The term Two Chinas () refers to the two states with "China" in their official names: People's Republic of China (PRC), commonly known as "China", established in 1949, controlling mainland China and two special administrative regions, Hong Kong and Macau. Republic of China (ROC), established in 1911/1912 and controlled mainland China but since 1949, only Taiwan and some nearby island groups, and is now commonly known as "Taiwan". Control of mainland China was lost in the Chinese Civil War by the end of 1949.

Background

In 1912, the Xuantong Emperor abdicated as a result of the Xinhai Revolution, and the provincial Republic of China was established in Nanjing by revolutionaries under Dr Sun Yat-sen. At the same time, the Beiyang Government, led by Yuan Shikai, a former Qing Dynasty General, existed in Beijing, whose legitimacy was challenged by the Nanjing government under the Kuomintang.

From 1912 to 1949, China was scarred by Warlords, the Japanese invasion and the Chinese Civil War. Throughout this turbulent period, various short lived governments have existed in China. This includes Yuan Shikai's Beiyang Government (1912-1928), the Chinese Soviet Republic established by the Communist Party of China (1931-1937), the Fujian People's Government (1933-1934), the puppet state of Manchukuo (1932-1945), and Wang Jingwei's Japanese sponsored puppet state (1940-1945). As the Chinese Civil War ended in 1949, the Communist Party of China took control of Mainland China and founded the People's Republic of China. The Government of the Republic of China retreated to Taiwan in the same year.

Though fighting continued for the next several years, by the time of the Korean War the lines of control were sharply drawn: the Communist-led People's Republic of China government in Beijing controlled most of mainland China, while the Kuomintang-led Republic of China government, now in Taipei, controlled the island of Taiwan, some surrounding islands, and a number of islands off the coast of Fujian. This stale-mate was enforced with the assistance of the United States government which began deterring an invasion of Taiwan after the start of the Korean War.

For many years, both governments contended to be the sole legitimate government of China. With the fighting largely over, the major battleground became diplomatic. Before the 1970s, few foreign governments recognised the People's Republic of China. The first governments to recognise it as the government of China were Soviet bloc countries, members of the non-aligned movement, and the United Kingdom (1950). The catalyst to change came in 1971, when the United Nations General Assembly expelled representatives of Chiang Kai-shek by refusing to recognise their accreditations as representatives of China. Recognition for the People's Republic of China soon followed from most other governments, including the United States. The Republic of China continued to compete with the People's Republic of China to be recognised as the legitimate government of China.

Since the 1990s, however, a rising movement for formal recognition of Taiwanese independence has made the political status of Taiwan the dominant issue, replacing the debate about the legitimate government of China. One opinion in Taiwan is that the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China are both sovereign, thus forming "two Chinas", or "one China, one Taiwan". Former Republic of China President Chen Shui-bian subscribes to this theory, and accordingly has largely abandoned the campaign for the Republic of China to be recognised as the sole legitimate government of China. Under Chen, the ROC government was campaigning for the Republic of China to join the United Nations as representative of its effective territory—Taiwan and nearby islands—only. New President Ma Ying-Jeou has ceased that push.

Current situation

[[Image:Two Chinas.svg|350px|thumb|right|The map shows the One China policy in practice. ]] The People's Republic of China (which administers mainland China) and Republic of China (which administers Taiwan) do not officially recognise each other's sovereignty. The official position of the governments of both the People's Republic of China and Republic of China remain that there is only one sovereign entity of China, and that each of them represents the legitimate government of all of China - including both mainland China and Taiwan - and the other is illegitimate. However, in recent years, the rhetoric of the two governments have diverged significantly on the issue of "two China"s or "one China, one Taiwan".

People's Republic of China

The government of the People's Republic of China (PRC) strongly opposes the practice of treating the Republic of China (ROC) as an legitimate state. The mainland China government has consistently opposed the notion of "two Chinas", instead maintaining that all of "China" is under one single, indivisible sovereignty. Under this principle, while the PRC has no ''de facto'' control over territory administered by the ROC, the PRC nevertheless maintains that the territories controlled by both the PRC and ROC are part of the same, indivisible sovereign entity "China". Furthermore, under the succession of states theory, the PRC maintains that it has succeeded the ROC as the government of "China", and thus the current ROC regime based in Taiwan is illegitimate and has been superseded.

Thus, for example, the PRC insists that in order for other countries to establish diplomatic relations with it, that country must end its formal diplomatic relations with the ROC and recognise the One China Policy. The PRC also uses its international influence to prohibit the ROC from entering international events such as the Olympic Games under its official name. Instead, the ROC was forced to adopt the name Chinese Taipei to enter such events since the 1980s. Furthermore, on press releases and other media, the PRC never refers to the ROC as such, instead referring to the territory of Taiwan as "China's Taiwan Province", and to the ROC government as "the Taiwan authority."

Republic of China

Until the constitutional reforms of 1991 the Republic of China officially claimed sovereignty over mainland China. ROC authorities clarified the constitutional reforms by stating they do not "dispute the fact that the P.R.C. controls mainland China."

The emergence of free speech and democracy in Taiwan and the resulting ability of the Taiwan independence movement to gain ground has further complicated matters. While the PRC finds the notion of "Two Chinas" unpalatable, it considers Taiwan independence an even worse alternative. Handling of the issue has varied by administration now that the democratic Republic of China has experienced several changes of leadership of the Executive Yuan.

In 1999, then President Lee Teng-hui defined the relationship as "Special state-to-state relations".

President Chen Shui-bian (2000–2008) declared in 2002 that "with Taiwan and China on each side of the Taiwan Strait, each side is a country". In 2003 he explained that "Taiwan is not a province of one country nor it is a state of another". The Chen administration took steps to use Taiwan internationally in the name of preventing confusion over the "two Chinas". For example, some Taiwanese have had difficulty traveling with "Republic of China" passports as officials mistook them for citizens of the People's Republic of China, so "Taiwan" has been added to the Republic of China passports.

In September 2008 President Ma Jing-jeou stated that the relations are neither between two Chinas nor two states, saying instead that it is a "special relationship". Further, he stated that the sovereignty issues between the two cannot be resolved at present, but he quoted the '1992 Consensus', currently accepted by both sides, as a temporary measure until a solution becomes available. The spokesman for the ROC Presidential Office Wang Yu-chi () later clarified the President's statement and said that the relations are between two regions of one country, based on the ROC Constitutional position, the Statute Governing the Relations Between the Peoples of the Taiwan Area and Mainland Area and the '1992 Consensus'.

Historical uses

In Chinese history, it was rare for one dynasty to end calmly and transition smoothly to a new one. Dynasties were often established before the overthrow of an existing regime, or continued for a time after they had been defeated.

As a result, there have been many periods when different regimes claimed to speak for all of China. For example, the southern Song Dynasty, the Jurchen Jin Dynasty, the Khitan Liao Dynasty, and the Tangut Western Xia all existed contemporaneously; likewise, the Manchu Qing China co-existed with Ming China from 1636 to 1644, while remnants of the Ming (known to historians as Southern Ming) continued governance in certain areas until 1683, when Ming forces on Taiwan surrendered to the Qing.

See also

Chinese reunification

One China

Political status of Taiwan

Desinicization

Legal status of Taiwan

Exclusive Mandate

Republic of Taiwan

References and footnotes

Category:Chinese numbered policies Category:Cross-Strait relations vi:Hai nước Trung Quốc zh:两个中国

Name	Rebiya Kadeer
Birth date	July 15, 1948
Known for	President of the World Uyghur Congress
Occupation	Businesswoman, political activist
Nationality	China
Ethnicity	Uyghur
Residence	Virginia
Religion	Muslim }}

Rebiya Kadeer (born 15 July 1948) is a prominent Uyghur businesswoman and political activist from the northwest region of Xinjiang Autonomus Region of the People's Republic of China (PRC)). She has been the president of the World Uyghur Congress since November 2006.

Kadeer has been active in defending the rights of the largely Muslim Uyghur minority, who she says has been subject to systematic oppression by the Chinese government. Kadeer is currently living in exile in the United States.

Early life and career

Rebiya Kadeer was born into poverty in the city of Altay, East Turkestan (present-day Xinjiang). She married in 1965 and moved to the city of Aksu, Xinjiang. During the Cultural Revolution, she was purged as a class enemy after a clothing business which she ran with her husband was branded as "speculation", resulting in her divorce.

Following her divorce, Kadeer opened a laundromat in 1976. She later remarried in 1981 to Sidik Rouzi, then an associate professor, and moved to Ürümqi. In Ürümqi, Kadeer leased a market in the local business district, converting it into a department store that specialized in Uyghur ethnic costumes. In 1985, Kadeer converted the site again to a 14,000 square meter commercial building.

After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Kadeer engaged in cross-border trade, accumulating assets which at their peak were worth more than 200 million yuan. She became one of the five richest people in China, and her success earned her the nickname "the millionairess". The trading company she established had businesses operating in China, Russia and Kazakhstan. She has given birth to eleven children. The Akida Industry and Trade Co founded by Kadeer, owns a number of properties in Xinjiang. These include The Akida Trade Center, the adjacent Kadeer Trade Center and the Tuanjie, or Unity, theatre in Ürümqi.

Kadeer was an active philanthropist within the community, most notably through her foundation, 1,000 Families Mothers Project, a charity intended to help Uyghur women start their own local businesses. In 1993, Kadeer was appointed delegate to the eighth session of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, the National People's Congress and was a representative to the UN Fourth World Conference for Women in Beijing in 1995. Kadeer has also been vice chairwoman of the Xinjiang Autonomous Region Federation of Industry and Commerce, and vice chairwoman of the Xinjiang Association of Women Entrepreneurs.

In 1997, Kadeer established the "Thousand Mothers Movement", to promote job training for Uyghur women, as well as evening schools for Uyghurs who did not have chance to go to ordinary school.

Imprisonment

Having been a witness to the Ghulja Incident in 1997, Kadeer says she failed in her repeated attempts to persuade Beijing that change was needed. Feeling that she had no choice, she openly criticised the government in a speech before parliament, and was promptly removed from the National People's Consultative Conference; authorities revoked her passport. In 1999 she sent newspaper clippings to her exiled husband, Sidik Rouzi, who was living in the United States and who is active in protesting against Chinese policies towards the Uyghur people. Kadeer was detained in August 1999 while on her way to meet a US Congressional Research Service delegation investigating the situation in Xinjiang at the time, and was alleged to be in possession of a list of 10 people "suspected of having a connection with national separatist activities". She was detained by PRC authorities on charges of "leaking state secrets", and was convicted on 10 March 2000 in the Ürümqi Intermediate People's Court, of "endangering state security", after sending her husband newspaper clippings on the treatment of the Uyghur community.

Whilst in prison, Kadeer spent two years in solitary confinement, but was not tortured. She speculates that this was because guards were aware of her international reputation. In 2004, her sentence was reduced by a year based on citations of good behaviour where she was being held.

Release and exile

In 2004 she won the Rafto Prize for human rights. On 14 March 2005, Kadeer was released early, nominally on medical grounds, into United States' custody in advance of a visit by U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice to the region. The U.S., which had pressured for her release, agreed to drop a resolution against China in the United Nations Commission on Human Rights. Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch moderated their criticism somewhat as a consequence. On 17 March, Kadeer flew to the U.S. and joined her family in Washington, D.C. In an interview with Phoenix Television before her departure to the US, she stated that she would remain a citizen of the People's Republic of China, and as a person born in the new China, she would sacrifice her own life for the integrity of China.

In April 2007, one of her sons, Ablikim, was sentenced to 9 years in prison and 3 years deprivation of political rights, reportedly after confessing to charges of "instigating and engaging in secessionist activities." In November 2006 Alim, another of her sons, was sentenced to 7 years in prison and fined $62,500. Qahar Abdurehim, yet another of her sons, was fined $12,500 for tax evasion but not jailed. In June 2006, Alim, Ablikim, and Qahar were officially charged with state security and economic crimes shortly following Kadeer' election as president of the Uighur American Association.

The Chinese government characterizes Kadeer as "an ironclad separatist colluding with terrorists and Islamic extremists." But Kadeer believes that all Uyghur organizations fight peacefully. On 5 June 2007, at a conference on democracy and security held in Prague, Kadeer met privately with President George W. Bush, who praised people like her for being "far more valuable than the weapons of their army or oil under the ground." On 17 September 2007, the United States House of Representatives passed by a voice vote ''House Resolution 497'', demanding that the Chinese Government release the imprisoned children of Rebiya Kadeer and Canadian citizen Huseyin Celil, and change its suppressive policy towards the Uyghur people.

July 2009 riots

While the protests that preceded the July 2009 riots were ostensibly a response to the death of two Uighur workers in Guangdong, the Chinese government catapulted Kadeer into the limelight when it claimed the WUC, which she heads, had planned the riots. That said, Taiwan denied a visa to Mrs. Kadeer in Sept 2009, alleging she had links to the East Turkestan Islamic Movement, classed as a terrorist organization by the United Nations and USA.

Kadeer has denied that the riots were organised.

On 3 August, ''Xinhua'' reported that two of Rebiya Kadeer's children had written letters blaming her for orchestrating the riots. According to ''Xinhua'', they pleaded: "We want a stable and safe life … Please think about the happiness of us and your grandchildren. Don't destroy our happy life here. Don't follow the provocation from some people in other countries." Germany-based spokesman for the WUC rejected the letters as fakes. A Human Rights Watch researcher remarked their style was "suspiciously close" to the way the Chinese authorities had described rioting in Xinjiang and the aftermath. He added that: "...it's highly irregular for [her children] to be placed on the platform of a government mouthpiece ... for wide dispersion." CCTV broadcast a video of interviews with the family members of Kadeer on 4 August.

''Xinhua'' announced in early September 2009 that three properties owned by Kadeer's companies, including the Akida Trade Center, where more than 30 members of Kadeer's family were reportedly living, would be torn down due to "cracks in the walls and sunken footings". Local Uighurs said they saw this as an attempt to banish Kadeer's shadow; the Uighur American Association said the demolition may spark a new round of violence.

''The 10 Conditions of Love''

Director Jeff Daniels shot a documentary film in 2009 about Kadeer, called ''The 10 Conditions of Love''. It was destined to be screened at the Melbourne International Film Festival. The organisers refused a request from Chinese consulate in Melbourne for the film to be withdrawn and for Kadeer's invitation to the festival to be rescinded. Several Chinese directors pulled out of the event. The festival website was hacked and festival information replaced with the Chinese flag and anti-Kadeer slogans, and booked out all film sessions on the site; a denial-of-service attack forced it to shut down. Chinese Foreign Ministry spokesman Qin Gang said China was "firmly opposed to any foreign country providing her with a stage for her anti-China separatist activities". However, Daniels said it was good that "people were able to see different sides of the story" and criticised the heavy pressure from the Chinese government.

Australian Federal Labor Member of Parliament, Michael Danby, transmitted a message of support for the screening from 14th Dalai Lama, saying: "...[Kadeer] is another one of the national leaders who is a paradigm of non-violence." Danby said the Dalai Lama, "wanted to make it very clear to people that the claims of this woman being a violent person or instigating violence, is from his point of view, and with all of his authority, wrong."

The documentary was scheduled to be shown at the Kaoshiung Film Festival, Taiwan, in October 2009, but was later rescheduled to September, before the festival due to opposition from the PRC. Wang Yi of the Taiwan Work Office of the Communist Party of China opposed the film, saying it "beatifies the ethnic separatists" and sends "the wrong signals about terrorism and violence". The website for the festival was also hacked. It was later announced that the film would be shown at the film festival as originally planned. Premier Wu Den-yih said the government would protect freedom of speech, but Kadeer's entry ban from Taiwan was extended by three years "based on security needs".

Works

with Cavelius, Alexandra (2008). ''Die Himmelsstürmerin: Chinas Staatsfeindin NR. 1 erzählt aus ihrem Leben.'' Heyne. ISBN 978-3453640412. (German)

:English edition: ''Dragon Fighter: One Woman's Epic Struggle for Peace with China.'' W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. ISBN 978-0979845611. ()

Notes

Oxford University interviewed Kadeer, available in iTunes. The release date strangely appears "6/23/18". The author is listed as "Rebiya Kadeer (Rabiya Kadeer)," with "Oxford University" as the provider. The description reads "Rebiya Kadeer (Rabiya Kadeer), Washington DC, USA. Left Xinjiang in 2005 for Washington DC and now is the president of the World Uyghur Congress, the most significant Uighur leader, either in China or abroad, and a hate figure for the Chinese government". (iTunes: Forced Migrations Online Documentaries- Interview with Uyghur leader Rebiya Kadeer)

References

Esposito, John L.; Voll, John Obert; Bakar, Osman (2007). ''Asian Islam in the 21st Century.'' Oxford University Press US. ISBN 978-0195333022.

Millward, James A. (2007). ''Eurasian Crossroads: A History of Xinjiang.'' New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-023113924.

External links

''One on One - Rebiya Kadeer'' - interview on Al Jazeera English (video, 22 min)

Category:1947 births Category:Living people Category:Chinese businesspeople Category:Chinese Muslims Category:People from Xinjiang Category:Uyghur activists Category:Chinese dissidents Category:Chinese human rights activists Category:East Turkestan independence movement Category:Members of the National People's Congress

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Name	James Fallows
Birth date	August 02, 1949
Birth place	Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Death date
Resting place coordinates
Nationality	American
Education	Bachelor's degree in American history and literature
Alma mater	Harvard University, University of Oxford
Employer	''The Atlantic''
Occupation	Journalist
Website	http://jamesfallows.theatlantic.com
Footnotes	}}

James Fallows is an American print and radio journalist. He has been a national correspondent for ''The Atlantic Monthly'' for many years. His work has also appeared in ''Slate'', ''The New York Times Magazine'', ''The New York Review of Books'', ''The New Yorker'' and ''The American Prospect'', among others. He is a former editor of ''U.S. News & World Report'', and was President Jimmy Carter's chief speechwriter for two years, the youngest person ever to hold that job.

Fallows has been a visiting professor at a number of universities in the U.S. and China, and holds the Chair in U.S. Media at the United States Studies Centre at University of Sydney. He is the author of nine books, including ''National Defense'', for which he received the 1983 National Book Award, ''Looking at the Sun'' (1994), ''Breaking the News'' (1996), ''Blind into Baghdad'' (2006), and ''Postcards from Tomorrow Square'' (2009).

Career

Fallows was raised in Redlands, California, and graduated from Redlands High School. He studied American history and literature at Harvard College, where he was the editor of the daily newspaper, ''The Harvard Crimson''. From 1970 to 1972 Fallows studied economics at the University of Oxford as a Rhodes scholar. He subsequently worked as an editor and writer for the ''Washington Monthly'' and ''Texas Monthly'' magazines. For the first two years of the Carter administration he was Carter's chief speechwriter. From 1979 through 1996, he was the Washington Editor for ''The Atlantic''. For two years of that time he was based in Texas, and for four years in Asia. He wrote for the magazine about immigration, defense policy, politics, economics, computer technology, and other subjects. He has been a finalist for the National Magazine Award five times and won in 2003, for "The Fifty-First State?" (''The Atlantic'', November 2002), which was published six months before the invasion of Iraq and laid out the difficulties of occupying the country. He won the American Book Award for ''National Defense'' and won a NY Emmy in 2010 for his role as host of a documentary series, "Doing Business in China".

Fallows's most influential articles have concerned military policy and military procurement, the college admissions process, technology, China and Japan, and the American war in Iraq. Early in his career, he wrote an article called "What Did You Do in the Class War, Daddy?" (''Washington Monthly'', October 1975). It described the "draft physical" day at the Boston Navy Yard in 1970, in which Fallows and his Harvard and MIT classmates overwhelmingly produced reasons for medical exemptions, while the white working-class men of Chelsea were approved for service. He argued that the class bias of the Vietnam draft, which made it easy for influential and affluent families to avoid service, prolonged the war and that this was a truth many opponents of the war found convenient to overlook.

In the 1980s and 1990s Fallows was a frequent contributor of commentaries to National Public Radio's ''Morning Edition,'' and since 2009 he has been the regular news analyst for NPR's Weekend All Things Considered. From 1996 to 1998, he was the editor of ''US News & World Report''. He was the founding chairman of the New America Foundation, a nonprofit group based in Washington D.C.. During the 2000–2001 academic year, Fallows taught at the graduate school of journalism at the University of California, Berkeley, and in 2010 he was the Vare Writer in Residence at the University of Chicago. Starting in the 2010 academic year, he is a visiting Professor in U.S. Media at the United States Studies Centre at the University of Sydney.

He is an instrument-rated pilot, and in "Free Flight," published in 2001, he described the new generation of "personal jets" and other advanced aircraft now coming onto the market from Eclipse Aviation and Cirrus Design. Fallows has received numerous honorary degrees, including from the University of Utah, the University of Maryland, the University of Redlands, Northwestern University, and in 2008 Ursinus College.

Fallows has had a long interest in technology, both writing about and helping to develop it. He's taken a special interest in personal information management software, going back to Lotus Agenda which he glowingly reviewed for ''The Atlantic'' in 1992 ("Of all the computer programs I have tried, Agenda is far and away the most interesting, and is one of the two or three most valuable") . During the operating system wars of the early and mid-nineties, Fallows used and wrote about IBM's Operating System/2 (OS/2) and its battles with Windows, often frequenting the Canopus forum and online community on CompuServe. In 1999, he spent six months at Microsoft designing software for writers. More recently, he has written about the design of the Open Source Applications Foundation's information manager, code-named Chandler. He was the on-stage host for the IDG Corporation's "Agenda" conference (no relation to Agenda software) in the early 2000s and of Google's "Zeitgeist" conference starting in 2005. He has written regular technology columns for the ''New York Times'' and ''The Atlantic''.

Awards

Fallows received the National Book Award in 1983 for his book ''National Defense''. He was a finalist at the National Magazine Award in the years 1988, 2006 (twice), 2007 and had won the award in 2003 for his article ''The Fifty-First State?''. The documentary series ''On The Frontlines: Doing Business in China'' in which he participated as an editorial supervisor and co-host (together with Emily Chang) was awarded the 2010 Emmy Award.

Bibliography

Books

''The Water Lords: Ralph Nader's study group report on industry and environmental crisis in Savannah, Georgia'' (1971). Grossman Publishers. ISBN 0-670-75160-X

''Who Runs Congress'' (1972). With Mark Green and David Zwick. Bantam.

''National Defense'' (1981). Random House. ISBN 0-394-51824-1

''More Like Us: Making America Great Again'' (1989). Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-49857-0

''Looking at the Sun: The Rise of the New East Asian Economic and Political System'' (1994). Vintage Paperback (reprint ed, 1995) ISBN 0-679-76162-4

''Breaking the News: How the Media Undermine American Democracy'' (1996). Pantheon Books. ISBN 0-679-44209-X. Vintage Paperback (1997) ISBN 0-679-75856-9

''Free Flight: Inventing the Future of Travel'' (2001). PublicAffairs Paperback (2002) ISBN 1-58648-140-1

''Blind into Baghdad: America's War in Iraq'' (2006). Vintage. ISBN 978-0-307-27796-1

''Postcards from Tomorrow Square: Reports from China'' (2009) Knopf. ISBN 978-0-307-47262-5

Articles

References

External links

Fallows' website.

James Fallows profile, NNDB.

Audio of lecture delivered to the World Affairs Council of Northern California.

Audio/Video recording of James Fallows on his book ''Blind Into Baghdad: America's War in Iraq'' as part of the University of Chicago's World Beyond the Headlines series.

''Booknotes'' interview with Fallows on ''More Like Us'', May 14, 1989.

Category:1949 births Category:Living people Category:People from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Category:American Rhodes scholars Category:American radio journalists Category:American journalists Category:American political writers Category:American speechwriters Category:Writers from California Category:The Harvard Crimson people Category:The Atlantic (magazine) people Category:American bloggers Category:American Esperantists Category:Carter administration personnel

eo:James Fallows la:Iacobus Fallows