Pea
Peas are contained within a pod
Pea plant: Pisum sativum
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Plantae
(unranked):	Angiosperms
(unranked):	Eudicots
(unranked):	Rosids
Order:	Fabales
Family:	Fabaceae
Subfamily:	Faboideae
Tribe:	Vicieae
Genus:	Pisum
Species:	sativum
Binomial name
Pisum sativum L.

A pea is most commonly the small spherical seed or the seed-pod of the pod fruit Pisum sativum.^[1] Each pod contains several peas. Peapods are botanically a fruit,^[2] since they contain seeds developed from the ovary of a (pea) flower. However, peas are considered to be a vegetable in cooking. The name is also used to describe other edible seeds from the Fabaceae such as the pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan), the cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), and the seeds from several species of Lathyrus.

P. sativum is an annual plant, with a life cycle of one year. It is a cool season crop grown in many parts of the world; planting can take place from winter to early summer depending on location. The average pea weighs between 0.1 and 0.36 grams.^[3] The immature peas (and in snow peas the tender pod as well) are used as a vegetable, fresh, frozen or canned; varieties of the species typically called field peas are grown to produce dry peas like the split pea shelled from the matured pod. These are the basis of pease porridge and pea soup, staples of medieval cuisine; in Europe, consuming fresh immature green peas was an innovation of Early Modern cuisine.

The wild pea is restricted to the Mediterranean basin and the Near East. The earliest archaeological finds of peas come from Neolithic Syria, Turkey and Jordan. In Egypt, early finds date from ca. 4800–4400 BC in the Nile delta area, and from ca. 3800–3600 BC in Upper Egypt. The pea was also present in Georgia in the 5th millennium BC. Farther east, the finds are younger. Peas were present in Afghanistan ca. 2000 BC, in Harappa, Pakistan, and in northwest India in 2250–1750 BC. In the second half of the 2nd millennium BC, this pulse crop appears in the Gangetic basin and southern India.^[4]

Description[link]

The pea is a most commonly green, occasionally purple^[5] or golden yellow,^[6] pod-shaped vegetable, widely grown as a cool season vegetable crop. The seeds may be planted as soon as the soil temperature reaches 10 °C (50 °F), with the plants growing best at temperatures of 13 to 18 °C (55 to 64 °F). They do not thrive in the summer heat of warmer temperate and lowland tropical climates, but do grow well in cooler, high altitude, tropical areas. Many cultivars reach maturity about 60 days after planting.

Worldwide pea yield

Peas have both low-growing and vining cultivars. The vining cultivars grow thin tendrils from leaves that coil around any available support and can climb to be 1–2 m high. A traditional approach to supporting climbing peas is to thrust branches pruned from trees or other woody plants upright into the soil, providing a lattice for the peas to climb. Branches used in this fashion are sometimes called pea brush. Metal fences, twine, or netting supported by a frame are used for the same purpose. In dense plantings, peas give each other some measure of mutual support. Pea plants can self-pollinate.^[7]

Varieties[link]

There are many varieties (cultivars) of garden peas. Some of the most common include:

• Alaska, 55 days (smooth seeded)
• Thomas Laxton/Laxton's Progress/Progress #9, 60-65 days
• Mr. Big, 60 days, 2000 AAS winner
• Little Marvel, 63 days, 1934 AAS winner
• Early Perfection, 65 days (This variety is the foundation of many improved varieties and crosses, including Dark-Seeded Early Perfection and Bolero, the latter being one of the most successful commercial varieties.)^[8]
• Kelvedon Wonder, 65 days, 1997 RHS AGM winner
• Homesteader/Lincoln, 67 days (heirloom, known as Greenfeast in AU, NZ)
• Wando, 68 days
• Green Arrow, 70 days
• Tall Telephone/Alderman, 75 days (heirloom, tall climber)

Other variations of P. sativum include:

• Pisum sativum var. macrocarpon is commonly known as the snow pea.
• Pisum sativum var. macrocarpon ser. cv. is known as the sugar or snap pea.

Both of these are eaten whole before the pod reaches maturity and are hence also known as mange-tout, French for "eat all". The snow pea pod is eaten flat, while in sugar/snap peas, the pod becomes cylindrical, but is eaten while still crisp, before the seeds inside develop.

Pests and diseases[link]

The pea leaf weevil (Sitona lineatus) is an insect that damages peas and other pod fruits. It is native to Europe, but has spread to other places such as Alberta, Canada. They are about 3.5 millimetres (0.14 in)—5.5 millimetres (0.22 in) long and are distinguishable by three light-coloured stripes running length-wise down the thorax. The weevil larvae feed on the root nodules of pea plants, which are essential to the plants' supply of nitrogen, and thus diminish leaf and stem growth. Adult weevils feed on the leaves and create a notched, "c-shaped" appearance on the outside of the leaves.^[9]

History[link]

In early times, peas were grown mostly for their dry seeds.^[10] From plants growing wild in the Mediterranean basin, constant selection since the Neolithic dawn of agriculture^[11] improved their yield. In the early 3rd century BCE Theophrastus mentions peas among the pulses that are sown late in the winter because of their tenderness.^[12] In the first century CE Columella mentions them in De re rustica, and Roman legionaries still gathered wild pisi from the sandy soils of Numidia and Palestine, to supplement their rations.

In the Middle Ages, field peas are constantly mentioned, as they were the staple that kept famine at bay, as Charles the Good, count of Flanders noted explicitly in 1124.^[13] In the 13th century the poet Guillaume de Villeneuve noted

J'ay pois en cosse touz noviaux

among the street cries of Paris.^[14]

Green "garden" peas, eaten immature and fresh, were an innovative luxury of Early Modern Europe. In England, the distinction between "field peas" and "garden peas" dates from the early 17th century: John Gerard and John Parkinson both mention garden peas. Sugar peas, which the French soon called mange-tout, for they were consumed pods and all, were introduced to France from the market gardens of Holland in the time of Henri IV, through the French ambassador. Green peas were introduced from Genoa to the court of Louis XIV of France in January 1660, with some staged fanfare; a hamper of them were presented before the King, and then were shelled by the Sovoyan comte de Soissons, who had married a niece of Cardinal Mazarin; little dishes of peas were then presented to the King, the Queen, Cardinal Mazarin and Monsieur, the king's brother.^[15] Immediately established and grown for earliness warmed with manure and protected under glass, they were still a luxurious delicacy in 1696, when Mme de Maintenon and Mme de Sevigné each reported that they were "a fashion, a fury."^[16]

Modern split peas, with their indigestible skins rubbed off, are a development of the later 19th century.

Modern culinary use[link]

Frozen green peas

In modern times peas are usually boiled or steamed, which breaks down the cell walls and makes the taste sweeter and the nutrients more bioavailable. Along with broad beans and lentils, these formed an important part of the diet of most people in the Middle East, North Africa and Europe during the Middle Ages.^[17] By the 17th and 18th centuries, it had become popular to eat peas "green", that is, while they are immature and right after they are picked. This was especially true in France and England, where the eating of green peas was said to be "both a fashion and a madness".^[18] New cultivars of peas were developed by the English during this time, which became known as "garden" or "English" peas. The popularity of green peas spread to North America. Thomas Jefferson grew more than 30 cultivars of peas on his estate.^[19] With the invention of canning and freezing of foods, green peas became available year-round, and not just in the spring as before.

Peas in fried rice

Fresh peas are often eaten boiled and flavored with butter and/or spearmint as a side dish vegetable. Salt and pepper are also commonly added to peas when served. Fresh peas are also used in pot pies, salads and casseroles. Pod peas (particularly sweet cultivars called mange tout and "sugar peas", or the flatter "snow peas," called hé lán dòu, 荷兰豆 in Chinese) are used in stir-fried dishes, particularly those in American Chinese cuisine.^[20] Pea pods do not keep well once picked, and if not used quickly, are best preserved by drying, canning or freezing within a few hours of harvest.

In India, fresh peas are used in various dishes such as aloo matar (curried potatoes with peas) or matar paneer (paneer cheese with peas), though they can be substituted with frozen peas as well. Peas are also eaten raw, as they are sweet when fresh off the bush. Split peas are also used to make dhal, particularly in Guyana, and Trinidad, where there is a significant population of Indians.

Dry, yellow split peas

Dried peas are often made into a soup or simply eaten on their own. In Japan, China, Taiwan and some Southeast Asian countries, including Thailand and Malaysia, peas are roasted and salted, and eaten as snacks. In the UK, dried yellow split peas are used to make pease pudding (or "pease porridge"), a traditional dish. In North America, a similarly traditional dish is split pea soup.

Pea soup is eaten in many other parts of the world, including northern Europe, parts of middle Europe, Russia, Iran, Iraq and India.^[21] In Sweden it is called ärtsoppa, and is eaten as a traditional Swedish food which predates the Viking era. This food was made from a fast-growing pea that would mature in a short growing season. Ärtsoppa was especially popular among the many poor who traditionally only had one pot and everything was cooked together for a dinner using a tripod to hold the pot over the fire.

In Chinese cuisine, the tender new growth [leaves and stem] (豆苗; dòu miáo) are commonly used in stir-fries. Much like picking the leaves for tea, the farmers pick the tips off of the pea plant.

In Greece, Turkey, Cyprus, and other parts of the Mediterranean, peas are made into a stew with meat and potatoes.

In Hungary and Serbia, pea soup is often served with dumplings and spiced with hot paprika.

In the United Kingdom, dried, rehydrated and mashed marrowfat peas, known by the public as mushy peas, are popular, originally in the north of England, but now ubiquitously, and especially as an accompaniment to fish and chips or meat pies, particularly in fish and chip shops. Sodium bicarbonate is sometimes added to soften the peas. In 2005, a poll of 2,000 people revealed the pea to be Britain's seventh favourite culinary vegetable.^[22]

Processed peas are mature peas which have been dried, soaked and then heat treated (processed) to prevent spoilage—in the same manner as pasteurising. Cooked peas are sometimes sold dried and coated with wasabi, salt, or other spices.

Bioplastics[link]

Bioplastics can be made using pea starch.

Nutritional value[link]

Peas are high in fiber, protein, vitamins, minerals, and lutein. Dry weight is about one-quarter protein and one-quarter sugar.^[23] Pea seed peptide fractions have less ability to scavenge free radicals than glutathione, but greater ability to chelate metals and inhibit linoleic acid oxidation.^[24]

Peas in science[link]

Pea flowers

In the mid-19th century, Austrian monk Gregor Mendel's observations of pea pods led to the principles of Mendelian genetics, the foundation of modern genetics.^[25] He ended up growing and examining about 28,000 pea plants in the course of his experiments.^[26] Mendel chose peas for his experiments because he could grow them easily, develop pure-bred strains, protect them from cross-pollination, and control their pollination. Mendel cross-bred tall & dwarf pea plants, green & yellow peas, purple & white flowers, wrinkled & smooth peas, and a few other traits. He then observed the resulting offspring. In each of these cases, one trait is dominant and all the offspring, or Filial-1 generation, showed the dominant trait. Then he crossed members of the F₁ generation together and observed their offspring, the Filial-2 generation. The F₂ plants had the dominant trait in approximately a 3:1 ratio. Mendel reasoned that each parent had a 'vote' in the appearance of the offspring and the non-dominant or recessive trait appeared only when it was inherited from both parents. He did further experiments that showed each trait is separately inherited. Unwittingly, Mendel had solved a major problem with Charles Darwin's theory of evolution: how could new traits be preserved and not blended back into the population? But Darwin never learned about it. Mendel's work was published in an obscure Austrian journal and was not rediscovered until about 1900. ^[27]

Peas in medicine[link]

Some people are allergic to peas, as well as lentils.^[28]

Etymology[link]

According to etymologists, the term pea was taken from the Latin pisum, which is the latinisation of the Greek πίσον (pison), neut. of πίσος (pisos), "pea".^[29][30] It was adopted into English as the noun pease (plural peasen), as in pease pudding. However, by analogy with other plurals ending in -s, speakers began construing pease as a plural and constructing the singular form by dropping the "s", giving the term "pea". This process is known as back-formation.

The name "marrowfat pea" for mature dried peas is recorded by the Oxford English Dictionary as early as 1733. The fact that an export cultivar popular in Japan is called Maro has led some people to assume mistakenly that the English name "marrowfat" is derived from Japanese.

See also[link]

• Bean
• Black pea
• Black-eyed pea
• Dixie lee pea
• Mushy peas
• Snap pea
• Snow pea
• Split pea
• Sweet pea
• Yellow pea

Notes[link]

References[link]

• European Association for Grain Legume Research (AEP). Pea. http://www.grainlegumes.com/default.asp?id_biblio=52^{[dead link]}.
• Hernández Bermejo, J. E. & León, J., (1992). Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO) Contents
• Muehlbauer, F. J. and Tullu, A., (1997). Pisum sativum L. Purdue University. Pea
• Oelke, E. A., Oplinger E. S., et al. (1991). Dry Field Pea. University of Wisconsin.Dry Field Pea

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Pisum sativum

Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on Pea

• Sorting Pisum names
• USDA plant profile
• http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search/

Amos Lee
Lee performing at Poptech in 2008
Background information
Birth name	Ryan Anthony Massaro
Born	1978 (age 33–34)
Origin	Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
Genres	Soul, folk, blues
Occupations	Singer-songwriter, musician
Instruments	Guitar, vocals
Years active	2004–present
Labels	Blue Note
Website	amoslee.com

Amos Lee (born 1978 as Ryan Anthony Massaro^[1][2]) is an American singer-songwriter whose musical style encompasses folk, rock and soul. He was born in Philadelphia and graduated from the University of South Carolina with a degree in English. After working as a schoolteacher and bartender he began to pursue a career in music. His manager submitted a demo recording to Blue Note Records which resulted in a recording contract and an association with Norah Jones.

Since that time Lee has recorded four albums on Blue Note Records and has toured as an opening act for Bob Dylan, Elvis Costello, Paul Simon, Merle Haggard, Van Morrison, John Prine, Dave Matthews Band and Adele and his music has appeared on the soundtracks of numerous TV shows and movies. He has performed on several late night TV shows and at a voter registration rally for Barack Obama. In 2011, his album Mission Bell debuted at No. 1 on the Billboard 200 chart^[3][4][5] and his music has been described as "1970s folk rock and rustic soul".

Early life and education[link]

Lee was born Ryan Anthony Massaro in 1978 and was raised in Philadelphia.^[6][7] He moved to Cherry Hill, New Jersey at age 11 and graduated from Cherry Hill High School East.^[7][5][4]

Lee attended the University of South Carolina and graduated with a degree in English and a minor in education.^[8] During his college years he developed an interest in music after being inspired by the John Prine album, Great Days.^[8][5] Later began playing the guitar and played the bass as part of a band while working at a record store where he was exposed to the music of Donny Hathaway, Joni Mitchell, Luther Vandross, Bill Withers and Otis Redding.^[8][9][10]

Career[link]

After returning to Philadelphia, Lee worked as a second grade school teacher at the Mary McLeod Bethune School and as a bartender at local music venues. He performed at "open mic" events in the area and through his contacts with promoters, was hired as an opening act for artists like Mose Allison and B.B. King.^[7]

In 2003, Lee's manager sent a four-song demo CD to several record labels, and Eli Wolf of Blue Note Records heard the recording and was "immediately struck by his [Lee's] voice".^[8] Afterwards, Norah Jones heard the demo CD while visiting the record company and invited Lee to be the opening act for her 2004 tour.^[5]

The friendship between Lee's manager and the manager for Bob Dylan resulted in Lee touring with Dylan as his opening act in early 2005.^{[7][11][12][13]} Later Lee began touring on his own and recorded his self-titled and "widely praised" debut album of "subtle, folky soul"^{[6][14][10][15]} which included vocals and instrumentation by Norah Jones and members of her band.^[8] After it was released, the album peaked at No. 2 on the Billboard Top Heatseekers chart and Lee was named one of Rolling Stone's "Top 10 Artists to Watch."^[9][16] One song from the album, called "Colors", appeared on the TV show Grey's Anatomy and in the film Just Like Heaven.^[17] Lee's music received additional media attention when he performed on late night TV shows such as The Late Show with David Letterman.^[18]

In 2006, Lee recorded his second album, Supply and Demand which was produced by Barrie Maguire. An NPR Music reviewer described it as having "more complicated instrumentation and production" than his prior work.^[15] The song "Shout Out Loud" was released as a single and peaked at No. 76 on the Billboard 200.^[19] and the song, called "Sweet Pea", was used in an AT&T ad campaign.^[17]

Lee's third studio album, Last Days at the Lodge was released in 2008 and re-emphasized "his grounding in folk and soul". The album peaked at number 29 on the Billboard 200 chart and Lee performed at the Change Rocks, voter registration rally for Barack Obama, in Philadelphia that summer.^[4][20][21]

In 2011, Lee released his fourth album on Blue Note Records, entitled Mission Bell which was produced by Joey Burns of Calexico. The album debuted at No. 1 on the Billboard 200 chart, number one on the Digital Albums chart, number two on the Internet chart and number one on the Amazon Top-Selling Albums and iTunes charts.^[22] The album's single, "Windows are Rolled Down", became a top 10 hit on USA Today's adult-alternative chart.^[17] Guest artists on the album included Lucinda Williams, Willie Nelson, Priscilla Ahn, Pieta Brown, James Gadson, and Sam Beam.^[12][23] The album was described by critics as tunes placed in "a stark landscape, enveloped by rustling percussion and reverberant drones" with a tones and lyrics that were more optimistic than prior albums.^[24][25] Other critics called it "a restless album with a gentle soul" and "another fine showcase for his [Lee's] elegant, soothing songwriting".^[26]

Reception[link]

Lee's "folksy, bluesy sound" has been compared to that of John Prine and Norah Jones.^[27] His music is said to utilize the "supple funk of his vocals and arid strum of his guitar" while recalling "the low-volume, early-'70s acoustic soul of stars like Bill Withers and Minnie Ripperton".^[7] A New York Times music critic described Lee as having a "honeyed singing voice – light amber, mildly sweet, a touch of grain" which he features "squarely, without much fuss or undue strain" in his "1970s folk rock and rustic soul" musical song craft.^[24] According to a music writer at ABC News, Lee "has that folksy, bluesy vibe, with a bit of country twang" and a voice that is "ever soulful".^[25] Simultaneously Lee has been both lauded and dismissed as the "male Norah Jones" and^[3] his lyrics are said to convey "the complexities of everyday emotions" without falling into flowery imagery.^[8]

Lee's songs have appeared on a number of TV shows including the Parenthood (TV series).^[28][17]

Personal life[link]

Lee describes himself as being of "mixed" ethnicity^[29] and maintains a residence in Philadelphia and while spending some winter months in San Francisco.^[6]

Discography[link]

Studio albums[link]

Extended plays[link]

Singles[link]

References[link]