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![Stalin Speech [about the new Soviet Constitution]](http://web.archive.org./web/20121107014024im_/http://i.ytimg.com/vi/nLqplbwD644/default.jpg "[Stalin's Speech]Stalin speech at the pre-election meeting of the voters of the Stalin Constituent! Moscow on December 11, 1937(In the Bolshoi Theater)!Stalin speech")
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Baku
Baku (), sometimes known as Baqy, Baky, Baki or Bakou, is the capital, the largest city, and the largest port of Azerbaijan and all the Caucasus. Located on the southern shore of the Absheron Peninsula, the city consists of two principal parts: the downtown and the old Inner City (21.5 ha). Dating to antiquity, its urban population at the beginning of 2009 was estimated at just over two million people.
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Battle of Stalingrad
The Battle of Stalingrad was a major battle of World War II in which Germany and its allies fought the Soviet Union for control of the city of Stalingrad (now Volgograd) in southwestern Russia. It took place between 17 July 1942 and 2 February 1943. The battle's outcome was disastrous for Germany, making its victory in the East impossible. The battle marked the turning of the tide of war in favour of the Allies. Contemporaries described the Soviet victory at Stalingrad as salvation of European civilization.
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Belorussia
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Berlin Wall
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Bessarabia
:For other uses, see Bessarabia (disambiguation).
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Buchenwald
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Budapest
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Burma
Burma, officially the Union of Myanmar, is the second largest country by geographical area in Southeast Asia. The country is bordered by People's Republic of China on the north-east, Laos on the east, Thailand on the south-east, Bangladesh on the west, India on the north-west and the Bay of Bengal to the south-west with the Andaman Sea defining its southern periphery. One-third of Burma's total perimeter, 1,930 kilometers (1,199 mi), forms an uninterrupted coastline.
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Butovo firing range
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Bykivnia
Bykivnia (, , ) is a former small village on the outskirts of Kiev, Ukraine, that was incorporated into the city in 1923.
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Catalonia
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Caucasus
The Caucasus or Caucas (also referred to as Caucasia, , , , (''K'avk'asia''), , , , , , , ) is a geopolitical region at the border of Europe and Asia. It is home to the Caucasus Mountains, including Europe's highest mountain (Mount Elbrus).
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Caucasus Mountains
The Caucasus Mountains are a mountain system in Eurasia between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea in the Caucasus region ( ).
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Chechnya
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China
China is seen variously as an ancient civilization extending over a large area in East Asia, a nation and/or a multinational entity.
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Czechoslovakia
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East Germany
The German Democratic Republic (GDR; German: Deutsche Demokratische Republik or DDR), informally called East Germany by the West, was the socialist state established in 1949 in the Soviet zone of occupied Germany and in the East Berlin portion of the Allied-occupied capital city. The German Democratic Republic, which consisted geographically of northeast Germany rather than all of eastern Germany, had an area of 107,771 km2. (41,610 mi.2), bordering Czechoslovakia in the south, West Germany (officially: Federal Republic of Germany) in the south and west, the Baltic Sea to the north, and Poland in the east.
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Gori, Georgia
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Gorki Leninskiye
Gorki Leninskiye () is an urban-type settlement located in Leninsky District of Moscow Oblast, 10 km south of the Moscow, Russia, city limits and the MKAD. Population: 1,729 (2002 Census); 1,711 (1989 Census).
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Grutas Park
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Katyn massacre
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Katyń massacre
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Kremlin wall
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Kulak
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Kurapaty
Kurapaty () is a wooded area on the outskirts of Minsk, Belarus, in which a vast number of people were executed between 1937 and 1941 by the Soviet secret police, the NKVD.
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Lenin's Mausoleum
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Leningrad
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Lipki, Tula Oblast
Lipki () is a town in Kireyevsky District of Tula Oblast, Russia, located south of Tula. Population: 9,700 (2005 est.); 9,843 (2002 Census); 10,355 (1989 Census).
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Lviv
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Meskheti
Meskheti () is in a mountainous area of Moschia and is a former province in southwestern Georgia. The ancient Georgian tribes of Meskhi (or Moschi) and Mosiniks were the indigenous population of this region, identified by some authors with the Mushki known from 12th century BC Assyrian sources. A majority of the modern Georgian population (Meskhs) of Meskheti are descendants of these ancient tribes. The Mosiniks (or Mossynoeci) were one of the inventors of iron metallurgy. In the 2nd millennium-4th century BC Meskheti was a part of the Georgian Kingdom of Diaokhi, in the 4th century BC-6th century AD - part of the Kingdom of Iberia. In the 10th-15th centuries this region was a part of the united Georgian Kingdom. In the 16th century Meskheti was occupied and annexed by the Ottoman Empire. In 1829-1917 the region was a part of Tbilisi Province (Tiflisskaia Gubernia), in 1918-1921 part of the Democratic Republic of Georgia, and in 1921-1990 part of the Georgian SSR. Since 1990 Meskheti (Samtskhe-Javakheti region) has been a province of the Republic of Georgia.
http://wn.com/Meskheti -
Moscow Canal
The Moscow Canal (), named the Moscow-Volga Canal until the year 1947, is a canal that connects the Moskva River with the main transportation artery of European Russia, the Volga River. It is located in Moscow itself and in the Moscow Oblast. The canal connects to the Moskva River 191 kilometers from its estuary in Tushino (an area in the north-west of Moscow), and to the Volga River in the town of Dubna, just upstream of the dam of the Ivankovo Reservoir. Length of the canal is 128 km.
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NATO
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization or NATO ( ; ), also called the "(North) Atlantic Alliance", is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty which was signed on 4 April 1949. The NATO headquarters are in Brussels, Belgium, and the organization constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its member states agree to mutual defence in response to an attack by any external party.
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Nazi Germany
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Nazino affair
The Nazino affair was the mass deportation of 6,000 people, 4,000 of whom died, on Nazino Island () in the Soviet Union in 1933. The small, isolated Western Siberian island is located about 800 km north of Tomsk, in Alexandrovsky District, Tomsk Oblast near the confluence of the Ob and Nazina Rivers. It is called "Death Island" (, Ostrov Smerti) or "Cannibal Island" because about 4,000 out of 6,000 Soviet "special settlers" died there during the summer of 1933, after being abandoned with only flour for food, few tools and little clothing or shelter.
http://wn.com/Nazino_affair -
NKVD
The '''People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs' ( Narodnyy komissariat vnutrennikh del''), abbreviated NKVD ( ) was the public and secret police organization of the Soviet Union that directly executed the rule of power of the Soviets, including political repression, during the era of Stalin.
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Nobel Peace Prize
The Nobel Peace Prize (Swedish and Norwegian: Nobels fredspris) is one of the five Nobel Prizes bequeathed by the Swedish industrialist and inventor Alfred Nobel.
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North Korea
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Novokuznetsk
Novokuznetsk () is a city and the administrative center of Novokuznetsky District of Kemerovo Oblast, Russia. Population: 549,870 (2002 Census). The Novokuznetsk urban agglomeration which includes the towns of Kiselyovsk, Mezhdurechensk, and Prokopyevsk has a population of 1.13 million people.
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Poznań 1956 protests
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Republic of China
The Republic of China (ROC), commonly known as Taiwan, is a state in East Asia located off the east coast of mainland China. Subject to an ongoing dispute with the People's Republic of China (PRC) that has left it with limited formal diplomatic relations, the government of the Republic of China currently governs the islands of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu and other minor islands. Neighbouring states include the People's Republic of China to the west, Japan to the northeast, and the Philippines to the south.
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Russia
Russia (; ), also officially known as the Russian Federation (), is a state in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects. From northwest to southeast, Russia shares borders with Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland (both via Kaliningrad Oblast), Belarus, Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, the People's Republic of China, Mongolia, and North Korea. It also has maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk and the United States by the Bering Strait. At , Russia is the largest country in the world, covering more than a ninth of the Earth's land area. Russia is also the ninth most populous nation with 142 million people. It extends across the whole of northern Asia and 40% of Europe, spanning 9 time zones and incorporating a wide range of environments and landforms. Russia has the world's largest reserves of mineral and energy resources. It has the world's largest forest reserves and its lakes contain approximately one-quarter of the world's fresh water.
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Russian Federation
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Saint Petersburg
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Siberia
Siberia ( ), is a vast region, constituting almost all of Northern Asia. Comprising the central and eastern portion of the Russian Federation, it was part of the Soviet Union (USSR) from its beginning, as the preceding Russian Empire conquered it in the 16th century.
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Smolny Institute
The Smolny Institute (, ''Smol'niy institut'') is a Palladian edifice in St Petersburg that has played a major part in the history of Russia.
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Sochi
Sochi (, ) is a resort city, situated in Krasnodar Krai, Russia, just north of the border of the disputed territory of Abkhazia (largely recognised as part of the Republic of Georgia), and the southern Russian border fronting the Black Sea. It sprawls along the shores of the Black Sea and against the background of the snow-capped peaks of the Caucasus Mountains. At , Greater Sochi claims to be the longest city in Europe. As of the 2002 Census, it had a population of 328,809, down from 336,514 recorded in the 1989 Census. In 2006, the population was estimated to be 395,012. The city has been selected to be the host of the XXII Olympic Winter Games and XI Paralympic Winter Games in 2014. Sochi enjoys a humid subtropical climate-Mediterranean-type.
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Soviet Union
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Sukhumi
Sukhumi (, Aqwa; , Sokhumi; , Sukhum or Sukhumi) is the capital of Abkhazia, a disputed region on the Black Sea coast. The city suffered heavily during the Georgian-Abkhaz conflict in the early 1990s.
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Tatarstan
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USS Pueblo (AGER-2)
{|
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Vilnius
Vilnius (, see also other names) is the capital of Lithuania, and its largest city, with a population of 560,190 (850,324 together with Vilnius County) as of 2010. is the seat of the Vilnius city municipality and of the Vilnius district municipality. It is also the capital of Vilnius County.
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Volgograd
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Warsaw
Warsaw ( ; see also other names) is the capital and largest city of Poland. It is located on the Vistula River roughly from the Baltic Sea and from the Carpathian Mountains. Its population as of June 2009 was estimated at 1,711,466, and the Warsaw metropolitan area at approximately 2,785,000. The city area is , with an agglomeration of (Warsaw Metro Area Obszar Metropolitalny Warszawy). Warsaw is the 9th largest city in the European Union by population.
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Winter Palace
The Winter Palace () in Saint Petersburg, Russia, was, from 1732 to 1917, the official residence of the Russian Tsars. Situated between the Palace Embankment and the Palace Square, adjacent to the site of Peter the Great's original Winter Palace, the present and fourth Winter Palace was built and altered almost continuously between the late 1730s and 1837, when it was severely damaged by fire and immediately rebuilt. The storming of the palace in 1917 became an iconic symbol of the Russian Revolution.
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Yalta Conference
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Yugoslavia
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Adam Malik
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Addie L. Wyatt
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Adolf Hitler
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Adolfo Suárez
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Agostinho Neto
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Ahmad Shah Massoud
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Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr
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Alain Poher
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Alan Bullock
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Alcide De Gasperi
Alcide De Gasperi (3 April 1881 – 19 August 1954) was an Italian statesman and politician and founder of the Christian Democratic Party. From 1945 to 1953 he was the prime minister of eight successive coalition governments. His eight-year rule remains a landmark of political longevity for a leader in modern Italian politics. A conservative Catholic, he was one of the Founding fathers of the European Union, along with the Frenchman Robert Schuman and the German Konrad Adenauer.
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Aldo Moro
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Alec Nove
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Aleksei Dikiy
Aleksei Dikiy (, February 24, 1889 - October 1, 1955 was a notable Soviet actor and director who worked at Moscow Art Theatre and later worked with Habima Jewish theatre in Tel-Aviv. He was arrested and imprisoned in Gulag under the dictatorship of Joseph Stalin but later played the role as Joseph Stalin in several films.
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Alexander Dubček
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Alexander Kerensky
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Alexander Kutepov
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Alexander Mozhaiski
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Alexander Nevsky
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Alexei Rykov
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Alexey Rykov
Alexey Ivanovich Rykov (; - 15 March 1938) was a Russian Marxist revolutionary and Soviet politician, Soviet head of the government from 1924 to 1930.
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Alison Cheek
Alison Cheek is a religious leader best known for being named by Time magazine as a Woman of the Year in 1975 representing the Women's Movement. Cheek was a Episcopal priest and became one of the first women to be an ordained priest in an Episcopal church. In August 1974 She was installed as assistant priest at the Church of St. Stephen and the Incarnation in Washington. In November 1974 Cheek became the first woman to celebrate communion in an Episcopal church in defiance of the diocesan bishop.
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Anastas Mikoyan
Anastas Mikoyan (, Anastas Hovhannesi Mikoyan; , Anastas Ivanovich Mikoyan; – October 21, 1978) was an Armenian Old Bolshevik and Soviet statesman during the Stalin and Khrushchev years. Mikoyan became an early convert to the Bolshevik cause. He supported Stalin after Vladimir Lenin's death in 1924 left a power vacuum. During Stalin's rule, Mikoyan held several high governmental posts, including that of Minister of Trade. After Stalin's death, he backed Nikita Khrushchev and his de-stalinization policy.
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Andrei Grechko
Andrei Antonovich Grechko (; October 17, 1903 – April 26, 1976) was a Soviet general, Marshal of the Soviet Union and Minister of Defense.
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Andrei Gromyko
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Andreu Nin
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Andrey Yeryomenko
Andrey Ivanovich Yeryomenko (; ) (October 14, 1892 - November 19, 1970) was a Soviet general during World War II, Marshal of the Soviet Union, born in Markovka in the province of Kharkov in Ukraine to a peasant family.
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Anthony Eden
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António de Spínola
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Anwar Sadat
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Aníbal Cavaco Silva
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Arnold Beichman
Arnold Beichman (May 17, 1913, New York City – February 17, 2010, Pasadena, California was an author, scholar, and anti-communist polemicist. At the time of his death, he was a Hoover Institution research fellow and a columnist for The Washington Times. He spent much of his life as a crusader against communism.
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Arvo Tuominen
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Augusto Pinochet
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Babrak Karmal
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Bai Chongxi
Bai Chongxi (; 18 March 1893 – 1 December 1966), also spelled Pai Chung-hsi, was a Chinese general in the National Revolutionary Army of the Republic of China (ROC). He is of Hui ethnicity and of Muslim faith. He was Minister of National Defense of the Republic of China from 1946-1949. Prior to that, Bai was a warlord with a sphere of influence centred around Guangxi province, commanding his own troops and governing Guangxi with autonomy, though part of the ROC. Although independent from the central government, he was often a close ally of Chiang Kai-shek in the politics of the Republic of China.
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Barack Obama
Barack Hussein Obama II (; born August 4, 1961) is the 44th and current President of the United States. He is the first African American to hold the office. Obama previously served as a United States Senator from Illinois, from January 2005 until he resigned after his election to the presidency in November 2008.
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Barbara Jordan
Barbara Charline Jordan (February 21, 1936 – January 17, 1996) was an American politician from Texas. She served as a congresswoman in the United States House of Representatives from 1973 to 1979.
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Benigno Aquino, Jr.
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Benjamin B. Fischer
Benjamin B. Fischer has worked for the United States Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) for nearly 30 years. In recent years, he has been employed by the CIA's Center for the Study of Intelligence. The White House Millennium Council selected his monograph ''At Cold War's End: US Intelligence on the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe'', 1989-1991 (1999) for inclusion in a time capsule at the National Archives to be opened in 2100. In 2002 Fischer was a visiting research fellow at the Norwegian Nobel Institute in Oslo.
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Besarion Jughashvili
Besarion Vanovis Jughashvili (; ;) ( – August 25, 1909) was Joseph Stalin's father. His surname means son of Juga, and is derived from either the Ossetian Juga (that means 'herd') or the old Georgian djogi - 'steel'.
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Bettino Craxi
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Betty Ford
Elizabeth Ann Bloomer Warren Ford (born April 8, 1918), better known as Betty Ford is the widow of former United States President Gerald R. Ford and served as the First Lady of the United States from 1974 to 1977. As first lady, Ford was active in social policy and shattered precedents as a politically active presidential wife (Time considered her "the most since Eleanor Roosevelt"). In the opinion of several historians, Ford had more impact upon history and culture than her husband.
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Bill Clinton
William Jefferson "Bill" Clinton (born William Jefferson Blythe III, August 19, 1946) is the former 42nd President of the United States and served from 1993 to 2001. At 46 he was the third-youngest president. He became president at the end of the Cold War, and was the first baby boomer president. His wife, Hillary Rodham Clinton, is currently the United States Secretary of State. Each received a Juris Doctor (J.D.) from Yale Law School.
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Bill Gates
William Henry "Bill" Gates III (born October 28, 1955) is an American business magnate, philanthropist, author and chairman of Microsoft, the software company he founded with Paul Allen.
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Billie Jean King
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Bolesław Bierut
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Bono
Paul David Hewson (born 10 May 1960), most commonly known by his stage name Bono ( ), is an Irish singer and musician, best known for being the main vocalist of the Dublin-based rock band U2. Bono was born and raised in Dublin, Ireland, and attended Mount Temple Comprehensive School where he met his future wife, Ali Hewson, and the future members of U2. Bono writes almost all U2 lyrics, often using political, social, and religious themes. During their early years, Bono's lyrics contributed to U2's rebellious and spiritual tone. As the band matured, his lyrics became inspired more by personal experiences shared with members of U2.
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Boris Souvarine
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Boris Yeltsin
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Brian Mulroney
Martin Brian Mulroney, PC, CC, GOQ (; born March 20, 1939) was the 18th Prime Minister of Canada from September 17, 1984, to June 25, 1993 and was leader of the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada from 1983 to 1993. His tenure as Prime Minister was marked by the introduction of highly contentious economic reforms, such as the Canada-U.S. Free Trade Agreement and the Goods and Services Tax, and the failure of equally contentious constitutional reforms through the Meech Lake and Charlottetown Accords. Prior to his political career, he was a prominent lawyer and businessman in Montreal.
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Buddhism
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Cambodian Civil War
The Cambodian Civil War was a conflict that pitted the forces of the Communist Party of Kampuchea (known as the Khmer Rouge) and their allies the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) and the Viet Cong against the government forces of Cambodia (after October 1970, the Khmer Republic), which were supported by the United States (U.S.) and the Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam).
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Carla Anderson Hills
Carla Anderson Hills (born January 3, 1934) is an American lawyer and public figure. She served as United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development in the Gerald Ford administration, and as U.S. Trade Representative. She was the first woman to serve as Secretary of Housing and Urban Development and the third woman to serve as a Cabinet officer in a U.S. Presidential Administration.
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Carol Sutton
Carol Sutton (June 29, 1933-February 19, 1985) was an American journalist. In 1974 she became the first female managing editor of a major U.S. daily newspaper, The Courier-Journal in Louisville, Kentucky. She was cited as the example of female achievement in journalism when Time named American Women as the 1975 People of the Year. During her tenure at the paper, it was awarded the 1976 Pulitzer Prize for Feature Photography for its coverage of school desegregation in Louisville. She is also credited with significantly raising the number of minority reporters on staff.
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Caspar Weinberger
Caspar Willard "Cap" Weinberger (August 18, 1917 – March 28, 2006), was an American politician, vice president and general counsel of Bechtel Corporation, and Secretary of Defense under President Ronald Reagan from January 21, 1981, until November 23, 1987, making him the third longest-serving defense secretary to date, after Robert McNamara and Donald Rumsfeld. He is also known for his role in the Strategic Defense Initiative and the Iran-Contra Affair.
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Charles de Gaulle
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Charles Hard Townes
Charles Hard Townes (born July 28, 1915) is an American Nobel Prize-winning physicist and educator. Townes is known for his work on the theory and application of the maser, on which he got the fundamental patent, and other work in quantum electronics connected with both maser and laser devices. He shared the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1964 with Nikolay Basov and Alexander Prokhorov.
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Charles Lindbergh
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Charles Stark Draper
Charles Stark Draper (October 2, 1901 – July 25, 1987) was an American scientist and engineer, often referred to as "the father of inertial navigation." He was the founder and director of the MIT Instrumentation Laboratory, later renamed the Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, which under his direction designed and built the Apollo Guidance Computer for NASA, which made the Apollo moon landings possible.
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Charlie Chaplin
actor
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Che Guevara
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Chechnya
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Chiang Ching-kuo
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Chiang Kai-shek
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Chiang Kai-Shek
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China
China is seen variously as an ancient civilization extending over a large area in East Asia, a nation and/or a multinational entity.
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Clement Attlee
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Congo Crisis
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Corazon Aquino
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Cordell Hull
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Crimean Tatars
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Cultural Revolution
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Daniel Ortega
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David Engel
David Engel (fl. 1969- ) is an American historian and Professor of Holocaust and Judaic Studies at New York University. Dr. Engel holds a Ph.D. from the University of California, Los Angeles, and completed postdoctoral study at Hebrew University's Division of Holocaust Studies, Institute for Contemporary Jewry, in Jerusalem.
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David Ho (scientist)
David Da-i Ho (; born November 3, 1952) is a Taiwanese American AIDS researcher famous for pioneering the use of protease inhibitors in treating HIV-infected patients with his team.
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Deng Xiaoping
Deng Xiaoping (; 22 August 1904 19 February 1997) was a Chinese politician, statesman, theorist, and diplomat. As leader of the Communist Party of China, Deng was a reformer who led China towards a market economy. While Deng never held office as the head of state, head of government or General Secretary of the Communist Party of China (historically the highest position in Communist China), he nonetheless served as the paramount leader of the People's Republic of China from 1978 to the early 1990s.
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Dmitriy Ustinov
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Dmitry Medvedev
Dmitry Anatolyevich Medvedev (; born 14 September 1965) is the third and current President of the Russian Federation, inaugurated on 7 May 2008. He won the presidential election held on 2 March 2008 with 71.25% of the popular vote.
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Dmitry Polyansky
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Dmitry Yazov
Dmitri Timofeyevich Yazov (; born 8 November 1923, Omsk Oblast) was the last Marshal of the Soviet Union to be appointed before the collapse of the Soviet Union (on April 28, 1990). He was the only Marshal of the Soviet Union to be born in Siberia.
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Donald A. Glaser
Donald Arthur Glaser (born September 21, 1926), is an American physicist, neurobiologist, and Nobel Prize in Physics laureate for his invention of the Bubble chamber used in subatomic particle physics.
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Donald Rayfield
Donald Rayfield (born 1942) is professor of Russian and Georgian at Queen Mary College, University of London. He is an author of books about Russian and Georgian literature, and about Joseph Stalin and his secret police. He is also a series editor for books about Russian writers and intelligentsia.
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Dwight D. Eisenhower
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Eduard Shevardnadze
Eduard Shevardnadze (, ; , Eduard Amvrosiyevich Shevardnadze; born 25 January 1927 / 28 is written in papers) served as the second President of Georgia from 1995 until he resigned on 23 November 2003 as a consequence of the bloodless Rose Revolution. Prior to his presidency, he served under Mikhail Gorbachev as the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Soviet Union from 1985 to 1991. Shevardnadze's political skills earned him the nickname of tetri melia (white fox).
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Edvard Radzinsky
Edvard Stanislavovich Radzinsky () (b. September 29, 1936, Moscow) is a Russian writer, playwright, TV personality, and author of numerous film screenplays.
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Edward Gierek
Edward Gierek (; January 6, 1913 - July 29, 2001) was a Polish communist politician.
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Edward Heath
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Edward Mills Purcell
Edward Mills Purcell (August 30, 1912 – March 7, 1997) was an American physicist who shared the 1952 Nobel Prize for Physics for his independent discovery (published 1946) of nuclear magnetic resonance in liquids and in solids. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) has become widely used to study the molecular structure of pure materials and the composition of mixtures.
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Edward Teller
Edward Teller (January 15, 1908 – September 9, 2003) was a Hungarian-born American theoretical physicist, known colloquially as "the father of the hydrogen bomb," even though he did not care for the title.
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Ekaterina Svanidze
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Elizabeth II
Elizabeth II (Elizabeth Alexandra Mary, born 21 April 1926) is the reigning queen and head of state of 16 independent sovereign states known as the Commonwealth realms: the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Jamaica, Barbados, the Bahamas, Grenada, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, Tuvalu, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Belize, Antigua and Barbuda, and Saint Kitts and Nevis. In addition, as Head of the Commonwealth, she is the figurehead of the 54-member Commonwealth of Nations and, as the British monarch, she is the Supreme Governor of the Church of England.
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Ella T. Grasso
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Emilio G. Segrè
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Enrico Berlinguer
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Enver Hoxha
(pronounced , 16 October 1908 11 April 1985) was the leader of Albania from the end of World War II until his death in 1985, as the First Secretary of the Party of Labour of Albania. He also served as Prime Minister of Albania from 1944 to 1954, Minister of Defense from 1944 to 1953, Minister of Foreign Affairs from 1946 to 1953, Chairman of the Democratic Front from 1945 to his death, and as Commander-in-Chief of the Albanian armed forces from 1944 to his death.
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Erich Honecker
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Erich Maria Remarque
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Ernest Bevin
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Eva Braun
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Evgeny Miller
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F. W. de Klerk
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Felipe González
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Ferdinand Marcos
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Fidel Castro
Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz (born August 13, 1926) is a Cuban politician. One of the primary leaders of the Cuban Revolution, Castro served as the Prime Minister of Cuba from February 1959 to December 1976, and then as the President of the Council of State of Cuba and the President of Council of Ministers of Cuba until his resignation from the office in February 2008. He currently serves as First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba, a position he has held since 1965.
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Fidel V. Ramos
Fidel "Eddie" Valdez Ramos (born March 18, 1928), popularly known as FVR, was the 12th President of the Philippines from 1992 to 1998. During his six years in office, Ramos was widely credited and admired by many for revitalizing and renewing international confidence in the Philippine economy.
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Filipp Golikov
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Francesco Cossiga
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Francisco Franco
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Frank Borman
Frank Frederick Borman, II (born March 14, 1928) is a retired NASA astronaut and engineer, best remembered as the Commander of Apollo 8, the first mission to fly around the Moon, making him, along with fellow crew mates Jim Lovell and Bill Anders, the first of only 24 humans to do so. Before flying on Apollo, he set a fourteen-day spaceflight endurance record on Gemini 7, and also served on the NASA review board which investigated the Apollo 1 fire. After leaving NASA, he was the chief executive officer (CEO) of Eastern Air Lines from 1975 to 1986. Frank Borman is a recipient of the Congressional Space Medal of Honor. In the HBO miniseries From the Earth to the Moon, Borman was played by David Andrews.
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François Mitterrand
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Friedrich Paulus
Friedrich Wilhelm Ernst Paulus (23 September 1890 – 1 February 1957) was an officer in the German military from 1910 to 1943. He attained the rank of Generalfeldmarschall (field marshal) during World War II, and is best known for having commanded the Sixth Army's assault on Stalingrad during Operation Blue in 1942. The battle ended in disaster for Nazi Germany when approximately 270,000 soldiers of the Wehrmacht, Axis allies, and Hilfswillige were encircled and defeated in a massive Soviet counterattack in November 1942, with casualties reaching as high as 740,000.
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Fyodor Tolbukhin
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Gamal Abdel Nasser
:''This is an Arabic patronymic name; the family name is Abdel Nasser, taken from his father's given name.''
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Gennady Yanayev
Gennady Ivanovich Yanayev (; 26 August 1937 – 24 September 2010) was a Soviet Russian politician and statesman whose career spanned the rules of Khrushchev, Brezhnev, Andropov and Chernenko, and culminated during the Gorbachev years. Yanayev was born in Perevoz, Gorky Oblast. After years in local politics, he rose to prominence as Chairman of the All-Union Central Council of Trade Unions, but he also held other lesser posts such as deputy of the Union of Soviet Societies for Friendship and Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries.
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Gennady Zyuganov
Gennady Andreyevich Zyuganov (; born 26 June 1944) is a Russian politician, First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Russian Federation (since 1993), Chairman of the Union of Communist Parties - Communist Party of the Soviet Union (UCP-CPSU) (since 2001), deputy of the State Duma (since 1995), and a member of Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (since 1996).
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George H. W. Bush
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George Marshall
George Catlett Marshall (December 31, 1880 – October 16, 1959) was an American military leader, Chief of Staff of the Army, Secretary of State, and the third Secretary of Defense. Once noted as the "organizer of victory" by Winston Churchill for his leadership of the Allied victory in World War II, Marshall served as the United States Army Chief of Staff during the war and as the chief military adviser to President Franklin D. Roosevelt. As Secretary of State, his name was given to the Marshall Plan, for which he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1953.
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George P. Shultz
George Pratt Shultz (born December 13, 1920) is an American economist, statesman, and businessman. He served as the United States Secretary of Labor from 1969 to 1970, as the U.S. Secretary of the Treasury from 1972 to 1974, and as the U.S. Secretary of State from 1982 to 1989. Before entering politics, he was professor of economics at MIT and the University of Chicago, serving as Dean of the University of Chicago Graduate School of Business from 1962 to 1969. Between 1974 and 1982, Shultz was an executive at Bechtel, eventually becoming the firm's president. He is currently a distinguished fellow at Stanford University's Hoover Institution.
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George W. Bush
George Walker Bush (; born July 6, 1946, in New Haven, Connecticut) was the 43rd President of the United States, serving from 2001 to 2009, and the 46th Governor of Texas, serving from 1995 to 2000.
http://wn.com/George_W_Bush -
George Wells Beadle
George Wells Beadle (October 22, 1903 – June 9, 1989) was an American scientist in the field of genetics, and Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine Nobel laureate who with Edward Lawrie Tatum discovered the role of genes in regulating biochemical events within cells.
http://wn.com/George_Wells_Beadle -
Georges Pompidou
Georges Jean Raymond Pompidou (; 5 July 1911 2 April 1974) was a French politician. He was Prime Minister of France from 1962 to 1968, holding the longest tenure in this position, and later President of the French Republic from 1969 until his death in 1974.
http://wn.com/Georges_Pompidou -
Georgians
The Georgians (, kartvelebi) are a South Caucasian people and nation mainly centered in Georgia. They also live in Turkey, Russia, the United States, Iran, and other countries.
http://wn.com/Georgians -
Georgy Malenkov
http://wn.com/Georgy_Malenkov -
Georgy Zhukov
http://wn.com/Georgy_Zhukov -
Gerald Ford
Gerald Rudolph Ford, Jr. (born Leslie Lynch King, Jr.; July 14, 1913 – December 26, 2006) was the 38th President of the United States, serving from 1974 to 1977, and the 40th Vice President of the United States serving from 1973 to 1974. As the first person appointed to the vice-presidency under the terms of the 25th Amendment, when he became President upon Richard Nixon's resignation on August 9, 1974, he also became the only President of the United States who was elected neither President nor Vice-President.
http://wn.com/Gerald_Ford -
Getúlio Vargas
http://wn.com/Getúlio_Vargas -
Giulio Andreotti
http://wn.com/Giulio_Andreotti -
Goebbels
http://wn.com/Goebbels -
Golda Meir
http://wn.com/Golda_Meir -
Goulash Communism
http://wn.com/Goulash_Communism -
Gregorio Honasan
Gregorio Ballesteros Honasan II (born March 14, 1948), better known as Gringo Honasan, is a Filipino political figure. He played a key role in the 1986 EDSA Revolution that toppled the dictatorship of President Ferdinand Marcos. He led a series of deadly coup attempts against the administration of Corazon Aquino, none of which were successful. President Fidel Ramos granted him amnesty in 1992. He entered politics and became a senator from 1995 to 2004 and again since 2007.
http://wn.com/Gregorio_Honasan -
Grigory Zinoviev
http://wn.com/Grigory_Zinoviev -
Hafez al-Assad
Hafez al-Assad ( ) (October 6, 1930 – June 10, 2000) was the president of Syria for three decades. Assad's rule stabilized and consolidated the power of the country's central government after decades of coups and counter-coups. He was succeeded by his son and current president Bashar al-Assad in 2000.
http://wn.com/Hafez_al-Assad -
Hafizullah Amin
http://wn.com/Hafizullah_Amin -
Haile Selassie I
Haile Selassie I (Ge'ez: , "Power of the Trinity") (23 July 1892 – 27 August 1975), born Tafari Makonnen, was Ethiopia's regent from 1916 to 1930 and Emperor of Ethiopia from 1930 to 1974. The heir to a dynasty that traced its origins to the 13th century, and from there by tradition back to King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, Haile Selassie is a defining figure in both Ethiopian and African history.
http://wn.com/Haile_Selassie_I -
Halvdan Koht
http://wn.com/Halvdan_Koht -
Harlow Curtice
Harlow Herbert Curtice (August 15, 1893 - November 3, 1962) was an American auto industry executive who led General Motors (GM) from 1953 to 1958. As GM's chief, Curtice was selected as Man of the Year for 1955 by TIME magazine.
http://wn.com/Harlow_Curtice -
Harold Macmillan
http://wn.com/Harold_Macmillan -
Harold Wilson
http://wn.com/Harold_Wilson -
Harry S. Truman
http://wn.com/Harry_S_Truman -
Harry Truman
http://wn.com/Harry_Truman -
Hector Avalos
http://wn.com/Hector_Avalos -
Helmut Kohl
http://wn.com/Helmut_Kohl -
Helmut Schmidt
Helmut Heinrich Waldemar Schmidt (; born 23 December 1918) is a German Social Democratic politician who served as Chancellor of West Germany from 1974 to 1982. Prior to becoming chancellor, he had served as Minister of Defence and Minister of Finance. He had also served briefly as Minister of Economics and as acting Foreign Minister. He is the oldest surviving German Chancellor and the last surviving person to have been solely Chancellor of West Germany (Helmut Kohl was Chancellor of both West Germany and reunified Germany). He also is the oldest Federal German Minister surviving after the death of his Interior Minister Werner Maihofer.
http://wn.com/Helmut_Schmidt -
Henry Kissinger
Henry Alfred Kissinger (; born May 27, 1923) is a German-born American political scientist, diplomat, and recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize. He served as National Security Advisor and later concurrently as Secretary of State in the administrations of Presidents Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford. After his term, his opinion was still sought out by many following presidents.
http://wn.com/Henry_Kissinger -
Heydar Aliyev
Heydar Alirza oglu Aliyev (, ; May 10, 1923 – December 12, 2003), also spelled as Heidar Aliev, Geidar Aliev, Haydar Aliyev, Geydar Aliyev was the third President of Azerbaijan for the New Azerbaijan Party from June 1993 to October 2003, when his son Ilham Aliyev succeeded him.
http://wn.com/Heydar_Aliyev -
Hirohito
http://wn.com/Hirohito -
Ho Chi Minh
http://wn.com/Ho_Chi_Minh -
Hovhannes Bagramyan
http://wn.com/Hovhannes_Bagramyan -
Hua Guofeng
http://wn.com/Hua_Guofeng -
Hui people
http://wn.com/Hui_people -
Idi Amin
http://wn.com/Idi_Amin -
Igor Gouzenko
Igor Sergeyevich Gouzenko (January 13, 1919 – June 28, 1982) was a cipher clerk for the Soviet Embassy to Canada in Ottawa, Ontario. He defected on September 5, 1945, with 109 documents on Soviet espionage activities in the West. This forced Prime Minister Mackenzie King to call a Royal Commission to investigate espionage in Canada.
http://wn.com/Igor_Gouzenko -
Ilia Chavchavadze
http://wn.com/Ilia_Chavchavadze -
Imelda Marcos
Imelda R. Marcos (born Imelda Remedios Visitacion Romualdez on July 2, 1929) is a Filipino politician and wife of 10th Philippine President Ferdinand Marcos. Upon the ascension of her husband to political power, she held various positions to the government until 1986. She is the first politician elected as member of the Philippine legislature in three geographical locations (Manila, Leyte, Ilocos Norte). In 2010, she was elected to become a member of the House of Representatives to represent Ilocos Norte's second district. She is sometimes referred to as the Steel Butterfly or the Iron Butterfly. She is often remembered for symbols of the extravagance of her husband's political reign such as her collection of 2700 pairs of shoes.
http://wn.com/Imelda_Marcos -
Imre Nagy
http://wn.com/Imre_Nagy -
Indira Gandhi
http://wn.com/Indira_Gandhi -
Isaac Deutscher
http://wn.com/Isaac_Deutscher -
Isidor Isaac Rabi
http://wn.com/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi -
Ivan Arkhipov
http://wn.com/Ivan_Arkhipov -
Ivan Konev
http://wn.com/Ivan_Konev -
Ivan Silayev
Ivan Stepanovich Silayev (; born on 21 October 1930 in Baktyzino, Nizhny Novgorod Oblast, Russia, USSR) is a Russian political figure. He served as the Prime Minister of Russia from 15 June 1990 to 26 September 1991 and was also the last Prime Minister of the Soviet Union from September 6, 1991 to December 25, 1991, and was effectively one of two Prime Ministers to control the Cabinet of Ministers of the USSR.
http://wn.com/Ivan_Silayev -
Ivan the Terrible
http://wn.com/Ivan_the_Terrible -
Ivan Yakubovsky
Ivan Ignatyevich Yakubovsky (; 7 January 1912, Zaitsava, now Horki Raion, Mahilyow Voblast, Belarus - 30 November 1976, Moscow) was a Marshal of the Soviet Union, twice made a Hero of the Soviet Union and serving as commander-in-chief of the Warsaw Pact from 1967 to 1976.
http://wn.com/Ivan_Yakubovsky -
James Callaghan
http://wn.com/James_Callaghan -
James F. Byrnes
James Francis Byrnes (May 2, 1882 April 9, 1972) was an American statesman from the state of South Carolina. During his career, Byrnes served as a member of the House of Representatives (1911–1925), as a Senator (1931–1941), as Justice of the Supreme Court (1941–1942), as Secretary of State (1945–1947), and as the 104th Governor of South Carolina (1951–1955). He therefore became one of very few politicians to be active in all three branches of the federal government while also being active in state government. He was also a confidant of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, and was one of the most powerful men in American domestic and foreign policy in the mid-1940s.
http://wn.com/James_F_Byrnes -
James Van Allen
http://wn.com/James_Van_Allen -
Jawaharlal Nehru
http://wn.com/Jawaharlal_Nehru -
Jeff Bezos
Jeffrey Preston "Jeff" Bezos (born January 12, 1964) is the founder, president, chief executive officer and chairman of the board of Amazon.com. Bezos, a Tau Beta Pi graduate of Princeton University, worked as a financial analyst for D. E. Shaw & Co. before founding Amazon in 1994.
http://wn.com/Jeff_Bezos -
Jill Ker Conway
Jill Ker Conway (born 9 October 1934) is an Australian-American author. her autobiographies, in particular her first memoir, The Road from Coorain. She was also Smith College's first woman president, from 1975-1985, and now serves as a Visiting Professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
http://wn.com/Jill_Ker_Conway -
Jim Lovell
James "Jim" Arthur Lovell, Jr., (born March 25, 1928) is a former NASA astronaut and a retired captain in the United States Navy, most famous as the commander of the Apollo 13 mission, which suffered a critical failure en route to the Moon but was brought back safely to Earth by the efforts of the crew and mission control. Lovell was also the command module pilot of Apollo 8, the first Apollo mission to enter lunar orbit. Lovell is a recipient of the Congressional Space Medal of Honor and the Presidential Medal of Freedom. He is one of only 24 people to have flown to the Moon, the first of only three people to fly to the Moon twice, and the only one to do so without making a landing. Lovell was also the first American to fly in space four times.
http://wn.com/Jim_Lovell -
Jimmy Carter
James Earl "Jimmy" Carter, Jr. (born October 1, 1924) served as the 39th President of the United States from 1977 to 1981 and was the recipient of the 2002 Nobel Peace Prize, the only U.S. President to have received the Prize after leaving office. Before he became President, Carter served two terms as a Georgia State Senator and one as Governor of Georgia, from 1971 to 1975, and was a peanut farmer and naval officer.
http://wn.com/Jimmy_Carter -
Joe Clark
Charles Joseph "Joe" Clark, PC, CC, AOE (born June 5, 1939) is a Canadian journalist, politician, statesman, businessman, and university professor. He served as the 16th Prime Minister of Canada, from June 4, 1979, to March 3, 1980.
http://wn.com/Joe_Clark -
John Diefenbaker
http://wn.com/John_Diefenbaker -
John F. Kennedy
http://wn.com/John_F_Kennedy -
John Foster Dulles
John Foster Dulles (February 25, 1888 – May 24, 1959) served as U.S. Secretary of State under President Dwight D. Eisenhower from 1953 to 1959. He was a significant figure in the early Cold War era, advocating an aggressive stance against communism throughout the world. He advocated support of the French in their war against the Viet Minh in Indochina and it is widely believed that he refused to shake the hand of Zhou Enlai at the Geneva Conference in 1954. He also played a major role in the Central Intelligence Agency operation to overthrow the democratic Mossadegh government of Iran in 1953 (Operation Ajax) and the democratic Arbenz government of Guatemala in 1954 (Operation PBSUCCESS).
http://wn.com/John_Foster_Dulles -
John Franklin Enders
John Franklin Enders (February 10, 1897 – September 8, 1985) was an American medical scientist and Nobel laureate. Enders had been called "The Father of Modern Vaccines."
http://wn.com/John_Franklin_Enders -
John Lewis Gaddis
John Lewis Gaddis (born 1941 in Cotulla, Texas) is a noted historian of the Cold War and grand strategy, who has been hailed as the "Dean of Cold War Historians" by The New York Times. He is the Robert A. Lovett Professor of Military and Naval History at Yale University. He is also the official biographer of the seminal 20th century statesman George F. Kennan.
http://wn.com/John_Lewis_Gaddis -
John Sirica
John Joseph Sirica (March 19, 1904–August 14, 1992) was the Chief Judge for the United States District Court for the District of Columbia, where he became famous for his role in the Watergate scandal. He rose to national prominence during the Watergate scandal when he ordered President Richard Nixon to turn over his recordings of White House conversations.
http://wn.com/John_Sirica -
John Turner
John Napier Wyndham Turner, PC, CC, QC (born June 7, 1929) is a retired Canadian lawyer and politician, who served as the 17th Prime Minister of Canada from June 30 to September 17, 1984.
http://wn.com/John_Turner -
Jonas Savimbi
Jonas Malheiro Savimbi (August 3, 1934 – February 22, 2002) was an Angolan rebel leader. Savimbi led UNITA, a rebel group that fought against the initially pro-Soviet MPLA in the Angolan Civil War until his death in a clash with Government troops in 2002.
http://wn.com/Jonas_Savimbi -
Jorge Rafael Videla
http://wn.com/Jorge_Rafael_Videla -
Jose Maria Sison
Jose Maria Sison (born February 8, 1939, Cabugao, Ilocos Sur, Philippines) is a writer and activist who reorganized the Communist Party of the Philippines and added elements of Maoism to its philosophy.
http://wn.com/Jose_Maria_Sison -
Joseph Goebbels
Paul Joseph Goebbels (often in English, ; 29 October 1897 – 1 May 1945) was a German politician and Reich Minister of Propaganda in Nazi Germany from 1933 to 1945. As one of German dictator Adolf Hitler's closest associates and most devout followers, he was known for his zealous oratory and anti-Semitism. He was the chief architect of the Kristallnacht attack on the German Jews, which historians consider to be the beginning of the Final Solution, leading towards the genocide of the Holocaust.
http://wn.com/Joseph_Goebbels -
Joseph Kuzmin
http://wn.com/Joseph_Kuzmin -
Joseph McCarthy
Joseph Raymond McCarthy (November 14, 1908 – May 2, 1957) was an American politician who served as a Republican U.S. Senator from the state of Wisconsin from 1947 until his death in 1957. Beginning in 1950, McCarthy became the most visible public face of a period in which Cold War tensions fueled fears of widespread Communist subversion.
http://wn.com/Joseph_McCarthy -
Joseph Stalin
http://wn.com/Joseph_Stalin -
Joshua Lederberg
Joshua Lederberg (May 23, 1925 – February 2, 2008) was an American molecular biologist known for his work in genetics, artificial intelligence, and space exploration. He was just 33 years old when he won the 1958 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for discovering that bacteria can mate and exchange genes. He shared the prize with Edward L. Tatum and George Beadle who won for their work with genetics.
http://wn.com/Joshua_Lederberg -
Josip Broz Tito
http://wn.com/Josip_Broz_Tito -
João Goulart
http://wn.com/João_Goulart -
Juan Domingo Perón
http://wn.com/Juan_Domingo_Perón -
Juan Ponce Enrile
Juan "Manong/Manong Johnny/Johnny" Ponce Enrile (born February 14, 1924) is a political figure in the Philippines. Originally a protege of late dictator Ferdinand Marcos he later became one of the leaders (along with then General Fidel V. Ramos) in the 1986 People Power Movement that drove President Ferdinand Marcos from power. Enrile has been the President of the Senate of the Philippines since November 2008.
http://wn.com/Juan_Ponce_Enrile -
Julius Nyerere
Julius Kambarage Nyerere (13 April 1922 - 14 October 1999) was a Tanzanian politician who served as the first President of Tanzania and previously Tanganyika, from the country's founding in 1961 until his retirement in 1985.
http://wn.com/Julius_Nyerere -
János Kádár
http://wn.com/János_Kádár -
Kathleen Byerly
Kathleen M. Byerly (born ca. 1944) is known for being one of the women named by Time magazine Time Person of the Year in 1975, representing American women (at the height of the feminist movement). She was in the first female officer in the United States Navy to be appointed flag secretary and aide to an admiral.
http://wn.com/Kathleen_Byerly -
Ken Starr
Kenneth Winston Starr (born July 21, 1946) is an American lawyer, a former federal Court of Appeals judge and Solicitor General who is most notable for his tenure as Independent Counsel while Bill Clinton was U. S. President. Starr was initially appointed to investigate the suicide death of deputy White House counsel Vince Foster and the Whitewater real estate investments of Bill Clinton. The three-judge panel charged with administering the Independent Counsel Act later expanded the inquiry into numerous areas including an extramarital affair that Bill Clinton had with Monica Lewinsky. After several years of investigation Starr filed the Starr Report which alleged that Bill Clinton had lied about existence of the affair during a sworn deposition. The allegation opened the door for the impeachment of Bill Clinton and the five-year suspension of Clinton's law license.
http://wn.com/Ken_Starr -
Ketevan Geladze
http://wn.com/Ketevan_Geladze -
Kim Campbell
Avril Phaedra Douglas "Kim" Campbell, PC, CC, QC (born March 10, 1947) is a Canadian politician who was the 19th Prime Minister of Canada, serving from June 25, 1993, to November 4, 1993 (132 days). Campbell was the first and to date the only female Prime Minister of Canada, the first baby boomer to hold that office and the first to have been born in British Columbia.
http://wn.com/Kim_Campbell -
Kim Il Sung
http://wn.com/Kim_Il_Sung -
Kim Il-sung
http://wn.com/Kim_Il-sung -
Kim Philby
http://wn.com/Kim_Philby -
Kimon Georgiev
http://wn.com/Kimon_Georgiev -
Kirill Mazurov
http://wn.com/Kirill_Mazurov -
Kirill Meretskov
http://wn.com/Kirill_Meretskov -
Kirill Moskalenko
http://wn.com/Kirill_Moskalenko -
Kliment Voroshilov
http://wn.com/Kliment_Voroshilov -
Konrad Adenauer
http://wn.com/Konrad_Adenauer -
Konstantin Chernenko
Konstantin Ustinovich Chernenko (; 24 September 1911 – 10 March 1985) was a Soviet politician and the fifth General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. He led the Soviet Union from 13 February 1984 until his death thirteen months later, on 10 March 1985. Chernenko was also Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet from 11 April 1984 until his death.
http://wn.com/Konstantin_Chernenko -
Konstantin Kuzakov
Konstantin Stepanovich Kuzakov (1911-1996) () was the illegitimate second child of Joseph Stalin. Constantine's mother was Maria Kuzakova, who was Stalin's landlady during his 1911 exile in Solvychegodsk, with whom he had an affair. His mother was still pregnant when Stalin left his exile.
http://wn.com/Konstantin_Kuzakov -
Korean War
http://wn.com/Korean_War -
Kulak
http://wn.com/Kulak -
Kulaks
http://wn.com/Kulaks -
Kwame Nkrumah
Osagyefo Kwame Nkrumah (21 September 1909 - 27 April 1972) was an influential 20th century advocate of Pan-Africanism. He was the first President of Ghana, the first Prime Minister of Ghana and a founding member of the Organization of African Unity. Kwame Nkrumah was the leader of Ghana and its predecessor state, the Gold Coast, from 1952 to 1966, and was the winner of the Lenin Peace Prize in 1963.
http://wn.com/Kwame_Nkrumah -
Lavrentiy Beria
http://wn.com/Lavrentiy_Beria -
Lavrenty Beria
http://wn.com/Lavrenty_Beria -
Lazar Kaganovich
http://wn.com/Lazar_Kaganovich -
Le Duan
http://wn.com/Le_Duan -
Lech Wałęsa
http://wn.com/Lech_Wałęsa -
Leon Trotsky
http://wn.com/Leon_Trotsky -
Leonel Brizola
Leonel de Moura Brizola (Carazinho, Rio Grande do Sul, January 22, 1922 — Rio de Janeiro, June 21, 2004) was a Brazilian politician. He was governor of the state of Rio Grande do Sul from 1959 to 1962 and served two terms as governor of Rio de Janeiro state (1983–1987 and 1991–1994). He was also vice-president of the Socialist International, as well as Honorary President of that organization for a few months, from October 2003 until his death. Brizola and his party (Democratic Labour Party) preached and practiced a kind of social democratic left-wing policy.
http://wn.com/Leonel_Brizola -
Leonid Brezhnev
http://wn.com/Leonid_Brezhnev -
Leonid Govorov
http://wn.com/Leonid_Govorov -
Leopoldo Galtieri
Leopoldo Fortunato Galtieri Castelli (July 15, 1926January 12, 2003) was an Argentine general and President of Argentina from December 22, 1981 to June 18, 1982, during the last military dictatorship (known officially as the National Reorganization Process). The death squad Intelligence Battalion 601 directly reported to him. He was removed from power soon after the British retook the Falklands Islands, whose invasion he had ordered.
http://wn.com/Leopoldo_Galtieri -
Lester B. Pearson
http://wn.com/Lester_B_Pearson -
Lev Kamenev
http://wn.com/Lev_Kamenev -
Lev Voronin
Lev Gennadiyevich Voronin (, born 8 June 1971) is a Russian team handball player and Olympic champion from 2000 in Sydney.
http://wn.com/Lev_Voronin -
Linus Pauling
http://wn.com/Linus_Pauling -
Louis St. Laurent
http://wn.com/Louis_St_Laurent -
Ludo Martens
Ludo Martens (born 12 March 1946) is a Belgian historian noted for his work on francophone Africa and the Soviet Union. Martens wrote on the political history of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, where he has lived and travelled extensively.
http://wn.com/Ludo_Martens -
Luís Carlos Prestes
http://wn.com/Luís_Carlos_Prestes -
Lyndon B. Johnson
http://wn.com/Lyndon_B_Johnson -
Maksim Saburov
http://wn.com/Maksim_Saburov -
Manuel Noriega
Manuel Antonio Noriega Moreno (; born February 11, 1934) is a Panamanian politician and soldier. He was military dictator of Panama from 1983 to 1989.
http://wn.com/Manuel_Noriega -
Mao Zedong
Mao Zedong (; December 26, 1893 September 9, 1976) was a Han Chinese revolutionary, political theorist and communist leader. He led the People's Republic of China (PRC) from its establishment in 1949 until his death in 1976. His theoretical contribution to Marxism-Leninism, military strategies, and his brand of Communist policies are now collectively known as Maoism.
http://wn.com/Mao_Zedong -
Marcelo Caetano
http://wn.com/Marcelo_Caetano -
Marcos Pérez Jiménez
http://wn.com/Marcos_Pérez_Jiménez -
Margaret Thatcher
http://wn.com/Margaret_Thatcher -
Mark Zuckerberg
Mark Elliot "Zuck" Zuckerberg (born May 14, 1984) is an American entrepreneur who co-founded the social networking site Facebook. Zuckerberg co-founded Facebook with fellow classmates Dustin Moskovitz, Eduardo Saverin, and Chris Hughes while attending Harvard. He is a billionaire due to his 24% share of Facebook. Zuckerberg has also made donations, including an undisclosed amount to Diaspora and $100 million to the Newark Public Schools.
http://wn.com/Mark_Zuckerberg -
Matvei Zakharov
http://wn.com/Matvei_Zakharov -
Melinda Gates
Melinda French Gates (born Melinda Ann French; August 15, 1964) is an American philanthropist and wife of Bill Gates. She is the co-founder and co-chair of the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and a former unit manager for several Microsoft products such as Publisher, Microsoft Bob, Encarta, and Expedia.
http://wn.com/Melinda_Gates -
Menachem Begin
http://wn.com/Menachem_Begin -
Michel Aflaq
http://wn.com/Michel_Aflaq -
Mieczyslaw Weinberg
http://wn.com/Mieczyslaw_Weinberg -
Mikhail Gorbachev
Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev ( Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachyov ; born 2 March 1931) was the sixth General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, serving from 1985 until 1991, and the last head of state of the USSR, serving from 1988 until its collapse in 1991.
http://wn.com/Mikhail_Gorbachev -
Mikhail Kalinin
Mikhail Ivanovich Kalinin (; 18751946), known familiarly by Soviet citizens as "Kalinych," was a Bolshevik revolutionary and the nominal head of state of the Soviet Union from 1919 to 1946. From 1926 he was a member of the Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, where he was one of the inner circle of party leaders around Soviet leader Joseph Stalin.
http://wn.com/Mikhail_Kalinin -
Mikhail Pervukhin
http://wn.com/Mikhail_Pervukhin -
Mikhail Tukhachevsky
Mikhail Nikolayevich Tukhachevsky () ( – June 12, 1937) was a Soviet military commander, chief of the Red Army (1925–1928), and one of the most prominent victims of Stalin's Great Purge of the late 1930s.
http://wn.com/Mikhail_Tukhachevsky -
Milovan Đilas
http://wn.com/Milovan_Đilas -
Miron Merzhanov
http://wn.com/Miron_Merzhanov -
Miron Vovsi
http://wn.com/Miron_Vovsi -
Mobutu Sese Seko
http://wn.com/Mobutu_Sese_Seko -
Mohammad Hatta
(12 August 1902 - 14 March 1980) was born in Bukittinggi, West Sumatra, Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia). He was Indonesia's first vice president, later also serving as the country's Prime Minister. Known as "The Proclamator", he and a number of Indonesians, including the first president of Indonesia, Sukarno, fought for the independence of Indonesia from the Dutch. Despite his efforts to gain Indonesian independence, he studied in the Netherlands from 1921 until 1932. Moreover, since his early education, he studied in Dutch schools in Indonesia.
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Mohammad Mosaddegh
Prime Minister
http://wn.com/Mohammad_Mosaddegh -
Mohammad Najibullah
Mohammad Najibullah Ahmadzai (), originally just Najib, (August 6, 1947September 28, 1996) was the fourth and last President of the Soviet-backed Democratic Republic of Afghanistan. He is also considered the second President of the Republic of Afghanistan.
http://wn.com/Mohammad_Najibullah -
Mozambican Civil War
The Mozambican Civil War began in 1977, two years after the end of the war of independence. The ruling party, Front for Liberation of Mozambique (FRELIMO), was violently opposed from 1977 by the Rhodesian- and (later) South African-funded Mozambique Resistance Movement (RENAMO). Over 900,000 died in fighting and from starvation, five million civilians were displaced, many were made amputees by landmines, a legacy from the war that continues to plague Mozambique. Fighting ended in 1992 and the country's first multi-party elections were held in 1994.
http://wn.com/Mozambican_Civil_War -
Muammar Gaddafi
http://wn.com/Muammar_Gaddafi -
Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq
http://wn.com/Muhammad_Zia-ul-Haq -
Mário Soares
http://wn.com/Mário_Soares -
Mátyás Rákosi
http://wn.com/Mátyás_Rákosi -
Ne Win
Ne Win ( ; 24 May or 14 May 1911 or 10 July 1910 – 5 December 2002) was a Burmese politician and military commander. He was Prime Minister of Burma from 1958 to 1960 and 1962 to 1974 and also head of state from 1962 to 1981. He also was the founder and from 1963 to 1988 the chairman of the Burma Socialist Programme Party, which from 1964 until 1988 was the sole political party in the Burmese nation state.
http://wn.com/Ne_Win -
Nehru
http://wn.com/Nehru -
Ngo Dinh Diem
http://wn.com/Ngo_Dinh_Diem -
Nicolae Ceauşescu
http://wn.com/Nicolae_Ceauşescu -
Nikita Khrushchev
http://wn.com/Nikita_Khrushchev -
Nikolai Bukharin
http://wn.com/Nikolai_Bukharin -
Nikolai Bulganin
http://wn.com/Nikolai_Bulganin -
Nikolai Ogarkov
Nikolai Vasilyevich Ogarkov (; October 30, 1917 in the village of Molokovo, near Tver - January 23, 1994), was promoted to Marshal of the Soviet Union in 1977. Between 1977 and 1984 he was Chief of the General Staff of the USSR. He became widely known in the West when he became the Soviet military's spokesman following the shootdown of Korean Air Lines Flight 007 near Moneron Island in September 1983. He was fired by General Secretary Konstantin Chernenko in 1984 for his advocacy of less spending on consumer goods, and increased spending on weapons research and development.
http://wn.com/Nikolai_Ogarkov -
Nikolai Talyzin
Nikolai Talyzin (b. 1929 - 23 January 1991) was a Soviet statesman, economist and head of the Gosplan, or the State Planning Committee.
http://wn.com/Nikolai_Talyzin -
Nikolai Tolstoy
Count Nikolai Dmitrievich Tolstoy-Miloslavsky (born 23 June 1935) is an Anglo-Russian historian and author who writes under the name Nikolai Tolstoy. A member of the prominent Tolstoy family, he is of part Russian descent and is the stepson of the author Patrick O'Brian. He is also a former prospective parliamentary candidate of the United Kingdom Independence Party.
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Nikolai Voznesensky
http://wn.com/Nikolai_Voznesensky -
Nikolai Yezhov
Nikolai Ivanovich Yezhov (sometimes known as Ezhov; ; May 1, 1895 – February 4, 1940) was a senior figure in the NKVD (the Soviet secret police) under Joseph Stalin during the period of the Great Purge. His reign is sometimes known as "Yezhovshchina" (), "The Yezhov era"; also "The Hedgehog Era," since the word Yezh () means hedgehog.
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Norman Naimark
Norman Naimark is a historian and acclaimed author, specialising in modern East European history, genocide and ethnic cleansing.
http://wn.com/Norman_Naimark -
Nur Misuari
Nur Misuari (born in 1942 in Jolo, Sulu, Philippines) is a Filipino politician and former leader of the Moro National Liberation Front. He completed his education through academic scholarships in the University of the Philippines and became a student activist. Misuari was a lecturer at the University of the Philippines in political science and in the 1960s, he established the Mindanao Independence Movement which aimed to organized an independent Islamic state in the southern Philippines. The Mindanao Independence Movement formed the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF). which sought political reforms from the Government of the Philippines. Unable to gained reforms, the MNLF engaged in military conflict against the Philippine government and its supporters between 1972 to 1976 under the leadership of Misuari. The military resistance to the government of former Philippine president Ferdinand Marcos did not produce autonomy for the Moro people. He departed to Saudi Arabia in exile but returned to the Philippines after Marcos was removed from office during the People Power Revolution in 1986.
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Nur Muhammad Taraki
http://wn.com/Nur_Muhammad_Taraki -
Omar Torrijos
http://wn.com/Omar_Torrijos -
Osip Mandelstam
Osip Emilyevich Mandelstam (also spelled Osip Mandelshtam, Ossip Mandelstamm) () ( – December 27, 1938) was a Soviet poet and essayist, one of the foremost members of the Acmeist school of poets.
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Owen D. Young
Owen D. Young (October 27, 1874 - July 11, 1962) was an American industrialist, businessman, lawyer and diplomat at the Second Reparations Conference (SRC) in 1929, as a member of the German Reparations International Commission.
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Palmiro Togliatti
Palmiro Togliatti (26 March 1893 - 21 August 1964) was an Italian politician and leader of the Italian Communist Party from 1927 until his death.
http://wn.com/Palmiro_Togliatti -
Patriarch of Moscow
http://wn.com/Patriarch_of_Moscow -
Patrice Lumumba
http://wn.com/Patrice_Lumumba -
Pavel Batitsky
Pavel Fyodorovich Batitsky (27 June 1910, Kharkov17 February 1984, Moscow) was a Soviet military leader awarded the highest honorary title of Hero of the Soviet Union in 1965 and appointed Marshal of the Soviet Union in 1968. Batitsky served in the Red Army from 1924 and was commander-in-chief of the Air Defense Forces from 1963 to 1978.
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Pavel Yablochkov
http://wn.com/Pavel_Yablochkov -
Peaceful coexistence
Peaceful coexistence ( or, "Peaceful co-existence - as a form of the continuation of the class struggle") was a theory developed and applied by the Soviet Union at various points during the Cold War in the context of its ostensibly Marxist-Leninist foreign policy and was adopted by Soviet-influenced Communist states that they could peacefully coexist with the "capitalist" bloc (i.e., non-communist states). This was in contrast to the antagonistic contradiction principle that Communism and capitalism could never coexist in peace. The Soviet Union applied it to relations between the western world and in particular, the United States and NATO countries and the nations of the Warsaw Pact.
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Peter Ueberroth
Peter Victor Ueberroth (; born September 2, 1937) is an American executive. He served as the sixth commissioner of Major League Baseball from 1984 to 1989. He was recently the chairman of the United States Olympic Committee; he was replaced by Larry Probst in October 2008.
http://wn.com/Peter_Ueberroth -
Pierre Laval
:Not to be confused with Pierre N. Leval.
http://wn.com/Pierre_Laval -
Pierre Trudeau
http://wn.com/Pierre_Trudeau -
Ping Pong Diplomacy
http://wn.com/Ping_Pong_Diplomacy -
Pol Pot
http://wn.com/Pol_Pot -
Poles
The Polish people, or Poles ( , singular Polak) are the inhabitants of Poland and Polish emigrants irrespective of their ancestry. Their religion is predominantly Roman Catholic. As a nation, they are bounded by the Polish language, which belongs to the Lechitic subgroup of west slavic languages of Central Europe. A wide-ranging Polish diaspora exists throughout Western and Eastern Europe, the Americas and Australia. Polish citizens live predominantly in Poland.
http://wn.com/Poles -
Pope John Paul II
http://wn.com/Pope_John_Paul_II -
Pope John XXIII
Blessed Pope John XXIII (; ), born Angelo Giuseppe Roncalli (25 November 1881 – 3 June 1963), known as Blessed John XXIII since his beatification, was elected as the 261st Pope of the Catholic Church and Sovereign of Vatican City on 28 October 1958.
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Pyotr Koshevoy
http://wn.com/Pyotr_Koshevoy -
Pyotr Stolypin
http://wn.com/Pyotr_Stolypin -
R.J. Rummel
http://wn.com/RJ_Rummel -
R.W. Davies
http://wn.com/RW_Davies -
Richard Nixon
Richard Milhous Nixon (January 9, 1913 – April 22, 1994) was the 37th President of the United States from 1969 to 1974, having formerly been the 36th Vice President of the United States from 1953 to 1961. A member of the Republican Party, he was the only President to resign the office as well as the only person to be elected twice to both the Presidency and the Vice Presidency.
http://wn.com/Richard_Nixon -
Richard Overy
Richard Overy (born 23 December 1947) is a British historian who has published extensively on the history of World War II and the Third Reich. In 2007 as The Times editor of Complete History of the World he chose the 50 key dates of world history.
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Richard Pipes
Richard Edgar Pipes (born July 11, 1923) is an American academic who specializes in Russian history, particularly with respect to the history of the Soviet Union. During the Cold War era he headed Team B, a team of analysts organized by the Central Intelligence Agency who analyzed the strategic capacities and goals of the Soviet military and political leadership.
http://wn.com/Richard_Pipes -
Robert C. Tucker
http://wn.com/Robert_C_Tucker -
Robert Conquest
George Robert Ackworth Conquest (born July 15, 1917) is a British historian who became a well-known writer and researcher on the Soviet Union with the publication in 1968 of The Great Terror, an account of Stalin's purges of the 1930s.
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Robert Gellately
Robert Gellately is a Newfoundland born Canadian academic who is one of the leading historians of modern Europe, particularly during World War II and the Cold War era. He is presently Earl Ray Beck Professor of History at Florida State University.
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Robert McNamara
Robert Strange McNamara (June 9, 1916 – July 6, 2009) was an American business executive and the eighth Secretary of Defense, serving under Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson from 1961 to 1968. Following that he served as President of the World Bank from 1968 until 1981. McNamara was responsible for the institution of systems analysis in public policy, which developed into the discipline known today as policy analysis.
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Rodion Malinovsky
http://wn.com/Rodion_Malinovsky -
Ronald Reagan
http://wn.com/Ronald_Reagan -
Roy Medvedev
Roy Aleksandrovich Medvedev (; born November 14, 1925, Tbilisi, Georgia) is a Russian historian renowned as the author of the dissident history of Stalinism, Let History Judge (), first published in English in 1972. Medvedev became a prominent Russian politician and served as a consultant to Mikhail Gorbachev.
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Rudolph Rummel
http://wn.com/Rudolph_Rummel -
Rudy Giuliani
Rudolph William Louis "Rudy" Giuliani, KBE (; born May 28, 1944) is an American lawyer, businessman, and politician from New York. He served as Mayor of New York City from 1994 to 2001.
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Ruhollah Khomeini
http://wn.com/Ruhollah_Khomeini -
Russian Civil War
http://wn.com/Russian_Civil_War -
Rómulo Betancourt
http://wn.com/Rómulo_Betancourt -
S.G. Wheatcroft
http://wn.com/SG_Wheatcroft -
Saddam Hussein
http://wn.com/Saddam_Hussein -
Salah Jadid
http://wn.com/Salah_Jadid -
Salgueiro Maia
http://wn.com/Salgueiro_Maia -
Salvador Allende
http://wn.com/Salvador_Allende -
Semyon Kurkotkin
http://wn.com/Semyon_Kurkotkin -
Semyon Timoshenko
http://wn.com/Semyon_Timoshenko -
Sergei Eisenstein
http://wn.com/Sergei_Eisenstein -
Sergei Kirov
http://wn.com/Sergei_Kirov -
Sergey Akhromeyev
http://wn.com/Sergey_Akhromeyev -
Sergey Biryuzov
http://wn.com/Sergey_Biryuzov -
Sergey Kirov
Sergei Mironovich Kirov (; – 1 December 1934), born Sergei Mironovich Kostrikov, was a prominent early Bolshevik leader in the Soviet Union. Kirov rose through the Communist Party ranks to become head of the Party organization in Leningrad. Kirov was seen as a focal point of opposition to the more extreme policies of Joseph Stalin, and as a counterbalance to the increasing concentration of power in Stalin's hands.
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Sergius I of Moscow
http://wn.com/Sergius_I_of_Moscow -
Siad Barre
http://wn.com/Siad_Barre -
Sino-Albanian split
The Sino-Albanian split () in 1978 saw the parting of the People's Republic of China (PRC) and Socialist People's Republic of Albania, which was the only Eastern European nation to side with the PRC in the Sino-Soviet split of the early 1960s.
http://wn.com/Sino-Albanian_split -
Sino-Indian War
The Sino-Indian War (), also known as the Sino-Indian Border Conflict (), was a war between China and India that occurred in 1962. A disputed Himalayan border was the main pretext for war, but other issues played a role. There had been a series of violent border incidents after the 1959 Tibetan uprising, when India had granted asylum to the Dalai Lama. India initiated a Forward Policy in which it placed outposts along the border, including several north of the McMahon Line, the eastern portion of a Line of Actual Control proclaimed by Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai in 1959.
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Sino-Vietnamese War
http://wn.com/Sino-Vietnamese_War -
Solomon Mikhoels
http://wn.com/Solomon_Mikhoels -
Soong May-ling
http://wn.com/Soong_May-ling -
Steven Rosefielde
Steven Rosefielde is an American academic, a leading expert on Russian, Soviet and Communist studies, comparative economic systems and international security, and author of several books. His research has focused on Soviet and Russian economy, welfare and military, and excess deaths in the Soviet Union. He is Professor of Comparative Economic Systems at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
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Stéphane Courtois
http://wn.com/Stéphane_Courtois -
Suharto
http://wn.com/Suharto -
Sukarno
http://wn.com/Sukarno -
Susan Brownmiller
Susan Brownmiller (born February 15, 1935) is an American feminist, journalist, author, and activist. She is best known for her pioneering work on the politics of rape in her 1975 book [http://www.susanbrownmiller.com/susanbrownmiller/html/against_our_will.html ] Brownmiller argues that rape had been hitherto defined by men rather than women; and that men use, and all men benefit from the use of, rape as a means of perpetuating male dominance by keeping all women in a state of fear. The book received criticism from Angela Davis, who thought Brownmiller disregarded the part that black women played in the anti-lynching movement and that Brownmiller's discussion of rape and race became an "unthinking partnership which borders on racism". In 1995 The New York Public Library selected Against Our Will as one of 100 most important books of the Twentieth Century.
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Susie Sharp
Susie Marshall Sharp (July 7, 1907 – March 1, 1996) was an American jurist who served as the first female Chief Justice of the North Carolina Supreme Court. She was not the first woman to head the highest court in a U.S. state, but is believed to be the first woman elected to such a post in a state, like North Carolina, in which the position is elected by the people separately from that of Associate Justice. In 1965, Lorna E. Lockwood became the first chief justice of a state supreme court, but in Arizona, the Supreme Court justices elect their chief justice.
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Svetlana Alliluyeva
Svetlana Iosifovna Alliluyeva (sometimes Stalina, later Lana Peters) (born February 28, 1926, Moscow, Soviet Union) () is the youngest child and only daughter of Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin and Nadezhda Alliluyeva (Stalin's second wife). A writer and naturalized United States citizen, Alliluyeva caused an international furore by defecting to the United States in 1967.
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Syngman Rhee
http://wn.com/Syngman_Rhee -
Ted Turner
Robert Edward "Ted" Turner III (born November 19, 1938) is an American media mogul and philanthropist. As a businessman, he is known as founder of the cable news network CNN, the first dedicated 24-hour cable news channel. In addition, he founded WTBS, which pioneered the superstation concept in cable television. As a philanthropist, he is known for his $1 billion gift to support UN causes, which created the United Nations Foundation, a public charity to broaden support for the UN. Turner serves as Chairman of the United Nations Foundation board of directors.
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Timothy Snyder
http://wn.com/Timothy_Snyder -
Todor Zhivkov
Todor Hristov Zhivkov (; ) (7 September 1911 – 5 August 1998) was a communist politician and leader of the People's Republic of Bulgaria (PRB) from March 4, 1954 until November 10, 1989.
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Toshiki Kaifu
is a Japanese politician who was the 76th and 77th Prime Minister of Japan from 1989 to 1991.
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Trofim Lysenko
Trofim Denisovich Lysenko (, , Trofym Denysovych Lysenko) (November 20, 1976) was a Soviet agronomist who was director of Soviet biology under Joseph Stalin. Lysenko rejected Mendelian genetics in favor of the hybridization theories of Russian horticulturist Ivan Vladimirovich Michurin, and adopted them into a powerful political-scientific movement termed Lysenkoism. His unorthodox experimental research in improved crop yields earned the support of Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, especially following the famine and loss of productivity resulting from forced collectivization in several regions of the Soviet Union in the early 1930s. In 1940 he became director of the Institute of Genetics within the USSR's Academy of Sciences, and Lysenko's anti-Mendelian doctrines were further secured in Soviet science and education by the exercise of political influence and power. Scientific dissent from Lysenko's theories of environmentally acquired inheritance was formally outlawed in 1948, and for the next several years opponents were purged from held positions, and many imprisoned. Lysenko's work was officially discredited in the Soviet Union in 1964, leading to a renewed emphasis there to re-institute Mendelian genetics and orthodox science.
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U Nu
For other people with the Burmese name Nu, see Nu (Burmese name).
http://wn.com/U_Nu -
Urho Kekkonen
:Kekkonen redirects here. For other uses, see Kekkonen (disambiguation).
http://wn.com/Urho_Kekkonen -
Valentin Pavlov
For other uses, see Pavlov (disambiguation).
http://wn.com/Valentin_Pavlov -
Valerian Kuybyshev
http://wn.com/Valerian_Kuybyshev -
Vasili Blokhin
Vasili Mikhailovich Blokhin (1895 – February 1955) was a Soviet Major-General who served as the chief executioner of the Stalinist NKVD under the administrations of Genrikh Yagoda, Nikolai Yezhov and Lavrenty Beria. Hand-picked for the position by Joseph Stalin in 1926, Blokhin led a company of executioners that performed the majority of executions carried out during Stalin's reign (most during the Great Purge). Claims by the Soviet government put the number of NKVD official executions at 828,000 during Stalin's reign, and Blokhin is recorded as having personally executed tens of thousands of prisoners by his own hand over a 28-day period—including 7,000 condemned Polish POWs in one protracted —making him ostensibly the most prolific official executioner in recorded world history. He was awarded both the Order of the Badge of Honor (1937) and the Order of the Red Banner (1941).
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Vasily Sokolovsky
Vasily Danilovich Sokolovsky () (July 21, 1897 - May 10, 1968) was a Soviet military commander.
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Vietnam War
http://wn.com/Vietnam_War -
Viktor Kulikov
Viktor Georgiyevich Kulikov (; born July 5, 1921) was the Warsaw Pact commander-in-chief from 1977 to 1989. He has held the rank of the Marshal of the Soviet Union for over 30 years, since January 14, 1977.
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Vladimir Ivashko
http://wn.com/Vladimir_Ivashko -
Vladimir Lenin
http://wn.com/Vladimir_Lenin -
Vladimir Putin
Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin (; born 7 October 1952) served as the second President of the Russian Federation and is the current Prime Minister of Russia, as well as chairman of United Russia and Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Union of Russia and Belarus. He became acting President on 31 December 1999, when president Boris Yeltsin resigned in a surprising move, and then Putin won the 2000 presidential election. In 2004 he was re-elected for a second term lasting until 7 May 2008.
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Vladimir Velichko
http://wn.com/Vladimir_Velichko -
Volga Germans
The Volga Germans ( or Russlanddeutsche, , Povolzhskie nemtsy) were ethnic Germans living along the River Volga in the region of southern European Russia around Saratov and to the south. They maintained German culture, language, traditions and churches: Lutherans, Reformed, Roman Catholics, and Mennonites. Many Volga Germans emigrated to the Midwestern United States, Canada, Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay and other countries in the 19th and early 20th centuries. During World War II, many died in Soviet labour camps. In the late 20th century, many of the remaining ethnic Germans moved to Germany.
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Vyacheslav Molotov
http://wn.com/Vyacheslav_Molotov -
Wallis Simpson
#redirectWallis, Duchess of Windsor
http://wn.com/Wallis_Simpson -
Walter Chrysler
http://wn.com/Walter_Chrysler -
Walter Hallstein
Walter Hallstein (17 November 1901–29 March 1982) was a German politician and professor.
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Walter Ulbricht
Walter Ulbricht (30 June 1893 – 1 August 1973) was a German communist politician. As General Secretary of the Socialist Unity Party from 1950 to 1971, he played a leading role in the early development and establishment of the German Democratic Republic (East Germany).
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Warsaw Pact
http://wn.com/Warsaw_Pact -
Willard Libby
Willard Frank Libby (December 17, 1908 – September 8, 1980) was an American physical chemist, famous for his role in the 1949 development of radiocarbon dating, a process which revolutionized archaeology.
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William Anders
William Alison Anders (born October 17, 1933) is a former United States Air Force officer, NASA astronaut, businessman, and engineer. He is, along with Apollo 8 crewmates Frank Borman and Jim Lovell, one of the first three persons to have left Earth orbit and traveled to the Moon (of only 24 people to date).
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William Shockley
William Bradford Shockley Jr. (February 13, 1910 – August 12, 1989) was an American physicist and inventor. Along with John Bardeen and Walter Houser Brattain, Shockley co-invented the transistor, for which all three were awarded the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics.
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William Westmoreland
William Childs Westmoreland (March 26, 1914 – July 18, 2005) was an American General who commanded American military operations in the Vietnam War at its peak from 1964 to 1968, with the Tet Offensive. He adopted a strategy of attrition against the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam and the North Vietnamese Army. He later served as U.S. Army Chief of Staff from 1968 to 1972. In 1976, he published his memoirs, A Soldier Reports.
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Willy Brandt
Willy Brandt, born Herbert Ernst Karl Frahm (; 18 December 1913 - 8 October 1992), was a German politician, Chancellor of West Germany 1969–1974, and leader of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) 1964–1987.
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Winston Churchill
http://wn.com/Winston_Churchill -
Wojciech Jaruzelski
Wojciech Witold Jaruzelski (pronounced ; born 6 July 1923) was the last commander-in-chief of the communist Polish People's Army (LWP) and the chairman of the Polish United Workers Party from 1981 to 1989, Prime Minister from 1981 to 1985 and the country's head of state from 1985 to 1990. He was the country's last communist leader and dictator and resigned from power after the Polish Round Table Agreement in 1989 led to democratic elections in Poland.
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Wright Brothers
http://wn.com/Wright_Brothers -
Władysław Gomułka
http://wn.com/Władysław_Gomułka -
Władysław Sikorski
http://wn.com/Władysław_Sikorski -
Yakov Dzhugashvili
http://wn.com/Yakov_Dzhugashvili -
Yasser Arafat
http://wn.com/Yasser_Arafat -
Yevgeny Dzhugashvili
http://wn.com/Yevgeny_Dzhugashvili -
Yevhen Konovalets
http://wn.com/Yevhen_Konovalets -
Yitzhak Rabin
http://wn.com/Yitzhak_Rabin -
Yuri Andropov
http://wn.com/Yuri_Andropov -
Yuri Maslyukov
Yuri Dmitriyevich Maslyukov (30 September 1937 – 1 April 2010) was a Russian politician. Prior to the collapse of the Soviet Union, he held several high ranking positions with the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, including the post of First Deputy Defense Industry Minister of the Soviet Union.
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Zhao Ziyang
Zhao Ziyang (17 October 1919 – 17 January 2005) was a high-ranking politician in the People's Republic of China (PRC). He was the third Premier of the People's Republic of China from 1980 to 1987, and General Secretary of the Communist Party of China from 1987 to 1989.
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Zhou Enlai
http://wn.com/Zhou_Enlai -
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto (Urdu: lang|ur|, , ) (January 5, 1928 – April 4, 1979) was a Pakistani politician who served as the fourth President of Pakistan from 1971 to 1973 and as the ninth Prime Minister of Pakistan from 1973 to 1977. He was the founder of the Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP), the largest and most influential political party in Pakistan. His daughter Benazir Bhutto also served twice as prime minister. She was assassinated on December 27, 2007.
http://wn.com/Zulfikar_Ali_Bhutto -
Álvaro Cunhal
http://wn.com/Álvaro_Cunhal
Stalin, Joseph Filmography
- Reagan (2011)
- Global Warning (2011)
- Uno scrittore al fronte (2010)
- Marijuana: A Chronic History (2010)
- Sota ilman voittoa (2009)
- Hitler & Stalin - Portrait einer Feindschaft (2009)
- Iran, une puissance dévoilée (2009)
- L'île aux Cannibales (2009)
- Shouting Fire: Stories from the Edge of Free Speech (2009)
- Hitlers Angriff - Wie der zweite Weltkrieg begann (2009)
- The Flying Scissors (2009)
- Capitalism: A Love Story (2009)
- Superpower (2008)
- Warner at War (2008)
- Khraniteli (2008)
- Balancing Acts: A Jewish Theater in the Soviet Union (2008)
- William F. Buckley: Right from the Start (2008)
- Secrets of Body Language (2008)
- Planspiel Atomkrieg - Adenauers Kampf um die Bombe (2008)
- Expelled: No Intelligence Allowed (2008)
- Trilogia II: I skoni tou hronou (2008)
- Nazis/Skinheads: Hate and the Holocaust in Ukraine (2008)
- Staline: Le tyran rouge (2007)
- Bewegte Jahre - Österreich 1914-1945 (2007)
- Trumbo (2007)
- Tehran anar nadarad (2007)
- In Europa (2007)
- Warlords (2007)
- Endgame: Blueprint for Global Enslavement (2007)
- Forever Lénine (2006)
- Suomen puolesta (2006)
- Zákonitosti zivota vcelstva (2006)
- Freedom's Fury (2006)
- Hitler's War (2005)
- X Day: The Invasion of Japan (2005)
- Why We Fight (2005)
- DC3:ans sista resa (2004)
- I'm Not Russian, But I Play One on TV (2004)
- Letters from Karelia (2004)
- Verner Lehtimäki - Punapäällikön elämä (2004)
- Celsius 41.11: The Temperature at Which the Brain... Begins to Die (2004)
- Siberia: How the East Was Won (2004)
- Solange der Wind uns trägt - Im Land des Dschingis Khan (2004)
- Stalin's Wife (2004)
- The Corporation (2003)
- Buongiorno, notte (2003)
- Comic Book Superheroes Unmasked (2003)
- Yalta: Peace, Power and Betrayal (2003)
- Stalin: Inside the Terror (2003)
- The Real Room 101 (2003)
- :03 from Gold (2002)
- Rajalla (2002)
- The Star Dreamer (2002)
- The Burning Wall (2002)
- Assignment Discovery: The Ultimate Guide: Mummies (2002)
- Roots of the Cuban Missile Crisis (2001)
- The Secret KGB Paranormal Files (2001)
- Hitlers Krieg im Osten (2000)
- UFOs: Then and Now? (2000)
- Hooked: Illegal Drugs & How They Got That Way - LSD, Ecstasy, and the Raves (2000)
- WWII: The Lost Color Archives (2000)
- Biography of the Millennium: 100 People - 1000 Years (1999)
- Hitler and Stalin: Twin Tyrants (1999)
- Faces of War (1999)
- The Korean War: Fire and Ice (1999)
- The 20th Century: A Moving Visual History (1999)
- The Second World War in Colour (1999)
- The Russian Revolution (1998)
- Das Dritte Reich - In Farbe (1998)
- Human Remains (1998)
- The War Symphonies: Shostakovich Against Stalin (1997)
- Henry VIII (1997)
- East Side Story (1997)
- Manuscripts don't burn (1997)
- On the Brink: Doomsday (1997)
- Our Time in Hell: The Korean War (1997)
- The Wall (1997)
- Ayn Rand: A Sense of Life (1997)
- A Web of War (1996)
- The Churchills (1996)
- Assassinations That Changed the World (1996)
- The Empty Mirror (1996)
- Children of the Revolution (1996)
- Churchill and the Cabinet War Rooms (1995)
- Hiroshima (1995)
- Blood & Iron: The Story of the German War Machine (1995)
- Hiroshima: Why the Bomb Was Dropped (1995)
- The Last Days of World War II (1995)
- Xie rou chang cheng (1995)
- Truman (1995)
- Enola Gay and the Atomic Bombing of Japan (1995)
- Executions II (1995)
- The Century of Warfare (1994)
- In Search of Dr. Seuss (1994)
- Le tombeau d'Alexandre (1993)
- Zaveshchaniye Stalina (1993)
- Stalin - Eine Mosfilmproduktion (1993)
- Hitler et Staline: l'alliance dangereuse (1993)
- Battle for the Soul of Russia (1992)
- Prima (1992)
- China Rising: The Epic History of 20th Century China (1992)
- The Face of Tutankhamun (1992)
- Desert Storm: The War Begins (1991)
- Tolkovanie snovideniy (1991)
- The Complete Churchill (1991)
- Pokhorony Stalina (1990)
- Condom (1990)
- The Road to War (1989)
- The 1940's: Music, Memories & Milestones (1988)
- Panttipataljoona (1988)
- T.V. Sphincter (1987)
- Korea: The Forgotten War (1987)
- I nichego bolshe (1987)
- 13. artikla (1986)
- Russia (1986)
- Vietnam: A Television History (1983)
- Seeing Red (1983)
- De camisa vieja a chaqueta nueva (1982)
- The KGB Connections (1982)
- Genocide (1982)
- The Atomic Cafe (1982)
- If You Love This Planet (1982)
- Visoki napon (1981)
- Has Anybody Here Seen Canada? A History of Canadian Movies 1939-1953 (1979)
- Sibiriada (1979)
- Zio Adolfo, in arte Führer (1978)
- Le fond de l'air est rouge (1977)
- Canciones para después de una guerra (1976)
- All This and World War II (1976)
- Stolarz (1976)
- Los Canadienses (1975)
- From War to Peace (1974)
- La société du spectacle (1973)
- At vinde krigen (1970)
- The Extraordinary Seaman (1969)
- Skizbe (1967)
- Ten Days That Shook the World (1967)
- Cast a Giant Shadow (1966)
- Obyknovennyy fashizm (1965)
- Franco: ese hombre (1964)
- The Victors (1963)
- Was der Wehrmachtsbericht verschwieg (1963)
- Year of Siege (1962)
- The Ford 50th Anniversary Show (1953)
- Never Let Me Go (1953)
- Battle for China (1953)
- Betimi i popullit shqiptar para Stalinit të madh (1953)
- Bis fünf nach zwölf - Adolf Hitler und das 3. Reich (1953)
- Communism (1952)
- The Hoaxters (1952)
- Näin syntyi nykypäivä 1900-1950 (1951)
- Guilty of Treason (1950)
- Fifty Years Before Your Eyes (1950)
- Mid Century: Half Way to Where? (1950)
- Herrliche Zeiten (1950)
- Wielka droga (1946)
- Universal Newsreel (1945)
- Hitler Lives (1945)
- Nostradamus IV (1944)
- One Inch from Victory (1944)
- Our Northern Neighbour (1944)
- The Nazis Strike (1943)
- Mission to Moscow (1943)
- The Battle of Russia (1943)
- Inside Fighting Russia (1942)
- The Film That Was Lost (1942)
- Our Russian Front (1942)
- The News Parade of the Year 1942 (1942)
- The Mask of Nippon (1942)
- The Fight for Peace (1938)
- Tri pesni o Lenine (1934)
Stalin
Cast
- Bernahard Sehne
- Stefan Brauburger
- Ingo Guski
- Peter Adler
- Ralf Piechowiak
- Peter Adler
- Oliver Halmburger
- Joseph Stalin
- Wolfgang Daut
- Oliver Halmburger
- Stefan Brauburger
- Alexander Berkel
- Bärbel Schmidt-Sakic
- Season 1
-
Episode 1: Der Mythos
The life and times of Josef Stalin, chronicling his rise to power and the terror that he caused, wit...
-
Episode 2: Der Kriegsherr
Germany...
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Episode 3: Der Tyrann
Germany:18 March 2003...
Stalin
Cast
- Ian Holm
- Phillip Whitehead
- Irina Antonyan
- Tony Cash
- Jonathan Lewis
- Anton Antonov-Ovseyenko
- Tony Cash
- Teresa Cherfas
- Alexander Chubaryan
- Tony Cash
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Joseph Stalin: Red Terror
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 44:55
- Updated: 05 Nov 2012
Joseph Stalin ranks as one of the greatest tyrants of all time, responsible for the deaths of 20 million of his own countrymen. Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, the extent of Stalin's atrocities has been revealed, and he has taken his place alongside Hitler as one of the most reviled leaders of the century. This comprehensive portrait revisits the life of "Uncle Joe" via Soviet archival film and an astonishing collection of interviews.
http://wn.com/Joseph_Stalin_Red_Terror
Joseph Stalin, the Real History --Part 1
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:58
- Updated: 05 Nov 2012
"Stalin was as ruthless as Hitler" (Loius Fischer)! This irresponsible creature and Killer of 20 millions innocent lives was power monger and greedy. He destroyed human resources. He ignored Lenin too! The death of Lenin had gave birth of a cruel era-- the REGIMENTED CCCP. THIS CREATURE IS NOT DISTINGUISHABLE FROM HITLER. The acts of today's PSEUDO-MARXISTS/COMMUNISTS remind the days of JOSEPH STALIN of former Soviet Union. It is pleaded before the civilised society of this world no to preach Stalinism that killed million innocent lives.
http://wn.com/Joseph_Stalin,_the_Real_History_--Part_1
Most Evil Men in History - Joseph Stalin (1of3)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:24
- Updated: 04 Nov 2012
In southern Russia at the turn of the last century Stalin excelled as a bank robber, agitator and sometime assassin. Forever in and out of jail the violence and paranoia which would mark him out in later years were already visible. After his brutal rise to power he embarked on his ruthless enforced collectivisation programmes and deliberate use of starvation, murder and labour camps to enforce his power and control over the population. We also see his response to the German occupation and his continued regime of terror after the Second World War.
http://wn.com/Most_Evil_Men_in_History_Joseph_Stalin_1of3
Joseph Stalin In Private
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 42:47
- Updated: 04 Nov 2012
MONSTER: A PORTRAIT OF STALIN IN BLOOD 1992. This six part series, produced by Alexandre Ivankin at Contact Studio, Moscow, uses never before released films from the Russian archives and personal interviews to tell the true story of the annihilation of approximately 40 million Russians by Stalin. Episode 4: The Private Life of Joseph Stalin. Stalin is born of doubtful parenthood and grows up a Marxist and a revolutionary, organizing riots and robbing banks to fund party activities. While Stalin is twice-married, both wives die suspicious deaths, the first of "typhoid" after being kicked in the stomach while pregnant, and the second of "appendicitis" after committing suicide. Stalin then systematically murders or imprisons his many in-laws. Witnesses of these events furnish the horrid details. Stalin was born Joseph Dzhugashvili in the Georgian town of Gori in 1879. He was an early activist in the Bolshevik movement, where he first assumed the pseudonym Stalin (which means "man of steel"). He was named General Secretary of the Communist Party in 1922, a post Stalin used to fortify his power base. When Vladimir Lenin died in 1924, a struggle for control broke out hat pitted Stalin against his nemesis, Leon Trotsky, and a host of lesser party figures. Stalin's victory was slow and hard-fought, but by1927 he had succeeded in having Trotsky expelled from the party. By 1928, Stalin was entrenched as supreme Soviet leader, and he wasted little time in launching a series of ...
http://wn.com/Joseph_Stalin_In_Private
Declassified: Joseph Stalin
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 44:55
- Updated: 06 Nov 2012
Declassified: Joseph Stalin
http://wn.com/Declassified_Joseph_Stalin
Joseph Stalin's funeral
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:07
- Updated: 05 Nov 2012
Cold War en.wikipedia.org After annexing several occupied countries as Soviet Socialist Republics at the end of World War II, other occupied states were added to the Eastern Bloc by converting them into puppet Soviet Satellite states, such as East Germany, the People's Republic of Poland, the People's Republic of Hungary, the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, the People's Republic of Romania and the People's Republic of Albania. The Soviet-style regimes that arose in the Bloc not only reproduced Soviet command economies, but also adopted the brutal methods employed by Joseph Stalin and Soviet secret police to suppress real and potential opposition. In Asia, the Red Army had overrun Manchuria in the last month of the war, and went on to occupy the large swath of Korean territory located north of the 38th parallel. In September 1947, the Soviets created Cominform, the purpose of which was to enforce orthodoxy within the international communist movement and tighten political control over Soviet satellites through coordination of communist parties in the Eastern Bloc. Cominform faced an embarrassing setback the following June, when the Tito--Stalin split obliged its members to expel Yugoslavia, which remained Communist but adopted a non-aligned position. As part of the Soviet domination of the Eastern Bloc, the NKVD, led by Lavrentiy Beria, supervised the establishment of Soviet-style secret police systems in the Bloc that were supposed to crush anti-communist resistance. When ...
http://wn.com/Joseph_Stalin's_funeral
Re: stalin
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:18
- Updated: 03 Nov 2012
Stalin's speech with subtitles. Death to the nazis!
http://wn.com/Re_stalin
JOSEPH STALIN
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:52
- Updated: 06 Nov 2012
I made this in 9th grade, for my honors english class. (about animal farm)
http://wn.com/JOSEPH_STALIN
Stalin Speech [about the new Soviet Constitution]
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:28
- Updated: 05 Nov 2012
[Stalin's Speech]Stalin speech at the pre-election meeting of the voters of the Stalin Constituent! Moscow on December 11, 1937(In the Bolshoi Theater)!Stalin speech
http://wn.com/Stalin_Speech_about_the_new_Soviet_Constitution_
Mini BIO - Joseph Stalin
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:05
- Updated: 04 Nov 2012
Watch a short video biography on Stalin's life, including his rise to Soviet power, his part in the October Revolution, and his murderous reign. Learn more about Joseph Stalin: bit.ly Watch more Joseph Stalin video: bit.ly Learn more about Famous Dictators: bit.ly Learn more about Famous Name Changers: bit.ly Joseph Stalin's rise to power began during the October Revolution, when the Bolsheviks overthrew the Tsar and created a Communist Society. His forced industrialization of the Soviet Union caused the worst man-made famine in history.
http://wn.com/Mini_BIO_Joseph_Stalin
Joseph Stalin vs Adolf Hitler
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:33
- Updated: 03 Nov 2012
Joseph Stalin vs Adolf Hitler, the Great Duel of WWII! Stalin Hitler Сталин Гитлер! Songs (from the Namco game Ace Combat 04): - Rex Tremendae - Megalith Agnus Dei
http://wn.com/Joseph_Stalin_vs_Adolf_Hitler
Joseph Stalin, the Real History--Part 2
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:59
- Updated: 06 Nov 2012
"Stalin was as ruthless as Hitler" (Loius Fischer)! This irresponsible creature and killer of 20 millions innocent lives was power monger, greedy. He was having a licentious character too. He was a perfect killer. He destroyed human resources. He ignored Lenin too at a stage! The death of Lenin had gave birth of a cruel era, the REGIMENTED CCCP. THIS CREATURE IS NOT DISTINGUISHABLE FROM HITLER. THE ACTS OF WEST BENGAL'S (INDIA) PSEUDO-MARXISTS/COMMUNISTS REMIND THE DAYS OF JOSEPH STALIN in former Russia. IT IS PLEADED TO THE CIVILIZED PEOPLE OF THE WORLD TO STOP PREACHING STALINISM WHO KILLED MILLIONS INNOCENT LIVES.
http://wn.com/Joseph_Stalin,_the_Real_History--Part_2
Joseph Stalin, the Real History--Part 3
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:58
- Updated: 06 Nov 2012
"Stalin was as ruthless as Hitler" (Loius Fischer)! This irresponsible creature and Killer of 20 millions innocent lives was power monger, greedy. He was having a licentious character too. He was a perfect killer. He destroyed human resources. He ignored Lenin too at a stage! The death of Lenin had gave birth of a cruel era, the REGIMENTED CCCP. THIS CREATURE IS NOT DISTINGUISHABLE FROM HITLER. THE ACTS OF WEST BENGAL'S (INDIA) PSEUDO-MARXISTS/COMMUNISTS REMIND THE DAYS OF JOSEPH STALIN in former Russia. IT IS PLEADED TO THE CIVILIZED PEOPLE OF THE WORLD TO STOP PREACHING STALINISM WHO KILLED MILLIONS INNOCENT LIVES.
http://wn.com/Joseph_Stalin,_the_Real_History--Part_3
Joseph Stalin, the Real History--Part 4
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:58
- Updated: 06 Nov 2012
"Stalin was as ruthless as Hitler" (Loius Fischer)! This irresponsible creature and Killer of 20 millions innocent lives was power monger, greedy. He was having a licentious character too. He was a perfect killer. He destroyed human resources. He ignored Lenin too at a stage! The death of Lenin had gave birth of a cruel era, the REGIMENTED CCCP. THIS CREATURE IS NOT DISTINGUISHABLE FROM HITLER. THE ACTS OF WEST BENGAL'S (INDIA) PSEUDO-MARXISTS/COMMUNISTS REMIND THE DAYS OF JOSEPH STALIN in former Russia. IT IS PLEADED TO THE CIVILIZED PEOPLE OF THE WORLD TO STOP PREACHING STALINISM WHO KILLED MILLIONS INNOCENT LIVES.
http://wn.com/Joseph_Stalin,_the_Real_History--Part_4
Russia marks Stalin anniversary
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:54
- Updated: 05 Nov 2012
Joseph Stalin is one of the most controversial figures in Russian history. To some, Stalin is a war hero and an iconic leader, to others a brutal murderer responsible for the deaths of millions of people. As Russia gears up to mark the 65th anniversary of its victory over Nazi Germany on Sunday, the legacy of the man who led that victory is once again in the spotlight. Al Jazeera's Neave Barker reports from Moscow.
http://wn.com/Russia_marks_Stalin_anniversary
Joseph Stalin: Biography of the Communist Soviet Dictator
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:38
- Updated: 02 Nov 2012
This Soviet dictator called himself the "man of steel." www.WatchMojo.com learns more about the life, rule and death of Joseph Stalin.
http://wn.com/Joseph_Stalin_Biography_of_the_Communist_Soviet_Dictator
Stalin video collection
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:55
- Updated: 25 Sep 2012
Stalin video collection!!! ATTENTION!!! PLEASE SEE ALSO THE NEW VIDEO OF COMRADE MAO ZEDONG: www.youtube.com
http://wn.com/Stalin_video_collection
Most Evil Men in History - Joseph Stalin (2of3)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:58
- Updated: 03 Nov 2012
In southern Russia at the turn of the last century Stalin excelled as a bank robber, agitator and sometime assassin. Forever in and out of jail the violence and paranoia which would mark him out in later years were already visible. After his brutal rise to power he embarked on his ruthless enforced collectivisation programmes and deliberate use of starvation, murder and labour camps to enforce his power and control over the population. We also see his response to the German occupation and his continued regime of terror after the Second World War.
http://wn.com/Most_Evil_Men_in_History_Joseph_Stalin_2of3
Most Evil Men in History - Joseph Stalin (3of3)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:40
- Updated: 05 Nov 2012
In southern Russia at the turn of the last century Stalin excelled as a bank robber, agitator and sometime assassin. Forever in and out of jail the violence and paranoia which would mark him out in later years were already visible. After his brutal rise to power he embarked on his ruthless enforced collectivisation programmes and deliberate use of starvation, murder and labour camps to enforce his power and control over the population. We also see his response to the German occupation and his continued regime of terror after the Second World War.
http://wn.com/Most_Evil_Men_in_History_Joseph_Stalin_3of3
The Wrath of Stalin
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:09
- Updated: 13 Oct 2012
A video depicting the wrath Joseph Stalin inflicted on his own people during WWII and the months shortly following the end of the war when he was brutally enforcing communism.
http://wn.com/The_Wrath_of_Stalin
STALIN / SOVIET PROPAGANDA!
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:09
- Updated: 05 Nov 2012
STALIN GOVERNMENT PROPAGANDA! stalin ussr soviet union cccp propaganda russia russian anthem hymn moscow communist victory parade red army wwii ww2
http://wn.com/STALIN_SOVIET_PROPAGANDA!
Josef Stalin video collection
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:56
- Updated: 03 Nov 2012
Josef Stalin video collection(with na execution of "The Internationale" - instrumental version)! Greatest Videos! - General Secretary / First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (1922 - 1953); - Chairman of the Council of People's Commissar/ Premier of the Soviet Union (1941 - 1953); - Generalissimo of the Soviet Union (1945 - 1953); Born December 18, 1878 Gori, Georgia, Russian Empire Died March 5, 1953 (aged 74) Moscow, USSR.
http://wn.com/Josef_Stalin_video_collection
Controversy over "Uncle Joe" Stalin in Virginia
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:27
- Updated: 26 Oct 2012
The addition of a bust of Soviet leader Joseph Stalin at the National D-Day Memorial in Bedford has has caused controversy among residents of the small Virginia town. RT spoke with veterans and their families who had gathered at the memorial to mark the 66th anniversary of D-Day.
http://wn.com/Controversy_over_Uncle_Joe_Stalin_in_Virginia
Photo: US Navy / Mass Communication Specialist 1st Class Todd A. Schaffer
06 Nov 2012
- At an unknown location somewhere deep beneath the world's oceans, a British submarine sits primed to launch up to 40 nuclear warheads with a collective destructive power almost 300 times greater...
Photo: AP / Narciso Contreras
06 Nov 2012
The UN and Arab League envoy to Syria, Lakhdar Brahimi, has said he fears the country could "turn into a new Somalia" unless the crisis does not end soon. In an interview with the newspaper...
Photo: AP / Mark Lennihan
06 Nov 2012
WASHINGTON (AP) President Barack Obama and Republican challenger Mitt Romney left Americans to vote Tuesday with a stark choice between their fundamentally different visions for the countrys future...
Photo: WN / Ahmed Deeb
05 Nov 2012
RAMALLAH, West Bank - A Western diplomat says the exhumation of late Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat's remains will take place Nov. 26....
Photo: US Navy / MCS2 Terah L. Mollise
05 Nov 2012
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Sun Sentinel
WASHINGTON – Independent candidate Angus King was elected in the U.S. Senate race, as Mainers favored the popular former governor over the Democratic and Republican candidates. With both parties vying for control of the Senate, King could hold the balance of power when senators cast the...(size: 4.7Kb)
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Economy is biggest issue for voters, polls show
07 Nov 2012
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Many voters still blame Bush for bad economy
07 Nov 2012
NZ Herald
Rising prices and chronic unemployment were heavy on the minds of US voters even as a glimmer of optimism peeked through. Four in 10 said the battered economy in the US is getting better. Most everyone agreed there's still far to go. They were less likely to blame President Barack Obama for the...(size: 4.5Kb)
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>Many voters still blame Bush for bad economy
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"Stalin" redirects here. For other uses, see Stalin (disambiguation).
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Joseph Stalin
Иосиф Виссарионович Сталин (Russian)
იოსებ ბესარიონის ძე სტალინი (Georgian)
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| Stalin at the Berlin Conference, 1945 | |
| General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union | |
| In office 3 April 1922 – 16 October 1952 |
|
| Preceded by | Vyacheslav Molotov (as Responsible Secretary) |
| Succeeded by | Nikita Khrushchev (office reestablished) |
| Chairman of the Council of Ministers | |
| In office 6 May 1941 – 5 March 1953 |
|
| First Deputies | Nikolai Voznesensky Vyacheslav Molotov |
| Preceded by | Vyacheslav Molotov |
| Succeeded by | Georgy Malenkov |
| People's Commissar for Defense of the Soviet Union | |
| In office 19 July 1941 – 25 February 1946 |
|
| Premier | Himself |
| Preceded by | Semyon Timoshenko |
| Succeeded by | Nikolai Bulganin after vacancy |
| Member of the Secretariat | |
| In office 3 April 1922 – 5 March 1953 |
|
| Full member of the Presidium | |
| In office 25 March 1919 – 5 March 1953 |
|
| Member of the Orgburo | |
| In office 16 January 1919 – 5 March 1953 |
|
| Personal details | |
| Born | (1878-12-18)18 December 1878 Gori, Tiflis Governorate, Russian Empire |
| Died | 5 March 1953(1953-03-05) (aged 74) Kuntsevo Dacha near Moscow, Russian SFSR, Soviet Union |
| Resting place | Kremlin Wall Necropolis, Moscow, Russian Federation |
| Nationality | Soviet |
| Political party | Communist Party of the Soviet Union |
| Spouse(s) | Ekaterina Svanidze (1906–1907) Nadezhda Alliluyeva (1919–1932) |
| Children | Yakov Dzhugashvili, Vasily Dzhugashvili, Svetlana Alliluyeva |
| Religion | None (atheist) |
| Signature |  |
| Military service | |
| Allegiance |  Soviet Union |
| Service/branch | Soviet Armed Forces |
| Years of service | 1943–1953 |
| Rank | Marshal of the Soviet Union (1943–1945) Generalissimus of the Soviet Union (1945–1953) |
| Commands | All (supreme commander) |
| Battles/wars | World War II |
| Awards |                _BAR.svg){kind=small} _BAR.svg){kind=small} |
Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin (Russian: Иосиф Виссарионович Сталин; born Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili, Russian: Иосиф Виссарионович Джугашвили; 18 December 1878[1] – 5 March 1953) was the Premier of the Soviet Union from 6 May 1941 to 5 March 1953. He was among the Bolshevik revolutionaries who brought about the October Revolution in Russia in 1917 and later held the position of General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union's Central Committee from 1922 until his death in 1953. While the office of the General Secretary was officially elective and not initially regarded as the top position in the Soviet state, Stalin managed to use it to consolidate more and more power in his hands after the death of Vladimir Lenin in 1924 and gradually put down all opposition groups within the Communist Party. This included Leon Trotsky, a socialist theorist and the principal critic of Stalin among the early Soviet leaders, who was exiled from the Soviet Union in 1929. Whereas Trotsky was an exponent of permanent revolution, it was Stalin's concept of socialism in one country that became the primary focus of Soviet politics.
In 1928, Stalin replaced the New Economic Policy of the 1920s with a highly centralised command economy and Five-Year Plans that launched a period of rapid industrialization and economic collectivization in the countryside. As a result, the USSR was transformed from a largely agrarian society into a great industrial power, the basis for its emergence as the world's second largest economy after World War II.[2] As a result of the rapid economic, social and political changes of the Stalinist era, millions of people were sent to penal labor camps,[3] and millions were deported and exiled to remote areas of the Soviet Union.[3] The initial upheaval in the agricultural sector disrupted food production in the early 1930s and contributed to the catastrophic Soviet famine of 1932–1933. In 1937–38, a campaign against alleged enemies of the Stalinist regime culminated in the Great Purge, a period of mass repression in which hundreds of thousands of people were executed, including Red Army leaders convicted of participating in plots to overthrow the Soviet government.[4]
In August 1939, after the failure to establish an Anglo-Franco-Soviet Alliance,[5] Stalin's USSR entered into a non-aggression pact with Nazi Germany that divided their spheres of influence in Eastern Europe. This pact allowed the Soviet Union to regain some of the former territories of the Russian Empire in Poland, Finland, the Baltics, Bessarabia and northern Bukovina during the early period of World War II. After Germany violated the pact by invading the Soviet Union in 1941 and opening an Eastern Front, the Soviet Union joined the Allies. Despite heavy human and territorial losses in the initial period of war, the Soviet Union managed to stop the Axis advance in the battles of Moscow and Stalingrad. Eventually, the Red Army drove through Eastern Europe in 1944–45 and captured Berlin in May 1945. Having played the decisive role in the Allied victory against Germany,[6][7] the USSR emerged as a recognized superpower after the war.[8]
Stalin headed the Soviet delegations at the Yalta and Potsdam Conferences, which drew the map of post-war Europe. Communist-dominated leftist governments loyal to the Soviet Union were installed in the Eastern Bloc satellite states as the USSR entered a struggle for global dominance, known as the Cold War, with the United States and NATO. In Asia, Stalin established good relations with Mao Zedong in China and Kim Il-sung in North Korea, and the Stalin-era Soviet Union in various ways served as a model for the newly formed People's Republic of China and Democratic People's Republic of Korea.
In power until his death in 1953, Stalin led the USSR during the period of post-war reconstruction, marked by the dominance of Stalinist architecture. The successful development of the Soviet nuclear program enabled the country to become the world's second nuclear weapons power. The Soviet space program was started as spin-off of the nuclear project. In his last years, Stalin also launched the so-called Great Construction Projects of Communism and the Great Plan for the Transformation of Nature.
Following his death, Stalin and his regime have been condemned on numerous occasions, the most significant of these the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1956, when Stalin's successor Nikita Khrushchev denounced his legacy and drove the process of de-Stalinization of the Soviet Union. Modern views of Stalin in the Russian Federation remain mixed, with some viewing him as a tyrant,[9] others as a capable leader.[10]
Early life[link]
Main article: Early life of Joseph Stalin
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Young Stalin, c. 1894, age 16, and Ioseb in his mid-twenties, c. 1902.
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Stalin was born Ioseb Besarionis dze Jughashvili (Georgian: იოსებ ბესარიონის ძე ჯუღაშვილი) on 18 December 1878[1] to Ketevan Geladze and Besarion Jughashvili, a cobbler, in the town of Gori, Georgia. At the age of seven, he contracted smallpox, which permanently scarred his face. At ten, he began attending church school where the Georgian children were forced to speak Russian. By the age of twelve, two horse-drawn carriage accidents left his left arm permanently damaged. At sixteen, he received a scholarship to a Georgian Orthodox seminary, where he rebelled against the imperialist and religious order. Though he performed well there, he was expelled in 1899 after missing his final exams. The seminary's records suggest that he was unable to pay his tuition fees.[11] The official Soviet version states that he was expelled for reading illegal literature and for forming a Social Democratic study circle.[12]
Shortly after leaving the seminary, Stalin discovered the writings of Vladimir Lenin and decided to become a Marxist revolutionary, eventually joining Lenin's Bolsheviks in 1903. After being marked by the Okhranka (the Tsar's secret police) for his activities, he became a full-time revolutionary and outlaw. He became one of the Bolsheviks' chief operatives in the Caucasus, organizing paramilitaries, inciting strikes, spreading propaganda and raising money through bank robberies, ransom kidnappings and extortion. The infamy he gained from being associated with organizing the 1907 Tiflis bank robbery, which resulted in several deaths and the stealing of 250,000 rubles (about US $3.4 million in modern terms), would trouble him politically for years later.[13]
In the summer of 1906, Stalin married Ekaterina Svanidze, who later gave birth to Stalin's first child, Yakov. A year later she died of typhus in Baku.
Stalin was captured and sent to Siberia seven times, but escaped most of these exiles. He eventually adopted the name "Stalin" from the Russian word for steel and used it as an alias and pen name in his published works.
During his last exile, Stalin was conscripted by the Russian army to fight in World War I, but was deemed unfit for service because of his damaged left arm.[14]
Revolution, Civil War, and Polish-Soviet War[link]
Role during the Russian Revolution of 1917[link]
After returning to Petrograd from exile, Stalin ousted Vyacheslav Molotov and Alexander Shlyapnikov as editors of Pravda. He then took a position in favor of supporting Alexander Kerensky's provisional government. However, after Lenin prevailed at the April 1917 Communist Party conference, Stalin and Pravda shifted to opposing the provisional government. At this conference, Stalin was elected to the Bolshevik Central Committee. In October 1917, the Bolshevik Central Committee voted in favor of an insurrection. On 7 November, from the Smolny Institute, Trotsky, Lenin and the rest of the Central Committee coordinated the insurrection against Kerensky in the 1917 October Revolution. By 8 November, the Bolsheviks had stormed the Winter Palace and Kerensky's Cabinet had been arrested.
Role in the Russian Civil War, 1917–1919[link]
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Upon seizing Petrograd, Stalin was appointed People's Commissar for Nationalities' Affairs. Thereafter, civil war broke out in Russia, pitting Lenin's Red Army against the White Army, a loose alliance of anti-Bolshevik forces. Lenin formed a five-member Politburo, which included Stalin and Trotsky. In May 1918, Lenin dispatched Stalin to the city of Tsaritsyn. Through his new allies, Kliment Voroshilov and Semyon Budyonny, Stalin imposed his influence on the military.[citation needed]
Stalin challenged many of the decisions of Trotsky, ordered the killings of many counter-revolutionaries and former Tsarist officers in the Red Army[citation needed] and burned villages in order to intimidate the peasantry into submission and discourage bandit raids on food shipments.[citation needed] In May 1919, in order to stem mass desertions on the Western front, Stalin had deserters and renegades publicly executed as traitors.[16]
Role in the Polish-Soviet War, 1919–1921[link]
After the Bolshevik victory in the Russian Civil War, Poland invaded Ukraine, starting what became known as the Polish–Soviet War, but the Bolsheviks pushed them back into Poland. As commander of the southern front, Stalin was determined to take the Polish-held city of Lviv. This conflicted with the general strategy set by Lenin and Trotsky, which focused on the capture of Warsaw further north.
Trotsky's forces engaged those of Polish commander Władysław Sikorski at the Battle of Warsaw, but Stalin refused to redirect his troops from Lviv to help. Consequently, the battles for both Lviv and Warsaw were lost, and Stalin was blamed. In August 1920, Stalin returned to Moscow, where he defended himself and resigned his military command. At the Ninth Party Conference on 22 September, Trotsky openly criticized Stalin's behavior.
Rise to power[link]
Main article: Rise of Joseph Stalin
Stalin played a decisive role in engineering the 1921 Red Army invasion of Georgia, following which he adopted particularly hardline, centralist policies towards Soviet Georgia. This led to the Georgian Affair of 1922 and other repressions.[17][18] Stalin's actions in Georgia created a rift with Lenin, who believed that all the Soviet states should stand equal.
Lenin nonetheless considered Stalin to be a loyal ally, and when he got mired in squabbles with Trotsky and other politicians, he decided to give Stalin more power. With the help of Lev Kamenev, Lenin had Stalin appointed General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1922.[19] This post enabled Stalin to appoint many of his allies to government positions.
Lenin suffered a stroke in 1922, forcing him into semi-retirement in Gorki. Stalin visited him often, acting as his intermediary with the outside world,[19] but the pair quarreled and their relationship deteriorated.[19] Lenin dictated increasingly disparaging notes on Stalin in what would become his testament. He criticized Stalin's political views, rude manners, and excessive power and ambition, and suggested that Stalin should be removed from the position of General Secretary.[19] During Lenin's semi-retirement, Stalin forged an alliance with Kamenev and Grigory Zinoviev against Leon Trotsky. These allies prevented Lenin's Testament from being revealed to the Twelfth Party Congress in April 1923.[19]
Lenin died of a heart attack on 21 January 1924. Again, Kamenev and Zinoviev helped to keep Lenin's Testament from going public. Thereafter, Stalin's disputes with Kamenev and Zinoviev intensified. Trotsky, Kamenev and Zinoviev grew increasingly isolated, and were eventually ejected from the Central Committee and then from the Party itself.[19] Kamenev and Zinoviev were later readmitted, but Trotsky was exiled from the Soviet Union.
The Northern Expedition in China became a point of contention over foreign policy by Stalin and Trotsky. Stalin wanted the Communist Party of China to ally itself with the Nationalist Kuomintang, rather than attempt to implement a communist revoluition. Trotsky urged the party to oppose the Kuomintang and launch a full-scalre revolution. Stalin funded the KMT during the expedition.[20] Stalin countered Trotsky's criticisms by making a secret speech in which he said that the Kuomintang were the only ones capable of defeating the imperialists, that Chiang Kai-shek had funding from the rich merchants, and that his forces were to be utilized until squeezed for all usefulness like a lemon before being discarded.[21] However, Chiang quickly reversed the tables in the Shanghai massacre of 1927 by massacring the membership of the Communist party in Shanghai midway through the Northern Expedition.[22][23]
Stalin pushed for more rapid industrialization and central control of the economy, contravening Lenin's New Economic Policy (NEP). At the end of 1927, a critical shortfall in grain supplies prompted Stalin to push for the collectivisation of agriculture and order the seizure of grain hoards from kulak farmers.[19][24] Nikolai Bukharin and Premier Alexey Rykov opposed these policies and advocated a return to the NEP, but the rest of the Politburo sided with Stalin and removed Bukharin from the Politburo in November 1929. Rykov was fired the following year and was replaced by Vyacheslav Molotov on Stalin's recommendation.
In December 1934, the popular Communist Party boss in Leningrad, Sergei Kirov, was murdered. Stalin blamed Kirov's murder on a vast conspiracy of saboteurs and Trotskyites. He launched a massive purge against these internal enemies, putting them on rigged show trials and then having them executed or imprisoned in Siberian Gulags. Among these victims were old enemies, including Bukharin, Rykov, Kamenev and Zinoviev. Stalin made the loyal Nikolai Yezhov head of the secret police, the NKVD, and had him purge the NKVD of veteran Bolsheviks. With no serious opponents left in power, Stalin ended the purges in 1938. Yezhov was held to blame for the excesses of the Great Terror. He was dismissed from office and later executed.
Changes to Soviet society, 1927–1939[link]
Bolstering Soviet secret service and intelligence[link]
Main article: Chronology of Soviet secret police agencies
Stalin vastly increased the scope and power of the state's secret police and intelligence agencies. Under his guiding hand, Soviet intelligence forces began to set up intelligence networks in most of the major nations of the world, including Germany (the famous Rote Kappelle spy ring), Great Britain, France, Japan, and the United States. Stalin made considerable use of the Communist International movement in order to infiltrate agents and to ensure that foreign Communist parties remained pro-Soviet and pro-Stalin.
One of the best examples of Stalin's ability to integrate secret police and foreign espionage came in 1940, when he gave approval to the secret police to have Leon Trotsky assassinated in Mexico.[25]
Cult of personality[link]
Main article: Stalin's cult of personality
Stalin created a cult of personality in the Soviet Union around both himself and Lenin. Many personality cults in history have been frequently measured and compared to his. Numerous towns, villages and cities were renamed after the Soviet leader (see List of places named after Stalin) and the Stalin Prize and Stalin Peace Prize were named in his honor. He accepted grandiloquent titles (e.g., "Coryphaeus of Science," "Father of Nations," "Brilliant Genius of Humanity," "Great Architect of Communism," "Gardener of Human Happiness," and others), and helped rewrite Soviet history to provide himself a more significant role in the revolution of 1917. At the same time, according to Nikita Khrushchev, he insisted that he be remembered for "the extraordinary modesty characteristic of truly great people." Statues of Stalin depict him at a height and build approximating the very tall Tsar Alexander III, while photographic evidence suggests he was between 5 ft 5 in and 5 ft 6 in (165–168 cm).[26]
Trotsky criticized the cult of personality built around Stalin. It reached new levels during World War II, with Stalin's name included in the new Soviet national anthem. Stalin became the focus of literature, poetry, music, paintings and film that exhibited fawning devotion. He was sometimes credited with almost god-like qualities, including the suggestion that he single-handedly won the Second World War. The degree to which Stalin himself relished the cult surrounding him is debatable. The Finnish communist Arvo Tuominen records a sarcastic toast proposed by Stalin at a New Year Party in 1935 in which he said "Comrades! I want to propose a toast to our patriarch, life and sun, liberator of nations, architect of socialism [he rattled off all the appellations applied to him in those days] – Josef Vissarionovich Stalin, and I hope this is the first and last speech made to that genius this evening."[27]
In a 1956 speech, Nikita Khrushchev denounced Stalin's cult of personality with these words: "It is impermissible and foreign to the spirit of Marxism-Leninism to elevate one person, to transform him into a superman possessing supernatural characteristics akin to those of a god."[citation needed]
Purges and deportations[link]
Purges and executions[link]
Main article: Great Purge
Left: Beria's January 1940 letter to Stalin asking permission to execute 346 "enemies of the CPSU and of the Soviet authorities" who conducted "counter-revolutionary, right-Trotskyite plotting and spying activities"
Middle: Stalin's handwriting: "за" (support).
Right: The Politburo's decision is signed by Secretary Stalin
Middle: Stalin's handwriting: "за" (support).
Right: The Politburo's decision is signed by Secretary Stalin
Stalin, as head of the Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, consolidated near-absolute power in the 1930s with a Great Purge of the party that was justified as an attempt to expel "opportunists" and "counter-revolutionary infiltrators".[28][29] Those targeted by the purge were often expelled from the party, however more severe measures ranged from banishment to the Gulag labor camps to execution after trials held by NKVD troikas.[28][30][31]
In the 1930s, Stalin apparently became increasingly worried about the growing popularity of the Leningrad party boss Sergei Kirov. At the 1934 Party Congress where the vote for the new Central Committee was held, Kirov received only three negative votes, the fewest of any candidate, while Stalin received 1,108 negative votes.[32] After the assassination of Kirov, which may have been orchestrated by Stalin, Stalin invented a detailed scheme to implicate opposition leaders in the murder, including Trotsky, Kamenev and Zinoviev.[33] The investigations and trials expanded.[34] Stalin passed a new law on "terrorist organizations and terrorist acts" that were to be investigated for no more than ten days, with no prosecution, defense attorneys or appeals, followed by a sentence to be executed "quickly."[35]
Thereafter, several trials known as the Moscow Trials were held, but the procedures were replicated throughout the country. Article 58 of the legal code, which listed prohibited anti-Soviet activities as counterrevolutionary crime, was applied in the broadest manner.[36] The flimsiest pretexts were often enough to brand someone an "enemy of the people", starting the cycle of public persecution and abuse, often proceeding to interrogation, torture and deportation, if not death. The Russian word troika gained a new meaning: a quick, simplified trial by a committee of three subordinated to NKVD -NKVD troika- with sentencing carried out within 24 hours.[35] Stalin's hand-picked executioner, Vasili Blokhin, was entrusted with carrying out some of the high profile executions in this period.[37]
Nikolai Yezhov, walking with Stalin in the top photo from the 1930s, was killed in 1940. Following his execution, Yezhov was edited out of the photo by Soviet censors.[38] Such retouching was a common occurrence during Stalin's rule.
Many military leaders were convicted of treason and a large-scale purge of Red Army officers followed.[39] The repression of so many formerly high-ranking revolutionaries and party members led Leon Trotsky to claim that a "river of blood" separated Stalin's regime from that of Lenin.[40] In August 1940, Trotsky was assassinated in Mexico, where he had lived in exile since January 1937; this eliminated the last of Stalin's opponents among the former Party leadership.[41]
With the exception of Vladimir Milyutin (who died in prison in 1937) and Joseph Stalin himself, all of the members of Lenin's original cabinet who had not succumbed to death from natural causes before the purge were executed.
Mass operations of the NKVD also targeted "national contingents" (foreign ethnicities) such as Poles, ethnic Germans, Koreans, etc. A total of 350,000 (144,000 of them Poles) were arrested and 247,157 (110,000 Poles) were executed.[24] Many Americans who had emigrated to the Soviet Union during the worst of the Great Depression were executed; others were sent to prison camps or gulags.[42] Concurrent with the purges, efforts were made to rewrite the history in Soviet textbooks and other propaganda materials. Notable people executed by NKVD were removed from the texts and photographs as though they never existed. Gradually, the history of revolution was transformed to a story about just two key characters: Lenin and Stalin.
In light of revelations from Soviet archives, historians now estimate that nearly 700,000 people (353,074 in 1937 and 328,612 in 1938) were executed in the course of the terror,[43] with the great mass of victims merely "ordinary" Soviet citizens: workers, peasants, homemakers, teachers, priests, musicians, soldiers, pensioners, ballerinas, beggars.[44][45] Many of the executed were interred in mass graves, with some of the major killing and burial sites being Bykivnia, Kurapaty and Butovo.[46]
Some Western experts believe the evidence released from the Soviet archives is understated, incomplete or unreliable.[47][48][49][50][51]
Stalin personally signed 357 proscription lists in 1937 and 1938 that condemned to execution some 40,000 people, and about 90% of these are confirmed to have been shot.[52] At the time, while reviewing one such list, Stalin reportedly muttered to no one in particular: "Who's going to remember all this riff-raff in ten or twenty years time? No one. Who remembers the names now of the boyars Ivan the Terrible got rid of? No one."[53] In addition, Stalin dispatched a contingent of NKVD operatives to Mongolia, established a Mongolian version of the NKVD troika, and unleashed a bloody purge in which tens of thousands were executed as "Japanese Spies." Mongolian ruler Khorloogiin Choibalsan closely followed Stalin's lead.[54]
During the 1930s and 1940s, the Soviet leadership sent NKVD squads into other countries to murder defectors and other opponents of the Soviet regime. Victims of such plots included Yevhen Konovalets, Ignace Poretsky, Rudolf Klement, Alexander Kutepov, Evgeny Miller, Leon Trotsky and the Workers' Party of Marxist Unification (POUM) leadership in Catalonia (e.g., Andreu Nin).[55]
Population transfer[link]
Main article: Population transfer in the Soviet Union
Shortly before, during and immediately after World War II, Stalin conducted a series of deportations on a huge scale that profoundly affected the ethnic map of the Soviet Union. It is estimated that between 1941 and 1949 nearly 3.3 million[56][57] were deported to Siberia and the Central Asian republics. By some estimates up to 43% of the resettled population died of diseases and malnutrition.[58]
Separatism, resistance to Soviet rule and collaboration with the invading Germans were cited as the official reasons for the deportations, rightly or wrongly. Individual circumstances of those spending time in German-occupied territories were not examined.[59] After the brief Nazi occupation of the Caucasus, the entire population of five of the small highland peoples and the Crimean Tatars – more than a million people in total – were deported without notice or any opportunity to take their possessions.[59]
As a result of Stalin's lack of trust in the loyalty of particular ethnicities, ethnic groups such as the Soviet Koreans, the Volga Germans, the Crimean Tatars, the Chechens, and many Poles were forcibly moved out of strategic areas and relocated to places in the central Soviet Union, especially Kazakhstan in Soviet Central Asia. By some estimates, hundreds of thousands of deportees may have died en route.[56]
According to official Soviet estimates, more than 14 million people passed through the Gulag from 1929 to 1953, with a further 7 to 8 million being deported and exiled to remote areas of the Soviet Union (including the entire nationalities in several cases).[60]
In February 1956, Nikita Khrushchev condemned the deportations as a violation of Leninism, and reversed most of them, although it was not until 1991 that the Tatars, Meskhetians and Volga Germans were allowed to return en masse to their homelands. The deportations had a profound effect on the peoples of the Soviet Union. The memory of the deportations has played a major part in the separatist movements in the Baltic States, Tatarstan and Chechnya, even today.
Collectivization[link]
Main article: Collectivization in the Soviet Union
Stalin's regime moved to force collectivization of agriculture. This was intended to increase agricultural output from large-scale mechanized farms, to bring the peasantry under more direct political control, and to make tax collection more efficient. Collectivization brought social change on a scale not seen since the abolition of serfdom in 1861 and alienation from control of the land and its produce. Collectivization also meant a drastic drop in living standards for many peasants, and it faced violent reaction among the peasantry.
In the first years of collectivization it was estimated that industrial production would rise by 200% and agricultural production by 50%,[61] but these expectations were not realized. Stalin blamed this unanticipated failure on kulaks (rich peasants), who resisted collectivization. However, kulaks proper made up only 4% of the peasant population; the "kulaks" that Stalin targeted included the slightly better-off peasants who took the brunt of violence from the OGPU and the Komsomol. These peasants were about 60% of the population. Those officially defined as "kulaks," "kulak helpers," and later "ex-kulaks" were to be shot, placed into Gulag labor camps, or deported to remote areas of the country, depending on the charge. Archival data indicates that 20,201 people were executed during 1930, the year of Dekulakization.[54]
The two-stage progress of collectivization—interrupted for a year by Stalin's famous editorials, "Dizzy with success"[62] and "Reply to Collective Farm Comrades"[63]—is a prime example of his capacity for tactical political withdrawal followed by intensification of initial strategies.
Famines[link]
Main article: Soviet famine of 1932–1933
Famine affected other parts of the USSR. The death toll from famine in the Soviet Union at this time is estimated at between 5 and 10 million people.[64] The worst crop failure of late tsarist Russia, in 1892, had caused 375,000 to 400,000 deaths.[65] Most modern scholars agree that the famine was caused by the policies of the government of the Soviet Union under Stalin, rather than by natural reasons.[66] According to Alan Bullock, "the total Soviet grain crop was no worse than that of 1931 ... it was not a crop failure but the excessive demands of the state, ruthlessly enforced, that cost the lives of as many as five million Ukrainian peasants." Stalin refused to release large grain reserves that could have alleviated the famine, while continuing to export grain; he was convinced that the Ukrainian peasants had hidden grain away and strictly enforced draconian new collective-farm theft laws in response.[67][68] Other historians hold it was largely the insufficient harvests of 1931 and 1932 caused by a variety of natural disasters that resulted in famine, with the successful harvest of 1933 ending the famine.[69] Soviet and other historians have argued that the rapid collectivization of agriculture was necessary in order to achieve an equally rapid industrialization of the Soviet Union and ultimately win World War II. Alec Nove claims that the Soviet Union industrialized in spite of, rather than because of, its collectivized agriculture.[citation needed]
The USSR also experienced a major famine in 1947 as a result of war damage and severe droughts, but economist Michael Ellman argues that it could have been prevented if the government had not mismanaged its grain reserves. The famine cost an estimated 1 to 1.5 million lives as well as secondary population losses due to reduced fertility.[70]
Ukrainian famine[link]
Main article: Holodomor
The Holodomor famine is sometimes referred to as the Ukrainian Genocide, implying it was engineered by the Soviet government, specifically targeting the Ukrainian people to destroy the Ukrainian nation as a political factor and social entity.[71] While historians continue to disagree whether the policies that led to Holodomor fall under the legal definition of genocide, twenty-six countries have officially recognized the Holodomor as such. On 28 November 2006, the Ukrainian Parliament approved a bill declaring the Soviet-era forced famine an act of genocide against the Ukrainian people.[72] Professor Michael Ellman concludes that Ukrainians were victims of genocide in 1932–33 according to a more relaxed definition that is favored by some specialists in the field of genocide studies. He asserts that Soviet policies greatly exacerbated the famine's death toll. Although 1.8 million tonnes of grain were exported during the height of the starvation—enough to feed 5 million people for one year-the use of torture and execution to extract grain under the Law of Spikelets, the use of force to prevent starving peasants from fleeing the worst-affected areas, and the refusal to import grain or secure international humanitarian aid to alleviate conditions led to incalcuable human suffering in the Ukraine. It would appear that Stalin intended to use the starvation as a cheap and efficient means (as opposed to deportations and shootings) to kill off those deemed to be "counterrevolutionaries," "idlers," and "thieves," but not to annihilate the Ukrainian peasantry as a whole. Ellman also claims that, while this was not the only Soviet genocide (e.g. The Polish operation of the NKVD), it was the worst in terms of mass casualties.[52]
Current estimates on the total number of casualties within Soviet Ukraine range mostly from 2.2 million[73][74] to 4 to 5 million.[75][76][77]
A Ukrainian court found Josef Stalin and other leaders of the former Soviet Union guilty of genocide by "organizing mass famine in Ukraine in 1932–1933" in January 2010. However, the court "dropped criminal proceedings over the suspects' deaths".[78][79]
Industrialization[link]
The Russian Civil War and wartime communism had a devastating effect on the country's economy. Industrial output in 1922 was 13% of that in 1914. A recovery followed under the New Economic Policy, which allowed a degree of market flexibility within the context of socialism. Under Stalin's direction, this was replaced by a system of centrally ordained "Five-Year Plans" in the late 1920s. These called for a highly ambitious program of state-guided crash industrialization and the collectivization of agriculture.
With seed capital unavailable because of international reaction to Communist policies, little international trade, and virtually no modern infrastructure, Stalin's government financed industrialization both by restraining consumption on the part of ordinary Soviet citizens to ensure that capital went for re-investment into industry, and by ruthless extraction of wealth from the kulaks.
In 1933 workers' real earnings sank to about one-tenth of the 1926 level.[citation needed] Common and political prisoners in labor camps were forced to perform unpaid labor, and communists and Komsomol members were frequently "mobilized" for various construction projects. The Soviet Union used numerous foreign experts to design new factories, supervise construction, instruct workers and improve manufacturing processes. The most notable foreign contractor was Albert Kahn's firm that designed and built 521 factories between 1930 and 1932. As a rule, factories were supplied with imported equipment.
In spite of early breakdowns and failures, the first two Five-Year Plans achieved rapid industrialization from a very low economic base. While it is generally agreed that the Soviet Union achieved significant levels of economic growth under Stalin, the precise rate of growth is disputed. It is not disputed, however, that these gains were accomplished at the cost of millions of lives. Official Soviet estimates stated the annual rate of growth at 13.9%; Russian and Western estimates gave lower figures of 5.8% and even 2.9%. Indeed, one estimate is that Soviet growth became temporarily much higher after Stalin's death.[80]
According to Robert Lewis, the Five-Year Plan substantially helped to modernize the previously backward Soviet economy. New products were developed, and the scale and efficiency of existing production greatly increased. Some innovations were based on indigenous technical developments, others on imported foreign technology.[81] Despite its costs, the industrialization effort allowed the Soviet Union to fight, and ultimately win, World War II.
Science[link]
Main articles: Science and technology in the Soviet Union and Suppressed research in the Soviet Union
Science in the Soviet Union was under strict ideological control by Stalin and his government, along with art and literature. There was significant progress in "ideologically safe" domains, owing to the free Soviet education system and state-financed research. However, the most notable legacy during Stalin's time was his public endorsement of the Agronomist Trofim Lysenko, who rejected Mendelian genetics as "bourgeois pseudoscience" and instead supported hybridization theories that caused widespread agricultural destruction and major setbacks in Soviet knowledge in biology. Although many scientists opposed his views, those who publicly came out were imprisoned and denounced. Some areas of physics were criticized.[82][83]
Social services[link]
Under the Soviet government people benefited from some social liberalization. Girls were given an adequate, equal education and women had equal rights in employment,[24][page needed] improving lives for women and families. Stalinist development also contributed to advances in health care, which significantly increased the lifespan and quality of life of the typical Soviet citizen.[24][page needed] Stalin's policies granted the Soviet people universal access to healthcare and education, effectively creating the first generation free from the fear of typhus, cholera, and malaria.[84][page needed] The occurrences of these diseases dropped to record low numbers, increasing life spans by decades.[84][page needed]
Soviet women under Stalin were the first generation of women able to give birth in the safety of a hospital with access to prenatal care.[84][page needed] Education was also an example of an increase in the standard of living after economic development. The generation born during Stalin's rule was the first near-universally literate generation. Millions benefited from mass literacy campaigns in the 1930s, and from workers training schemes.[85][page needed] Engineers were sent abroad to learn industrial technology, and hundreds of foreign engineers were brought to Russia on contract.[84][page needed] Transport links were improved and many new railways built. Workers who exceeded their quotas, Stakhanovites, received many incentives for their work;[85][page needed] they could afford to buy the goods that were mass-produced by the rapidly expanding Soviet economy.
The increase in demand due to industrialization and the decrease in the workforce due to World War II and repressions generated a major expansion in job opportunities for the survivors, especially for women.[85][page needed]
Culture[link]
Main article: Socialist Realism
Although he was Georgian by birth, Stalin became a Russian nationalist[86] and significantly promoted Russian history, language, and Russian national heroes, particularly during the 1930s and 1940s. He held the Russians up as the elder brothers of the non-Russian minorities.[87]
During Stalin's reign the official and long-lived style of Socialist Realism was established for painting, sculpture, music, drama and literature. Previously fashionable "revolutionary" expressionism, abstract art, and avant-garde experimentation were discouraged or denounced as "formalism".
The degree of Stalin's personal involvement in general, and in specific instances, has been the subject of discussion.[citation needed] Stalin's favorite novel Pharaoh, shared similarities[citation needed] with Sergei Eisenstein's film, Ivan the Terrible, produced under Stalin's tutelage.
In architecture, a Stalinist Empire Style (basically, updated neoclassicism on a very large scale, exemplified by the Seven Sisters of Moscow) replaced the constructivism of the 1920s. Stalin's rule had a largely disruptive effect on indigenous cultures within the Soviet Union, though the politics of Korenizatsiya and forced development were possibly beneficial to the integration of later generations of indigenous cultures.
Religion[link]
Main article: Religion in the Soviet Union
Although raised in the Georgian Orthodox faith, Stalin was an atheist. Stalin followed the position adopted by Lenin that religion was an opiate that needed to be removed in order to construct the ideal communist society. His government promoted atheism through special atheistic education in schools, anti-religious propaganda, the antireligious work of public institutions (Society of the Godless), discriminatory laws, and a terror campaign against religious believers. By the late 1930s it had become dangerous to be publicly associated with religion.[88]
Stalin's role in the fortunes of the Russian Orthodox Church is complex. Continuous persecution in the 1930s resulted in its near-extinction as a public institution: by 1939, active parishes numbered in the low hundreds (down from 54,000 in 1917), many churches had been leveled, and tens of thousands of priests, monks and nuns were persecuted and killed. Over 100,000 were shot during the purges of 1937–1938.[89] During World War II, the Church was allowed a revival as a patriotic organization, and thousands of parishes were reactivated until a further round of suppression during Khrushchev's rule. The Russian Orthodox Church Synod's recognition of the Soviet government and of Stalin personally led to a schism with the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia.
Just days before Stalin's death, certain religious sects were outlawed and persecuted. Many religions popular in ethnic regions of the Soviet Union, including the Roman Catholic Church, Eastern Catholic Churches, Baptists, Islam, Buddhism, and Judaism underwent ordeals similar to that which the Orthodox churches in other parts of the country suffered: thousands of monks were persecuted, and hundreds of churches, synagogues, mosques, temples, sacred monuments, monasteries and other religious buildings were razed. Stalin had a different policy outside the Soviet Union, he supported the Communist Uyghur Muslim separatists under Ehmetjan Qasim in the Ili Rebellion against the Anti Communist Republic of China regime. He supplied weapons to the Uyghur Ili army and Red Army support against Chinese forces, and helped them establish the Second East Turkestan Republic of which Islam was the official state religion.
Theorist[link]
Main article: Stalinism
Stalin and his supporters have highlighted the notion that socialism can be built and consolidated by a country as underdeveloped as Russia during the 1920s. Indeed this might be the only means in which it could be built in a hostile environment.[90] In 1933, Stalin put forward the theory of aggravation of the class struggle along with the development of socialism, arguing that the further the country would move forward, the more acute forms of struggle will be used by the doomed remnants of exploiter classes in their last desperate efforts – and that, therefore, political repression was necessary.
In 1936, Stalin announced that the society of the Soviet Union consisted of two non-antagonistic classes: workers and kolkhoz peasantry. These corresponded to the two different forms of property over the means of production that existed in the Soviet Union: state property (for the workers) and collective property (for the peasantry). In addition to these, Stalin distinguished the stratum of intelligentsia. The concept of "non-antagonistic classes" was entirely new to Leninist theory. Among Stalin's contributions to Communist theoretical literature were "Dialectical and Historical Materialism," "Marxism and the National Question", "Trotskyism or Leninism", and "The Principles of Leninism."
Calculating the number of victims[link]
Before the 1991 dissolution of the Soviet Union, researchers who attempted to count the number of people killed under Stalin's regime produced estimates ranging from 3 to 60 million.[91] After the Soviet Union dissolved, evidence from the Soviet archives also became available, containing official records of the execution of approximately 800,000 prisoners under Stalin for either political or criminal offenses, around 1.7 million deaths in the Gulags and some 390,000 deaths during kulak forced resettlement – with a total of about 3 million officially recorded victims in these categories.[92]
The official Soviet archival records do not contain comprehensive figures for some categories of victims, such as those of ethnic deportations or of German population transfers in the aftermath of World War II.[93] Eric D. Weitz wrote, "By 1948, according to Nicolas Werth, the mortality rate of the 600,000 people deported from the Caucasus between 1943 and 1944 had reached 25%."[94][95] Other notable exclusions from NKVD data on repression deaths include the Katyn massacre, other killings in the newly occupied areas, and the mass shootings of Red Army personnel (deserters and so-called deserters) in 1941. The Soviets executed 158,000 soldiers for desertion during the war,[96] and the "blocking detachments" of the NKVD shot thousands more.[97] Also, the official statistics on Gulag mortality exclude deaths of prisoners taking place shortly after their release but which resulted from the harsh treatment in the camps.[98] Some historians also believe that the official archival figures of the categories that were recorded by Soviet authorities are unreliable and incomplete.[99][page needed][100] In addition to failures regarding comprehensive recordings, as one additional example, Robert Gellately and Simon Sebag-Montefiore argue that the many suspects beaten and tortured to death while in "investigative custody" were likely not to have been counted amongst the executed.[24][101]
Historians working after the Soviet Union's dissolution have estimated victim totals ranging from approximately 4 million to nearly 10 million, not including those who died in famines.[102] Russian writer Vadim Erlikman, for example, makes the following estimates: executions, 1.5 million; gulags, 5 million; deportations, 1.7 million out of 7.5 million deported; and POWs and German civilians, 1 million – a total of about 9 million victims of repression.[103]
Some have also included the deaths of 6 to 8 million people in the 1932–1933 famine among the victims of Stalin's repression. This categorization is controversial however, as historians differ as to whether the famine was a deliberate part of the campaign of repression against kulaks and others,[52][104][105][106][107] or simply an unintended consequence of the struggle over forced collectivization.[68][108][109]
Accordingly, if famine victims are included, a minimum of around 10 million deaths—6 million from famine and 4 million from other causes—are attributable to the regime,[110] with a number of recent historians suggesting a likely total of around 20 million, citing much higher victim totals from executions, gulags, deportations and other causes.[111] Adding 6–8 million famine victims to Erlikman's estimates above, for example, would yield a total of between 15 and 17 million victims. Researcher Robert Conquest, meanwhile, has revised his original estimate of up to 30 million victims down to 20 million.[112] In his most recent edition of The Great Terror (2007), Conquest states that while exact numbers may never be known with complete certainty, the various terror campaigns launched by the Soviet government claimed no fewer than 15 million lives.[113] Others maintain that their earlier higher victim total estimates are correct.[114][115]
World War II, 1939–1945[link]
Main article: Soviet Union in World War II
Pact with Hitler[link]
After a failed attempt to sign an anti-German military alliance with France and Britain[116][117][118] and talks with Germany regarding a potential political deal,[119][120][121][122] on 23 August 1939, the Soviet Union entered into a non-aggression pact with Nazi Germany, negotiated by Soviet foreign minister Vyacheslav Molotov and German foreign minister Joachim von Ribbentrop.[123] Officially a non-aggression treaty only, an appended secret protocol, also reached on 23 August 1939, divided the whole of eastern Europe into German and Soviet spheres of influence.[124][125]
The eastern part of Poland, Latvia, Estonia, Finland and part of Romania were recognized as parts of the Soviet sphere of influence,[125] with Lithuania added in a second secret protocol in September 1939.[126] Stalin and Ribbentrop traded toasts on the night of the signing discussing past hostilities between the countries.[127]
Implementing the division of Eastern Europe and other invasions[link]
On 1 September 1939, the German invasion of its agreed upon portion of Poland started World War II.[123] On 17 September the Red Army invaded eastern Poland and occupied the Polish territory assigned to it by the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, followed by co-ordination with German forces in Poland.[128][129] Eleven days later, the secret protocol of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact was modified, allotting Germany a larger part of Poland, while ceding most of Lithuania to the Soviet Union.[130]
After Stalin declared that he was going to "solve the Baltic problem", by June 1940, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia were merged into the Soviet Union, after repressions and actions therein brought about the deaths of over 160,000 citizens of these states.[130][131][132][133] After facing stiff resistance in an invasion of Finland,[134] an interim peace was entered, granting the Soviet Union the eastern region of Karelia (10% of Finnish territory).[134]
After this campaign, Stalin took actions to bolster the Soviet military, modify training and improve propaganda efforts in the Soviet military.[135] In June 1940, Stalin directed the Soviet annexation of Bessarabia and northern Bukovina, proclaiming this formerly Romanian territory part of the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic.[136] But in annexing northern Bukovina, Stalin had gone beyond the agreed limits of the secret protocol.[136]
After the Tripartite Pact was signed by Axis Powers Germany, Japan and Italy, in October 1940, Stalin traded letters with Ribbentrop, with Stalin writing about entering an agreement regarding a "permanent basis" for their "mutual interests."[137] After a conference in Berlin between Hitler, Molotov and Ribbentrop, Germany presented Molotov with a proposed written agreement for Axis entry.[136][138] On 25 November, Stalin responded with a proposed written agreement for Axis entry which was never answered by Germany.[139] Shortly thereafter, Hitler issued a secret directive on the eventual attempts to invade the Soviet Union.[139] In an effort to demonstrate peaceful intentions toward Germany, on 13 April 1941, Stalin oversaw the signing of a neutrality pact with Axis power Japan.[140]
Hitler breaks the pact[link]
During the early morning of 22 June 1941, Hitler broke the pact by implementing Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of Soviet held territories and the Soviet Union that began the war on the Eastern Front.[141] Already in autumn 1940 Stalin received a warning of the Dutch communist party, via the network of the Red Orchestra (espionage), that Hitler was preparing for a winter war by letting construct thousands of snow landing gears for the Junkers Ju 52 transport planes.[142] Although Stalin had received warnings from spies and his generals,[143][144][145][146][147] he felt that Germany would not attack the Soviet Union until Germany had defeated Britain.[143] In the initial hours after the German attack commenced, Stalin hesitated, wanting to ensure that the German attack was sanctioned by Hitler, rather than the unauthorized action of a rogue general.[24][page needed]
Accounts by Nikita Khrushchev and Anastas Mikoyan claim that, after the invasion, Stalin retreated to his dacha in despair for several days and did not participate in leadership decisions.[148] However, some documentary evidence of orders given by Stalin contradicts these accounts, leading some historians to speculate that Khrushchev's account is inaccurate.[149] By the end of 1941, the Soviet military had suffered 4.3 million casualties[150] and German forces had advanced 1,050 miles (1,690 kilometers).[151]
Soviets stop the Germans[link]
While the Germans pressed forward, Stalin was confident of an eventual Allied victory over Germany. In September 1941, Stalin told British diplomats that he wanted two agreements: (1) a mutual assistance/aid pact and (2) a recognition that, after the war, the Soviet Union would gain the territories in countries that it had taken pursuant to its division of Eastern Europe with Hitler in the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact.[152] The British agreed to assistance but refused to agree upon the territorial gains, which Stalin accepted months later as the military situation deteriorated somewhat in mid-1942.[152] By December, Hitler's troops had advanced to within 20 miles of the Kremlin in Moscow.[153] On 5 December, the Soviets launched a counteroffensive, pushing German troops back 40–50 miles from Moscow, the Wehrmacht's first significant defeat of the war.[153]
In 1942, Hitler shifted his primary goal from an immediate victory in the East, to the more long-term goal of securing the southern Soviet Union to protect oil fields vital to a long-term German war effort.[154] While Red Army generals saw evidence that Hitler would shift efforts south, Stalin considered this to be a flanking campaign in efforts to take Moscow.[155] During the war, Time magazine named Stalin Time Person of the Year twice[156] and he was also one of the nominees for Time Person of the Century title.[citation needed]
Soviet push to Germany[link]
The Soviets repulsed the important German strategic southern campaign and, although 2.5 million Soviet casualties were suffered in that effort, it permitted the Soviets to take the offensive for most of the rest of the war on the Eastern Front.[157]
Germany attempted an encirclement attack at Kursk, which was successfully repulsed by the Soviets.[158] Kursk marked the beginning of a period where Stalin became more willing to listen to the advice of his generals.[159] By the end of 1943, the Soviets occupied half of the territory taken by the Germans from 1941–1942.[159] Soviet military industrial output also had increased substantially from late 1941 to early 1943 after Stalin had moved factories well to the East of the front, safe from German invasion and air attack.[160]
In November 1943, Stalin met with Churchill and Roosevelt in Tehran.[161] The parties later agreed that Britain and America would launch a cross-channel invasion of France in May 1944, along with a separate invasion of southern France.[162] Stalin insisted that, after the war, the Soviet Union should incorporate the portions of Poland it occupied pursuant to the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact with Germany, which Churchill opposed.[163]
In 1944, the Soviet Union made significant advances across Eastern Europe toward Germany,[164] including Operation Bagration, a massive offensive in Belorussia against the German Army Group Centre.[165]
Final victory[link]
By April 1945, Nazi Germany faced its last days with 1.9 million German soldiers in the East fighting 6.4 million Red Army soldiers while 1 million German soldiers in the West battled 4 million Western Allied soldiers.[166] While initial talk existed of a race to Berlin by the Allies, after Stalin successfully lobbied for Eastern Germany to fall within the Soviet "sphere of influence" at Yalta, no plans were made by the Western Allies to seize the city by a ground operation.[167][168]
On 30 April, Hitler and Eva Braun committed suicide, after which Soviet forces found their remains, which had been burned at Hitler's directive.[169] German forces surrendered a few days later. Despite the Soviets' possession of Hitler's remains, Stalin did not believe that his old nemesis was actually dead, a belief that remained for years after the war.[170][171]
Fending off the German invasion and pressing to victory in the East required a tremendous sacrifice by the Soviet Union.[172] Soviet military casualties totaled approximately 35 million (official figures 28.2 million) with approximately 14.7 million killed, missing or captured (official figures 11.285 million).[173] Although figures vary, the Soviet civilian death toll probably reached 20 million.[173] One in four Soviets was killed or wounded.[174] Some 1,710 towns and 70,000 villages were destroyed.[175][176] Thereafter, Stalin was at times referred to as one of the most influential men in human history.[177][178]
Nobel Peace Prize nominations[link]
In 1945, he was mentioned by Halvdan Koht among seven candidates that were qualified for the Nobel Peace Prize. However, he did not explicitly nominate any of them. The person actually nominated was Cordell Hull.[179]
In 1948, he was officially nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize by Wladislav Rieger.[180]
Questionable tactics[link]
After taking around 300,000 Polish prisoners in 1939 and early 1940,[181][182][182][183][184] 25,700 Polish POWs were executed on 5 March 1940, pursuant to a note to Stalin from Lavrenty Beria,[185][186] in what became known as the Katyn massacre.[187][185][188] While Stalin personally told a Polish general they'd "lost track" of the officers in Manchuria,[189][190][191][191] Polish railroad workers found the mass grave after the 1941 Nazi invasion.[192] The massacre became a source of political controversy,[193][194] with the Soviets eventually claiming that Germany committed the executions when the Soviet Union retook Poland in 1944.[185][195] The Soviets did not admit responsibility until 1990.[196]
Stalin introduced controversial military orders, such as Order No. 270, requiring superiors to shoot deserters on the spot[197] while their family members were subject to arrest.[198] Thereafter, Stalin also conducted a purge of several military commanders that were shot for "cowardice" without a trial.[198] Stalin issued Order No. 227, directing that commanders permitting retreat without permission to be subject to a military tribunal,[199] and soldiers guilty of disciplinary procedures to be forced into "penal battalions", which were sent to the most dangerous sections of the front lines.[199] From 1942 to 1945, 427,910 soldiers were assigned to penal battalions.[200] The order also directed "blocking detachments" to shoot fleeing panicked troops at the rear.[199]
In June 1941, weeks after the German invasion began, Stalin also directed employing a scorched earth policy of destroying the infrastructure and food supplies of areas before the Germans could seize them, and that partisans were to be set up in evacuated areas.[149] He also ordered the NKVD to murder around one hundred thousand political prisoners in areas where the Wermacht approached,[201] while others were deported east.[99][page needed][202]
After the capture of Berlin, Soviet troops reportedly raped from tens of thousands to two million women,[203][page needed] and 50,000 during and after the occupation of Budapest.[204][205] In former Axis countries, such as Germany, Romania and Hungary, Red Army officers generally viewed cities, villages and farms as being open to pillaging and looting.[206]
In the Soviet Occupation Zone of post-war Germany, the Soviets set up ten NKVD-run "special camps" subordinate to the gulag.[207] These "special camps" were former Stalags, prisons, or Nazi concentration camps such as Sachsenhausen (special camp number 7) and Buchenwald (special camp number 2).[208] According to German government estimates, "65,000 people died in those Soviet-run camps or in transportation to them."[209]
According to recent figures, of an estimated four million POWs taken by the Soviets, including Germans, Japanese, Hungarians, Romanians and others, some 580,000 never returned, presumably victims of privation or the Gulags.[210] Soviet POWs and forced laborers who survived German captivity were sent to special "transit" or "filtration" camps to determine which were potential traitors.[211]
Of the approximately 4 million to be repatriated 2,660,013 were civilians and 1,539,475 were former POWs.[211] Of the total, 2,427,906 were sent home and 801,152 were reconscripted into the armed forces.[211] 608,095 were enrolled in the work battalions of the defense ministry.[211] 272,867 were transferred to the authority of the NKVD for punishment, which meant a transfer to the Gulag system.[211][212][213] 89,468 remained in the transit camps as reception personnel until the repatriation process was finally wound up in the early 1950s.[211]
Allied conferences on post-war Europe[link]
Stalin met in several conferences with British Prime Minister Winston Churchill (and later Clement Attlee) and/or U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt (and later Harry Truman) to plan military strategy and, later, to discuss Europe's postwar reorganization. Very early conferences, such as that with British diplomats in Moscow in 1941 and with Churchill and American diplomats in Moscow in 1942, focused mostly upon war planning and supply, though some preliminary postwar reorganization discussion also occurred. In 1943, Stalin met with Churchill and Roosevelt in the Tehran Conference. In 1944, Stalin met with Churchill in the Moscow Conference. Beginning in late 1944, the Red Army occupied much of Eastern Europe during these conferences and the discussions shifted to a more intense focus on the reorganization of postwar Europe.
In February 1945, at the conference at Yalta, Stalin demanded a Soviet sphere of political influence in Eastern Europe.[214] Stalin eventually was convinced by Churchill and Roosevelt not to dismember Germany.[214] Stalin also stated that the Polish government-in-exile demands for self-rule were not negotiable, such that the Soviet Union would keep the territory of eastern Poland they had already taken by invasion with German consent in 1939, and wanted the pro-Soviet Polish government installed.[214] After resistance by Churchill and Roosevelt, Stalin promised a re-organization of the current Communist puppet government on a broader democratic basis in Poland.[214] He stated the new government's primary task would be to prepare elections.[215]
The parties at Yalta further agreed that the countries of liberated Europe and former Axis satellites would be allowed to "create democratic institutions of their own choice", pursuant to "the right of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they will live."[216] The parties also agreed to help those countries form interim governments "pledged to the earliest possible establishment through free elections" and "facilitate where necessary the holding of such elections."[216] After the re-organization of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Poland, the parties agreed that the new party shall "be pledged to the holding of free and unfettered elections as soon as possible on the basis of universal suffrage and secret ballot."[216] One month after Yalta, the Soviet NKVD arrested 16 Polish leaders wishing to participate in provisional government negotiations, for alleged "crimes" and "diversions", which drew protest from the West.[215] The fraudulent Polish elections, held in January 1947 resulted in Poland's official transformation to undemocratic communist state by 1949.
At the Potsdam Conference from July to August 1945, though Germany had surrendered months earlier, instead of withdrawing Soviet forces from Eastern European countries, Stalin had not moved those forces. At the beginning of the conference, Stalin repeated previous promises to Churchill that he would refrain from a "Sovietization" of Eastern Europe.[217] Stalin pushed for reparations from Germany without regard to the base minimum supply for German citizens' survival, which worried Truman and Churchill who thought that Germany would become a financial burden for Western powers.[218]
In addition to reparations, Stalin pushed for "war booty", which would permit the Soviet Union to directly seize property from conquered nations without quantitative or qualitative limitation, and a clause was added permitting this to occur with some limitations.[218] By July 1945, Stalin's troops effectively controlled the Baltic States, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria and Romania, and refugees were fleeing out of these countries fearing a Communist take-over. The western allies, and especially Churchill, were suspicious of the motives of Stalin, who had already installed communist governments in the central European countries under his influence.
In these conferences, his first appearances on the world stage, Stalin proved to be a formidable negotiator. Anthony Eden, the British Foreign Secretary noted: "Marshal Stalin as a negotiator was the toughest proposition of all. Indeed, after something like thirty years' experience of international conferences of one kind and another, if I had to pick a team for going into a conference room, Stalin would be my first choice. Of course the man was ruthless and of course he knew his purpose. He never wasted a word. He never stormed, he was seldom even irritated."[219]
Post-war era, 1945–1953[link]
The Iron Curtain and the Eastern Bloc[link]
After Soviet forces remained in Eastern and Central European countries, with the beginnings of communist puppet regimes in those countries, Churchill referred to the region as being behind an "Iron Curtain" of control from Moscow.[220][221] The countries under Soviet control in Eastern and Central Europe were sometimes called the "Eastern bloc" or "Soviet Bloc".
In Soviet-controlled East Germany, the major task of the ruling communist party in Germany was to channel Soviet orders down to both the administrative apparatus and the other bloc parties pretending that these were initiatives of its own,[222] with deviations potentially leading to reprimands, imprisonment, torture and even death.[222] Property and industry were nationalized.[222]
The German Democratic Republic was declared on 7 October 1949, with a new constitution which enshrined socialism and gave the Soviet-controlled Socialist Unity Party ("SED") control. In Berlin, after citizens strongly rejected communist candidates in an election, in June 1948, the Soviet Union blockaded West Berlin, the portion of Berlin not under Soviet control, cutting off all supply of food and other items. The blockade failed due to the unexpected massive aerial resupply campaign carried out by the Western powers known as the Berlin Airlift. In 1949, Stalin conceded defeat and ended the blockade.
While Stalin had promised at the Yalta Conference that free elections would be held in Poland,[216] after an election failure in "3 times YES" elections,[223] vote rigging was employed to win a majority in the carefully controlled poll.[224][225][226] Following the forged referendum, the Polish economy started to become nationalized.[227]
In Hungary, when the Soviets installed a communist government, Mátyás Rákosi, who described himself as "Stalin's best Hungarian disciple"[228] and "Stalin's best pupil",[229] took power. Rákosi employed "salami tactics", slicing up these enemies like pieces of salami,[230] to battle the initial postwar political majority ready to establish a democracy.[231] Rákosi, employed Stalinist political and economic programs, and was dubbed the "bald murderer" for establishing one of the harshest dictatorships in Europe.[231][232] Approximately 350,000 Hungarian officials and intellectuals were purged from 1948 to 1956.[231]
During World War II, in Bulgaria, the Red Army crossed the border and created the conditions for a communist coup d'état on the following night.[233] The Soviet military commander in Sofia assumed supreme authority, and the communists whom he instructed, including Kimon Georgiev, took full control of domestic politics.[233]
In 1949, the Soviet Union, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, and Romania founded the Comecon in accordance with Stalin's desire to enforce Soviet domination of the lesser states of Central Europe and to mollify some states that had expressed interest in the Marshall Plan,[234] and which were now, increasingly, cut off from their traditional markets and suppliers in Western Europe.[235] Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Poland had remained interested in Marshall aid despite the requirements for a convertible currency and market economies. In July 1947, Stalin ordered these communist-dominated governments to pull out of the Paris Conference on the European Recovery Programme. This has been described as "the moment of truth" in the post–World War II division of Europe.[235]
In Greece, Britain and the United States supported the anti-communists in the Greek Civil War and suspected the Soviets of supporting the Greek communists, although Stalin refrained from getting involved in Greece, dismissing the movement as premature. Albania remained an ally of the Soviet Union, but Yugoslavia broke with the USSR in 1948.
In Stalin's last year of life, one of his last major foreign policy initiatives was the 1952 Stalin Note for German reunification and Superpower disengagement from Central Europe, but Britain, France, and the United States viewed this with suspicion and rejected the offer.
Sino-Soviet relations[link]
In Asia, the Red Army had overrun Manchuria in the last month of the war and then also occupied Korea above the 38th parallel north. Mao Zedong's Communist Party of China, though receptive to minimal Soviet support, defeated the pro-Western and heavily American-assisted Chinese Nationalist Party in the Chinese Civil War.
There was friction between Stalin and Mao from the beginning. During World War II Stalin had supported the dictator of China, Chiang Kai-Shek, as a bulwark against Japan and had turned a blind eye to Chiang's mass killings of communists. He generally put his alliance with Chiang against Japan ahead of helping his ideological allies in China in his priorities. Even after the war Stalin concluded a non-aggression pact between the USSR and Chiang's Kuomintang (KMT) regime in China and instructed Mao and the Chinese communists to cooperate with Chiang and the KMT after the war. Mao did not follow Stalin's instructions though and started a communist revolution against Chiang. Stalin did not believe Mao would be successful so he was less than enthusiastic in helping Mao. The USSR continued to maintain diplomatic relations with Chiang's KMT regime until 1949 when it became clear Mao would win.
Stalin supported the Turkic Muslims known today as Uyghur in seeking their own state, Second East Turkestan Republic during the Ili Rebellion against the Republic of China. He backed the Uyghur Communist Muslim leader Ehmetjan Qasim against the anti Communist Chinese Kuomintang forces.
Stalin did conclude a new friendship and alliance treaty with Mao after he defeated Chiang. But there was still a lot of tension between the two leaders and resentment by Mao for Stalin's less than enthusiastic help during the civil war in China.
The Communists controlled mainland China while the Nationalists held a rump state on the island of Taiwan. The Soviet Union soon after recognized Mao's People's Republic of China, which it regarded as a new ally. The People's Republic claimed Taiwan, though it had never held authority there.
Diplomatic relations between the Soviet Union and China reached a high point with the signing of the 1950 Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance. Both countries provided military support to a new friendly state in North Korea. After various Korean border conflicts, war broke out with U.S.-allied South Korea in 1950, starting the Korean War.
However, not surprisingly, the relations with the Kuomintang deteriorated. In 1951, in Taiwan, the Chinese Muslim Kuomintang General Bai Chongxi made a speech broadcast on radio to the entire Muslim world calling for a war against Russia, claiming that the "imperialist ogre" leader Stalin was engineering World War III, and Bai also called upon Muslims to avoid the Indian leader Nehru, accusing him of being blind to Soviet imperialism.[236][237]
North Korea[link]
Contrary to America's policy which restrained armament (limited equipment was provided for infantry and police forces) to South Korea, Stalin extensively armed Kim Il Sung's North Korean army and air forces with military equipment (to include T-34/85 tanks) and "advisors" far in excess of those required for defensive purposes) in order to facilitate Kim's (a former Soviet Officer) aim of conquering the rest of the Korean peninsula.
The North Korean Army struck in the pre-dawn hours of Sunday, 25 June 1950, crossing the 38th parallel behind a firestorm of artillery, beginning their invasion of South Korea.[238] During the Korean War, Soviet pilots flew Soviet aircraft from Chinese bases against United Nations aircraft defending South Korea. Post–Cold War research in Soviet Archives has revealed that the Korean War was begun by Kim Il-sung with the express permission of Stalin, though this is disputed by North Korea.[citation needed]
Israel[link]
Stalin originally supported the creation of Israel in 1948. The USSR was one of the first nations to recognize the new country.[239] Golda Meir came to Moscow as the first Israeli Ambassador to the USSR that year. However, after providing war materiel for Israel through Czechoslovakia, Stalin later changed his mind and came out against Israel.
[edit] Falsifiers of History
In 1948, Stalin personally edited and rewrote by hand sections of the cold war book Falsifiers of History.[240] Falsifiers was published in response to the documents made public in Nazi-Soviet Relations, 1939–1941: Documents from the Archives of The German Foreign Office,[241][242] which included the secret protocols of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact and other secret German-Soviet relations documents.[241][243] Falsifiers originally appeared as a series of articles in Pravda in February 1948,[242] and was subsequently published in numerous language and distributed worldwide.[244]
The book did not attempt to directly counter or deal with the documents published in Nazi-Soviet Relations[245] and rather, focused upon Western culpability for the outbreak of war in 1939.[244] It argues that "Western powers" aided Nazi rearmament and aggression, including that American bankers and industrialists provided capital for the growth of German war industries, while deliberately encouraging Hitler to expand eastward.[241][244] It depicted the Soviet Union as striving to negotiate a collective security against Hitler, while being thwarted by double-dealing Anglo-French appeasers who, despite appearances, had no intention of a Soviet alliance and were secretly negotiating with Berlin.[244] It casts the Munich agreement, not just as Anglo-French short-sightedness or cowardice, but as a "secret" agreement that was a "a highly important phase in their policy aimed at goading the Hitlerite aggressors against the Soviet Union."[246] The book also included the claim that, during the Pact's operation, Stalin rejected Hitler's offer to share in a division of the world, without mentioning the Soviet offers to join the Axis.[247] Historical studies, official accounts, memoirs and textbooks published in the Soviet Union used that depiction of events until the Soviet Union's dissolution.[247]
Domestic support[link]
Domestically, Stalin was seen as a great wartime leader who had led the Soviets to victory against the Nazis.
An increasingly nationalistic emphasis on Russian history and achievements became a salient feature of Soviet culture in the 1940s. At the end of May 1945, Stalin proposed a victory toast to the Soviet people, and to the virtues of the Russian majority in particular:
| “ |
|
” |
Various foreign scientific discoveries and inventions (such as the Wright Brothers' airplane) were attributed to Russians in post-war Soviet propaganda. Examples include the boiler, reclaimed by father and son Cherepanovs; the electric light, by Yablochkov and Lodygin; the radio, by Popov; and the airplane, by Mozhaysky. Stalin's internal repressive policies continued (including in newly acquired territories), but never reached the extremes of the 1930s.
"Doctors' plot"[link]
Main article: Doctors' plot
The "Doctors' plot" was a plot outlined by Stalin and Soviet officials in 1952 and 1953 whereby several doctors (over half of whom were Jewish) allegedly attempted to kill Soviet officials.[249] The prevailing opinion of many scholars outside the Soviet Union is that Stalin intended to use the resulting doctors' trial to launch a massive party purge.[250] The plot is also viewed by many historians as an antisemitic provocation.[249] It followed on the heels of the 1952 show trials of the Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee[251] and the secret execution of thirteen members on Stalin's orders in the Night of the Murdered Poets.[252]
Thereafter, in a December Politburo session, Stalin announced that "Every Jewish nationalist is the agent of the American intelligence service. Jewish nationalists think that their nation was saved by the United States (there you can become rich, bourgeois, etc.). They think they're indebted to the Americans. Among doctors, there are many Jewish nationalists."[253] To mobilize the Soviet people for his campaign, Stalin ordered TASS and Pravda to issue stories along with Stalin's alleged uncovering of a "Doctors Plot" to assassinate top Soviet leaders,[254][255] including Stalin, in order to set the stage for show trials.[256]
The next month, Pravda published stories with text regarding the purported "Jewish bourgeois-nationalist" plotters.[257] Nikita Khrushchev wrote that Stalin hinted him to incite anti-Semitism in the Ukraine, telling him that "the good workers at the factory should be given clubs so they can beat the hell out of those Jews."[258][259] Stalin also ordered falsely accused physicians to be tortured "to death".[260] Regarding the origins of the plot, people who knew Stalin, such as Khrushchev, suggest that Stalin had long harbored negative sentiments toward Jews,[249][261][262] and anti-Semitic trends in the Kremlin's policies were further fueled by the exile of Leon Trotsky.[249][263] In 1946, Stalin allegedly said privately that "every Jew is a potential spy."[249][264] At the end of January 1953, Stalin's personal physician Miron Vovsi (cousin of Solomon Mikhoels, who was assassinated in 1948 at the orders of Stalin)[252] was arrested within the frame of the plot. Vovsi was released by Beria after Stalin's death in 1953, as was his son-in-law, the composer Mieczyslaw Weinberg.
Some historians have argued that Stalin was also planning to send millions of Jews to four large newly built labor camps in Western Russia[256][265] using a "Deportation Commission"[266][267][268] that would purportedly act to save Soviet Jews from an engraged Soviet population after the Doctors Plot trials.[266][269][270] Others argue that any charge of an alleged mass deportation lacks specific documentary evidence.[255] Regardless of whether a plot to deport Jews was planned, in his "Secret Speech" in 1956, Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev stated that the Doctors Plot was "fabricated ... set up by Stalin", that Stalin told the judge to beat confessions from the defendants[271] and had told Politburo members "You are blind like young kittens. What will happen without me? The country will perish because you do not know how to recognize enemies."[271]
Death and aftermath[link]
Stalin's health deteriorated towards the end of World War II. He suffered from atherosclerosis from his heavy smoking. He suffered a mild stroke around the time of the Victory parade, and a severe heart attack in October 1945.[272]
On the early morning hours of 1 March 1953, after an all-night dinner and a movie[273] Stalin arrived at his Kuntsevo residence some 15 km west of Moscow centre with interior minister Lavrentiy Beria and future premiers Georgy Malenkov, Nikolai Bulganin and Nikita Khrushchev where he retired to his bedroom to sleep. At dawn, Stalin did not emerge from his room, having probably suffered a stroke that paralyzed the right side of his body.
File:Stalin Grave.jpg
Stalin's Grave in the Kremlin Wall Necropolis
Although his guards thought that it was odd for him not to rise at his usual time, they were under strict orders not to disturb him and left him alone the entire day. At around 10 p.m. he was discovered by Peter Lozgachev, the Deputy Commandant of Kuntsevo, who entered his bedroom to check up on him and recalled a horrifying scene of Stalin lying on the floor of his room wearing pyjama bottoms and an undershirt with his clothes soaked in stale urine. A frightened Lozgachev asked Stalin what happened to him, but all he could get out of the Generalissimo was unintelligible responses that sounded like "Dzhh." Lozgachev frantically called a few party officials asking them to send good doctors.[274][275] Lavrentiy Beria was informed and arrived a few hours afterwards, and the doctors only arrived in the early morning of 2 March in which they changed his bedclothes and tended to him. The bedridden Stalin died four days later, on 5 March 1953,[1] at the age of 74, and was embalmed on 9 March. Officially, the cause of death was listed as a cerebral hemorrhage. His body was preserved in Lenin's Mausoleum until 31 October 1961, when his body was removed from the Mausoleum and buried in the Kremlin Wall Necropolis next to the Kremlin walls as part of the process of de-Stalinization.
It has been suggested that Stalin was assassinated. The ex-Communist exile Avtorkhanov argued this point as early as 1975. The political memoirs of Vyacheslav Molotov, published in 1993, claimed that Beria had boasted to Molotov that he poisoned Stalin: "I took him out."
Khrushchev wrote in his memoirs that Beria had, immediately after the stroke, gone about "spewing hatred against [Stalin] and mocking him", and then, when Stalin showed signs of consciousness, dropped to his knees and kissed his hand. When Stalin fell unconscious again, Beria immediately stood and spat.[276]
Later analysis of death[link]
In 2003, a joint group of Russian and American historians announced their view that Stalin ingested warfarin, a powerful rat poison that inhibits coagulation of the blood and which predisposes the victim to hemorrhagic stroke (cerebral hemorrhage). Since it is flavorless, warfarin is a plausible weapon of murder. The facts surrounding Stalin's death will probably never be known with certainty.[277]
His demise arrived at a convenient time for Lavrentiy Beria and others, who feared being swept away in yet another purge. It is believed that Stalin felt Beria's power was too great and threatened his own.[278]
Reaction by successors[link]
The harshness with which Soviet affairs were conducted during Stalin's rule was subsequently repudiated by his successors in the Communist Party leadership, most notably by Nikita Khrushchev's repudiation of Stalinism in February 1956. In his "Secret Speech", On the Personality Cult and its Consequences, delivered to a closed session of the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Khrushchev denounced Stalin for his cult of personality, and his regime for "violation of Leninist norms of legality".
A 1974 Soviet work describes Stalin's leadership in the following manner:
J. V. Stalin had held, since 1922, the post of General Secretary of the Communist Party Central Committee. He had made important contributions to the implementation of the Party’s policy of socialist construction in the USSR, and he had won great popularity by his relentless fight against the anti-Leninist groups of the Trotskyites and Bukharinites. Since the early 1930s, however, all the successes achieved by the Soviet people in the building of socialism began to be arbitrarily attributed to Stalin. Already in a letter written back in 1922 Lenin warned the Party Central Committee: "Comrade Stalin," he wrote, "having become General Secretary, has concentrated boundless authority in his hands, and I am not sure whether he will always be able to exercise that authority with sufficient discretion." During the first few years after Lenin’s death Stalin reckoned with his critical remarks. As time passed, however, he abused his position of General Secretary of the Party Central Committee more and more frequently, violating the principle of collective leadership and making independent decisions on important Party and state issues. Those personal shortcomings of which Lenin had warned manifested themselves with greater and greater insistence: his rudeness, capriciousness, intolerance of criticism, arbitrariness, excessive suspiciousness, etc. This led to unjustified restrictions of democracy, gross violations of socialist legality and repressions against prominent Party, government and military leaders and other people.—A Short History of the World In Two Volumes Vol. II.[280]
Views on Stalin in the Russian Federation[link]
Results of a controversial poll taken in 2006 stated that over 35% of Russians would vote for Stalin if he were still alive.[281][282] Fewer than a third of all Russians regarded Stalin as a murderous tyrant;[9] however, a Russian court in 2009, ruling on a suit by Stalin's grandson, Yevgeny Dzhugashvili, against the newspaper, Novaya Gazeta, ruled that referring to Stalin as a "bloodthirsty cannibal" was not libel.[283] In a July 2007 poll 54% of the Russian youth agreed that Stalin did more good than bad while 46% (of them) disagreed that Stalin was a cruel tyrant. Half of the respondents, aged from 16 to 19, agreed Stalin was a wise leader.[10]
In December 2008 Stalin was voted third in the nationwide television project Name of Russia (narrowly behind 13th century prince Alexander Nevsky and Pyotr Stolypin, one of Nicholas II's prime ministers). The Communist Party accused the Kremlin in rigging the poll in order to prevent him or Lenin being given first place.[284]
On 3 July 2009, Russia's delegates walked out of an Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe session to demonstrate their objections to a resolution for a remembrance day for the victims of both Nazism and Stalinism.[285] Only eight out of 385 assembly members voted against the resolution.[285]
In a Kremlin video blog posted on 29 October 2009, Russian President Dmitry Medvedev denounced the efforts of people seeking to rehabilitate Stalin's image. He said the mass extermination during the Stalin era cannot be justified.[286]
Personal life[link]
Origin of name, nicknames and pseudonyms[link]
Stalin's original Georgian name is transliterated as "Ioseb Besarionis dze Jughashvili" (Georgian: იოსებ ბესარიონის ძე ჯუღაშვილი). The Russian transliteration of his name Ио́сиф Виссарио́нович Джугашви́ли is in turn transliterated to English as "Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili". Like other Bolsheviks, he became commonly known by one of his revolutionary noms de guerre, of which "Stalin" was only the last. Prior nicknames included "Koba", "Soselo", "Ivanov" and many others.[287]
Stalin is believed to have started using the name "K. Stalin" sometime in 1912 as a pen name.
During Stalin's reign his nicknames included:
- "Uncle Joe", by western media, during and after World War II.[288][289]
- "Kremlin Highlander" (Russian: кремлевский горец), in reference his Caucasus Mountains origin, notably by Osip Mandelstam in his Stalin Epigram.
- "Dear father" (Russian: батюшка, batyushka), as he was portrayed as the paternal figure of the Revolution.[290]
- "Vozhd"' (Russian: Вождь, "the Chieftain"), a term from pre-Tsarist times.
Appearance[link]
While photographs and portraits portray Stalin as physically massive and majestic (he had several painters shot who did not depict him "right"),[291] he was only five feet four inches tall (160 cm).[291] (President Harry S. Truman, who stood only five feet nine inches himself, described Stalin as "a little squirt".[292]) His mustached face was pock-marked from small-pox during childhood. After a carriage accident in his youth, his left arm was shortened and stiffened at the elbow, while his right hand was thinner than his left and frequently hidden.[291] Bronze casts made in 1990 from plaster death mask and plaster cards of his hands clearly show a normal right hand and a withered left hand.[293] He could be charming and polite, mainly towards visiting statesmen.[291] In movies, Stalin was often played by Mikheil Gelovani and, less frequently, by Aleksei Dikiy.
Marriages and family[link]
Stalin's son Yakov, whom he had with his first wife Ekaterina Svanidze, shot himself because of Stalin's harshness toward him, but survived. After this, Stalin said "He can't even shoot straight".[294] Yakov served in the Red Army during World War II and was captured by the Germans. They offered to exchange him for Field Marshal Friedrich Paulus, who had surrendered after Stalingrad, but Stalin turned the offer down, stating "You have in your hands not only my son Yakov but millions of my sons. Either you free them all or my son will share their fate."[295] Afterwards, Yakov is said to have committed suicide, running into an electric fence in Sachsenhausen concentration camp, where he was being held.[296] Yakov had a son Yevgeny, who is recently noted for defending his grandfather's legacy in Russian courts. Yevgeny is married to a Georgian woman, has two sons, and grandchildren.[297]
Stalin had a son, Vasiliy, and a daughter, Svetlana, with his second wife Nadezhda Alliluyeva. She died in 1932, officially of illness. She may have committed suicide by shooting herself after a quarrel with Stalin, leaving a suicide note which according to their daughter was "partly personal, partly political".[298] According to A&E Biography, there is also a belief among some Russians that Stalin himself murdered his wife after the quarrel, which apparently took place at a dinner in which Stalin tauntingly flicked cigarettes across the table at her. Historians also claim her death ultimately "severed his link from reality."[299]
Vasiliy rose through the ranks of the Soviet air force, officially dying of alcoholism in 1962; however, this is still in question. He distinguished himself in World War II as a capable airman. Svetlana emigrated to the United States in 1967. In March 2001 Russian Independent Television NTV interviewed a previously unknown grandson living in Novokuznetsk, Yuri Davydov, who stated that his father had told him of his lineage, but, was told to keep quiet because of the campaign against Stalin's cult of personality.[300]
Beside his suite in the Kremlin, Stalin had numerous domiciles. In 1919 he started with a country house near Usovo, he added dachas at Zuvalova and Kuntsevo (Blizhny dacha built by Miron Merzhanov). Before World War II he added the Lipki estate and Semyonovskaya, and had at least four dachas in the south by 1937, including one near Sochi. A luxury villa near Gagri was given to him by Beria. In Abkhazia he maintained a mountain retreat. After the war he added dachas at Novy Afon, near Sukhumi, in the Valdai Hills, and at Lake Mitsa. Another estate was near Zelyony Myss on the Black Sea. All these dachas, estates, and palaces were staffed, well furnished and equipped, kept safe by security forces, and were mainly used privately, rarely for diplomatic purposes.[301] Between places Stalin would travel by car or train, never by air; he flew only once when attending the 1943 Tehran conference.
In 1967 Svetlana defected to the USA and later married William Wesley Peters and by him had a daughter Olga (surname now Evans).
Habits[link]
Stalin enjoyed drinking, but could keep it under control.[302] He would also often force those around him to join in.[302] Stalin preferred Georgian wine over Russian vodka, but usually ate traditional Russian food.[302]
Khrushchev reports in his memoirs that Stalin was fond of American cowboy movies.[303] He would often sleep until evening in his dacha, and after waking up summon high-ranking Soviet politicians to watch foreign movies with him in the Kremlin movie theater.[303] The movies, being in foreign languages, were given a running translation by Ivan Bolshakov, people's commissar of cinema.[303] The translations were hilarious for the audience as Ivan spoke very basic English.[304] His favourite films were westerns and Charlie Chaplin episodes. He banned any hint of nudity. When Ivan showed a film with a naked woman Stalin shouted: "Are you making a brothel here Bolshakov?" After the war he took control of all of Goebbels' films. After the movie had ended, Stalin often invited the audience for dinner, even though the clock was usually past midnight.[303]
He could play billiards so well he did not seem to aim at the ball.[305] He could read 500 pages a day and had a library of 20,000 volumes.[306] He loved hunting and fishing all his life.
Religion[link]
Although raised in the Georgian Orthodox faith, Stalin was a militant atheist. Stalin had a complex relationship with religious institutions in the Soviet Union.[307] Historians Vladislav Zubok and Constantine Pleshakov have suggested that "[Stalin's] atheism remained rooted in some vague idea of a God of nature."[308]
During the Second World War Stalin reopened the Churches. One reason could have been to motivate the majority of the population who had Christian beliefs. The reasoning behind this is that by changing the official policy of the party and the state towards religion, the Church and its clergymen could be to his disposal in mobilizing the war effort. On 4 September 1943, Stalin invited Metropolitan Sergius, Metropolitan Alexius and Metropolitan Nicholas to the Kremlin and proposed to reestablish the Moscow Patriarchate, which had been suspended since 1925, and elect the Patriarch. On 8 September 1943, Metropolitan Sergius was elected Patriarch.
The CPSU Central Committee continued to promote atheism and the elimination of religion during the remainder of Stalin's lifetime after the 1943 concordat.[309] Stalin's greater tolerance for religion after 1943 was limited by party machinations. Whether persecutions after World War II were more aimed at certain sections of society over and above detractors is a disputed point.
Hypotheses, rumors and misconceptions about Stalin[link]
There are conflicting accounts of Stalin's birth, who listed his birth year in various documents as being in 1878 before coming to power in 1922.[1] The phrase "death of one man is a tragedy, death of a million is a statistic" is sometimes attributed to Stalin,[310] but was actually made by the German writer and pacifist Erich Maria Remarque. In addition, hypotheses and popular rumors exist about Stalin's real father.[311] Some Bolsheviks and others have accused Stalin of being an agent for the Okhrana.[312] There have also been claims [[1]] that Stalin was a Jesuit priest working covertly for the Vatican, whilst carrying out his purges, and that he had died by poisoning. These claims have little credibility with historians.
Works[link]
See also: Stalin's poetry
- "Anarchism or Socialism?," 1907
- "Marxism and the National Question," 1913
- "The Principles of Leninism," 1924
- "Trotskyism or Leninism?," 1924
- "Dialectical and Historical Materialism," 1938
- "The Questions of Leninism," 1946
- "Marxism and Problems of Linguistics," 1950
- "Economic Problems of Socialism in the U.S.S.R.," 1952
- Works. Volume 1–13: Foreign Languages Publishing House, Moscow, 1950s/"Volume 14": Red Star Press, London 1978
Stalin was also a well-regarded poet in his youth. Some of his poems were published in Ilia Chavchavadze's journal Iveria and later anthologized.[313][314]
See also[link]
References[link]
Notes[link]
- ^ a b c d Although there is an inconsistency among published sources about Stalin's year and date of birth, Iosif Dzhugashvili is found in the records of the Uspensky Church in Gori, Georgia as born on 18 December (Old Style: 6 December) 1878. This birth date is maintained in his School Leaving Certificate, his extensive tsarist Russia police file, a police arrest record from 18 April 1902 which gave his age as 23 years, and all other surviving pre-Revolution documents. As late as 1921, Stalin himself listed his birthday as 18 December 1878 in a curriculum vitae in his own handwriting. However, after his coming to power in 1922, Stalin changed the date to 21 December 1879 (Old Style date 9 December 1879). That became the day his birthday was celebrated in the Soviet Union."Prominent figures". State and Power in Russia. http://state.rin.ru/cgi-bin/persona_e.pl?id=4140&id_subcat=6&r=8. Retrieved 19 July 2008.
- ^ Wheatcroft, S. G.; Davies, R. W.; Cooper, J. M. (1986). Soviet Industrialization Reconsidered: Some Preliminary Conclusions about Economic Development between 1926 and 1941. 39. Economic History Review. p. 264. ISBN 978-0-7190-4600-1. http://books.google.com/?id=m-voAAAAIAAJ&dq.
- ^ a b Getty, Rittersporn, Zemskov. Victims of the Soviet Penal System in the Pre-War Years: A First Approach on the Basis of Archival Evidence. The American Historical Review, Vol. 98, No. 4 (Oct., 1993), pp. 1017–1049.
- ^ Abbott Gleason (2009). A Companion to Russian History. Wiley-Blackwell. p.373. ISBN 1-4051-3560-3
- ^ Michael Jabara Carley. End of the 'Low, Dishonest Decade': Failure of the Anglo–Franco–Soviet Alliance in 1939. Europe-Asia Studies, Vol. 45, No. 2 (1993), pp. 303–341
- ^ Weinberg, G.L. (1995). A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II. Cambridge University Press. p. 264. ISBN 0-521-55879-4.
- ^ Rozhnov, Konstantin, Who won World War II?. BBC.
- ^ Superpower politics: change in the United States and the Soviet Union Books.Google.com
- ^ a b How Russia faced its dark past, BBC News (5 March 2003)
- ^ a b Russian youth: Stalin good, migrants must go: poll, Reuters (25 July 2007)
- ^ Montefiore, Young Stalin, p. 61
- ^ Medvedev, Let History Judge, p. 29
- ^ Montefiore, Young Stalin, p. 1-16
- ^ Montefiore, Young Stalin, p. 261
- ^ Simon Sebag Montefiore. Young Stalin. 2007. ISBN 978-0-297-85068-7
- ^ Robert Service. Stalin: A Biography. pg 172
- ^ Knight, Ami W. (1991), Beria and the Cult of Stalin: Rewriting Transcaucasian Party History. Soviet Studies, Vol. 43, No. 4, pp. 749–763
- ^ Shanin, Teodor (July 1989), Ethnicity in the Soviet Union: Analytical Perceptions and Political Strategies. Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol. 31, No. 3, pp. 409–424
- ^ a b c d e f g Robert Service. Stalin: A Biography. 2004. ISBN 978-0-330-41913-0
- ^ Peter Gue Zarrow (2005). China in war and revolution, 1895–1949. Psychology Press. p. 233. ISBN 0-415-36447-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=OCI3gnzsYc0C&pg=PA233. Retrieved 1 January 2011.
- ^ Elleman, Bruce. "Moscow and the Emergence of Communist Power in China, 1925-30". http://books.google.com.tr/books?id=ESZEm5VEtw8C&pg=PA74&lpg=PA74&dq=stalin+Chiang+Kai-shek+speech+merchants&source=bl&ots=t9OG_U8I9z&sig=Ff4BKzyHuPhv2pbYuJC9GT_uyYc&hl=tr&sa=X&ei=l5KXT5KCJeeX1AXz0aH-BQ&ved=0CFkQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=stalin%20Chiang%20Kai-shek%20speech%20merchants&f=false. Retrieved 25 April 2012.
- ^ Robert Carver North (1963). Moscow and Chinese Communists. Stanford University Press. p. 96. ISBN 0-8047-0453-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=wjCsAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA96. Retrieved 1 January 2011.
- ^ Walter Moss (2005). A history of Russia: Since 1855. Anthem Press. p. 282. ISBN 1-84331-034-1. http://books.google.com/books?id=yMwdWFtgV0QC&pg=PA282. Retrieved 1 January 2011.
- ^ a b c d e f Simon Sebag Montefiore. Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar, Knopf, 2004 (ISBN 1-4000-4230-5)
- ^ Soviet Readers Finally Told Moscow Had Trotsky Slain. Published in the New York Times on 5 January 1989. Retrieved 4 October 2007
- ^ "Joseph Stalin Height – Stalin's". http://www.celebheights.com/s/Joseph-Stalin-3210.html.
- ^ Tuominen, Arvo. The Bells of the Kremlin. p. 162. ISBN 0-87451-249-2.
- ^ a b Orlando Figes The Whisperers: Private Life in Stalin's Russia, 2007, ISBN 0-8050-7461-9
- ^ Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe. By Robert Gellately. 2007. Knopf. ISBN 1-4000-4005-1
- ^ Ian Kershaw, Moshe Lewin, Stalinism and Nazism: Dictatorships in Comparison, Cambridge University Press 1997, ISBN 0-521-56521-9, p. 300
- ^ Leo Kuper, Genocide: Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century, Yale University Press 1982, ISBN 0-300-03120-3
- ^ Brackman 2001, p. 204
- ^ Brackman 2001, pp. 205–6
- ^ Brackman 2001, p. 207
- ^ a b Overy 2004, p. 182
- ^ Tucker 1992, p. 456
- ^ Snyder, Timothy. Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin. Basic Books, 2010. ISBN 0-465-00239-0 p. 137
- ^ "Newseum: The Commissar Vanishes". http://www.newseum.org/berlinwall/commissar_vanishes/vanishes.htm. Retrieved 19 July 2008.
- ^ The scale of Stalin's purge of Red Army officers was exceptional—90% of all generals and 80% of all colonels were killed. This included three out of five Marshals, 13 out of 15 Army commanders, 57 of 85 Corps commanders, 110 of 195 divisional commanders and 220 of 406 brigade commanders as well as all commanders of military districts. (p.195, Carell, P. (1964) Hitler's War on Russia: The Story of the German Defeat in the East. translated from German by Ewald Osers, B.I. Publications New Delhi, 1974 (first Indian edition)
- ^ Tucker, Robert C., Stalinism: Essays in Historical Interpretation, , American Council of Learned Societies Planning Group on Comparative Communist Studies, Transaction Publishers, 1999, ISBN 0-7658-0483-2, p. 5
- ^ Overy 2004, p. 338
- ^ Tim Tzouliadis. Nightmare in the workers paradise BBC, 2 August 2008 See also: Tzouliadis, Tim. The Forsaken: An American Tragedy in Stalin's Russia. The Penguin Press, 2008 (ISBN 1594201684)
- ^ Barry McLoughlin; Kevin McDermott(eds) (4 February 2003). Stalin's Terror: High Politics and Mass Repression in the Soviet Union. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 141. ISBN 1-4039-0119-8. http://books.google.com/?id=8yorTJl1QEoC&pg=PA141.
- ^ Hiroaki Kuromiya, The Voices of the Dead: Stalin's Great Terror in the 1930s. Yale University Press, 24 December 2007. ISBN 0-300-12389-2 p. 4
- ^ Barry McLoughlin; Kevin McDermott(eds) (4 February 2003). Stalin's Terror: High Politics and Mass Repression in the Soviet Union. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 6. ISBN 1-4039-0119-8. http://books.google.com/?id=8yorTJl1QEoC&pg=PA6.
- ^ Snyder, Timothy. Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin. Basic Books, 2010. ISBN 0-465-00239-0 p. 101
- ^ Rosefielde, Stephen, Stalinism in Post-Communist Perspective: New Evidence on Killings, Forced Labour and Economic Growth in the 1930s, Europe-Asia Studies, Vol. 48, No. 6, 1996
- ^ Comment on Wheatcroft by Robert Conquest, 1999
- ^ Pipes, Richard, Communism: A History (Modern Library Chronicles), p. 67
- ^ Applebaum 2003, p. 584
- ^ John Keep. Recent Writing on Stalin's Gulag: An Overview. 1997
- ^ a b c Michael Ellman, Stalin and the Soviet Famine of 1932–33 Revisited Europe-Asia Studies, Routledge. Vol. 59, No. 4, June 2007, 663–693. PDF file
- ^ Quoted in Dmitri Volkogonov, Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy (New York, 1991), p.210
- ^ a b Hiroaki Kuromiya, The Voices of the Dead: Stalin's Great Terror in the 1930s. Yale University Press, 24 December 2007. ISBN 0-300-12389-2 p. 2
- ^ Michael Ellman. The Role of Leadership Perceptions and of Intent in the Soviet Famine of 1931–1934. Europe-Asia Studies, 2005. p. 826
- ^ a b Boobbyer 2000, p. 130
- ^ Pohl, Otto, Ethnic Cleansing in the USSR, 1937–1949, ISBN 0-313-30921-3
- ^ "Soviet Transit, Camp, and Deportation Death Rates". http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/USSR.TAB1B.GIF. Retrieved 25 June 2010.
- ^ a b Alan Bullock, pp. 904–905
- ^ Robert Conquest in Victims of Stalinism: A Comment. Europe-Asia Studies, Vol. 49, No. 7 (Nov. 1997), pp. 1317–1319 states:"We are all inclined to accept the Zemskov totals (even if not as complete) with their 14 million intake to Gulag 'camps' alone, to which must be added 4–5 million going to Gulag 'colonies', to say nothing of the 3.5 million already in, or sent to, 'labour settlements'. However taken, these are surely 'high' figures."
- ^ "The rise of Stalin: AD1921–1924". History of Russia. HistoryWorld. http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?HistoryID=ac14&ParagraphID=qxe#qxe. Retrieved 19 July 2008.
- ^ Stalin, Joseph, Dizzy with success,Pravda, 2 March 1930
- ^ Stalin, Joseph, Reply to Collective Farm Comrades, Pravda, 3 April 1930
- ^ "Ukraine Irks Russia With Push to Mark Stalin Famine as Genocide". Bloomberg.com. 3 January 2008
- ^ "Overpopulation.Com " The Soviet Famines of 1921 and 1932-3". http://web.archive.org/web/20080202145721rn_1/www.overpopulation.com/faq/famine/the-soviet-famines-of-1921-and-1932-3/.
- ^ "Ukraine's Holodomor". The Times (UK). 1 July 2008. http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/letters/article4243813.ece. Retrieved 19 October 2008.
- ^ Alan Bullock, p. 269
- ^ a b (PDF) The Industrialisation of Soviet Russia. 5 – The Years of Hunger: Soviet Agriculture, 1931–1933. Palgrave Macmillan. 2004. http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/economics/staff/faculty/harrison/reviews/davies-wheatcroft2004.pdf. Retrieved 28 December 2008.
- ^ "Natural Disaster and Human Actions in the Soviet Famine of 1931–1933" (PDF). The Carl Beck Papers in Russian and East European Studies. http://www.as.wvu.edu/history/Faculty/Tauger/Tauger,%20Natural%20Disaster%20and%20Human%20Actions.pdf. Retrieved 28 December 2008.
- ^ According to Ellman, although the 1946 drought was severe, government mismanagement of its grain reserves largely accounted for the population losses. Michael Ellman, "The 1947 Soviet Famine and the Entitlement Approach to Famines," Cambridge Journal of Economics 24 (2000): 603–30. PDF file
- ^ Findings of the Commission on the Ukraine Famine. Famine Genocide. 19 April 1988. http://www.faminegenocide.com/resources/findings.html. See also: "Statement by Pope John Paul II on the 70th anniversary of the Famine". Skrobach. http://www.skrobach.com/ukrhol.htm. Retrieved 23 August 2008. See also: "Expressing the sense of the House of Representatives regarding the man-made famine that occurred in Ukraine in 1932–1933". US House of Representatives. 21 October 2003. http://www.artukraine.com/famineart/uscongr4.htm. Retrieved 23 August 2008. See also: Yaroslav Bilinsky (1999). "Was the Ukrainian Famine of 1932–1933 Genocide?". Journal of Genocide Research 1 (2): 147–156. DOI:10.1080/14623529908413948. http://www.faminegenocide.com/resources/bilinsky.html.
- ^ Lisova, Natasha (28 November 2006). "Ukraine Recognize Famine As Genocide". Associated Press. http://www.ukemonde.com/holodomor/index.html.
- ^ France Meslé, Gilles Pison, Jacques Vallin France-Ukraine: Demographic Twins Separated by History, Population and societies, N°413, juin 2005
- ^ ce Meslé, Jacques Vallin Mortalité et causes de décès en Ukraine au XXè siècle + CDRom ISBN 2-7332-0152-2 CD online data (partially – Ined.fr
- ^ Stanislav Kulchytsky, Hennadiy Yefimenko. Демографічні наслідки голодомору 1933 р. в Україні. Всесоюзний перепис 1937 р. в Україні: документи та матеріали (Demographic consequence of Holodomor of 1933 in Ukraine. The all-Union census of 1937 in Ukraine), Kiev, Institute of History, 2003
- ^ С. Уиткрофт (Stephen G. Wheatcroft), "О демографических свидетельствах трагедии советской деревни в 1931—1933 гг." (On demographic evidence of the tragedy of the Soviet village in 1931–1833), "Трагедия советской деревни: Коллективизация и раскулачивание 1927–1939 гг.: Документы и материалы. Том 3. Конец 1930–1933 гг.", Российская политическая энциклопедия, 2001, ISBN 5-8243-0225-1, с. 885, Приложение № 2
- ^ "The famine of 1932–33". Ukraine: Britannica.com. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/612921/Ukraine/30078/Soviet-Ukraine#ref=ref404577. Retrieved 25 June 2010.
- ^ Kyiv court accuses Stalin leadership of organizing famine, Kyiv Post (13 January 2010)
- ^ Ukraine court finds Bolsheviks guilty of Holodomor genocide, (13 January 2010)
- ^ Charles N. Steele (2002) (PDF). Sustainable Development: Promoting Progress or Perpetuating Poverty?. Profile Books. http://ipn.lexi.net/images/uploaded/12-402934626c558--charles_steele_chapter6.pdf. Retrieved 28 December 2008. See also: "Reassessing the Standard of Living in the Soviet Union" (PDF). Centre for Economic Policy Research. 2002. http://www.cepr.org/meets/wkcn/7/753/papers/brainerd.pdf. Retrieved 19 July 2008.
- ^ Robert Lewis; ed. Mark Harrison, R.W. Davies, S.G. Wheatcroft (1994). The Economic Transformation of the Soviet Union. Cambridge University Press. p. 188.
- ^ Olival Freire, Jr.: Marxism and the Quantum Controversy: Responding to Max Jammer's Question
- ^ Péter Szegedi Cold War and Interpretations in Quantum Mechanics
- ^ a b c d Simon Sebag Montefiore. Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar, Knopf, 2004 (ISBN 1-4000-4230-5)
- ^ a b c Acton, Edward, Russia, The Tsarist and Soviet Legacy, Longmann Group Ltd (1995) ISBN 0-582-08922-0
- ^ Philip J. Adler; Randall L. Pouwels (1 January 2011). World Civilizations: Since 1500. Cengage Learning. pp. 590–. ISBN 978-0-495-91302-3. http://books.google.com/books?id=swBD0hF2BxwC&pg=PA590.
- ^ "Russia". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2007. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/513251/Russia. Retrieved 19 July 2008.
- ^ Dimitry V. Pospielovsky. A History of Soviet Atheism in Theory and Practice, and the Believer, vol 2: Soviet Anti-Religious Campaigns and Persecutions, St Martin's Press, New York (1988) p. 89
- ^ Alexander N. Yakovlev; Austin, Anthony; Hollander, Paul (10 April 2004). A Century of Violence in Soviet Russia. Yale University Press. p. 165. ISBN 978-0-300-10322-9. http://books.google.com/?id=ChRk43tVxTwC&pg=PA165. See also: Richard Pipes (2001). Communism: A History. Modern Library Chronicles. p. 66. ISBN 0-679-64050-9.
- ^ Joseph V.Stalin. "Voprosy leninizma", 2nd ed., Moscow, p. 589; (1951) "Istoricheskij materializm", ed. by F. B. Konstantinov, Moscow, p. 402; P. Calvert (1982). "The Concept of Class", New York, pp. 144–145
- ^ "Twentieth Century Atlas – Death Tolls". http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat1.htm#Stalin. See also: Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn: The Gulag Archipelago 1918–1956, 1973–1976 ISBN 0-8133-3289-3
- ^ Stephen G. Wheatcroft, "Victims of Stalinism and the Soviet Secret Police: The Comparability and Reliability of the Archival Data. Not the Last Word", Source: Europe-Asia Studies, Vol. 51, No. 2 (Mar. 1999), pp. 315–345, gives the following numbers: During 1921–53, the number of sentences was (political convictions): sentences, 4,060,306; death penalties, 799,473; camps and prisons, 2,634397; excile, 413,512; other, 215,942. In addition, during 1937–52 there were 14,269,753 non-political sentences, among them 34,228 death penalties, 2,066,637 sentences for 0–1 year, 4,362,973 for 2–5 years, 1,611,293 for 6–10 years, and 286,795 for more than 10 years. Other sentences were non-custodial
- ^ Simon Sebag Montefiore. Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar. p. 649. ISBN 0-7538-1766-7.
- ^ "A century of genocide: utopias of race and nation". Eric D. Weitz (2003). Princeton University Press. p.82. ISBN 0-691-00913-9
- ^ Nicholas Werth, "A state against its people: violence, repression and terror in the Soviet Union" in Stéphane Courtois, Mark Kramer. The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression. Harvard University Press, 1999. pp. 33–268: p.223. ISBN 0-674-07608-7
- ^ "Recording a Hidden History". The Washington Post. 5 April 2006
- ^ Roberts, Geoffrey. "Stalin's wars: from World War to Cold War, 1939–1953". New Heaven, CT; London: Yale University Press, 2006 (ISBN 0300112041), p. 98
- ^ Ellman, Michael. Soviet Repression Statistics: Some Comments Europe-Asia Studies. Vol 54, No. 7, 2002, 1151–1172
- ^ a b Applebaum 2003
- ^ "Soviet Studies". http://sovietinfo.tripod.com/. See also: Robert Gellately. Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe. Knopf, 2007 ISBN 1-4000-4005-1 p. 584: "Anne Applebaum is right to insist that the statistics 'can never fully describe what happened.' They do suggest, however, the massive scope of the repression and killing."
- ^ Robert Gellately. Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe. Knopf, 2007. ISBN 1-4000-4005-1 p. 256
- ^ Getty, Rittersporn, Zemskov. "Victims of the Soviet Penal System in the Pre-war Years". Archived from the original on 11 June 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080611064213/http://www.etext.org/Politics/Staljin/Staljin/articles/AHR/AHR.html. See also: Stephen Wheatcroft (1996). "The Scale and Nature of German and Soviet Repression and Mass Killings, 1930–45" (PDF). Europe-Asia Studies. http://sovietinfo.tripod.com/WCR-German_Soviet.pdf. Retrieved 28 December 2008. and Stephen Wheatcroft (1990). "More light on the scale of repression and excess mortality in the Soviet Union in the 1930s" (PDF). Soviet Studies. http://sovietinfo.tripod.com/WCR-Scale_Repression.pdf. Retrieved 28 December 2008.
- ^ Vadim Erlikman (2004). Poteri narodonaseleniia v XX veke: spravochnik. Moscow 2004: Russkai︠a︡ panorama. ISBN 5-93165-107-1.
- ^ Ellman, Michael (09 2005). "The Role of Leadership Perceptions and of Intent in the Soviet Famine of 1931–1934" (PDF). Europe-Asia Studies (Routledge) 57 (6): 823–41. DOI:10.1080/09668130500199392. http://www.paulbogdanor.com/left/soviet/famine/ellman.pdf. Retrieved 4 July 2008.
- ^ Naimark, Norman M. Stalin's Genocides (Human Rights and Crimes against Humanity). Princeton University Press, 2010. pp. 134–135. ISBN 0-691-14784-1
- ^ Rosefielde, Steven. Red Holocaust. Routledge, 2009. ISBN 0-415-77757-7 pg. 259
- ^ Snyder, Timothy. Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin. Basic Books, 2010. ISBN 0-465-00239-0 pp. vii, 413
- ^ R. W. Davies, Stephen G. Wheatcroft: The Years of Hunger: Soviet Agriculture, 1931–1933, 2004 ISBN 0-333-31107-8
- ^ Andreev, EM, et al., Naselenie Sovetskogo Soiuza, 1922–1991. Moscow, Nauka, 1993. ISBN 5-02-013479-1
- ^ Steven Rosefielde. Documented Homicides and Excess Deaths: New Insights into the Scale of Killing in the USSR during the 1930s. Communist and Post-Communist Studies, Vol. 30, No. 3, pp. 321–333, 1997. University of California
- ^ Simon Sebag Montefiore. Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar. p. 649: "Perhaps 20 million had been killed; 28 million deported, of whom 18 million had slaved in the Gulags.". ISBN 0-7538-1766-7. See also: Dmitri Volkogonov. Autopsy for an Empire: The Seven Leaders Who Built the Soviet Regime. pp. 139: "Between 1929 and 1953 the state created by Lenin and set in motion by Stalin deprived 21.5 million Soviet citizens of their lives.". ISBN 0-684-83420-0. and Alexander N. Yakovlev; Austin, Anthony; Hollander, Paul (10 April 2004). A Century of Violence in Soviet Russia. Yale University Press. p. 234: "My own many years and experience in the rehabilitation of victims of political terror allow me to assert that the number of people in the USSR who were killed for political motives or who died in prisons and camps during the entire period of Soviet power totaled 20 to 25 million. And unquestionably one must add those who died of famine – more than 5.5 million during the civil war and more than 5 million during the 1930s.". ISBN 978-0-300-10322-9. http://books.google.com/?id=ChRk43tVxTwC&pg=PA234. and Robert Gellately. Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe. Knopf, 2007 ISBN 1-4000-4005-1 p. 584: "More recent estimations of the Soviet-on-Soviet killing have been more 'modest' and range between ten and twenty million." and Stéphane Courtois. The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror Repression. Harvard University Press, 1999. p. 4: "U.S.S.R.: 20 million deaths." and Jonathan Brent, Inside the Stalin Archives: Discovering the New Russia. Atlas & Co., 2008 (ISBN 0977743330) Introduction online (PDF file): Estimations on the number of Stalin's victims over his twenty-five year reign, from 1928 to 1953, vary widely, but 20 million is now considered the minimum. and Steven Rosefielde. Red Holocaust. Routledge, 2009. ISBN 0-415-77757-7 p.17: "We now know as well beyond a reasonable doubt that there were more than 13 million Red Holocaust victims 1929–53, and this figure could rise above 20 million." and Norman Naimark. Stalin's Genocides (Human Rights and Crimes against Humanity). Princeton University Press, 2010. p. 11: "Yet Stalin's own responsibility for the killing of some fifteen to twenty million people carries its own horrific weight..."
- ^ Robert Conquest. The Great Terror: A Reassessment, Oxford University Press, 1991 (ISBN 0-19-507132-8)
- ^ Robert Conquest, The Great Terror: A Reassessment, 40th Anniversary Edition, Oxford University Press, 2007, in Preface, p. xvi: "Exact numbers may never be known with complete certainty, but the total of deaths caused by the whole range of Soviet regime's terrors can hardly be lower than some fifteen million."
- ^ "Regimes murdering over 10 million people". http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/MEGA.HTM.
- ^ How Many Did Stalin Really Murder? by Professor R.J. Rummel
- ^ Roberts 2006, pp. 30–32
- ^ Shirer 1990, pp. 510–535
- ^ Murphy 2006, pp. 24–28
- ^ Lionel Kochan. The Struggle For Germany. 1914–1945. New York, 1963
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- ^ Roberts 1992, p. 64
- ^ Vehviläinen, Olli, Finland in the Second World War: Between Germany and Russia, Macmillan, 2002, ISBN 0-333-80149-0, p. 30
- ^ a b Roberts 1992, pp. 57–78
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- ^ a b Text of the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact, executed 23 August 1939
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- ^ Roberts 2006, p. 43
- ^ Sanford, George (2005). Katyn and the Soviet Massacre Of 1940: Truth, Justice And Memory. London, New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-33873-5.
- ^ a b Wettig 2008, p. 20
- ^ Wettig 2008, p. 21
- ^ Senn, Alfred Erich, Lithuania 1940 : revolution from above, Amsterdam, New York, Rodopi, 2007 ISBN 978-90-420-2225-6
- ^ Simon Sebag Montefiore. Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar. p. 334. ISBN 0-7538-1766-7.
- ^ a b Kennedy-Pipe, Caroline, Stalin's Cold War, New York: Manchester University Press, 1995, ISBN 0-7190-4201-1
- ^ Roberts 2006, p. 53
- ^ a b c Brackman 2001, p. 341
- ^ Roberts 2006, p. 58
- ^ Brackman 2001, p. 343
- ^ a b Roberts 2006, p. 59
- ^ Roberts 2006, p. 63
- ^ Roberts 2006, p. 82
- ^ R. Harthoorn, Vuile oorlog in Den Haag (Dirty war in The Hague), ISBN 978-90-75879-48-3, p.96, 2011
- ^ a b Roberts 2006, p. 67
- ^ Ferguson, Niall (12 June 2005). "Stalin's Intelligence". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E06E4D71638F931A25755C0A9639C8B63. Retrieved 7 May 2010.
- ^ Roberts 2006, p. 68
- ^ Murphy 2006, p. xv
- ^ Yakovlev, Alexander; Anthony Austin (2004). A Century of Violence in Soviet Russia. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-08760-8. http://yalepress.yale.edu/yupbooks/book.asp?isbn=0300103220.
- ^ Roberts 2006, p. 89
- ^ a b Roberts 2006, p. 90
- ^ Roberts 2006, pp. 116–7
- ^ Glantz, David, The Soviet-German War 1941–45: Myths and Realities: A Survey Essay, 11 October 2001, p. 7
- ^ a b Roberts 2006, pp. 114–115
- ^ a b Roberts 2006, p. 88
- ^ Roberts 2006, pp. 117–8
- ^ Roberts 2006, p. 124
- ^ Time Magazine, Josef Stalin, 4 Jan. 1943
- ^ Roberts 2006, p. 155
- ^ Roberts 2006, p. 156
- ^ a b Roberts 2006, p. 159
- ^ Roberts 2006, p. 163
- ^ Roberts 2006, p. 180
- ^ Roberts 2006, p. 185
- ^ Roberts 2006, pp. 186–7
- ^ Roberts 2006, pp. 194–5
- ^ Roberts 2006, pp. 199–201
- ^ Glantz, David, The Soviet-German War 1941–45: Myths and Realities: A Survey Essay, 11 October 2001 Clemson.edu
- ^ Beevor, Antony, Berlin: The Downfall 1945, Viking, Penguin Books, 2005, ISBN 0-670-88695-5, p. 194
- ^ Williams, Andrew (2005). D-Day to Berlin. Hodder. ISBN 0-340-83397-1., pp. 310–1
- ^ Bullock, Alan, Hitler: A Study in Tyranny, Penguin Books, ISBN 0-14-013564-2, 1962, pp. 799–800
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- ^ Dolezal, Robert, Truth about History: How New Evidence Is Transforming the Story of the Past, Readers Digest, 2004, ISBN 0-7621-0523-2, pp. 185–6
- ^ "Rulers and victims: the Russians in the Soviet Union". Geoffrey A. Hosking (2006). Harvard University Press. p.242. ISBN 0-674-02178-9
- ^ a b Glantz, David, The Soviet-German War 1941–45: Myths and Realities: A Survey Essay, 11 October 2001, p. 13
- ^ "The World's Wasted Wealth 2: Save Our Wealth, Save Our Environment". J. W. Smith (1994). p.204. ISBN 0-9624423-2-1
- ^ "A Companion to Russian History". Abbott Gleason (2009). Wiley-Blackwell. p.409. ISBN 1-4051-3560-3
- ^ Stephen J. Lee (2000). "European dictatorships, 1918–1945". Routledge. p.86. ISBN 0-415-23046-2
- ^ Hart, Michael H., The 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History, Revised and Updated for the Nineties New York: Citadel Press Book, 1992
- ^ "Euroheritage.net". Euroheritage.net. http://euroheritage.net/stalinshomegallery.shtml. Retrieved 25 June 2010.
- ^ "Record from The Nomination Database for the Nobel Prize in Peace, 1901–1956". Nobel Foundation. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/nomination/nomination.php?action=show&showid=3323. Retrieved 14 May 2010.
- ^ "Record from The Nomination Database for the Nobel Prize in Peace, 1901–1956". Nobel Foundation. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/nomination/nomination.php?action=show&showid=2754. Retrieved 14 May 2010.
- ^ (Polish) obozy jenieckie zolnierzy polskich (Prison camps for Polish soldiers) Encyklopedia PWN. Retrieved 28 November 2006
- ^ a b (Polish) Edukacja Humanistyczna w wojsku. 1/2005. Dom wydawniczy Wojska Polskiego. ISNN 1734-6584. (Official publication of the Polish Army)
- ^ (Russian) Молотов на V сессии Верховного Совета 31 октября цифра «примерно 250 тыс.» (Please provide translation of the reference title and publication data and means)
- ^ (Russian) Отчёт Украинского и Белорусского фронтов Красной Армии, Мельтюхов, p. 367. (Report of the Ukrainian and Belorussian fronts of the Red Army, Melyukhov)
- ^ a b c Benjamin B. Fischer, "The Katyn Controversy: Stalin's Killing Field", Studies in Intelligence, Winter 1999–2000
- ^ Excerpt from the minutes No. 13 of the Politburo of the Central Committee meeting, shooting order of 5 March 1940 Electronicmuseum.ca, last accessed on 19 December 2005, original in Russian with English translation
- ^ George Sanford, Katyn and the Soviet massacre of 1940: truth, justice and memory, Routledge, 2005, ISBN 0-415-33873-5 pp. 20–24
- ^ "Stalin's Killing Field" (PDF). https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/vol43no3/pdf/v43i3a06p.pdf. Retrieved 19 July 2008.
- ^ (Polish) Various authors. Biuletyn „Kombatant” nr specjalny (148) czerwiec 2003 Special Edition of Kombatant Bulletin No.148 6/2003 on the occasion of the Year of General Sikorski. Official publication of the Polish government Agency of Combatants and Repressed
- ^ Ромуальд Святек, "Катынский лес", Военно-исторический журнал, 1991, №9, ISSN 0042-9058
- ^ a b Brackman 2001
- ^ (Polish) Barbara Polak (2005). "Zbrodnia katynska" (PDF). Biuletyn IPN: 4–21. http://www.ceeol.com/aspx/getdocument.aspx?logid=5&id=f4349d43-b13d-4c2c-a70d-056e8801493d. Retrieved 22 September 2007.
- ^ Engel, David. "Facing a Holocaust: The Polish Government-In-Exile and the Jews, 1943–1945". 1993. ISBN 0-8078-2069-5. p. 71
- ^ Bauer, Eddy. "The Marshall Cavendish Illustrated Encyclopedia of World War II". Marshall Cavendish, 1985
- ^ Goebbels, Joseph. The Goebbels Diaries (1942–1943). Translated by Louis P. Lochner. Doubleday & Company. 1948
- ^ "Chronology 1990; The Soviet Union and Eastern Europe." Foreign Affairs, 1990, p. 212
- ^ Text of Order No. 270
- ^ a b Roberts 2006, p. 98
- ^ a b c Roberts 2006, p. 132
- ^ G. I. Krivosheev. Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses. Greenhill 1997 ISBN 1-85367-280-7
- ^ Robert Gellately. Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe. Knopf, 2007 ISBN 1-4000-4005-1 p. 391
- ^ Richard Rhodes (2002). Masters of Death: The SS-Einsatzgruppen and the Invention of the Holocaust. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 46–47. ISBN 0-375-40900-9. See also: Allen Paul. Katyn: Stalin's Massacre and the Seeds of Polish Resurrection, Naval Institute Press, 1996, (ISBN 1-55750-670-1), p. 155
- ^ Schissler, Hanna The Miracle Years: A Cultural History of West Germany, 1949–1968
- ^ Mark, James, "Remembering Rape: Divided Social Memory and the Red Army in Hungary 1944–1945", Past & Present – Number 188, August 2005, p. 133
- ^ Naimark, Norman M., The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949. Cambridge: Belknap, 1995, ISBN 0-674-78405-7, pp. 70–71
- ^ Beevor, Antony, Berlin: The Downfall 1945, Penguin Books, 2002, ISBN 0-670-88695-5. Specific reports also include Report of the Swiss legation in Budapest of 1945 and Hubertus Knabe: Tag der Befreiung? Das Kriegsende in Ostdeutschland (A day of liberation? The end of war in Eastern Germany), Propyläen 2005, ISBN 3-549-07245-7 German)
- ^ "The Soviet special camp No.7 / No. 1 1945–1950". http://www.stiftung-bg.de/gums/en/geschichte/speziallager/spezial01.htm. Retrieved 22 April 2009.
- ^ Ex-Death Camp Tells Story Of Nazi and Soviet Horrors New York Times, 17 December 2001
- ^ Germans Find Mass Graves at an Ex-Soviet Camp New York Times, 24 September 1992
- ^ Richard Overy, The Dictators Hitler's Germany, Stalin's Russia p.568–569
- ^ a b c d e f Roberts 2006, p. 202
- ^ ("Военно-исторический журнал" ("Military-Historical Magazine"), 1997, №5. p. 32)
- ^ Земское В.Н. К вопросу о репатриации советских граждан. 1944–1951 годы // История СССР. 1990. № 4 (Zemskov V.N. On repatriation of Soviet citizens. Istoriya SSSR., 1990, No.4
- ^ a b c d Roberts 2006, pp. 241–244
- ^ a b Wettig 2008, pp. 47–8
- ^ a b c d 11 February 1945 Potsdam Report, reprinted in Potsdam Ashley, John, Soames Grenville and Bernard Wasserstein, The Major International Treaties of the Twentieth Century: A History and Guide with Texts, Taylor & Francis, 2001 ISBN 0-415-23798-X
- ^ Roberts 2006, pp. 274–5
- ^ a b Wettig 2008, pp. 90–1
- ^ Anthony Eden (1965). Memoirs: The Reckoning.
- ^ Muller, James W., Churchill's "Iron Curtain" Speech Fifty Years Later, University of Missouri Press, 1999, ISBN 0-8262-1247-6, pp. 1–8
- ^ Gaddis, John Lewis, We Now Know: Rethinking Cold War History, Oxford University Press, Incorporated, 1998, ISBN 0-19-878071-0
- ^ a b c Wettig 2008, pp. 95–100
- ^ Curp, David, A Clean Sweep?: The Politics of Ethnic Cleansing in Western Poland, 1945–1960, Boydell & Brewer, 2006, ISBN 1-58046-238-3, pp. 66–69
- ^ "Poland." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 7 April 2007
- ^ Tom Buchanan, Europe's Troubled Peace, 1945–2000: 1945–2000, Blackwell Publishing, 2005, ISBN 0-631-22163-8, p.84
- ^ A brief history of Poland: Chapter 13: The Post-War Years, 1945–1990. Polonia Today Online. Retrieved on 28 March 2007
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- ^ Sugar, Peter F., Peter Hanak and Tibor Frank, A History of Hungary, Indiana University Press, 1994, ISBN 0-253-20867-X, pp. 375–77
- ^ Matthews, John P. C., Explosion: The Hungarian Revolution of 1956, Hippocrene Books, 2007, ISBN 0-7818-1174-0, pp. 93–4
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- ^ a b c Granville, Johanna, The First Domino: International Decision Making during the Hungarian Crisis of 1956, Texas A&M University Press, 2004. ISBN 1-58544-298-4
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- ^ a b Wettig 2008, p. 50
- ^ Germany (East), Library of Congress Country Study, Appendix B: The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance
- ^ a b Bideleux & Jeffries 1998
- ^ "Moslems Urged To Resist Russia". Christian Science Monitor. 25 Sep 1951. http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/csmonitor_historic/access/275861742.html?dids=275861742:275861742&FMT=CITE&FMTS=CITE:AI&date=Sep+25%2C+1951&author=&pub=Christian+Science+Monitor&desc=Moslems+Urged+To+Resist+Russia&pqatl=google.
- ^ "CHINESE ASKS ALL MOSLEMS TO FIGHT REDS". Chicago Daily Tribune. 24 Sep 1951. http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/chicagotribune/access/497978032.html?dids=497978032:497978032&FMT=CITE&FMTS=CITE:AI&type=historic&date=Sep+24%2C+1951&author=&pub=Chicago+Tribune&desc=CHINESE+ASKS+ALL+MOSLEMS+TO+FIGHT+REDS&pqatl=google.
- ^ Stokesbury, James L (1990). A Short History of the Korean War. New York: Harper Perennial. ISBN 0-688-09513-5.
- ^ See, e.g., Brown, Philip Marshall. "The Recognition of Israel", American Journal of International Law, Vol. 42, No. 3 (Jul. 1948), p. 620
- ^ Roberts 2002, p. 98
- ^ a b c Henig 2005, p. 67
- ^ a b Roberts 2002, p. 96
- ^ Department of State 1948, pp. 80–358
- ^ a b c d Roberts 2002, p. 97
- ^ Roberts 2002, p. 100
- ^ Taubert 2003, p. 318
- ^ a b Nekrich, Ulam & Freeze 1997, pp. 202–205
- ^ Stalin, J. V. (1945). "Toast to the Russian People at a Reception in Honour of Red Army Commanders Given by the Soviet Government in the Kremlin on Thursday, May 24, 1945". In War Speeches, Orders of the Day and Answers to Foreign Correspondents During the Great Patriotic War. Hutchinson & Co., Ltd., London, 1946. Marxists Internet Archive. Retrieved 22 February 2011.
- ^ a b c d e Ro'i, Yaacov, Jews and Jewish Life in Russia and the Soviet Union, Routledge, 1995, ISBN 0-7146-4619-9, pp. 103–6
- ^ Encyclopædia Britannica, The Doctors' Plot, 2008
- ^ Brackman 2001, pp. 384–5
- ^ a b Stalin's Secret Pogrom: The Postwar Inquisition of the Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee (introduction) by Joshua Rubenstein
- ^ From the diary of Vice-Chair of the Sovmin V.A. Malyshev. See G. Kostyrchenko, Gosudarstvennyj antisemitizm v SSSR, Moscow, 2005, pp. 461, 462
- ^ Brent & Naumov 2004, p. 288
- ^ a b Gorlizki, Yoram and Oleg Khlevniuk, Cold Peace: Stalin and the Soviet Ruling Circle 1945–1953, Sourcebooks, Inc., 2005 ISBN 0-19-530420-9, p. 158
- ^ a b Zuehlke, Jeffrey, Joseph Stalin, Twenty-First Century Books, 2005, ISBN 0-8225-3421-5, pp. 99–101
- ^ "Vicious Spies and Killers under the Mask of Academic Physicians". Pravda. 13 January 1953. http://www.cyberussr.com/rus/vrach-ubijca-e.html. Retrieved 1 March 2007.
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- ^ Brackman 2001, p. 390
- ^ "Stalin's torture: 'Beat them to death'", Novaya Gazeta, 2008. (Russian)
- ^ Montefiore, Simon Sebag, Young Stalin, Random House, Inc., 2008, ISBN 1-4000-9613-8, p. 165
- ^ Kun, Miklós, Stalin: An Unknown Portrait, Central European University Press, 2003, ISBN 963-9241-19-9, p. 287
- ^ Rappaport, Helen, Joseph Stalin: A Biographical Companion, ABC-CLIO, 1999 ISBN 1-57607-084-0, page297
- ^ Brent & Naumov 2004, p. 184
- ^ Brent & Naumov 2004, p. 295
- ^ a b Brackman 2001, p. 388
- ^ Brent & Naumov 2004, pp. 47–48 & 295
- ^ Eisenstadt, Yaakov, Stalin's Planned Genocide, 22 Adar 5762, 6 March 2002
- ^ Brent & Naumov 2004, pp. 298–300
- ^ Solzhenitzin, Alexander, The Gulag Archipelago, 1973
- ^ a b Khrushchev, Nikita, Special Report to the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Closed session, 24–25 February 1956
- ^ Zhores A. Medvedev, The unknown Stalin (2006) p. 6
- ^ Sebag Montefiore, Simon (4 June 2004). "Why Stalin loved Tarzan and wanted John Wayne shot". The Daily Telegraph (London). http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/3618310/Why-Stalin-loved-Tarzan-and-wanted-John-Wayne-shot.html. Retrieved 24 August 2010.
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- ^ Simon Sebag Montefiore, Stalin, 2003, p. 571
- ^ Brent & Naumov 2004
- ^ ”Stalin was ‘afraid of Beria’, thought Khrushchev, ‘and would have been glad to get rid of him but didn’t know how to do it.’ Stalin himself confirmed this, sensing that Beria was winning support...”. Simon Sebag Montefiore, Stalin, 2003, p. 548. Cf. Nikita Khrushchev, Khrushchev remembers, 1971, pp. 250, 311
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- ^ "Modern Poll – Votes for Stalin". http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20060101facomment85101/sarah-e-mendelson-theodore-p-gerber/failing-the-stalin-test.html.
- ^ Walker, Shaun (14 May 2008). "The Big Question: Why is Stalin still popular in Russia, despite the brutality of his regime?". The Independent (UK). http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/the-big-question-why-is-stalin-still-popular-in-russia-despite-the-brutality-of-his-regime-827654.html. Retrieved 23 August 2008.
- ^ "Russia: Court Rejects Libel Claim by Stalin's Grandson" Associated Press article in The New York Times 13 October 2009
- ^ Tom Parfitt in Moscow (29 December 2008). "Greatest Russian poll". The Guardian (UK). http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/dec/29/stalin-name-of-russia. Retrieved 25 June 2010.
- ^ a b "Resolution on Stalin riles Russia". BBC News. 3 July 2009. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8133749.stm.
- ^ Galpin, Richard (30 October 2009). "Medvedev blasts Stalin defenders". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8334009.stm. Retrieved 25 June 2010.
- ^ Montefiore, Simon (2007). "Epilogue". Young Stalin (2007 Costa biography winner ed.). Britain: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. p. 395. ISBN 0-297-85068-7.
- ^ "The Human Monster," p. 4. O'Hehir, A. Salon.com. 5 May 2005
- ^ Rico, Ralph (31 May 1997). "Rethinking Churchill". In Denson, John V.. The Costs of War: America's Pyrrhic Victories (1st ed.). New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers. p. 258. ISBN 1-56000-319-7. OCLC 36011765. http://books.google.com/?id=WbJNNPgcrykC&pg=PA258. Retrieved 21 September 2008.
- ^ Rappaport, Helen (1999). Joseph Stalin: A Biographical Companion. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-208-0. http://books.google.com/books?id=lsKClpnX8qwC&pg=PA264. Retrieved 22 March 2011.
- ^ a b c d Nikolai Tolstoy. Stalin's Secret War. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston (1981), ISBN 0-03-047266-0. pp. 19–21. ISBN 0-03-047266-0.
- ^ McCullough, David (9 April 1952). Truman. Simon and Schuster. p. 507. ISBN 978-0-7432-6029-9. http://books.google.com/?id=8fp1A2s6aQwC&pg=PA507. Retrieved 25 June 2010.
- ^ "Bronze cast of Stalin's death mask goes for auction". BBC News Online. 23 January 2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-shropshire-16691897. Retrieved 24 January 2012.
- ^ Simon Sebag Montefiore. Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar, Knopf, 2004. page=11 (ISBN 1-4000-4230-5),
- ^ "Historical Notes: The Death of Stalin's Son". Time. 1 March 1968. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,941216,00.html. Retrieved 7 May 2010.
- ^ Desmond Butler (17 December 2001). "Ex-Death Camp Tells Story of Nazi + Soviet Horrors". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2001/12/17/world/ex-death-camp-tells-story-of-nazi-and-soviet-horrors.html.
- ^ Knipp, Steven (17 December 2006). "George Lenczowski – UC Professor, Middle East Expert". The San Francisco Chronicle. http://articles.sfgate.com/2006-12-17/opinion/17326569_1_red-army-joseph-stalin-germans.
- ^ Koba the Dread, p. 133, ISBN 0-7868-6876-7; Stalin: The Man and His Era, p. 354, ISBN 0-8070-7001-7, in a footnote he quotes the press announcement as speaking of her "sudden death"; he also cites pp. 103–105 of his daughter's book, Twenty Letters to a Friend, the Russian edition, New York, 1967
- ^ "YouTube – Joseph Stalin Biography 1 of 2". http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K2sugMM9y3Q.
- ^ BBC (27 March 2001). "Stalin grandson found in Siberia". http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1245986.stm. Retrieved 28 November 2011.
- ^ Nikolai Tolstoy. Stalin's Secret War. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston (1981), ISBN 0-03-047266-0. pp. 35–37. ISBN 0-03-047266-0.
- ^ a b c McCauley,, Martin (2008). Stalin and Stalinism. USA: Pearson Education. p. 92. ISBN 1-4058-7436-8.
- ^ a b c d Khrushchev,, Nikita (2006). "Economic Problems of Socialism in the USSR". Memoirs of Nikita Khrushchev, vol. II. USA: Penn State Press. pp. 115–116. ISBN 0-271-02861-0.
- ^ Montefiore, page 457
- ^ Simon Sebag Montefiore, Stalin: Court of the Red Tsar, page 507
- ^ Montefiore, page 86
- ^ Avalos, Hector, Fighting Words: The Origins Of Religious Violence. by, p. 325
- ^ Vladislav Zubok; Constantine Pleshakov. Inside the Kremlin's Cold War: From Stalin to Khrushchev. p. 4. ISBN 0-674-45531-2.
- ^ Dimitry V. Pospielovsky. A History of Soviet Atheism in Theory, and Practice, and the Believer, vol 1: A History of Marxist-Leninist Atheism and Soviet Anti-Religious Policies, St Martin's Press, New York (1987) p.71
- ^ "Mass crimes against humanity and genocide". Religioustolerance.org. http://www.religioustolerance.org/genocide0.htm. Retrieved 19 October 2008.
- ^ "Was Prejevalsky really the father of Joseph Stalin?". Logoi.com. http://www.logoi.com/notes/prejevalsky_stalin.html. Retrieved 19 October 2008.
- ^ Smith, Edward Ellis.The Young Stalin. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1967. p.77
- ^ Simon Sebag Montefiore (19 May 2007). "Before the terror". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2007/may/19/featuresreviews.guardianreview32. Retrieved 12 April 2011.
- ^ Suzanne Merkelson (8 April 2011). "Bad Politics, Worse Prose". Foreign Policy. http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2011/04/08/bad_politics_worse_prose?page=0,3. Retrieved 12 April 2011.
Bibliography[link]
- Applebaum, Anne (2003). Gulag: A History. Doubleday. ISBN 0-7679-0056-1.
- Bideleux, Robert; Jeffries, Ian (1998). A History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and Change. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-05024-8.
- Boobbyer, Phillip (2000). The Stalin Era. Routledge. ISBN 0-7679-0056-1.
- Brackman, Roman (2001). The Secret File of Joseph Stalin: A Hidden Life. Frank Cass Publishers. ISBN 0-7146-5050-1.
- Brent, Jonathan; Naumov, Vladimir (2004). Stalin's Last Crime: The Plot Against the Jewish Doctors, 1948–1953. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-093310-0.
- Fest, Joachim C. (2002). Hitler. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 0-15-602754-2.
- Henig, Ruth Beatrice (2005). The Origins of the Second World War, 1933–41. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-33262-1.
- Montefiore, Simon Sebag (2007). Young Stalin. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 978-0-297-85068-7.
- Murphy, David E. (2006). What Stalin Knew: The Enigma of Barbarossa. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-11981-X.
- Overy, R. J. (2004). The Dictators: Hitler's Germany and Stalin's Russia. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-02030-4.
- Nekrich, Aleksandr Moiseevich; Ulam, Adam Bruno; Freeze, Gregory L. (1997). Pariahs, Partners, Predators: German-Soviet Relations, 1922–1941. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-10676-9.
- Roberts, Geoffrey (2006). Stalin's Wars: From World War to Cold War, 1939–1953. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-11204-1.
- Roberts, Geoffrey (2002). Stalin, the Pact with Nazi Germany, and the Origins of Postwar Soviet Diplomatic Historiography. 4.
- Roberts, Geoffrey (1992). "The Soviet Decision for a Pact with Nazi Germany". Soviet Studies (Taylor & Francis, Ltd.) 55 (2): 57–78. JSTOR 152247.
- Soviet Information Bureau (1948). Falsifiers of History (Historical Survey). Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House. 272848.
- Department of State (1948). Nazi-Soviet Relations, 1939–1941: Documents from the Archives of The German Foreign Office. Department of State. http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/nsr/nsr-preface.html.
- Taubert, Fritz (2003). The Myth of Munich. Oldenbourg Wissenschaftsverlag. ISBN 3-486-56673-3.
- Tucker, Robert C. (1992). Stalin in Power: The Revolution from Above, 1928–1941. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-30869-3.
- Watson, Derek (2000). "Molotov's Apprenticeship in Foreign Policy: The Triple Alliance Negotiations in 1939". Europe-Asia Studies (Taylor & Francis, Ltd.) 52 (4): 695–722. DOI:10.1080/713663077. JSTOR 153322.
- Wettig, Gerhard (2008). Stalin and the Cold War in Europe. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0-7425-5542-9.
Further reading[link]
- Anton Antonov-Ovseenko. The Time of Stalin: Portrait of a Tyranny. Harpercollins, 1983 (ISBN 0060390271)
- Brent, Jonathan. Inside the Stalin Archives: Discovering the New Russia. Atlas & Co., 2008 (ISBN 0977743330) Introduction online
- Brent, Jonathan; Naumov, Vladimir Pavlovich. Stalin's Last Crime: The Plot Against the Jewish Doctors, 1948–1953. New York: HarperCollins, 2003 (ISBN 0-06-019524-X); as Stalin's Last Crime: The Doctor's Plot. London: John Murray, 2004 (ISBN 0-7195-6508-1).
- Broekmeyer, Marius. Stalin, the Russians, and Their War, 1941–1945. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 2004 (ISBN 0-299-19590-2).
- Bullock, Alan. Hitler and Stalin: Parallel Lives. London: HarperCollins, 1991 (ISBN 0002154943).
- Boterbloem, Kees. Life and Death under Stalin: Kalinin Province, 1945–1953. Montreal, Quebec; Kingston, ON: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1999 (ISBN 0-7735-1811-8).
- Robert Conquest. The Great Terror: A Reassessment. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990 (ISBN 0-19-507132-8).
- Robert Conquest. The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986 (ISBN 0-19-505180-7).
- Davies, Sarah; Harris, James R. Stalin: A New History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005 (ISBN 0-521-85104-1).
- Isaac Deutscher. Stalin: A Political Biography. New York: Oxford University Press, 1967 (ISBN 0-19-500273-3); London: Penguin Books, 1990 (ISBN 0140135049).
- Milovan Đilas. Conversations With Stalin. Harcourt Trade Publishers New York, 1962 (ISBN 0151225907)
- Orlando Figes. The Whisperers: Private Life in Stalin's Russia. Metropolitan Books, 2007 (ISBN 0805074619)
- Gellately, Robert. Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe. Knopf, August 2007 (ISBN 1-4000-4005-1).
- Gill, Graeme. Stalinism (2nd ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 1998 (ISBN 0-312-17764-X).
- Jonge, Alex de. Stalin and the Shaping of the Soviet Union. New York: William Morrow, 1986 (ISBN 0-688-04730-0); 1987 (ISBN 0688072917).
- Keep, John L.H.; Litvin, Alter L. Stalinism: Russian and Western Views at the Turn of the Millennium (Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions). New York: Routledge, 2004 (ISBN 0-415-35108-1)
- Kuromiya, Hiroaki. Stalin. Harlow, UK: Longman, 2006 (ISBN 0-582-78479-4).
- Kuromiya, Hiroaki. The Voices of the Dead: Stalin's Great Terror in the 1930s. Yale University Press, 24 December 2007. ISBN 0-300-12389-2
- The Leader Cult in Communist Dictatorships: Stalin and the Eastern Bloc, edited by Apor, Balázs; Jan C. Behrends, Polly Jones and E.A. Rees. Houndmills, UK; New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004 (ISBN 1-4039-3443-6).
- The Lesser Evil: Moral Approaches to Genocide Practices (Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions), edited by Helmut Dubiel and Gabriel Motzkin. New York: Routledge, 2004 (ISBN 0-7146-5493-0).
- Laqueur, Walter. Stalin: The Glasnost Revelations. New York: Scribner, 1990 (ISBN 0684192039).
- Mace, James E. "The Man-Made Famine of 1933 in Soviet Ukraine", Famine in Ukraine 1932–1933: A Memorial Exhibition, edited by Roman Serbyn and Bohdan Krawchenko. Edmonton, Alberta: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies, 1986 (ISBN 0-920862-43-8), pp. 1–14.
- Mawdsley, Evan. The Stalin Years: The Soviet Union, 1929–53. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2003 (ISBN 0-7190-6377-9).
- McDermott, Kevin. Stalin: Revolutionary in an Era of War (European History in Perspective). New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006 (ISBN 0-333-71121-1).
- McLoughlin, Barry and McDermott, Kevin (eds). Stalin's Terror: High Politics and Mass Repression in the Soviet Union. Palgrave Macmillan, 2002. ISBN 1-4039-0119-8
- Roy Medvedev; Zhores Medvedev The Unknown Stalin: His Life, Death, and Legacy. London: I.B. Tauris, 2003 (ISBN 1-86064-768-5)
- Simon Sebag Montefiore. Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2004 (ISBN 1-4000-4230-5); New York: Vintage, 2005 (ISBN 1400076781).
- Simon Sebag Montefiore. Young Stalin. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2007 (ISBN 978-0-297-85068-7). An excerpt.
- Murphy, David E. What Stalin Knew: The Enigma of Barbarossa. Yale University Press, 2005 (ISBN 0300107803).
- Norman Naimark Stalin's Genocides (Human Rights and Crimes against Humanity). Princeton University Press, 2010. ISBN 0-691-14784-1
- Richard Overy. Dictators: Hitler's Germany and Stalin's Russia. Allen Lane, 2004 (ISBN 0-393-32797-3).
- Parrish, Michael. The Lesser Terror: Soviet state security, 1939–1953. Praeger Press, 1996 (ISBN 0275951138)
- Richard Pipes. Communism: A History. Modern Library Chronicles, 2001 (ISBN 0679640509)
- Priestland, David. Stalin and the Politics of Mobilization: Ideas, Power, and Terror in Inter-war Russia. New York: Oxford University Press (U.S.), 2006 (ISBN 0-19-924513-4).
- Edvard Radzinsky. Stalin: The First In-Depth Biography Based on Explosive New Documents from Russia's Secret Archives. Doubleday, 1996 (ISBN 0-385-47397-4). Chapter 1.
- Rayfield, Donald, Stalin and his Hangmen: The Tyrant and Those Who Killed for Him, (2005), Random House
- Redefining Stalinism (Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions), edited by Harold Shukman. New York: Routledge, 2003 (ISBN 0-7146-5415-9).
- Ree, Erik van. The Political Thought of Joseph Stalin: A Study in Twentieth-Century Revolutionary Patriotism. London; New York: Routledge Courzon, 2002 (ISBN 0-7007-1749-8).
- Roberts, Geoffrey. Stalin's Wars: From World War to Cold War, 1939–1953. New Heaven, CT; London: Yale University Press, 2006 (ISBN 0300112041).
- Rosefielde, Steven. Red Holocaust. Routledge, 2009. (ISBN 0-415-77757-7)
- Rudolph Rummel Death By Government. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 1994 (ISBN 1560001453).
- Rudolph Rummel Lethal Politics: Soviet Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1917. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 1990 (ISBN 0887383335)
- Sandag, Shagdariin; Kendall, Harry H.; Wakeman, Frederic E. Poisoned Arrows: The Stalin-Choibalsan Mongolian Massacres, 1921–1941. Westview Press (October 1999). ISBN 0-8133-3710-0
- Service, Robert. Stalin: A Biography. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2005 (ISBN 0-674-01697-1).
- Timothy Snyder. Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin. Basic Books, 2010. ISBN 0-465-00239-0
- Boris Souvarine. Stalin: A Critical Survey of Bolshevism. Whitefish, MT: Kessinger Publishing, 2005 (ISBN 1-4191-1307-0)Online.
- Stalin's Terror Revisited. Edited by Melanie Ilic and Stephen G. Wheatcroft. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006 (ISBN 1-4039-4705-8).
- Robert C. Tucker Stalin as Revolutionary, 1879–1929: A Study in History and Personality. (W.W. Norton, 1973) online edition
- Robert C. Tucker Stalin in Power: The Revolution from Above, 1928–1941. New York: W.W. Norton, 1990 (ISBN 0-393-02881-X).
- Tzouliadis, Tim. The Forsaken: An American Tragedy in Stalin's Russia. The Penguin Press, 2008 (ISBN 1594201684)
- Ulam, Adam Bruno. Stalin: The Man and His Era. Boston: Beacon Press, 1989 (ISBN 0-8070-7005-X)
- Vaksberg, Arkady. The Murder of Maxim Gorky. A Secret Execution. (Enigma Books: New York, 2007. ISBN 978-1-929631-62-9.)
- Dmitri Volkogonov (Author); Shukman, Harold (Editor, Translator). Autopsy for an Empire: the Seven Leaders Who Built the Soviet Regime. Free Press, 1998 (ISBN 0684834200)
- Ward, Chris. The Stalinist Dictatorship. London: Arnold Publishers, 1998 (ISBN 0-340-70640-6).
- Ward, Chris. "Stalin Through Seventeenth-Century Eyes", Journal of European Studies, Vol. 36, No. 2. (2006), pp. 181–200.
- Alexander Nikolaevich Yakovlev (Author); Austin, Anthony (Translator). A Century of Violence in Soviet Russia. Yale University Press, 2002 (ISBN 0300087608)
External links[link]
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Textbooks from Wikibooks |
- Stalin Library (with all 13 volumes of Stalin's works and "volume 14")
- Library of Congress: Revelations from the Russian Archives
- Electronic archive of Stalin's letters and presentations
- Sovetika.ru – A site about the Soviet era (Russian)
- "Another view of Stalin" [2][3][4] by Ludo Martens, Progressive Labor Party website
- "The Revolution Betrayed" by Leon Trotsky
- Stalin and the 'Cult of Personality'
- Stalin Biography from Spartacus Educational
- A List of Key Documentary Material on Stalin
- "Stalin and the Struggle for Democratic Reform, Part One" and "Part Two" by Grover Furr.
- Stalinka: The Digital Library of Staliniana
- Modern History Sourcebook: Stalin's Reply to Churchill, 1946
- Modern History Sourcebook: Nikita S. Khrushchev: The Secret Speech – On the Cult of Personality, 1956
- The political economy of Stalinism: evidence from the Soviet secret archives / Paul R. Gregory
- "Demographic catastrophes of the 20th century", chapter from Demographic Modernization in Russia 1900–2000, ed. A. G. Vishnevsky, 2006 ISBN 5-98379-042-0 – estimates of the human cost of Stalin's rule
- Annotated bibliography for Joseph Stalin from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
- "Secret documents reveal Stalin was poisoned" study by the Russian paper Pravda of events behind possible death by poisoning
- Over 2,000 original German WWII soldier photographs from the Eastern Front
- Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Current Intelligence. Death of Stalin, 16 July 1953.
- How Many Did Stalin Really Murder? by Professor R.J. Rummel
- Death of the Butcher by Hoover fellow Arnold Beichman
- A secret revealed: Stalin's police killed Americans (1997 Associated Press article)
- Stalin giving a speech in Russian with English subtitles
- The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine (1986)
- Hitler vs. Stalin: Who Was Worse? by Timothy Snyder
- Part One Booknotes interview with Simon Sebag Montefiore on Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar, June 20, 2004.
| Political offices | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by None |
People's Commissar of Nationalities of the RSFSR 1917–1923 |
Succeeded by ? |
| Preceded by Vyacheslav Molotov |
Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union Council of People's Commissars until 1946 1941–1953 |
Succeeded by Georgy Malenkov |
| Preceded by Semyon Timoshenko |
Minister of Defence of the Soviet Union People's Commissar until 1946 1941–1947 |
Succeeded by Nikolai Bulganin |
| Preceded by None |
Chairman of the State Defense Committee 1941–1945 |
Succeeded by None |
| Party political offices | ||
| Preceded by None |
General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union 1922–1953 |
Succeeded by Nikita Khrushchev |
| Military offices | ||
| Preceded by None |
Generalissimo of the Soviet Union 1945–1953 |
Succeeded by None |
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Stalin, Jossif Wissarionowitsch |
| Alternative names | Josef Stalin, Иосиф Сталин (Russian), Jossif Wissarionowitsch Dschugaschwili, იოსებ ჯუღაშვილი (Georgian birthname) |
| Short description | Dictator of the Soviet Union (1927–1953) |
| Date of birth | (1878-12-18)18 December 1878 |
| Place of birth | Gori, Georgia |
| Date of death | 5 March 1953(1953-03-05) |
| Place of death | Moscow, Russia |
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"Hitler" redirects here. For other uses, see Hitler (disambiguation).
| Adolf Hitler | |
|---|---|
 |
|
| Hitler in 1937 | |
| Führer of Germany | |
| In office 2 August 1934 – 30 April 1945 |
|
| Preceded by | Paul von Hindenburg (as President) |
| Succeeded by | Karl Dönitz (as President) |
| Chancellor of Germany | |
| In office 30 January 1933 – 30 April 1945 |
|
| President | Paul von Hindenburg |
| Deputy |
|
| Preceded by | Kurt von Schleicher |
| Succeeded by | Joseph Goebbels |
| Reichsstatthalter of Prussia | |
| In office 30 January 1933 – 30 January 1935 |
|
| Prime Minister | |
| Preceded by | Office created |
| Succeeded by | Office abolished |
| Personal details | |
| Born | (1889-04-20)20 April 1889 Braunau am Inn, Austria–Hungary |
| Died | 30 April 1945(1945-04-30) (aged 56) Berlin, Germany |
| Nationality |
|
| Political party | National Socialist German Workers' Party (1921–1945) |
| Other political affiliations |
German Workers' Party (1920–1921) |
| Spouse(s) | Eva Braun (29–30 April 1945) |
| Occupation | Politician, soldier, artist, writer |
| Religion | See Adolf Hitler's religious views |
| Signature |  |
| Military service | |
| Allegiance |  German Empire |
| Service/branch |  Reichsheer |
| Years of service | 1914–1918 |
| Rank | Gefreiter |
| Unit | 16th Bavarian Reserve Regiment |
| Battles/wars | World War I |
| Awards |
|
Adolf Hitler (German: [ˈadɔlf ˈhɪtlɐ] (
listen); 20 April 1889 – 30 April 1945) was an Austrian-born German politician and the leader of the National Socialist German Workers Party (German: Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (NSDAP), commonly referred to as the Nazi Party). He was chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945 and dictator of Nazi Germany (as Führer und Reichskanzler) from 1934 to 1945. Hitler is commonly associated with the rise of fascism in Europe, World War II, and the Holocaust.
A decorated veteran of World War I, Hitler joined the German Workers' Party, precursor of the Nazi Party, in 1919, and became leader of the NSDAP in 1921. In 1923, he attempted a coup d'état, known as the Beer Hall Putsch, in Munich. The failed coup resulted in Hitler's imprisonment, during which time he wrote his memoir, Mein Kampf (My Struggle). After his release in 1924, Hitler gained popular support by attacking the Treaty of Versailles and promoting Pan-Germanism, antisemitism, and anticommunism with charismatic oratory and Nazi propaganda. After his appointment as chancellor in 1933, he transformed the Weimar Republic into the Third Reich, a single-party dictatorship based on the totalitarian and autocratic ideology of Nazism. His aim was to establish a New Order of absolute Nazi German hegemony in continental Europe.
Hitler's foreign and domestic policies had the goal of seizing Lebensraum ("living space") for the Germanic people. He directed the rearmament of Germany and the invasion of Poland by the Wehrmacht in September 1939, leading to the outbreak of World War II in Europe. Under Hitler's rule, in 1941 German forces and their European allies occupied most of Europe and North Africa. These gains were gradually reversed, and in 1945 the Allied armies defeated the German army. Hitler's supremacist and racially motivated policies resulted in the systematic murder of eleven million people, including nearly six million Jews.
In the final days of the war, during the Battle of Berlin in 1945, Hitler married his long-time mistress, Eva Braun. On 30 April 1945, less than two days later, the two committed suicide to avoid capture by the Red Army, and their corpses were burned.
Contents |
Early years[link]
Ancestry[link]
Hitler's father, Alois Hitler (1837–1903), was the illegitimate child of Maria Anna Schicklgruber. Alois's birth certificate did not name the father, so the child bore his mother's surname. In 1842 Johann Georg Hiedler married Anna. After she died in 1847 and he in 1856, Alois was brought up in the family of Hiedler's brother, Johann Nepomuk Hiedler.[2] It was not until 1876 that Alois was legitimated and the baptismal register changed by a priest before three witnesses.[3] While awaiting trial at Nuremberg in 1945, Nazi official Hans Frank suggested the existence of letters claiming that Alois' mother was employed as a housekeeper for a Jewish family in Graz and that the family's 19-year-old son, Leopold Frankenberger, had fathered Alois.[4] However, no Frankenberger, Jewish or otherwise, was registered in Graz during that period.[5] Historians doubt the claim that Alois' father was Jewish.[6][7]
At age 39, Alois assumed the surname "Hitler", also spelled as "Hiedler", "Hüttler", or "Huettler". The origin of the name is either "one who lives in a hut" (Standard German Hütte), "shepherd" (Standard German hüten "to guard", English "heed"), or is from the Slavic words Hidlar and Hidlarcek.[8]
Childhood[link]
Adolf Hitler was born on 20 April 1889 at the Gasthof zum Pommer, an inn in Ranshofen,[9] a village annexed in 1938 to the municipality of Braunau am Inn, Austria-Hungary. He was the fourth of six children to Alois Hitler and Klara Pölzl (1860–1907). Adolf's older siblings – Gustav, Ida, and Otto – died in infancy.[10] When Hitler was three, the family moved to Passau, Germany.[11] There he acquired the distinctive lower Bavarian dialect, rather than Austrian German, which marked his speech all of his life.[12][13][14] In 1894 the family relocated to Leonding (near Linz), and in June 1895, Alois retired to a small landholding at Hafeld, near Lambach, where he tried his hand at farming and beekeeping. Adolf attended school in nearby Fischlham. Hitler became fixated on warfare after finding a picture book about the Franco-Prussian War among his father's belongings.[15][16]
The move to Hafeld coincided with the onset of intense father-son conflicts caused by Adolf's refusal to conform to the strict discipline of his school.[17] Alois Hitler's farming efforts at Hafeld ended in failure, and in 1897 the family moved to Lambach. Hitler attended a Catholic school in an 11th-century Benedictine cloister, the pulpit of which bore a stylized swastika symbol on the coat of arms of Theodorich von Hagen, a former abbot.[18] The eight-year-old Hitler took singing lessons, sang in the church choir, and even entertained thoughts of becoming a priest.[19] In 1898 the family returned permanently to Leonding. The death of his younger brother, Edmund, from measles on 2 February 1900 deeply affected Hitler. He changed from being confident and outgoing and an excellent student, to a morose, detached, and sullen boy who constantly fought with his father and teachers.[20]
Alois had made a successful career in the customs bureau and wanted his son to follow in his footsteps.[21] Hitler later dramatised an episode from this period when his father took him to visit a customs office, depicting it as an event that gave rise to an unforgiving antagonism between father and son, who were both strong-willed.[22][23][24] Ignoring his son's desire to attend a classical high school and become an artist, in September 1900 Alois sent Adolf to the Realschule in Linz.[25] (This was the same high school that Adolf Eichmann would attend some 17 years later.)[26] Hitler rebelled against this decision, and in Mein Kampf revealed that he did poorly in school, hoping that once his father saw "what little progress I was making at the technical school he would let me devote myself to my dream."[27]
Hitler became obsessed with German nationalism from a young age.[28] He expressed loyalty only to Germany, despising the declining Habsburg Monarchy and its rule over an ethnically-variegated empire.[29][30] Hitler and his friends used the German greeting "Heil", and sang the German anthem "Deutschland Über Alles" instead of the Austrian Imperial anthem.[31]
After Alois' sudden death on 3 January 1903, Hitler's performance at school deteriorated. His mother allowed him to quit in autumn 1905.[32] He enrolled at the Realschule in Steyr in September 1904; his behaviour and performance showed some slight and gradual improvement.[33] In the autumn of 1905, after passing a repeat and the final exam, Hitler left the school without showing any ambitions for further schooling or clear plans for a career.[34]
Early adulthood in Vienna and Munich[link]
File:The Courtyard of the Old Residency in Munich - Adolf Hitler.jpg
The Alter Hof in Munich. Watercolour by Adolf Hitler, 1914
From 1905, Hitler lived a bohemian life in Vienna, financed by orphan's benefits and support from his mother. He worked as a casual labourer and eventually as a painter, selling watercolours. The Academy of Fine Arts Vienna rejected him twice, in 1907 and 1908, because of his "unfitness for painting". The director recommended that Hitler study architecture,[35] but he lacked the academic credentials.[36] On 21 December 1907, his mother died aged 47. After the Academy's second rejection, Hitler ran out of money. In 1909 he lived in a homeless shelter, and by 1910, he had settled into a house for poor working men on Meldemannstraße.[37] At the time Hitler lived there, Vienna was a hotbed of religious prejudice and 19th-century racism.[38] Fears of being overrun by immigrants from the East were widespread, and the populist mayor, Karl Lueger, exploited the rhetoric of virulent antisemitism for political effect. Georg Schönerer's pan-Germanic antisemitism had a strong following and base in the Mariahilf district, where Hitler lived.[39] Hitler read local newspapers, such as the Deutsches Volksblatt, that fanned prejudice and played on Christian fears of being swamped by an influx of eastern Jews.[40] Hostile to what he saw as Catholic "Germanophobia", he developed an admiration for Martin Luther.[41]
The origin and first expression of Hitler's antisemitism have been difficult to locate.[42] Hitler states in Mein Kampf that he first became an antisemite in Vienna.[43] His close friend, August Kubizek, claimed that Hitler was a "confirmed antisemite" before he left Linz.[44] Kubizek's account has been challenged by historian Brigitte Hamann, who writes that Kubizek is the only person to have said that the young Hitler was an antisemite.[45] Hamann also notes that no antisemitic remark has been documented from Hitler during this period.[46] Historian Ian Kershaw suggests that if Hitler had made such remarks, they may have gone unnoticed because of the prevailing antisemitism in Vienna at that time.[47] Several sources provide strong evidence that Hitler had Jewish friends in his hostel and in other places in Vienna.[48][49] Historian Richard J. Evans states that "historians now generally agree that his notorious, murderous anti-Semitism emerged well after Germany’s defeat [in World War I], as a product of the paranoid 'stab-in-the-back' explanation for the catastrophe".[50]
Hitler received the final part of his father's estate in May 1913 and moved to Munich.[51] Historians believe he left Vienna to evade conscription into the Austrian army.[52] Hitler later claimed that he did not wish to serve the Habsburg Empire because of the mixture of "races" in its army.[51] After he was deemed unfit for service—he failed his physical exam in Salzburg on 5 February 1914—he returned to Munich.[53]
World War I[link]
Main article: Military career of Adolf Hitler
At the outbreak of World War I, Hitler applied to serve in the German army. He was accepted in August 1914, likely as the result of a clerical oversight—he was still an Austrian citizen.[54] Posted to the Bavarian Reserve Infantry Regiment 16 (1st Company of the List Regiment),[55][54] he served as a dispatch runner on the Western Front in France and Belgium,[56] spending nearly half his time well behind the front lines.[57][58] He was present at the First Battle of Ypres, the Battle of the Somme, the Battle of Arras, and the Battle of Passchendaele, and was wounded at the Somme.[59]
He was decorated for bravery, receiving the Iron Cross, Second Class, in 1914.[59] Recommended by Hugo Gutmann, he received the Iron Cross, First Class, on 4 August 1918,[60] a decoration rarely awarded to one of Hitler's rank (Gefreiter). Hitler's post at regimental headquarters, providing frequent interactions with senior officers, may have helped him receive this decoration.[61] Though his rewarded actions may have been courageous, they were probably not highly exceptional.[62] He also received the Black Wound Badge on 18 May 1918.[63]
During his service at the headquarters, Hitler pursued his artwork, drawing cartoons and instructions for an army newspaper. During the Battle of the Somme in October 1916, he was wounded either in the groin area[64] or the left thigh by a shell that had exploded in the dispatch runners' dugout.[65] Hitler spent almost two months in the Red Cross hospital at Beelitz, returning to his regiment on 5 March 1917.[66] On 15 October 1918, he was temporarily blinded by a mustard gas attack and was hospitalised in Pasewalk.[67] While there, Hitler learnt of Germany's defeat,[68] and—by his own account—on receiving this news, he suffered a second bout of blindness.[69]
Hitler became embittered over the collapse of the war effort, and his ideological development began to firmly take shape.[70] He described the war as "the greatest of all experiences", and was praised by his commanding officers for his bravery.[71] The experience reinforced his passionate German patriotism and he was shocked by Germany's capitulation in November 1918.[72] Like other German nationalists, he believed in the Dolchstoßlegende (Stab-in-the-back legend), which claimed that the German army, "undefeated in the field," had been "stabbed in the back" on the home front by civilian leaders and Marxists, later dubbed the "November criminals".[73]
The Treaty of Versailles stipulated that Germany must relinquish several of its territories and demilitarise the Rhineland. The treaty imposed economic sanctions and levied heavy reparations on the country. Many Germans perceived the treaty—especially Article 231, which declared Germany responsible for the war—as a humiliation.[74] The Versailles Treaty and the economic, social, and political conditions in Germany after the war were later exploited by Hitler for political gains.[75]
Entry into politics[link]
Main article: Adolf Hitler's political views
After World War I Hitler returned to Munich.[76] Having no formal education and career plans or prospects, he tried to remain in the army for as long as possible.[77] In July 1919 he was appointed Verbindungsmann (intelligence agent) of an Aufklärungskommando (reconnaissance commando) of the Reichswehr, to influence other soldiers and to infiltrate the German Workers' Party (DAP). While monitoring the activities of the DAP, Hitler became attracted to the founder Anton Drexler's antisemitic, nationalist, anti-capitalist, and anti-Marxist ideas.[78] Drexler favoured a strong active government, a "non-Jewish" version of socialism, and solidarity among all members of society. Impressed with Hitler's oratory skills, Drexler invited him to join the DAP. Hitler accepted on 12 September 1919,[79] becoming the party's 55th member.[80]
At the DAP, Hitler met Dietrich Eckart, one of its early founders and a member of the occult Thule Society.[81] Eckart became Hitler's mentor, exchanging ideas with him and introducing him to a wide range of people in Munich society.[82] To increase its appeal, the DAP changed its name to the Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (National Socialist German Workers Party – NSDAP).[83] Hitler designed the party's banner of a swastika in a white circle on a red background.[84]
Hitler was discharged from the army in March 1920 and began working full time for the NSDAP. In February 1921—already highly effective at speaking to large audiences—he spoke to a crowd of over 6,000 in Munich.[85] To publicise the meeting, two truckloads of party supporters drove around town waving swastika flags and throwing leaflets. Hitler soon gained notoriety for his rowdy, polemic speeches against the Treaty of Versailles, rival politicians, and especially against Marxists and Jews.[86] At the time, the NSDAP was centred in Munich, a major hotbed of anti-government German nationalists determined to crush Marxism and undermine the Weimar Republic.[87]
In June 1921, while Hitler and Eckart were on a fundraising trip to Berlin, a mutiny broke out within the NSDAP in Munich. Members of the its executive committee, some of whom considered Hitler to be too overbearing, wanted to merge with the rival German Socialist Party (DSP).[88] Hitler returned to Munich on 11 July 1921 and angrily tendered his resignation. The committee members realised that his resignation would mean the end of the party.[89] Hitler announced he would rejoin on the condition that he would replace Drexler as party chairman, and that the party headquarters would remain in Munich.[90] The committee agreed; he rejoined the party as member 3,680. He still faced some opposition within the NSDAP: Hermann Esser and his allies printed 3,000 copies of a pamphlet attacking Hitler as a traitor to the party.[90][a] In the following days, Hitler spoke to several packed houses and defended himself, to thunderous applause. His strategy proved successful: at a general membership meeting, he was granted absolute powers as party chairman, with only one nay vote cast.[91]
Hitler's vitriolic beer hall speeches began attracting regular audiences. He became adept at using populist themes targeted at his audience, including the use of scapegoats who could be blamed for the economic hardships of his listeners.[92][93][94] Historians have noted the hypnotic effect of his rhetoric on large audiences, and of his eyes in small groups. Kessel writes, "Overwhelmingly ... Germans speak with mystification of Hitler's 'hypnotic' appeal. The word shows up again and again; Hitler is said to have mesmerized the nation, captured them in a trance from which they could not break loose."[95] Historian Hugh Trevor-Roper described "the fascination of those eyes, which had bewitched so many seemingly sober men."[96] He used his personal magnetism and an understanding of crowd psychology to his advantage while engaged in public speaking.[97][98] Alfons Heck, a former member of the Hitler Youth, describes the reaction to a speech by Hitler: "We erupted into a frenzy of nationalistic pride that bordered on hysteria. For minutes on end, we shouted at the top of our lungs, with tears streaming down our faces: Sieg Heil, Sieg Heil, Sieg Heil! From that moment on, I belonged to Adolf Hitler body and soul".[99] Although his oratory skills and personal traits were generally received well by large crowds and at official events, some who had met Hitler privately noted that his appearance and demeanour failed to make a lasting impression on them.[100][101]
Early followers included Rudolf Hess, former air force pilot Hermann Göring, and army captain Ernst Röhm. The latter became head of the Nazis' paramilitary organisation, the Sturmabteilung (SA, "Stormtroopers"), which protected meetings and frequently attacked political opponents. A critical influence on his thinking during this period was the Aufbau Vereinigung,[102] a conspiratorial group formed of White Russian exiles and early National Socialists. The group, financed with funds channelled from wealthy industrialists like Henry Ford, introduced him to the idea of a Jewish conspiracy, linking international finance with Bolshevism.[103]
Beer Hall Putsch[link]
Main article: Beer Hall Putsch
Hitler enlisted the help of World War I General Erich Ludendorff for an attempted coup known as the "Beer Hall Putsch" (also known as the "Hitler Putsch" or "Munich Putsch"). The Nazi Party had used Italian Fascism as a model for their appearance and policies. Hitler wanted to emulate Benito Mussolini's "March on Rome" (1922) by staging his own coup in Bavaria, to be followed by challenging the government in Berlin. Hitler and Ludendorff sought the support of Staatskommissar (state commissioner) Gustav von Kahr, Bavaria's de facto ruler. However, Kahr, along with Police Chief Hans Ritter von Seisser (Seißer) and Reichswehr General Otto von Lossow, wanted to install a nationalist dictatorship without Hitler.[104]
Hitler wanted to seize a critical moment for successful popular agitation and support.[105] On 8 November 1923 he and the SA stormed a public meeting of 3,000 people that had been organised by Kahr in the Bürgerbräukeller, a large beer hall in Munich. Hitler interrupted Kahr's speech and announced that the national revolution had begun, declaring the formation of a new government with Ludendorff.[106] Retiring to a backroom, Hitler, with handgun drawn, demanded and got the support of Kahr, Seisser, and Lossow.[106] Hitler's forces initially succeeded in occupying the local Reichswehr and police headquarters; however, Kahr and his consorts quickly withdrew their support and neither the army nor the state police joined forces with him.[107] The next day, Hitler and his followers marched from the beer hall to the Bavarian War Ministry to overthrow the Bavarian government, but police dispersed them.[108] Sixteen NSDAP members and four police officers were killed in the failed coup.[109]
Hitler fled to the home of Ernst Hanfstaengl, and by some accounts contemplated suicide.[110] He was depressed but calm when arrested on 11 November 1923 for high treason.[111] His trial began in February 1924 before the special People's Court in Munich,[112] and Alfred Rosenberg became temporary leader of the NSDAP. On 1 April Hitler was sentenced to five years' imprisonment at Landsberg Prison.[113] He received friendly treatment from the guards; he was allowed mail from supporters and regular visits by party comrades. The Bavarian Supreme Court issued a pardon and he was released from jail on 20 December 1924, against the state prosecutor's objections.[114] Including time on remand, Hitler had served just over one year in prison.[115]
While at Landsberg, Hitler dictated most of the first volume of Mein Kampf (My Struggle; originally entitled Four and a Half Years of Struggle against Lies, Stupidity, and Cowardice) to his deputy, Rudolf Hess.[115] The book, dedicated to Thule Society member Dietrich Eckart, was an autobiography and an exposition of his ideology. Mein Kampf was influenced by The Passing of the Great Race by Madison Grant, which Hitler called "my Bible".[116] The book laid out Hitler's plans for transforming German society into one based on race. Some passages implied genocide.[117] Published in two volumes in 1925 and 1926, it sold 228,000 copies between 1925 and 1932. One million copies were sold in 1933, Hitler's first year in office. [118]
Rebuilding the NSDAP[link]
File:Hitler 1928.jpg
Hitler (left), standing behind Hermann Göring at a Nazi rally in Nuremberg (c. 1928)
At the time of Hitler's release from prison, politics in Germany had become less combative, and the economy had improved. This limited Hitler's opportunities for political agitation. As a result of the failed Beer Hall Putsch, the NSDAP and its affiliated organisations were banned in Bavaria. In a meeting with Prime Minister of Bavaria Heinrich Held on 4 January 1925, Hitler agreed to respect the authority of the state: he would only seek political power through the democratic process. The meeting paved the way for the ban on the NSDAP to be lifted.[119] However, Hitler was barred from public speaking, [120] a ban that remained in place until 1927.[121] To advance his political ambitions in spite of the ban, Hitler appointed Gregor Strasser, Otto Strasser, and Joseph Goebbels to organise and grow the NSDAP in northern Germany. A superb organiser, Gregor Strasser steered a more independent political course, emphasising the socialist element of the party's programme.[122]
Hitler ruled the NSDAP autocratically by asserting the Führerprinzip ("Leader principle"). Rank in the party was not determined by elections—positions were filled through appointment by those of higher rank, who demanded unquestioning obedience to the will of the leader.[123]
The stock market in the United States crashed on 24 October 1929. The impact in Germany was dire: millions were thrown out of work and several major banks collapsed. Hitler and the NSDAP prepared to take advantage of the emergency to gain support for their party. They promised to repudiate the Versailles Treaty, strengthen the economy, and provide jobs.[124]
Rise to power[link]
Main article: Adolf Hitler's rise to power
| Date | Total votes |
Votes, percentage |
Reichstag seats |
Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 01924-05-01May 1, 1924May 1924 | &100000000019183000000001,918,300 | &100000000000000065000006.5 | &1000000000000003200000032 | Hitler in prison |
| 01924-12-01December 1, 1924December 1924 | &10000000000907300000000907,300 | &100000000000000030000003.0 | &1000000000000001400000014 | Hitler released from prison |
| 01928-05-01May 1, 1928May 1928 | &10000000000810100000000810,100 | &100000000000000026000002.6 | &1000000000000001200000012 | |
| 01930-09-01September 1, 1930September 1930 | &100000000064096000000006,409,600 | &1000000000000001830000018.3 | &10000000000000107000000107 | After the financial crisis |
| 01932-07-01July 1, 1932July 1932 | &1000000001374500000000013,745,000 | &1000000000000003729999937.3 | &10000000000000230000000230 | After Hitler was candidate for presidency |
| 01932-11-01November 1, 1932November 1932 | &1000000001173700000000011,737,000 | &1000000000000003310000033.1 | &10000000000000196000000196 | |
| 01933-03-01March 1, 1933March 1933 | &1000000001727718000000017,277,180 | &1000000000000004389999943.9 | &10000000000000288000000288 | During Hitler's term as chancellor of Germany |
Brüning administration[link]
The Great Depression in Germany provided a political opportunity for Hitler. Germans were ambivalent to the parliamentary republic, which faced strong challenges from right- and left-wing extremists. The moderate political parties were increasingly unable to stem the tide of extremism, and the German referendum of 1929 had helped to elevate Nazi ideology.[126] The elections of September 1930 resulted in the break-up of a grand coalition and its replacement with a minority cabinet. Its leader, chancellor Heinrich Brüning of the Centre Party, governed through emergency decrees from the president, Paul von Hindenburg. Governance by decree would become the new norm and paved the way for authoritarian forms of government.[127] The NSDAP rose from obscurity to win 18.3% of the vote and 107 parliamentary seats in the 1930 election, becoming the second-largest party in parliament.[128]
Hitler made a prominent appearance at the trial of two Reichswehr officers, Lieutenants Richard Scheringer and Hans Ludin, in the autumn of 1930. Both were charged with membership in the NSDAP, at that time illegal for Reichswehr personnel.[129] The prosecution argued that the NSDAP was an extremist party, prompting defence lawyer Hans Frank to call on Hitler to testify in court.[130] On 25 September 1930 Hitler testified that his party would pursue political power solely through democratic elections,[131] a testimony that won him many supporters in the officer corps.[132]
Brüning's austerity measures brought little economic improvement and were extremely unpopular.[133] Hitler exploited this by targeting his political messages specifically at people who had been affected by the inflation of the 1920s and the Depression, such as farmers, war veterans, and the middle class.[134]
Hitler had formally renounced his Austrian citizenship on 7 April 1925, but at the time did not acquire German citizenship. For almost seven years Hitler was stateless, unable to run for public office, and faced the risk of deportation.[135] On 25 February 1932 the interior minister of Brunswick, who was a member of the NSDAP, appointed Hitler as administrator for the state's delegation to the Reichsrat in Berlin, making Hitler a citizen of Brunswick,[136] and thus of Germany.[137]
In 1932 Hitler ran against von Hindenburg in the presidential elections. The viability of his candidacy was underscored by a 27 January 1932 speech to the Industry Club in Düsseldorf, which won him support from many of Germany's most powerful industrialists.[138] However, Hindenburg had support from various nationalist, monarchist, Catholic, and republican parties, and some social democrats. Hitler used the campaign slogan "Hitler über Deutschland" ("Hitler over Germany"), a reference to both his political ambitions and to his campaigning by aircraft.[139] Hitler came in second in both rounds of the election, garnering more than 35% of the vote in the final election. Although he lost to Hindenburg, this election established Hitler as a strong force in German politics.[140]
Appointment as chancellor[link]
The absence of an effective government prompted two influential politicians, Franz von Papen and Alfred Hugenberg, along with several other industrialists and businessmen, to write a letter to von Hindenburg. The signers urged Hindenburg to appoint Hitler as leader of a government "independent from parliamentary parties", which could turn into a movement that would "enrapture millions of people".[141][142]
Hindenburg reluctantly agreed to appoint Hitler as chancellor after two further parliamentary elections—in July and November 1932—had not resulted in the formation of a majority government. Hitler was to head a short-lived coalition government formed by the NSDAP and Hugenberg's party, the German National People's Party (DNVP). On 30 January 1933 the new cabinet was sworn in during a brief and simple ceremony in Hindenburg's office. The NSDAP held three of the eleven posts: Hitler was named chancellor, Hermann Göring was named minister without portfolio, and Wilhelm Frick was appointed minister of the interior.[143]
Reichstag fire and March elections[link]
As chancellor, Hitler worked against attempts by the NSDAP's opponents to build a majority government. Because of the political stalemate, he asked President Hindenburg to again dissolve the Reichstag, and elections were scheduled for early March. On 27 February 1933, the Reichstag building was set on fire. Göring blamed a communist plot, because Dutch communist Marinus van der Lubbe was found in incriminating circumstances inside the burning building.[144] At Hitler's urging, Hindenburg responded with the Reichstag Fire Decree of 28 February, which suspended basic rights and allowed detention without trial. Activities of the German Communist Party were suppressed, and some 4,000 communist party members were arrested.[145] Researchers, including William L. Shirer and Alan Bullock, are of the opinion that the NSDAP itself was responsible for starting the fire.[146][147]
In addition to political campaigning, the NSDAP engaged in paramilitary violence and the spread of anti-communist propaganda in the days preceding the election. On election day, 6 March 1933, the NSDAP's share of the vote increased to 43.9%, and the party acquired the largest number of seats in parliament. However, Hitler's party failed to secure an absolute majority, necessitating another coalition with the DNVP.[148]
Day of Potsdam and the Enabling Act[link]
On 21 March 1933 the new Reichstag was constituted with an opening ceremony at the Garrison Church in Potsdam. This "Day of Potsdam" was held to demonstrate unity between the Nazi movement and the old Prussian elite and military. Hitler appeared in a morning coat and humbly greeted President von Hindenburg.[149][150]
To achieve full political control despite not having an absolute majority in parliament, Hitler's government brought the Ermächtigungsgesetz (Enabling Act) to a vote in the newly elected Reichstag. The act gave Hitler's cabinet full legislative powers for a period of four years and (with certain exceptions) allowed deviations from the constitution.[151] The bill required a two-thirds majority to pass. Leaving nothing to chance, the Nazis used the provisions of the Reichstag Fire Decree to keep several Social Democratic deputies from attending; the Communists had already been banned.[152]
On 23 March, the Reichstag assembled at the Kroll Opera House under turbulent circumstances. Ranks of SA men served as guards inside the building, while large groups outside opposing the proposed legislation shouted slogans and threats toward the arriving members of parliament.[153] The position of the Centre Party, the third largest party in the Reichstag, turned out to be decisive. After Hitler verbally promised party leader Ludwig Kaas that President von Hindenburg would retain his power of veto, Kaas announced the Centre Party would support the Enabling Act. Ultimately, the Enabling Act passed by a vote of 441–84, with all parties except the Social Democrats voting in favour. The Enabling Act, along with the Reichstag Fire Decree, transformed Hitler's government into a de facto legal dictatorship.[154]
Removal of remaining limits[link]
At the risk of appearing to talk nonsense I tell you that the National Socialist movement will go on for 1,000 years! ... Don't forget how people laughed at me 15 years ago when I declared that one day I would govern Germany. They laugh now, just as foolishly, when I declare that I shall remain in power!
— Adolf Hitler to a British correspondent in Berlin, June 1934[155]
Having achieved full control over the legislative and executive branches of government, Hitler and his political allies embarked on a systematic suppression of the remaining political opposition. The Social Democratic Party was banned and all its assets seized.[156] While many trade union delegates were in Berlin for May Day activities, SA stormtroopers demolished trade union offices around the country. On 2 May 1933 all trade unions were forced to dissolve and their leaders were arrested; some were sent to concentration camps.[157] The German Labour Front was formed to represent all workers, administrators, and company owners together as one group. This new labour organisation reflected the concept of national socialism in the spirit of Hitler's "Volksgemeinschaft" (German racial community).[158]
By the end of June, the other parties had been intimidated into disbanding. With the help of the SA, Hitler pressured his nominal coalition partner, Hugenberg, into resigning. On 14 July 1933 Hitler's Nazi Party was declared the only legal political party in Germany.[158][156] The demands of the SA for more political and military power caused much anxiety among military, industrial, and political leaders. Hitler responded by purging the entire SA leadership in what became known as the Night of the Long Knives, which took place from 30 June to 2 July 1934.[159] Hitler targeted Ernst Röhm and other political adversaries (such as Gregor Strasser and former chancellor Kurt von Schleicher). Röhm and other SA leaders, along with a number of Hitler's political enemies, were rounded up, arrested, and shot.[160] While the international community and some Germans were shocked by the murders, many in Germany saw Hitler as restoring order.[161]
On 2 August 1934 President von Hindenburg died. The previous day, the cabinet had enacted a law to take effect upon Hindenburg's death which abolished the office of president and combined its powers with those of the chancellor. Hitler thus became head of state as well as head of government, and was formally named as Führer und Reichskanzler (leader and chancellor).[162] This law actually violated the Enabling Act. While the Enabling Act allowed Hitler to deviate from the constitution, it explicitly barred him from passing any law that tampered with the presidency. In 1932, the constitution had been amended to make the president of the High Court of Justice, not the chancellor, acting president pending new elections.[163] With this law, Hitler removed the last legal remedy by which he could be removed from office.
As head of state, Hitler became Supreme Commander of the armed forces. The traditional loyalty oath of soldiers and sailors was altered to affirm loyalty to Hitler personally, rather than to the office of supreme commander.[164] On 19 August, the merger of the presidency with the chancellorship was approved by a plebiscite with support of 90% of the electorate.[165]
In early 1938 Hitler forced his War Minister, Field Marshal Werner von Blomberg, to resign when a police dossier was discovered showing that Blomberg's new wife had a record for prostitution.[166][167] Hitler removed army commander Colonel-General Werner von Fritsch after the Schutzstaffel (SS) produced allegations that he had taken part in a homosexual relationship.[168] Both men had already fallen into disfavour when they objected to his demand that they have the Wehrmacht ready to go to war as early as 1938.[169] Hitler used this incident, known as the Blomberg–Fritsch Affair, to consolidate his hold over the military. He assumed Blomberg's title of Commander-in-Chief, thus taking personal command of the armed forces. He replaced the Ministry of War with the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (High Command of the Armed Forces, or OKW), headed by General Wilhelm Keitel. On the same day, sixteen generals were stripped of their commands and 44 more were transferred; all were suspected of not being sufficiently pro-Nazi.[170] By early February 1938, twelve other generals had been removed.[171]
Having consolidated his political powers, Hitler suppressed or eliminated his opposition by a process termed Gleichschaltung ("bringing into line"). He attempted to gain additional public support by vowing to reverse the effects of the Depression and the Versailles Treaty.
Third Reich[link]
Main article: Nazi Germany
Economy and culture[link]
In 1935 Hitler appointed Hjalmar Schacht as Plenipotentiary for War Economy, in charge of preparing the economy for war. Reconstruction and rearmament were financed through Mefo bills, printing money, and seizing the assets of people arrested as enemies of the State, including Jews.[172] Unemployment fell substantially, from six million in 1932 to one million in 1936.[173] Hitler oversaw one of the largest infrastructure improvement campaigns in German history, leading to the construction of dams, autobahns, railroads, and other civil works. Wages were slightly reduced in the pre–World War II years over those of the Weimar Republic, while the cost of living increased by 25%.[174]
Hitler's government sponsored architecture on an immense scale. Albert Speer, instrumental in implementing Hitler's classicist reinterpretation of German culture, was placed in charge of the proposed architectural renovations of Berlin.[175] In 1936 Hitler opened the summer Olympic games in Berlin.
Rearmament and new alliances[link]
In a meeting with German military leaders on 3 February 1933, Hitler spoke of "conquest for Lebensraum in the East and its ruthless Germanisation" as his ultimate foreign policy objectives.[176] In March, Prince Bernhard Wilhelm von Bülow, secretary at the Auswärtiges Amt (Foreign Office), issued a major statement of German foreign policy aims: Anschluss with Austria, the restoration of Germany's national borders of 1914, rejection of military restrictions under the Treaty of Versailles, the return of the former German colonies in Africa, and a German zone of influence in Eastern Europe. Hitler found Bülow's goals to be too modest.[177] In his speeches of this period, he stressed the peaceful goals of his policies and willingness to work within international agreements.[178] At the first meeting of his Cabinet in 1933, Hitler prioritised military spending over unemployment relief.[179]
File:Hitlermusso2 edit.jpg
On 25 October 1936 an Axis was declared between Italy and Germany.
Germany withdrew from the League of Nations and the World Disarmament Conference in October 1933.[180] In March 1935 Hitler announced an expansion of the Wehrmacht to 600,000 members—six times the number permitted by the Versailles Treaty—including development of an Air Force (Luftwaffe) and increasing the size of the Navy (Kriegsmarine). Britain, France, Italy, and the League of Nations condemned these plans as violations of the Treaty.[181] The Anglo-German Naval Agreement (AGNA) of 18 June 1935 allowed German tonnage to increase to 35% of that of the British navy. Hitler called the signing of the AGNA "the happiest day of his life", as he believed the agreement marked the beginning of the Anglo-German alliance he had predicted in Mein Kampf.[182] France and Italy were not consulted before the signing, directly undermining the League of Nations and putting the Treaty of Versailles on the path towards irrelevance.[183]
Germany reoccupied the demilitarised zone in the Rhineland in March 1936, in violation the Versailles Treaty. Hitler sent troops to Spain to support General Franco after receiving an appeal for help in July 1936. At the same time, Hitler continued his efforts to create an Anglo-German alliance.[184] In response to a growing economic crisis caused by his rearmament efforts, Hitler issued a memorandum ordering Göring to carry out a Four Year Plan to prepare Germany for war within the next four years.[185] The "Four-Year Plan Memorandum" of August 1936 envisaged an all-out struggle between "Judeo-Bolshevism" and German national socialism, which in Hitler's view required a committed effort of rearmament regardless of the economic costs.[186]
Count Galeazzo Ciano, foreign minister of Benito Mussolini's government, declared an axis between Germany and Italy, and on 25 November, Germany signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan. Britain, China, Italy, and Poland were also invited to join the Anti-Comintern Pact, but only Italy signed in 1937. Hitler abandoned his dream of an Anglo-German alliance, blaming "inadequate" British leadership.[187] At a secret meeting in the Reich Chancellery with his foreign ministers and military chiefs that November, Hitler stated his intention of acquiring Lebensraum ("living space") for the German people. He ordered preparations for war in the east, to begin as early as 1938 and no later than 1943. He stated that the conference minutes, recorded as the Hossbach Memorandum, were to be regarded as his "political testament" in the event of his death.[188] He felt the German economic crisis had reached a point that a severe decline in living standards in Germany could only be stopped by a policy of military aggression—seizing Austria and Czechoslovakia.[189][190] Hitler urged quick action, before Britain and France obtained a permanent lead in the arms race.[189] In early 1938, in the wake of the Blomberg–Fritsch Affair, Hitler asserted control of the military-foreign policy apparatus, dismissing Neurath as Foreign Minister and appointing himself Oberster Befehlshaber der Wehrmacht (supreme commander of the armed forces).[185] From early 1938 onwards, Hitler was carrying out a foreign policy ultimately aimed at war.[191]
The Holocaust[link]
Main article: The Holocaust
If the international Jewish financiers outside Europe should succeed in plunging the nations once more into a world war, then the result will not be the bolshevisation of the earth, and thus the victory of Jewry, but the annihilation of the Jewish race in Europe![192]
— Adolf Hitler addressing the German Reichstag, 30 January 1939
A main Nazi concept was the notion of racial hygiene. On 15 September 1935, Hitler presented two laws—known as the Nuremberg Laws—to the Reichstag. The laws banned marriage between non-Jewish and Jewish Germans, and forbade the employment of non-Jewish women under the age of 45 in Jewish households. The laws deprived so-called "non-Aryans" of the benefits of German citizenship.[193] Hitler's early eugenic policies targeted children with physical and developmental disabilities in a programme dubbed Action Brandt, and later authorized a euthanasia programme for adults with serious mental and physical handicaps, now usually referred to as Action T4.[194]
Hitler's idea of Lebensraum, espoused briefly in Mein Kampf, focused on acquiring new territory for German settlement in Eastern Europe.[195] The Generalplan Ost ("General Plan for the East") called for the population of occupied Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union to be deported to West Siberia, used as slave labour, or murdered;[196] the conquered territories were to be colonised by German or "Germanised" settlers.[197] The original plan called for this process to begin after the conquest of the Soviet Union, but when that failed to happen, Hitler moved the plans forward.[196][198] By January 1942 the decision had been taken to kill the Jews and other deportees considered undesirable.[199]
The Holocaust (the "Endlösung der jüdischen Frage" or "Final Solution of the Jewish Question") was organised and executed by Heinrich Himmler and Reinhard Heydrich. The records of the Wannsee Conference—held on 20 January 1942 and led by Heydrich, with fifteen senior Nazi officials participating—provide the clearest evidence of systematic planning for the Holocaust. On 22 February Hitler was recorded saying to his associates, "we shall regain our health only by eliminating the Jews".[200] Approximately thirty Nazi concentration camps and extermination camps were used for this purpose.[201] By summer 1942 Auschwitz concentration camp was rapidly expanded to accept large numbers of deportees for killing or enslavement.[202]
Although no specific order from Hitler authorising the mass killings has surfaced,[203] he approved the Einsatzgruppen—killing squads that followed the German army through Poland, the Baltic, and the Soviet Union[204]—and he was well informed about their activities.[205] During interrogations by Soviet intelligence officers, the records of which were declassified over fifty years later, Hitler's valet, Heinz Linge, and his adjutant, Otto Günsche, stated that Hitler had a direct interest in the development of gas chambers.[206]
Between 1939 and 1945, the SS, assisted by collaborationist governments and recruits from occupied countries, were responsible for the deaths of eleven to fourteen million people, including about six million Jews, representing two-thirds of the Jewish population in Europe,[207][208] and between 500,000 and 1,500,000 Roma.[209] Deaths took place in concentration and extermination camps, ghettos, and through mass executions. Many victims of the Holocaust were gassed to death, whereas others died of starvation or disease while working as slave labourers.[210]
Hitler's policies also resulted in the killings of Poles[211] and Soviet prisoners of war, communists and other political opponents, homosexuals, the physically and mentally disabled,[212][213] Jehovah's Witnesses, Adventists, and trade unionists. Hitler never appeared to have visited the concentration camps and did not speak publicly about the killings.[214]
World War II[link]
Early diplomatic successes[link]
Alliance with Japan[link]
Main article: Germany–Japan relations
In February 1938, on the advice of his newly appointed Foreign Minister, the strongly pro-Japanese Joachim von Ribbentrop, Hitler ended the Sino-German alliance with the Republic of China to instead enter into an alliance with the more modern and powerful Japan. Hitler announced German recognition of Manchukuo, the Japanese-occupied state in Manchuria, and renounced German claims to their former colonies in the Pacific held by Japan.[215] Hitler ordered an end to arms shipments to China and recalled all German officers working with the Chinese Army.[215] In retaliation, Chinese General Chiang Kai-shek cancelled all Sino-German economic agreements, depriving the Germans of many Chinese raw materials, though they did continue to ship tungsten, a key metal in armaments production, through to 1939.[216]
Austria and Czechoslovakia[link]
On 12 March 1938 Hitler declared unification of Austria with Nazi Germany in the Anschluss.[217][218] Hitler then turned his attention to the ethnic German population of the Sudetenland district of Czechoslovakia.[219]
On 28–29 March 1938 Hitler held a series of secret meetings in Berlin with Konrad Henlein of the Sudeten Heimfront (Home Front), the largest of the ethnic German parties of the Sudetenland. The men agreed that Henlein would demand increased autonomy for Sudeten Germans from the Czechoslovakian government, thus providing a pretext for German military action against Czechoslovakia. In April 1938 Henlein told the foreign minister of Hungary that "whatever the Czech government might offer, he would always raise still higher demands ... he wanted to sabotage an understanding by all means because this was the only method to blow up Czechoslovakia quickly".[220] In private, Hitler considered the Sudeten issue unimportant; his real intention was a war of conquest against Czechoslovakia.[221]
In April 1938 Hitler ordered the OKW to prepare for Fall Grün ("Case Green"), the code name for an invasion of Czechoslovakia.[222] As a result of intense French and British diplomatic pressure, on 5 September 1938 Czechoslovakian President Edvard Beneš unveiled the "Fourth Plan" for constitutional reorganisation of his country, which agreed to most of Henlein's demands for Sudeten autonomy.[223] Henlein's Heimfront responded to Beneš' offer with a series of violent clashes with the Czechoslovakian police that led to the declaration of martial law in certain Sudeten districts.[224][225]
Germany was dependent on imported oil; a confrontation with Britain over the Czechoslovakian dispute could curtail Germany's oil supplies. Hitler called off Fall Grün, originally planned for 1 October 1938.[226] On 29 September 1938 Hitler, Neville Chamberlain, Édouard Daladier, and Benito Mussolini attended a one-day conference in Munich that led to the Munich Agreement, which handed over the Sudetenland districts to Germany.[227][228]
Chamberlain was satisfied with the Munich conference, calling the outcome "peace for our time", while Hitler was angered about the missed opportunity for war in 1938;[229][230] he expressed his disappointment in a speech on 9 October 1938 in Saarbrücken.[231] In Hitler's view, the British-brokered peace, although favourable to the ostensible German demands, was a diplomatic defeat which spurred his intent of limiting British power to pave the way for the eastern expansion of Germany.[232][233] As a result of the summit, Hitler was selected Time magazine's Man of the Year for 1938.[234]
In late 1938 and early 1939, the continuing economic crisis caused by rearmament forced Hitler to make major defence cuts.[235] In his "Export or die" speech of 30 January 1939, he called for an economic offensive to increase German foreign exchange holdings to pay for raw materials such as high-grade iron needed for military weapons.[235]
On 15 March 1939, in violation of the Munich accord and possibly as a result of the deepening economic crisis requiring additional assets,[236] Hitler ordered the Wehrmacht to invade Prague, and from Prague Castle proclaimed Bohemia and Moravia a German protectorate.[237]
Start of World War II[link]
In private discussions in 1939, Hitler described Britain as the main enemy to be defeated. In his view, Poland's obliteration as a sovereign nation was a necessary prelude to that goal. The eastern flank would be secured and land would be added to Germany's Lebensraum.[238] Hitler wanted Poland to become either a German satellite state or be otherwise neutralised to secure the Reich's eastern flank, and to prevent a possible British blockade.[239] Initially, Hitler favoured the idea of a satellite state; this was rejected by the Polish government. Therefore, Hitler decided to invade Poland; he made this the main German foreign policy goal of 1939.[240] Hitler was offended by the British "guarantee" of Polish independence issued on 31 March 1939, and told his associates that "I shall brew them a devil's drink".[241] In a speech in Wilhelmshaven for the launch of the battleship Tirpitz on 1 April 1939, Hitler threatened to denounce the Anglo-German Naval Agreement if the British persisted with their guarantee of Polish independence, which he perceived as an "encirclement" policy.[241] On 3 April 1939 Hitler ordered the military to prepare for Fall Weiss ("Case White"), the plan for an invasion of Poland on 25 August 1939.[240] In a speech before the Reichstag on 28 April he renounced both the Anglo-German Naval Agreement and the German–Polish Non-Aggression Pact. In August Hitler told his generals that his original plan for 1939 was to "... establish an acceptable relationship with Poland in order to fight against the West". Since Poland refused to become a German satellite, Hitler stated his only option was the invasion of Poland.[242] Historians such as William Carr, Gerhard Weinberg, and Ian Kershaw have argued that one reason for Hitler's rush to war was his morbid and obsessive fear of an early death, and hence his feeling that he did not have long to accomplish his work.[243][244][245]
Hitler was concerned that a military attack against Poland could result in a premature war with Britain.[239][246] However, Hitler's foreign minister—and former Ambassador to London—Joachim von Ribbentrop assured him that neither Britain nor France would honour their commitments to Poland, and that a German–Polish war would only be a limited regional war.[247][248] Ribbentrop claimed that in December 1938 the French foreign minister, Georges Bonnet, had stated that France considered Eastern Europe as Germany's exclusive sphere of influence;[249] Ribbentrop showed Hitler diplomatic cables that supported his analysis.[250] The German Ambassador in London, Herbert von Dirksen, supported Ribbentrop's analysis with a dispatch in August 1939, reporting that Chamberlain knew "the social structure of Britain, even the conception of the British Empire, would not survive the chaos of even a victorious war", and so would back down.[248] Accordingly, on 21 August 1939 Hitler ordered a military mobilisation against Poland.[251]
Hitler's plans for a military campaign in Poland in late August or early September required tacit Soviet support.[252] The non-aggression pact (the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact) between Germany and the Soviet Union, led by Joseph Stalin,[253] included secret protocols with an agreement to partition Poland between the two countries. In response to the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact—and contrary to the prediction of Ribbentrop that the newly-formed pact would sever Anglo-Polish ties—Britain and Poland signed the Anglo-Polish alliance on 25 August 1939. This, along with news from Italy that Mussolini would not honour the Pact of Steel, caused Hitler to postpone the attack on Poland from 25 August to 1 September.[254] In the days before the start of the war, Hitler tried to manoeuvre the British into neutrality by offering a non-aggression guarantee to the British Empire on 25 August and by having Ribbentrop present a last-minute peace plan with an impossibly short time limit in an effort to then blame the war on British and Polish inaction.[255][256]
As a pretext for a military aggression against Poland, Hitler claimed the Free City of Danzig and the right to extraterritorial roads across the Polish Corridor, which Germany had ceded under the Versailles Treaty.[257] Despite his concerns over a possible British intervention, Hitler was ultimately not deterred from his aim of invading Poland,[258] and on 1 September 1939 Germany invaded western Poland. In response, Britain and France declared war on Germany on 3 September. This surprised Hitler, prompting him to turn to Ribbentrop and angrily ask "Now what?"[259] France and Britain did not act on their declarations immediately, and on 17 September, Soviet forces invaded eastern Poland.[260]
Poland never will rise again in the form of the Versailles treaty. That is guaranteed not only by Germany, but also ... Russia.
The fall of Poland was followed by what contemporary journalists dubbed the "Phoney War" or Sitzkrieg ("sitting war"). Hitler instructed the two newly-appointed Gauleiters of north-western Poland, Albert Forster of Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia and Arthur Greiser of Reichsgau Wartheland, to "Germanise" their areas, and promised them "There would be no questions asked" about how this was accomplished.[262] To Himmler's chagrin, Forster had local Poles sign forms stating that they had German blood, and required no further documentation.[263] On the other hand, Greiser carried out a brutal ethnic cleansing campaign on the Polish population in his purview.[262] Greiser complained to Hitler that Forster was allowing thousands of Poles to be accepted as "racial" Germans and thus, in Greiser's view, endangering German "racial purity". Hitler told Himmler and Greiser to take up their difficulties with Forster, and not to involve him.[262] Hitler's handling of the Forster–Greiser dispute has been advanced as an example of Kershaw's theory of "working towards the Führer": Hitler issued vague instructions and expected his subordinates to work out policies on their own.
Another dispute broke out between different factions. One side, represented by Himmler and Greiser, championed carrying out ethnic cleansing in Poland, and another side, represented by Göring and Hans Frank, Governor-General of the General Government territory of occupied Poland, called for turning Poland into the "granary" of the Reich.[264] At a conference held at Göring's Karinhall estate on 12 February 1940, the dispute was initially settled in favour of the Göring–Frank view of economic exploitation, which ended the economically disruptive mass expulsions.[264] On 15 May 1940, however, Himmler presented Hitler with a memo entitled "Some Thoughts on the Treatment of Alien Population in the East", which called for expulsion of the entire Jewish population of Europe into Africa and reducing the remainder of the Polish population to a "leaderless class of labourers".[264] Hitler called Himmler's memo "good and correct";[264] and, ignoring Göring and Frank, implemented the Himmler–Greiser policy in Poland.
File:Adolf Hitler in Paris 1940.jpg
Hitler visits Paris with architect Albert Speer (left) and sculptor Arno Breker (right), 23 June 1940
Hitler began a military build-up on Germany's western border, and in April 1940, German forces invaded Denmark and Norway. On 9 April Hitler proclaimed the birth of the "Greater Germanic Reich" to his associates; this was his vision of a united empire of the Germanic nations of Europe, where the Dutch, Flemish, Scandinavians, and other peoples would join into a single, racially-pure polity under German leadership.[265] In May 1940, Hitler's forces attacked France, and conquered Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and Belgium. These victories prompted Mussolini to have Italy join forces with Hitler on 10 June 1940. France surrendered on 22 June 1940.[266]
Britain, whose forces were forced to leave France by sea from Dunkirk,[267] continued to fight alongside other British dominions in the Battle of the Atlantic. Hitler made peace overtures to the British, now led by Winston Churchill, and when these were rejected he ordered bombing raids on the United Kingdom. Hitler's prelude to a planned invasion of the UK was a series of aerial attacks in the Battle of Britain on Royal Air Force airbases and radar stations in South-East England. However, the German Luftwaffe failed to defeat the Royal Air Force.[268]
On 27 September 1940 the Tripartite Pact was signed in Berlin by Saburō Kurusu of Imperial Japan, Hitler, and Italian foreign minister Ciano.[269] The agreement was later expanded to include Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria. They were collectively known as the Axis powers. The purpose of the pact was to deter the United States from supporting the British. By the end of October 1940, air superiority for the invasion of Britain—Operation Sea Lion—could not be achieved, and Hitler ordered nightly air raids of British cities, including London, Plymouth, and Coventry.[270]
In the Spring of 1941, Hitler was distracted from his plans for the East by military activities in North Africa, the Balkans, and the Middle East. In February, German forces arrived in Libya to bolster the Italian presence. In April, Hitler launched the invasion of Yugoslavia, quickly followed by the invasion of Greece.[271] In May, German forces were sent to support Iraqi rebel forces fighting against the British and to invade Crete. On 23 May, Hitler released Führer Directive No. 30.[272]
Path to defeat[link]
On 22 June 1941, contravening the Hitler-Stalin non-aggression pact of 1939, three million German troops attacked the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa.[273] The invasion seized a huge area, including the Baltic states, Belarus, and Ukraine. However, the German advance was stopped outside Moscow in December 1941 by the Russian Winter and fierce Soviet resistance.[274]
Soviet troop concentrations on Germany's eastern border in the spring of 1941 may have prompted Hitler to engage in a Flucht nach vorn ("flight forward") to get in front of an inevitable conflict.[275] Viktor Suvorov, Ernst Topitsch, Joachim Hoffmann, Ernst Nolte, and David Irving have argued that the official reason for Barbarossa given by the German military was the real reason—a preventive war to avert an impending Soviet attack scheduled for July 1941. This theory, however, has been faulted; American historian Gerhard Weinberg once compared the advocates of the preventive war theory to believers in "fairy tales".[276]
The Wehrmacht invasion of the Soviet Union reached its peak on 2 December 1941, when the 258th Infantry Division advanced to within 15 miles (24 km) of Moscow, close enough to see the spires of the Kremlin.[274] However, they were not prepared for the harsh conditions of the Russian winter, and Soviet forces drove back the German troops over 320 kilometres (200 mi).
On 7 December 1941 Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. Four days later, Hitler's formal declaration of war against the United States engaged Germany in war against a coalition that included the world's largest empire (the British Empire), the world's greatest industrial and financial power (the United States), and the world's largest army (the Soviet Union).[277]
When Himmler met Hitler on 18 December 1941 and posed the question "What to do with the Jews of Russia?", Hitler replied "als Partisanen auszurotten" ("exterminate them as partisans").[278] Israeli historian Yehuda Bauer has commented that the remark is probably as close as historians will ever get to a definitive order from Hitler for the genocide carried out during the Holocaust.[278]
In late 1942 German forces were defeated in the second battle of El Alamein,[279] thwarting Hitler's plans to seize the Suez Canal and the Middle East. In February 1943 the Battle of Stalingrad ended with the destruction of the German Sixth Army. Thereafter came a decisive defeat at the Battle of Kursk.[280] Hitler's military judgment became increasingly erratic, and Germany's military and economic position deteriorated along with Hitler's health. Kershaw and others believe that Hitler may have suffered from Parkinson's disease.[281]
Following the allied invasion of Sicily in 1943, Mussolini was deposed by Pietro Badoglio,[282] who surrendered to the Allies. Throughout 1943 and 1944, the Soviet Union steadily forced Hitler's armies into retreat along the Eastern Front. On 6 June 1944 the Western Allied armies landed in northern France in what was one of the largest amphibious operations in history, Operation Overlord.[283] As a result of these significant setbacks for the German army, many of its officers concluded that defeat was inevitable and that Hitler's misjudgement or denial would drag out the war and result in the complete destruction of the country.[284] Several high-profile assassination attempts against Hitler occurred during this period.
Between 1939 and 1945 there were many plans to assassinate Hitler, some of which proceeded to significant degrees.[285] The most well-known came from within Germany and was at least partly driven by the increasing prospect of a German defeat in the war.[286] In July 1944, in the 20 July plot, part of Operation Valkyrie, Claus von Stauffenberg planted a bomb in one of Hitler's headquarters, the Wolf's Lair at Rastenburg. Hitler narrowly survived because someone had unknowingly pushed the briefcase that contained the bomb behind a leg of the heavy conference table. When the bomb exploded, the table deflected much of the blast away from Hitler. Later, Hitler ordered savage reprisals resulting in the execution of more than 4,900 people.[287]
Defeat and death[link]
Main article: Death of Adolf Hitler
By late 1944, the Red Army had driven the German army back into Western Europe, and the Western Allies were advancing into Germany. After being informed of the failure of his Ardennes Offensive, Hitler realised that Germany was going to lose the war. His hope, buoyed by the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt on 12 April 1945, was to negotiate peace with America and Britain.[288] Acting on his view that Germany's military failures had forfeited its right to survive as a nation, Hitler ordered the destruction of all German industrial infrastructure before it could fall into Allied hands.[289] Execution of this scorched earth plan was entrusted to arms minister Albert Speer, who quietly disobeyed the order.[289]
On 20 April, his 56th birthday, Hitler made his last trip from the Führerbunker ("Führer's shelter") to the surface. In the ruined garden of the Reich Chancellery, he awarded Iron Crosses to boy soldiers of the Hitler Youth.[290] By 21 April, Georgy Zhukov's 1st Belorussian Front had broken through the last defences of German General Gotthard Heinrici's Army Group Vistula during the Battle of the Seelow Heights and advanced into the outskirts of Berlin.[291] In denial about the increasingly dire situation, Hitler placed his hopes on the units commanded by Waffen SS General Felix Steiner, the Armeeabteilung Steiner ("Army Detachment Steiner"). Hitler ordered Steiner to attack the northern flank of the salient and the German Ninth Army was ordered to attack northward in a pincer attack.[292]
During a military conference on 22 April, Hitler asked about Steiner's offensive. After a long silence, he was told that the attack had never been launched and that the Russians had broken through into Berlin. This news prompted Hitler to ask everyone except Wilhelm Keitel, Alfred Jodl, Hans Krebs, and Wilhelm Burgdorf to leave the room.[293] Hitler then launched a tirade against the treachery and incompetence of his commanders, culminating in his declaration—for the first time—that the war was lost. Hitler announced that he would stay in Berlin until the end and then shoot himself.[294]
Goebbels made a proclamation on 23 April urging the citizens of Berlin to courageously defend the city.[293] That same day, Göring sent a telegram from Berchtesgaden in Bavaria, arguing that since Hitler was cut off in Berlin, he, Göring, should assume leadership of Germany. Göring set a time limit, after which he would consider Hitler incapacitated.[295] Hitler responded angrily by having Göring arrested, and when writing his will on 29 April, he removed Göring from all his positions in the government.[296][297]
Berlin became completely cut off from the rest of Germany.[298] On 28 April, Hitler discovered that Himmler was trying to discuss surrender terms with the Western Allies.[299] He ordered Himmler's arrest and had Hermann Fegelein (Himmler's SS representative at Hitler's HQ in Berlin) shot.[300]
After midnight on 29 April, Hitler married Eva Braun in a small civil ceremony in a map room within the Führerbunker. After a modest wedding breakfast with his new wife, he then took secretary Traudl Junge to another room and dictated his last will and testament.[301][b] The event was witnessed and documents signed by Hans Krebs, Wilhelm Burgdorf, Joseph Goebbels, and Martin Bormann.[302] Later that afternoon, Hitler was informed of the assassination of Italian dictator Benito Mussolini, which presumably increased his determination to avoid capture.[303]
On 30 April 1945, after intense street-to-street combat, when Soviet troops were within a block or two of the Reich Chancellery, Hitler and Braun committed suicide; Braun bit into a cyanide capsule[304] and Hitler shot himself with his 7.65 mm (0.3 in) Walther PPK pistol.[305] The lifeless bodies of Hitler and Eva Braun were carried up the stairs and through the bunker's emergency exit to the bombed-out garden behind the Reich Chancellery, where they were placed in a bomb crater[306] and doused with petrol. The corpses were set on fire[307] and the Red Army shelling continued.[308]
Berlin surrendered on 2 May. Records in the Soviet archives—obtained after the fall of the Soviet Union—showed that the remains of Hitler, Braun, Joseph and Magda Goebbels, the six Goebbels children, General Hans Krebs, and Hitler's dogs, were repeatedly buried and exhumed.[309] On 4 April 1970 a Soviet KGB team with detailed burial charts secretly exhumed five wooden boxes which had been buried at the SMERSH facility in Magdeburg. The remains from the boxes were thoroughly burned and crushed, after which the ashes were thrown into the Biederitz river, a tributary of the nearby Elbe.[310]
Legacy[link]
Further information: Consequences of Nazism and Neo-Nazism
Hitler's suicide was likened by contemporaries to a "spell" being broken.[311][312] According to Toland, without its leader, National Socialism "burst like a bubble".[313]
Hitler's actions and Nazi ideology are almost universally regarded as gravely immoral.[314] His political programme had brought about a world war, leaving behind a devastated and impoverished Eastern and Central Europe. Germany itself suffered wholesale destruction, characterised as "Zero Hour".[315] Hitler's policies inflicted human suffering on an unprecedented scale;[316] the Nazi regime was responsible for the deaths of an estimated 21 million civilians and prisoners of war.[317] In addition, 29 million soldiers were killed in the European theater of World War II.[317] Historians, philosophers, and politicians often apply the word "evil" in describing the Nazi regime.[318] In Germany and Austria, Holocaust denial and the display of Nazi symbols such as the swastika are prohibited by law.
The German Liberal historian Friedrich Meinecke described Hitler as "one of the great examples of the singular and incalculable power of personality in historical life".[319] The English historian Hugh Trevor-Roper saw him as "among the 'terrible simplifiers' of history, the most systematic, the most historical, the most philosophical, and yet the coarsest, cruellest, least magnanimous conqueror the world has ever known."[320] For the historian John M. Roberts, Hitler's defeat marked the end of a phase of European history dominated by Germany.[321] In its place emerged the Cold War, a global confrontation between the Soviet Union and the United States.[322]
Religious views[link]
Main article: Religious views of Adolf Hitler
Hitler saw the church as important politically, as a conservative influence on society. He felt that if the church were eliminated the faithful would turn to mysticism, which he thought would be a step backwards politically and culturally. Though he never officially left the Catholic church, he had no real attachment to it.[323] After leaving home he never attended Mass or received the sacraments.[324] He favoured aspects of Protestantism that suited his own views, and adopted some elements of the Catholic Church's hierarchical organisation, liturgy, and phraseology in his politics.[325][326] Historian Richard Steigmann-Gall concludes that he "can be classified as Catholic",[327] but that "nominal church membership is a very unreliable gauge of actual piety in this context."[328]
In public, Hitler often praised Christian heritage and German Christian culture, and professed a belief in an "Aryan" Jesus Christ—a Jesus who fought against the Jews.[329] He spoke of his interpretation of Christianity as a central motivation for his antisemitism, stating that "As a Christian I have no duty to allow myself to be cheated, but I have the duty to be a fighter for truth and justice."[330][331] In private, he was more critical of traditional Christianity, considering it a religion fit only for slaves; he admired the power of Rome but maintained a severe hostility towards its teaching.[332] Historian John S. Conway states that Hitler held a "fundamental antagonism" towards the Christian churches.[333]
In political relations with the church, Hitler adopted a strategy "that suited his immediate political purposes".[333] According to a US Office of Strategic Services report, Hitler had a general plan, even before his rise to power, to destroy the influence of Christian churches within the Reich.[334][335] The report titled "The Nazi Master Plan" stated that the destruction of the church was a goal of the movement right from the start, but that it was inexpedient to express this extreme position publicly.[336] His intention, according to Bullock, was to wait until the war was over to destroy the influence of Christianity.[332]
Hitler admired the Muslim military tradition, but considered Arabs as "racially inferior".[337] He believed that the racially-superior Germans, in conjunction with Islam, could have conquered much of the world during the Middle Ages.[338] During a meeting with a Japanese professor in 1931, Hitler praised the Shinto religion and Japanese culture.[339] Although Himmler was interested in the occult, the interpretation of runes, and tracing the prehistoric roots of the Germanic people, Hitler was more pragmatic, and his ideology centred on more practical concerns.[340][341]
Health[link]
Researchers have suggested that Hitler suffered from irritable bowel syndrome, skin lesions, irregular heartbeat, Parkinson's disease,[342][281] syphilis,[342] and tinnitus.[343] In a report prepared for the Office of Strategic Services in 1943, Walter C. Langer of Harvard University described Hitler as a "neurotic psychopath."[344] Theories about Hitler's medical condition are difficult to prove, and according them too much weight may have the effect of attributing many of the events and consequences of the Third Reich to the possibly impaired physical health of one individual.[345] Kershaw feels that it is better to take a broader view of German history by examining what social forces led to the Third Reich and its policies rather than to pursue narrow explanations for the Holocaust and World War II based on only one person.[346]
Hitler followed a vegetarian diet.[347] At social events he sometimes gave graphic accounts of the slaughter of animals in an effort to make his dinner guests shun meat.[348] A fear of cancer (from which his mother died)[349] is the most widely cited reason for Hitler's dietary habits. An antivivisectionist, Hitler may have followed his selective diet out of a profound concern for animals.[350] Bormann had a greenhouse constructed near the Berghof (near Berchtesgaden) to ensure a steady supply of fresh fruit and vegetables for Hitler throughout the war. Hitler despised alcohol[351] and was a non-smoker. He promoted aggressive anti-smoking campaigns throughout Germany.[352] Hitler began using amphetamine occasionally after 1937 and became addicted to the drug in the fall of 1942.[353] Albert Speer linked this use of amphetamines to Hitler's increasingly inflexible decision making (for example, never to allow military retreats).[354]
Prescribed ninety different medications during the war years, Hitler took many pills each day for chronic stomach problems and other ailments.[355] He suffered ruptured eardrums as a result of the 20 July plot bomb blast in 1944, and two hundred wood splinters had to be removed from his legs.[356] Newsreel footage of Hitler shows tremors of his hand and a shuffling walk, which began before the war and worsened towards the end of his life. Hitler's personal physician, Theodor Morell, treated Hitler with a drug that was commonly prescribed in 1945 for Parkinson's disease. Ernst-Günther Schenck and several other doctors who met Hitler in the last weeks of his life each formed a diagnosis of Parkinson's disease.[355][357]
Family[link]
Main articles: Hitler family and Sexuality of Adolf Hitler
To the public, Hitler promoted his own image as that of a celibate man without a domestic life, dedicated entirely to his political mission and the nation.[135][358] He met his mistress, Eva Braun, in 1929,[359] and married her in April 1945.[360] In September 1931 his niece, Geli Raubal, committed suicide with Hitler's gun in his Munich apartment. It was rumoured among contemporaries that Geli was in a romantic relationship with him, and her death was a source of deep, lasting pain.[361] Paula Hitler, the last living member of the immediate family, died in 1960.[362]
Hitler in media[link]
File:Adolf Hitler at Berchtesgaden.ogg
Video of Hitler at Berchtesgaden (c. 1941)
Hitler used documentary films as a propaganda tool. He was involved and appeared in a series of films by the pioneering filmmaker Leni Riefenstahl via Universum Film AG (UFA):[363]
- Der Sieg des Glaubens (Victory of Faith, 1933)
- Triumph des Willens (Triumph of the Will, 1934), co-produced by Hitler
- Tag der Freiheit: Unsere Wehrmacht (Day of Freedom: Our Armed Forces, 1935)
- Olympia (1938)
See also[link]
- Führermuseum
- Hitler: A Film from Germany
- Julius Schaub – chief aide
- Karl Mayr – Hitler's superior in army Intelligence 1919–1920
- Karl Wilhelm Krause – personal valet
- List of books by or about Adolf Hitler
- Mein Kampf (online versions)
- Poison Kitchen
- Streets named after Adolf Hitler
- Vorbunker
 |
See more Wikipedia articles related to Adolf Hitler. |
Footnotes[link]
- ^ Hitler also won settlement from a libel suit against the socialist paper the Münchener Post, which had questioned his lifestyle and income. Kershaw 2008, p. 99.
- ^ MI5, Hitler's Last Days: "Hitler's will and marriage" on the website of MI5, using the sources available to Trevor Roper (a WWII MI5 agent and historian/author of The Last Days of Hitler), records the marriage as taking place after Hitler had dictated his last will and testament.
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- "Adolf Hitler". The Vault. FBI Records. http://vault.fbi.gov/adolf-hitler.
- "Hitler and his officers". World War II Movies in Color. WW2inColor. http://www.ww2incolor.com/gallery/movies/hitler_color.
| Political offices | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by Office created |
Reichsstatthalter of Prussia 1933–1935 |
Succeeded by Office abolished |
| Preceded by Kurt von Schleicher |
Chancellor of Germany(1) 1933–1945 |
Succeeded by Joseph Goebbels |
| Preceded by Paul von Hindenburg As President |
Führer of Germany(1) 1934–1945 |
Succeeded by Karl Dönitz As President |
| Party political offices | ||
| Preceded by Anton Drexler |
Leader of the NSDAP 1921–1945 |
|
| Military offices | ||
| Preceded by Franz Pfeffer von Salomon |
Leader of the SA 1930–1945 |
|
| Preceded by Walther von Brauchitsch |
Oberbefehlshaber des Heeres (Army Commander) 1941–1945 |
Succeeded by Ferdinand Schörner |
| Honorary titles | ||
| Preceded by Chiang Kai-shek and Soong May-ling |
Time Person of the Year 1938 |
Succeeded by Joseph Stalin |
| Notes and references | ||
| 1. The positions of Head of State and Government were combined 1934–1945 in the office of Führer and Chancellor of Germany | ||
|
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.svg){kind=small}
.svg){kind=small}
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Hitler, Adolf |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | Führer of the National Socialist German Workers Party; Reichskanzler of Germany |
| Date of birth | 20 April 1889 |
| Place of birth | Braunau am Inn, Austria |
| Date of death | 30 April 1945 |
| Place of death | Berlin, Germany |
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