30 countries.^[25]^{[dated info]}

The final show was held in Sydney, Australia on 16 April at Acer Arena in Olympic Park. It was a sold out event weeks before the night. Artists present included Shogun, tyDi, Menno de Jong, Aly & Fila, and Alex M.O.R.P.H. Van Buuren played for three hours.

A State of Trance 550 (ASOT 550)[link]

In March 2012, Van Buuren performed in six shows across three continents as part of ASOT 550. He began his tour on March 1 in London, continued on to Moscow on March 7, and to Kiev, Ukraine on March 10. Then, he traveled to the United States to host his show at the Beyond Wonderland festival in Southern California. A week later on March 25, he closed out Ultra Music Festival 2012 for the 5th edition. This was followed by the final show in the Brabanthallen of Den Bosch, the Netherlands.

A State of Trance sponsored a tent at the Electric Daisy Carnival at Met Life stadium in East Rutherford, New Jersey on May 19, 2012, which by all accounts could be considered an unofficial extension of ASOT 550. ^[26]

Discography [link]

Main article: Armin van Buuren discography

76 (2003)
Shivers (2005)
Imagine (2008)
Mirage (2010)

Year Mixes [link]

Van Buuren is well known for his annual "Year Mix" which incorporates clips and custom mashups from the year's most popular trance tracks. Each year-mix consists of about 85 individual releases, edited into a two hour mix which is released on double CD as well as aired on his weekly radio show at the end of each year. According to Van Buuren, each year-mix takes several months to make, including thousands of digital audio edits and hundreds of audio plugins.

References [link]

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d "Armin van Buuren - Armada Music". http://www.armadamusic.com/artist/armin-van-buuren/. Retrieved 17 December 2011.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g "Armada Music: Armin van Buuren - Mirage". http://www.armadamusic.com/music/?release=ARDI1688. Retrieved 17 December 2011.
^ "About - A State of Trance". http://www.astateoftrance.com/about/. Retrieved 2 December 2011.
^ "Armin van Buuren – Imagine". dutchcharts.nl. http://www.dutchcharts.nl/showitem.asp?interpret=Armin+van+Buuren&titel=Imagine&cat=a. Retrieved 25 March 2010.
^ "RTL Boulevard – Armin van Buuren getrouwd" (in (Dutch)). Rtl.nl. http://www.rtl.nl/%28/actueel/rtlboulevard/nieuws/articleview/%29/components/actueel/rtlboulevard/2009/09_september/entertainment/articles/17092009_Armin_van_buuren_getrouwd.xml. Retrieved 23 June 2010.
^ "Radio 538 | Headlines | Armin van Buuren gaat trouwen | Radio 538 = 102 FM". Radio538.nl. http://www.radio538.nl/web/show/id=876641/contentid=93396/. Retrieved 23 June 2010.
^ ^a ^b "Armin van Buuren announcing the pregnancy of his wife on Twitter". Armin van Buuren. http://twitter.com/arminvanbuuren/status/25106231626563584.
^ "Armin for "Best Dad In the World"!". http://www.arminvanbuuren.com/news/2011/07/armin-for-%E2%80%98best-dad-in-the-world%E2%80%99/. Retrieved 9 January 2012.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d "Armin van Buuren Profile". InternetDJ.Com. before May 2003. http://www.internetdj.com/links.php?op=viewlinkdetails&lid=686&ttitle=Armin_Van_Buuren.
^ "Armin Van Buuren Trance Deejay Netherlands DJ Global DJ". Tranceelements.com. 25 December 1976. http://www.tranceelements.com/djs/armin-van-buuren-trance-music-biography.html. Retrieved 23 June 2010.
^ "Armin Van Buuren Biography". Starpulse.com. 25 December 1976. http://www.starpulse.com/Music/Van_Buuren,_Armin/Biography/. Retrieved 23 June 2010.
^ "Armin van Buuren - 76 - Release". http://www.arminvanbuuren.com/discography/?release=Arma056. Retrieved 10 January 2012.
^ 'In The Mix: Featuring Armin van Buuren' (Wii) Shows Off Career Mode – Screen, 30 October 2009
^ "Buma Gouden – en Zilveren Harpen, Buma Exportprijs en Beste Nederlandse Lied uitgereikt" (in Dutch). Buma Cultuur. 3 March 2010. http://www.bumacultuur.nl/nl/nieuws/171/buma-gouden-en-zilveren-harpen-buma-exportprijs-en-beste-nederlandse-lied-uitgereikt. Retrieved 25 March 2010.
^ "Armin van Buuren awarded with Gouden Harp". Armada Music. 4 March 2010. http://www.armadamusic.com/news/2010/03/armin-van-buuren-awarded-with-gouden-harp/. Retrieved 25 March 2010.
^ "New single Full Focus available tonight at 00:00". arminvanbuuren.com. 23 June 2010. http://www.arminvanbuuren.com/news/362/. Retrieved 23 June 2010. ^{[dead link]}
^ "New single Full Focus out now! " Armin van Buuren". arminvanbuuren.com. http://www.arminvanbuuren.com/news/2010/06/new-single-full-focus-out-now/. Retrieved 10 July 2010.
^ Levine, Nick (7 June 2010). "Music – News – Ellis-Bextor switches single plans". Digital Spy. http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/music/news/a223927/ellis-bextor-switches-single-plans.html. Retrieved 10 July 2010.
^ Levine, Nick (24 June 2010). "Armin werkte 'harder dan ooit' aan nieuwe plaat" (in Dutch). DePers.nl. http://www.depers.nl/entertainment/489763/Armin-werkte-harder-dan-ooit.html. Retrieved 10 July 2010.
^ van Luling, Dennis (30 June 2010). "Armin van Buuren verovert ook Zuid-Amerika" (in Dutch). NU.nl. http://www.nu.nl/muziek/2281427/armin-van-buuren-verovert-zuid-amerika.html. Retrieved 10 July 2010.
^ Armin launches A State of Sundays on Sirius XM « Armin van Buuren
^ Golden Gnome Awards
^ Armin van Buuren no 1 DJ in the DJ Mag Top 100 again! « Armin van Buuren
^ Shows & Tickets « Armin Only
^ "A State of Trance 500". Armin van Buuren. Dance Foundation. 20 March 2011. http://www.astateoftrance.com/a-state-of-trance-500/.
^ « Armin van Buuren

External links [link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Armin van Buuren

Official website
Artist Page on ArmadaMusic.com
Armin van Buuren on Myspace
Armin van Buuren at Allmusic
Armin van Buuren discography at Discogs
Armin van Buuren discography at MusicBrainz
Armin van Buuren at the Internet Movie Database
Armin van Buuren's profile on Trancepedia
Armada Music – the record label of Armin van Buuren
Armin van Buuren – A State of Trance episodes
*Flowd - artist channel on *Flowd network.

Awards and achievements
Preceded by Erol Alkan	Mixmag Number 1 DJ 2007	Succeeded by Tiësto
Preceded by n/a	Beatport Music Awards: Best Trance Artist 2008–2010	Succeeded by n/a
Preceded by Paul van Dyk	DJ Magazine Number 1 DJ 2007–2010	Succeeded by David Guetta

Armin van Buuren

Studio albums

Other albums

Compilation albums

A State of Trance	A State of Trance 2004 A State of Trance 2005 A State of Trance 2006 A State of Trance 2007 A State of Trance 2008 A State of Trance 2009 A State of Trance 2010 A State of Trance 2011 A State of Trance 2012

Universal Religion	Universal Religion Chapter One Universal Religion 2004 Universal Religion Chapter 3 Universal Religion Chapter 4 Universal Religion Chapter 5

Video games

In the Mix featuring Armin van Buuren

Persondata
Name	Buuren, Armin van
Alternative names	Al mine van buren
Short description
Date of birth	23 December 1995
Place of birth	Leiden, South Holland, Netherlands
Date of death
Place of death

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Contents

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Contents

[edit] 2000–2004: A State of Trance and 76

[edit] 2005–present: Shivers, Imagine and Mirage

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