published: 20 Aug 2009
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Acropolis of Athens
The Acropolis of Athens or Citadel of Athens is the best known acropolis (Gr. akros, akron, edge, extremity + polis, city, pl. acropoleis) in the world. Although there are many other acropoleis in Greece, the significance of the Acropolis of Athens is such that it is commonly known as The Acropolis without qualification. The Acropolis was formally proclaimed as the pre-eminent monument on the European Cultural Heritage list of monuments on 26 March 2007. The Acropolis is a flat-topped rock that rises above sea level in the city of Athens, with a surface area of about 3 hectares. It was also known as Cecropia, after the legendary serpent-man, Cecrops, the first Athenian king.
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Aegean Sea
The Aegean Sea (, Egeo Pelagos ; ) is an elongated embayment of the Mediterranean Sea located between the southern Balkan and Anatolian peninsulas, i.e., between the mainlands of Greece and Turkey respectively. In the north, it is connected to the Marmara Sea and Black Sea by the Dardanelles and Bosporus. The Aegean Islands are within the sea and some bound it on its southern periphery, including Crete and Rhodes. The Aegean Region consists of nine provinces in southwestern Turkey, in part bordering on the Aegean sea.
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Alexandria
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Antioch
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Areopagus
:This article concerns the place where a classical judicial body met. It is also the term for the judicial body which met there. For the 16th century literary movement, see Areopagus (poetry). For the regional government during the Greek War of Independence, see Areopagus of Eastern Continental Greece. For the modern Greek Supreme Court, see Court of Cassation (Greece).
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Attalid dynasty
The Attalid dynasty was a Hellenistic dynasty that ruled the city of Pergamon after the death of Lysimachus, a general of Alexander the Great. The Attalid kingdom was the rump state left after the collapse of the Lysimachian Empire. One of Lysimachus' officers, Philetaerus, took control of the city in 282 BC. The later Attalids were descended from his father, and they expanded the city into a kingdom. Attalus I proclaimed himself King in the 230s BC, following his victories over the Galatians. The Attalids ruled Pergamon until Attalus III bequeathed the kingdom to the Roman Republic in 133 BC to avoid a likely succession crisis.
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Capitoline Museums
The Capitoline Museums (Italian Musei Capitolini) are a group of art and archeological museums in Piazza del Campidoglio, on top of the Capitoline Hill in Rome, Italy. The museums are contained in three palazzi surrounding a central trapezoidal piazza in a plan conceived by Michelangelo Buonarroti in 1536 and executed over a period of over 400 years. The history of the museums can be traced to 1471, when Pope Sixtus IV donated a collection of important ancient bronzes to the people of Rome and located them on Capitoline Hill. Since then, the museums' collection has grown to include a large number of ancient Roman statues, inscriptions, and other artifacts; a collection of medieval and Renaissance art; and collections of jewels, coins, and other items. The museums are owned and operated by the municipality of Rome.
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Classical Athens
The city of Athens during the classical period of Ancient Greece (508-322 BC) was a notable polis (city-state) of Attica, Greece, leading the Delian League in the Peloponnesian War against Sparta and the Peloponnesian League. Athenian democracy was established in 508 BC under Cleisthenes following the tyranny of Hippias. This system remained remarkably stable, and with a few brief interruptions remained in place for 180 years, until 322 BC (aftermath of Lamian War) . The peak of Athenian hegemony was achieved in the 440s to 430s BC, known as the Age of Pericles.
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Cornell University
Cornell University (, {{respell|kor-) is an Ivy League university located in Ithaca, New York. It is a private land-grant university which receives funding from the State of New York for certain educational missions.
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Crete
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Crotone
:Croton may also refer to a plant genus. See Croton (genus). Or to the NY village Croton-on-Hudson.
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Cyprus
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Cyrene, Libya
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Dardanelles
The Dardanelles (, ), formerly known as the Hellespont
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Egypt
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Ephesus
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Heliopolis (ancient)
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India
India (), officially the Republic of India ( ; see also official names of India), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.18 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world. Mainland India is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the west, and the Bay of Bengal on the east; and it is bordered by Pakistan to the west; Bhutan, the People's Republic of China and Nepal to the north; and Bangladesh and Burma to the east. In the Indian Ocean, mainland India and the Lakshadweep Islands are in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives, while India's Andaman and Nicobar Islands share maritime border with Thailand and the Indonesian island of Sumatra in the Andaman Sea. India has a coastline of .
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Ionian Sea
The Ionian Sea is an arm of the Mediterranean Sea, south of the Adriatic Sea. It is bounded by southern Italy including Calabria, Sicily and the Salento peninsula to the west, and by southwestern Albania, including Saranda and Himara, and a large number of Greek islands, including Corfu, Zante, Kephalonia, Ithaka, and Lefkas to the east. The islands are collectively referred to as the Ionian Islands, and other islands include the Strophades, Sphagia, Schiza, Sapientza and Kythira. The sea is one of the most seismic areas in the world.
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Italy
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Miletus
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Parthenon
The Parthenon (Ancient Greek: ) is a temple in the Athenian Acropolis, Greece, dedicated to the Greek goddess Athena, whom the people of Athens considered their protector. Its construction began in 447 BCE and was completed in 438 BCE, although decorations of the Parthenon continued until 431 BCE. It is the most important surviving building of Classical Greece, generally considered to be the culmination of the development of the Doric order. Its decorative sculptures are considered some of the high points of Greek art. The Parthenon is regarded as an enduring symbol of Ancient Greece and of Athenian democracy and one of the world's greatest cultural monuments. The Greek Ministry of Culture is currently carrying out a programme of selective restoration and reconstruction to ensure the stability of the partially ruined structure.
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Peloponnese
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Pergamon
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Phoenicia
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Platonic Academy
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Rome
Rome (; , ; ) is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in . In 2006 the population of the metropolitan area was estimated by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development to have a population of 3.7 million.
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Samos
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Sparta
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Sybaris
Sybaris (Greek: ) was an ancient city of Magna Graecia on the western shore of the Gulf of Taranto. The wealth of the city in the 6th century BC was such that the Sybarites became synonymous with pleasure and luxury. The modern town of Sibari lies near the ruins of the Greek city; it is a frazione of the comune of Cassano allo Ionio, in the province of Cosenza.
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Taranto
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Temple of Hephaestus
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Temple of Zeus
The Temple of Zeus at Olympia, was an ancient Greek temple in Olympia, Greece, dedicated to the chief of the gods, Zeus. It was the very model of the fully-developed classical Greek temple of the Doric order. The temple, built between 472 and 456 BC, stood in the most famous sanctuary of Greece, which had been dedicated to local and Pan-Hellenic deities and had probably been established towards the end of the Mycenaean period. The Altis, the enclosure with its sacred grove, open-air altars and the tumulus of Pelops, was first formed during the tenth and ninth centuries BCE, when the cult of Zeus was joined the already establish cult here of Hera.
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Thermopylae
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Troy
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Vatican Museums
The Vatican Museums (), in Viale Vaticano in Rome, inside the Vatican City, are among the greatest museums in the world, since they display works from the immense collection built up by the Roman Catholic Church throughout the centuries.
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Aeschylus
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Aesop
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Alcaeus of Mytilene
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Alcibiades
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Alcmaeon of Croton
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Alexander Polyhistor
Lucius Cornelius Alexander Polyhistor () was a Greek scholar who was enslaved by the Romans during the Mithridatic War and taken to Rome as a tutor. After his release, he continued to live in Italy as a Roman citizen. He was so productive a writer that he earned the surname polyhistor. The majority of his writings are now lost, but the fragments that remain shed valuable light on antiquarian and eastern Mediterranean subjects.
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Alexander the Great
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Anaxagoras
Anaxagoras (, "lord of the assembly"; c. 500 BC – 428 BC) was a Pre-Socratic Greek philosopher. Born in Clazomenae in Asia Minor, Anaxagoras was the first philosopher to bring philosophy from Ionia to Athens. He attempted to give a scientific account of eclipses, meteors, rainbows, and the sun, which he described as a fiery mass larger than the Peloponnese. He was accused of contravening the established religion and was forced to flee to Lampsacus.
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Anaximander
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Anthemius of Tralles
Anthemius of Tralles (c. 474 – before 558) (Greek ) was a Greek professor of Geometry in Constantinople (present-day Istanbul in Turkey) and architect, who collaborated with Isidore of Miletus to build the church of Hagia Sophia by the order of Justinian I. Anthemius came from an educated family, one of five sons of Stephanus of Tralles, a physician. Of his brothers, Dioscorus followed his father's profession in Tralles; Alexander became at Rome one of the most celebrated medical men of his time; Olympius was deeply versed in Roman jurisprudence; and Metrodorus was a distinguished grammarian in Constantinople.
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Antisthenes
Antisthenes (; c. 445-c. 365 BCE) was a Greek philosopher and a pupil of Socrates. Antisthenes first learned rhetoric under Gorgias before becoming an ardent disciple of Socrates. He adopted and developed the ethical side of Socrates' teachings, advocating an ascetic life lived in accordance with virtue. Later writers regarded him as the founder of Cynic philosophy.
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Apollonius of Tyana
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Apuleius
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Archilochus
:For the hummingbird genus, see ''Archilochus.
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Archimedes
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Archytas
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Arignote
Arignote (; c. 500 BC) was a Pythagorean philosopher, a student of Pythagoras and Theano, and, according to some traditions, their daughter as well.
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Aristaeus the Elder
Aristaeus the Elder (active 370 BC-300 BC) was a Greek mathematician who worked on conic sections. He was a contemporary of Euclid, though probably older. We know practically nothing of his life except that the mathematician Pappus of Alexandria refers to him as Aristaeus the Elder which presumably means that Pappus was aware of another later mathematician also named Aristaeus. Pappus gave Aristaeus great credit for a work entitled Five Books concerning Solid Loci which was used by Pappus but has been lost. He may have also authored the book Concerning the Comparison of Five Regular Solids. This book has also been lost; we know of it through a reference by the Greek mathematician Hypsicles.
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Aristarchus of Samos
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Aristippus
Aristippus () of Cyrene, (c. 435-c. 356 BCE), was the founder of the Cyrenaic school of Philosophy. He was a pupil of Socrates, but adopted a very different philosophical outlook, teaching that the goal of life was to seek pleasure by adapting circumstances to oneself and by maintaining proper control over both adversity and prosperity. Among his pupils was his daughter Arete.
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Aristophanes
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Aristotle
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Aristoxenus
Aristoxenus (; fl. 335 BC) of Tarentum was a Greek Peripatetic philosopher, and a pupil of Aristotle. Most of his writings, which dealt with philosophy, ethics and music, have been lost, but one musical treatise, Elements of Harmony, survives incomplete, as well as some fragments concerning rhythm and meter.
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Aspasia
Aspasia (ca. 470 BC–ca. 400 BC, Greek: ) was a Milesian woman who was famous for her involvement with the Athenian statesman Pericles. Very little is known about the details of her life. She spent most of her adult life in Athens, and she may have influenced Pericles and Athenian politics. She is mentioned in the writings of Plato, Aristophanes, Xenophon, and other authors of the day.
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Autolycus of Pitane
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Bacchylides
Bacchylides () (5th century BC) was an Ancient Greek lyric poet. Later Greeks included him in the canonical list of nine lyric poets which included his uncle Simonides. The elegance and polished style of his lyrics have been a commonplace of Bacchylidean scholarship since at least Longinus (De Sublimitate 33,5). Some scholars however have associated these qualities with superficial charm. He has often been compared unfavourably with his contemporary, Pindar, as "a kind of Boccherini to Pindar's Haydn", yet the differences in their styles doesn't allow for easy comparison and "to blame Bacchylides for not being Pindar is as childish a judgement as to condemn...Marvel for missing the grandeur of Milton." His career coincided with the ascendency of dramatic styles of poetry, as embodied in the works of Aeschylus or Sophocles, and he is in fact one of the last poets of major significance within the more ancient tradition of purely lyric poetry. The most notable features of his lyrics are their clarity in expression and simplicity of thought, making them an ideal introduction to the study of Greek lyric poetry in general and to Pindar's verse in particular.
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Bertrand Russell
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Bias of Priene
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Boethius
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Bryson of Heraclea
Bryson of Heraclea (late 5th-century BCE) was an ancient Greek mathematician and sophist who contributed to solving the problem of squaring the circle and calculating pi.
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Chaldea
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Chrysippus
Chrysippus of Soli (Ancient Greek: , ; c. 279–c. 206 BC) was a Greek Stoic philosopher. He was a native of Soli, Cilicia, but moved to Athens as a young man, where he became a pupil of Cleanthes in the Stoic school. When Cleanthes died, around 230 BC, Chrysippus became the third head of the school. A prolific writer, Chrysippus expanded the fundamental doctrines of Zeno of Citium, the founder of the school, which earned him the title of Second Founder of Stoicism.
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Cicero
Marcus Tullius Cicero (; Classical Latin: ; January 3, 106 BC – December 7, 43 BC; sometimes anglicized as "Tully"), was a Roman philosopher, statesman, lawyer, political theorist, and Roman constitutionalist. He came from a wealthy municipal family of the equestrian order, and is widely considered one of Rome's greatest orators and prose stylists.
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Conon of Samos
Conon of Samos (ca. 280 BC - ca. 220 BC) was a Greek astronomer and mathematician. He is primarily remembered for naming the constellation Coma Berenices.
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Creophylus of Samos
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Ctesibius
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Damo (philosopher)
Damo (; c. 500 BC) was a Pythagorean philosopher said by many to have been the daughter of Pythagoras and Theano.
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Democritus
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Demosthenes
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Dicaearchus
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Dinostratus
Dinostratus (, ca. 390 BCE - ca. 320 BCE) was a Greek mathematician and geometer, and the brother of Menaechmus. He is known for using the quadratrix to solve the problem of squaring the circle.
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Diogenes Laërtius
Diogenes Laertius (ancient Greek: , Diogenes Laertios; fl. c. 3rd century) was a biographer of the Greek philosophers. Nothing is known about his life, but his surviving Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers is one of the principal surviving sources for the history of Greek philosophy.
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Diogenes of Sinope
Diogenes of Sinope ( Diogenes ho Sinopeus), was a Greek philosopher and one of the founders of Cynic philosophy. Also known as Diogenes the Cynic, he was born in Sinope (modern-day Sinop, Turkey) in 412 or 404 BCE
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Diophantus
Diophantus of Alexandria (Greek: . b. between 200 and 214 CE, d. between 284 and 298 CE), sometimes called "the father of algebra", was an Alexandrian Greek mathematician and the author of a series of books called Arithmetica. These texts deal with solving algebraic equations, many of which are now lost. In studying Arithmetica, Pierre de Fermat
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Empedocles
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Epaminondas
Epaminondas (Greek: ) (ca. 410 BC – 362 BC) or Epameinondas was a Theban general and statesman of the 4th century BC who transformed the Ancient Greek city-state of Thebes, leading it out of Spartan subjugation into a preeminent position in Greek politics. In the process he broke Spartan military power with his victory at Leuctra and liberated the Messenian helots, a group of Peloponnesian Greeks who had been enslaved under Spartan rule for some 230 years, having been defeated in the Messenian War ending in 600 BC. Epaminondas reshaped the political map of Greece, fragmented old alliances, created new ones, and supervised the construction of entire cities. He was militarily influential as well, inventing and implementing several major battlefield tactics.
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Epicurus
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Eratosthenes
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Euclid
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Eudemus of Rhodes
:Eudemus is also the name of a general of Alexander the Great (died 316 BC).
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Eudoxus of Cnidus
Eudoxus of Cnidus (410 or 408 BC – 355 or 347 BC) was a Greek astronomer, mathematician, scholar and student of Plato. Since all his own works are lost, our knowledge of him is obtained from secondary sources, such as Aratus's poem on astronomy. Theodosius of Bithynia's Sphaerics may be based on a work of Eudoxus.
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Euphorbus
:For the physician of King Juba II of Numidia, after which the Euphorbia plants were named, see Euphorbus (physician).
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Euripides
http://wn.com/Euripides -
Geminus
Geminus of Rhodes (), was a Greek astronomer and mathematician, who flourished in the 1st century BC. An astronomy work of his, the Introduction to the Phenomena, still survives; it was intended as an introductory astronomy book for students. He also wrote a work on mathematics, of which only fragments quoted by later authors survive.
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Gorgias
Gorgias (, ca. 485-c.380 BCE) "the Nihilist", Greek sophist, pre-socratic philosopher and rhetorician, was a native of Leontini in Sicily. Along with Protagoras, he forms the first generation of Sophists. Several doxographers report that he was a pupil of Empedocles, although he would only have been a few years younger. "Like other Sophists he was an itinerant, practicing in various cities and giving public exhibitions of his skill at the great pan-Hellenic centers of Olympia and Delphi, and charged fees for his instruction and performances. A special feature of his displays was to invite miscellaneous questions from the audience and give impromptu replies."
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Heraclitus
Heraclitus of Ephesus (Ancient Greek: — ; c. 535–c. 475 BCE) was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher, a native of the Greek city Ephesus, Ionia, on the coast of Asia Minor. He was of distinguished parentage. Little is known about his early life and education, but he regarded himself as self-taught and a pioneer of wisdom. From the lonely life he led, and still more from the riddling nature of his philosophy and his contempt for humankind in general, he was called "The Obscure," and the "Weeping Philosopher."
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Hero of Alexandria
http://wn.com/Hero_of_Alexandria -
Herodotus
http://wn.com/Herodotus -
Hesiod
http://wn.com/Hesiod -
Hipparchus
http://wn.com/Hipparchus -
Hippasus
http://wn.com/Hippasus -
Hippias
Hippias of Elis (; late 5th century BCE) was a Greek Sophist, and a contemporary of Socrates. With an assurance characteristic of the later sophists, he claimed to be regarded as an authority on all subjects, and lectured on poetry, grammar, history, politics, mathematics, and much else. Most of our knowledge of him is derived from Plato, who characterizes him as vain and arrogant.
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Hippo (philosopher)
Hippo (or Hippon, ; 5th century BC) was a Presocratic Greek philosopher. He is variously described as coming from Rhegium, Metapontum, Samos, and Croton, and it is possible that there was more than one philosopher with this name.
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Hippocrates
http://wn.com/Hippocrates -
Hippocrates of Chios
Hippocrates of Chios was an ancient Greek mathematician, (geometer), and astronomer, who lived c. 470 – c. 410 BCE.
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Hipponax
Hipponax of Ephesus was an Ancient Greek iambic poet.
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Homer
http://wn.com/Homer -
Hypatia
http://wn.com/Hypatia -
Hypsicles
This article is about Hypsicles of Alexandria. For the historian, see Hyspicrates (historian).
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Iamblichus
:For the Greek novelist, see Iamblichus (novelist) (165-180).
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Ibycus
Ibycus (Ancient Greek: ) (6th century BC), was an Ancient Greek lyric poet. He was included in the canonical list of nine lyric poets by the scholars of Hellenistic Alexandria. The extant fragments of his work contain the earliest-known example of the triadic choral lyric and epinician poetry.
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Ionians
http://wn.com/Ionians -
Isidore of Miletus
http://wn.com/Isidore_of_Miletus -
Jabir ibn Hayyan
http://wn.com/Jabir_ibn_Hayyan -
Johannes Kepler
http://wn.com/Johannes_Kepler -
Leonidas I
http://wn.com/Leonidas_I -
Leucippus
http://wn.com/Leucippus -
Lycurgus of Sparta
http://wn.com/Lycurgus_of_Sparta -
Lysander
http://wn.com/Lysander -
Marinus of Neapolis
http://wn.com/Marinus_of_Neapolis -
Melissus of Samos
http://wn.com/Melissus_of_Samos -
Milo of Croton
http://wn.com/Milo_of_Croton -
Myia
Myia (; c. 500 BC) was a Pythagorean philosopher and, according to later tradition, one of the daughters of Theano and Pythagoras. She was married to Milo of Croton, the famous athlete. She was a choir leader as a girl, and as a woman, she was noted for her exemplary religious behaviour. Lucian, in his In Praise of a Fly, states that he could say many things about Myia the Pythagorean were it not for the fact that her history is known to everyone.
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Nicoteles of Cyrene
Nicoteles of Cyrene (c. 250 BCE) was a Greek mathematician from Cyrene.
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Oenopides
:Oenopides is also the name of a lunar crater
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Pappus of Alexandria
Pappus of Alexandria (Greek ) (c. 290 – c. 350) was one of the last great Greek mathematicians of Antiquity, known for his Synagoge or Collection (c. 340), and for Pappus's Theorem in projective geometry. Nothing is known of his life, except (from his own writings) that he had a son named Hermodorus, and was a teacher in Alexandria.
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Parmenides
Parmenides of Elea (Greek: ; fl. early 5th century BCE) was an ancient Greek philosopher born in Elea, a Greek city on the southern coast of Italy. He was the founder of the Eleatic school of philosophy. The single known work of Parmenides is a poem which has survived only in fragmentary form. In this poem, Parmenides describes two views of reality. In The Way of Truth (a part of the poem), he explains how reality is one, change is impossible, and existence is timeless, uniform, and unchanging. In The Way of Opinion, he explains the world of appearances, which is false and deceitful. These thoughts strongly influenced Plato, and through him, the whole of Western philosophy.
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Pausanias (general)
http://wn.com/Pausanias_(general) -
Pericles
http://wn.com/Pericles -
Perseus (geometer)
Perseus (c. 150 BC) was an ancient Greek geometer, who invented the concept of spiric sections, in analogy to the conic sections studied by Apollonius of Perga.
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Pherecydes of Syros
:''See also Pherecydes of Leros
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Philip II of Macedon
http://wn.com/Philip_II_of_Macedon -
Philon
Philon, Athenian architect of the 4th century BC, is known as the planner of two important works: the portico of the great Hall of the Mysteries at Eleusis and an arsenal at Athens. Of the last we have exact knowledge from an inscription. E. A. Gardner observes that it "is perhaps known to us more in detail than any other lost monument of antiquity." It was to hold the rigging of the galleys; and was so contrived that all its contents were visible from a central hall, and so liable to the inspection of the Athenian democracy. He is known to have written books on the Athenian arsenal and on the proportions of temple buildings, but these are now lost.
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Philostratus
Philostratus, was the name of four Greek sophists of the Roman imperial period:
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Phoenicia
http://wn.com/Phoenicia -
Pindar
http://wn.com/Pindar -
Plato
:For other uses, see Plato (disambiguation) and Platon (disambiguation).
http://wn.com/Plato -
Plutarch
http://wn.com/Plutarch -
Polybius
http://wn.com/Polybius -
Polycrates
Polycrates (), son of Aeaces, was the tyrant of Samos from c. 538 BC to 522 BC.
http://wn.com/Polycrates -
Posidonius
http://wn.com/Posidonius -
Proclus
http://wn.com/Proclus -
Prodicus
http://wn.com/Prodicus -
Protagoras
Protagoras (Greek: ) (ca. 490– 420 BC) was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher and is numbered as one of the sophists by Plato. In his dialogue Protagoras, Plato credits him with having invented the role of the professional sophist or teacher of virtue. He is also believed to have created a major controversy during ancient times through his statement that man is the measure of all things. This idea was very revolutionary for the time and contrasting to other philosophical doctrines that claimed the universe was based on something objective, outside the human influence.
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Ptolemy
http://wn.com/Ptolemy -
Pyrrhus of Epirus
Pyrrhus or Pyrrhos (, Pyrros; 319-272 BC) was a Greek general of the Hellenistic era. He was king of the Greek tribe of Molossians, of the royal Aeacid house (from ca. 297 BC), and later he became King of Epirus (306-302, 297-272 BC) and Macedon (288-284, 273-272 BC). He was one of the strongest opponents of early Rome. Some of his battles, though successful, cost him heavy losses, from which the term "Pyrrhic victory" was coined. He is the subject of one of Plutarch's Parallel Lives.
http://wn.com/Pyrrhus_of_Epirus -
Pythagoras
Pythagoras of Samos (, O Pythagoras o Samios, "Pythagoras the Samian", or simply ; c. 570-c. 495 BC) was an Ionian Greek philosopher and founder of the religious movement called Pythagoreanism. Most of our information about Pythagoras was written down centuries after he lived, thus very little reliable information is known about him. He was born on the island of Samos, and may have travelled widely in his youth, visiting Egypt and other places seeking knowledge. Around 530 BC, he moved to Croton, a Greek colony in southern Italy, and there set up a religious sect. His followers pursued the religious rites and practices developed by Pythagoras, and studied his philosophical theories. The society took an active role in the politics of Croton, but this eventually led to their downfall. The Pythagorean meeting-places were burned, and Pythagoras was forced to flee the city. He is said to have ended his days in Metapontum.
http://wn.com/Pythagoras -
R. M. Hare
Richard Mervyn Hare (21 March 1919 in Backwell, Somerset – 29 January 2002 in Ewelme, Oxfordshire) was an English moral philosopher who held the post of White's Professor of Moral Philosophy at the University of Oxford from 1966 until 1983 and then taught for a number of years at the University of Florida. His meta-ethical theories were influential during the second half of the twentieth century.
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Raphael
http://wn.com/Raphael -
Robert Drew Hicks
http://wn.com/Robert_Drew_Hicks -
Sappho
Sappho ( in English; Attic Greek ' , Aeolic Greek ' ) was an Ancient Greek poet, born on the island of Lesbos. Later Greeks included her in the list of nine lyric poets. Her birth was sometime between 630 and 612 BC, and it is said that she died around 570 BC, but little is known for certain about her life. The bulk of her poetry, which was well-known and greatly admired throughout antiquity, has been lost, but her immense reputation has endured through surviving fragments.
http://wn.com/Sappho -
Simonides of Ceos
http://wn.com/Simonides_of_Ceos -
Socrates
http://wn.com/Socrates -
Solon
Solon (ancient Greek: , c. 638 BC–558 BC) was an Athenian statesman, lawmaker, and poet. He is remembered particularly for his efforts to legislate against political, economic and moral decline in archaic Athens. His reforms failed in the short term yet he is often credited with having laid the foundations for Athenian democracy.
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Sophocles
http://wn.com/Sophocles -
Stesichorus
Stesichorus (Ancient Greek: , circa 640 - 555 BC) was the first great poet of the Greek West. He is best known for telling epic stories in lyric metres but he is also famous for some ancient traditions about his life, such as his opposition to the tyrant Phalaris, and the blindness he is said to have incurred and cured by composing verses first insulting and then flattering to Helen of Troy. He was ranked among the nine lyric poets esteemed by the scholars of Hellenistic Alexandria and yet his work attracted relatively little interest among ancient commentators, which in turn left a disproportionate number of gaps in the modern record as one scholar observed in 1967: "Time has dealt more harshly with Stesichorus than with any other major lyric poet." Recent discoveries, recorded on Egyptian papyrus (notably and controversially, the Lille papyrus, in 1974), have enhanced modern understanding of his work, confirming his role as a link between Homer's epic narrative and the lyric narrative of poets like Pindar.
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Telauges
Telauges (; c. 500 BC) was a Pythagorean philosopher and, according to tradition, the son of Pythagoras and Theano.
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Thales
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Thales of Miletus
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Theano (philosopher)
Theano (; 6th-century BC) was a Pythagorean philosopher. She was said by many to have been the wife of Pythagoras, although others made her the wife of Brontinus. A few fragments and letters ascribed to her have survived which are of uncertain authorship. She is believed by some historians to have been a student of Pythagoras and later a teacher in the Pythagorean school, which had 28 female Pythagoreans participating in it .
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Themistocles
Themistocles (Greek: ; "Glory of the Law"); c. 524–459 BC, was an Athenian politician and general. He was one of a new breed of politicians who rose to prominence in the early years of the Athenian democracy, along with his great rival Aristides. As a politician, Themistocles was a populist, having the support of lower class Athenians, and generally being at odds with the Athenian nobility. Elected archon in 493 BC, he took steps to increase the naval power of Athens, which would be a recurring theme in his political career. During the first Persian invasion of Greece, he fought at the Battle of Marathon, and was possibly one of the 10 Athenian strategoi (generals) in that battle.
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Theodorus of Cyrene
Theodorus of Cyrene () was a Greek mathematician of the 5th century BC. The only first-hand accounts of him that we have are in two of Plato's dialogues: the Theaetetus and the Sophist. In the former, his student Theaetetus attributes to him the theorem that the square roots of the non-square numbers up to 17 are irrational:
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Theon of Alexandria
Theon (, ca. 335 - ca. 405 AD) was a GreekTihon, Anne, "Theon of Alexandria and Ptolemy's Handy Tables", In Ancient Astronomy and Celestial Divination. Dibner Institute studies in the history of science and technology. Edited by N.M. Swerdlow. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1999, p. 357.
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Theon of Smyrna
Theon of Smyrna (fl. 100 CE) was a Greek philosopher and mathematician, whose works were strongly influenced by the Pythagorean school of thought. His surviving On Mathematics Useful for the Understanding of Plato is an introductory survey of Greek mathematics.
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Thucydides
http://wn.com/Thucydides -
Thymaridas
Thymaridas of Paros (ca. 400 BCE - ca. 350 BCE) was an ancient Greek mathematician and Pythagorean noted for his work on prime numbers and simultaneous linear equations.
http://wn.com/Thymaridas -
Timocreon
Timocreon, of Ialysus in Rhodes, was a Greek lyric poet who flourished about 480 BC.
http://wn.com/Timocreon -
Trojan war
http://wn.com/Trojan_war -
Xenophanes
:For the skipper butterfly genus, see Xenophanes (butterfly).
http://wn.com/Xenophanes -
Xenophon
http://wn.com/Xenophon -
Zeno of Citium
http://wn.com/Zeno_of_Citium -
Zeno of Elea
http://wn.com/Zeno_of_Elea -
Zoroaster
http://wn.com/Zoroaster
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Pythagoras' Theorem : ExamSolutions
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:07
- Published: 20 Aug 2009
- Updated: 24 Oct 2012
Pythagoras' Theorem. To see this and other tutorials goto ExamSolutions at www.examsolutions.co.uk
http://wn.com/Pythagoras'_Theorem_ExamSolutions
What was up with Pythagoras?
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:50
- Published: 13 Jun 2012
- Updated: 26 Oct 2012
Pythagoras had a problem with beans and irrationality. What really happened? I don't know! The square root of two is irrational, and beans are delicious.
http://wn.com/What_was_up_with_Pythagoras?
Three Minute Philosophy: Pythagoras
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:35
- Published: 17 Dec 2007
- Updated: 25 Oct 2012
Maths rocks!
http://wn.com/Three_Minute_Philosophy_Pythagoras
the life of pythagoras
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:03
- Published: 28 Feb 2008
- Updated: 24 Oct 2012
a short film about the life and achievements of the greek mathematician pythagoras
http://wn.com/the_life_of_pythagoras
MathHistory1a: Pythagoras' theorem
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 48:55
- Published: 14 Mar 2011
- Updated: 18 Oct 2012
Pythagoras' theorem is both the oldest and the most important non-trivial theorem in mathematics. This is the first part of the first lecture of a short course on the History of Mathematics, by NJ Wildberger at UNSW (MATH3560 and GENS2005). We will follow John Stillwell's text Mathematics and its History (Springer, 3rd ed). Generally the emphasis will be on mathematical ideas and results, but largely without proofs, with a main eye on the historical flow of ideas. A few historical tidbits will be thrown in too... In this first lecture (with two parts) we first give a very rough outline of world history from a mathematical point of view, position the work of the ancient Greeks as following from Egyptian and Babylonian influences, and introduce the most important theorem in all of mathematics: Pythagoras' theorem. Two interesting related issues are the irrationality of the 'square root of two' (the Greeks saw this as a length, but not as a number), and Pythagorean triples, which go back to the Babylonians. These are closely related to the important rational parametrization of a circle, essentially discovered by Euclid and Diophantus. The Greeks thought of mathematics differently than we do today, and all students can benefit from a closer appreciation of the difficulties which they saw, but which we today largely ignore.
http://wn.com/MathHistory1a_Pythagoras'_theorem
A Brief History Pythagoras and His Theorem
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:47
- Published: 25 Jan 2011
- Updated: 23 Oct 2012
Manly Hall - Golden Verses of Pythagoras
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 82:14
- Published: 20 Jul 2011
- Updated: 24 Oct 2012
Manly Palmer Hall was a Canadian-born author and mystic. He is perhaps most famous for his work The Secret Teachings of All Ages: An Encyclopedic Outline of Masonic, Hermetic, Qabbalistic and Rosicrucian Symbolical Philosophy, which is widely regarded as his magnum opus, and which he published at the age of 27. He has been widely recognized as a leading scholar in the fields of religion, mythology, mysticism, and the occult. In 1934, Hall founded the Philosophical Research Society (PRS) in Los Angeles, California, dedicating it to an idealistic approach to the solution of human problems. The PRS claims to be non-sectarian and entirely free from educational, political, or ecclesiastical control, and the Society's programs stress the need for the integration of philosophy, religion, and science into one system of instruction. The PRS Library, a public facility devoted to source materials in obscure fields, has many rare and scarce items now impossible to obtain elsewhere. In 1973 (47 years after writing The Secret Teachings of All Ages), Hall was recognized as a 33º Mason (the highest honor conferred by the Supreme Council of the Scottish Rite), at a ceremony held at PRS on December 8th, despite never being initiated into the physical craft. In his over 70-year career, Hall delivered approximately 8000 lectures in the United States and abroad, authored over 150 books and essays, and wrote countless magazine articles. www.manlyphall.org www.prs.org
http://wn.com/Manly_Hall_Golden_Verses_of_Pythagoras
Contributions of Pythagoras
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:59
- Published: 03 Jul 2008
- Updated: 24 Oct 2012
Alternative Healing through Sound, Vibration and Harmonix. An overview with Dr. James Hopkins
http://wn.com/Contributions_of_Pythagoras
Pythagoras Rap Music Video
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:15
- Published: 06 Nov 2008
- Updated: 20 Sep 2012
The real, untold story of the man, the myth, the legend. Pythagoras.
http://wn.com/Pythagoras_Rap_Music_Video
Pythagoras from www.mathstutor.biz
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:30
- Published: 31 Dec 2006
- Updated: 26 Jul 2012
A sample video clip from lesson 5, Pythagoras' Theorem, presented by mathstutor.biz.
http://wn.com/Pythagoras_from_wwwmathstutorbiz
Pythagoras' result
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:03
- Published: 22 Apr 2007
- Updated: 13 Aug 2012
GCSE Maths lesson on applying Pythagoras' result about right angled triangles to problems. Finding longest side, finding shortest side, testing a triangle for right angle, mixed problems.
http://wn.com/Pythagoras'_result
Bronowski on Pythagoras' Theorem
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:29
- Published: 11 Oct 2007
- Updated: 03 Oct 2012
Jacob Bronowski explains the significance of the Pythagorean theorem
http://wn.com/Bronowski_on_Pythagoras'_Theorem
Pythagoras of Samos
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:56
- Published: 24 Apr 2009
- Updated: 19 May 2012
Learn about Pythagoras himself not just his theorem.
http://wn.com/Pythagoras_of_Samos
NEW PRINCESS KAORU NAKAMARU PYTHAGORAS CONFERENCE 2012 OFFICIAL VIDEO
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 15:59
- Published: 03 Feb 2012
- Updated: 24 Oct 2012
PRINCESS KAORU NAKAMARU PYTHAGORAS CONFERENCE 2012. Coming discusses coming Earth Changes. Invites you to join us for this unprecedented gathering for the "Future of Humanity". Visit www.PythagorasConference.com and www.nakamarukaoru.com get a discount off the ticket price! Use Coupon Code: PrincessKaoruNakamaru2012
http://wn.com/NEW_PRINCESS_KAORU_NAKAMARU_PYTHAGORAS_CONFERENCE_2012_OFFICIAL_VIDEO
Pythagoras' Theorem made easy - GCSE Maths revision video
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:08
- Published: 05 Jun 2012
- Updated: 11 Oct 2012
This video looks at using Pythagoras' theorem for finding lengths with right-angled triangles, essential for GCSE maths examinations. It looks at finding missing sides within triangles and when you are given two coordinates and want to find the distance between two coordinates.
http://wn.com/Pythagoras'_Theorem_made_easy_GCSE_Maths_revision_video
Pi, Pythagoras, and The Philosopher's Stone
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:00
- Published: 24 Aug 2007
- Updated: 30 Sep 2012
labyrinthofthepsychonaut.blogspot.com The number is nothing. It's the meaning. The Syntax. What's between the numbers. Is there truly a pattern of mathematics that dictates the behavior of the universe? Finding out the truth may ultimately be your downfall. 3.1415926535897932384626433832795028841971693993751058209749445923078164062862089986280348253421170679 8214808651328230664709384460955058223172535940812848111745028410270193852110555964462294895493038196 4428810975665933446128475648233786783165271201909145648566923460348610454326648213393607260249141273 724587006606315588174881520920962829254091715364367892590360011330530548820466521384146951941511609...
http://wn.com/Pi,_Pythagoras,_and_The_Philosopher's_Stone
Donald and Pythagoras
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:21
- Published: 20 Oct 2010
- Updated: 22 Oct 2012
In Mathmagic Land, Donald visits Ancient Greece and discovers some history of mathematics and why it's important.
http://wn.com/Donald_and_Pythagoras
Water-proof of Pythagoras' Theorem
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:19
- Published: 07 Dec 2006
- Updated: 14 Oct 2012
Pythagoras' Theorem water-proved (made in Switzerland)
http://wn.com/Water-proof_of_Pythagoras'_Theorem
"Pythagoras Switch" 2006/10/22
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:38
- Published: 23 Oct 2006
- Updated: 08 Oct 2012
The ball rebounds by the clothespin.
http://wn.com/Pythagoras_Switch_2006_10_22
Pythagoras: How to measure beauty - Human Face, The
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:58
- Published: 06 Feb 2009
- Updated: 18 Oct 2012
Comedian John Cleese and model and actress Liz Hurley investigate how mathematics can reflect our perception of beauty. Includes some great tests that you can try out yourself! Do parts of your body divide into the ratio 1 to 1.618? Fascinating short video from BBC science show 'The Human Face'.
http://wn.com/Pythagoras_How_to_measure_beauty_Human_Face,_The
Pythagoras - Time Lapsed Drawing Delta Robot
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:46
- Published: 05 Jan 2012
- Updated: 05 Oct 2012
A time lapse of my drawing delta robot, shading in a portrait. Sped up to 50x normal rate. It took an hour realtime to draw. More information about the robot on my build log: aaronbot3000.blogspot.com Music is La Routine, by Circus Marcus www.jamendo.com
http://wn.com/Pythagoras_Time_Lapsed_Drawing_Delta_Robot
Pythagorean Theorem Word Problems -YourTeacher.com - Math Help
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:54
- Published: 21 Jan 2008
- Updated: 16 Oct 2012
For a complete lesson on Pythagorean Theorem word problems, go to www.yourteacher.com - 1000+ online math lessons featuring a personal math teacher inside every lesson! In this lesson, students use the Pythagorean Theorem to find missing side lengths of right triangles in a variety of word problems. The word problems involve right triangles formed by diagonals of rectangles, squares, and rhombuses, as well as ladders that lean against buildings, heights of fallen trees, distances traveled, the range of an internet signal, and the diagonal of a rectangular box.
http://wn.com/Pythagorean_Theorem_Word_Problems_-YourTeachercom_Math_Help
JAN PETER DE JONG featured guest speaker at the Pythagoras Conference Global 2012
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:01
- Published: 31 Jan 2012
- Updated: 15 Jul 2012
JAN PETER DE JONG and JESUS GAMARRA | featured speaker at the Pythagoras Conference. Speaker introduction video. Use speaker coupon code: JPDJ2012 and SAVE $100 off your admission to the Global Conference. Go to www.PythagorasConferenceGlobal.com today and get your ticket. This event will sell out! Sign up from here and SAVE 100$ off your ticket just click the button save today! pythagorasconference.eventbrite.com
http://wn.com/JAN_PETER_DE_JONG_featured_guest_speaker_at_the_Pythagoras_Conference_Global_2012
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Photo: White House / Pete Souza
24 Oct 2012
Article by WN.com Correspondent Dallas Darling By the time President Richard Nixon told his Chinese hosts during a banquet toast, "Let us start a long march together, not in lockstep, but on different...
Photo: AP / Khin Maung Win
25 Oct 2012
YANGON: A new wave of sectarian violence in western Myanmar has left five people dead and dozens injured in recent days, triggering another exodus of Muslims to emergency camps, officials said...
Photo: AP / Collin Reid
25 Oct 2012
HAVANA (Reuters) - Hurricane Sandy, growing stronger over warm Caribbean waters, lashed eastern Cuba with heavy rains and rising winds on Wednesday as it bore down on the communist island after...
Photo: AP / Ariel Schalit
24 Oct 2012
Repeated attacks ... a rocket is launched from Gaza towards southern Israel. Photo: AFP JERUSALEM: The Israeli Prime Minister, Benjamin Netanyahu, threatened "more extensive and deeper action" against...
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"Pythagoras of Samos" redirects here. For the Samian statuary, see Pythagoras (sculptor).
For other uses, see Pythagoras (disambiguation).
 Bust of Pythagoras of Samos in the Capitoline Museums, Rome |
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| Born | c. 570 BC Samos |
|---|---|
| Died | c. 495 BC (aged around 75) Metapontum |
| Era | Ancient philosophy |
| Region | Western philosophy |
| School | Pythagoreanism |
| Main interests | Metaphysics, Music, Mathematics, Ethics, Politics |
| Notable ideas | Musica universalis, Golden ratio[citation needed], Pythagorean tuning, Pythagorean theorem |
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Influenced by
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Influenced
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Pythagoras of Samos (Ancient Greek: Πυθαγόρας ὁ Σάμιος [Πυθαγόρης in Ionian Greek] Pythagóras ho Sámios "Pythagoras the Samian", or simply Πυθαγόρας; b. about 570 – d. about 495 BC[1][2]) was an Ionian Greek philosopher, mathematician, and founder of the religious movement called Pythagoreanism. Most of the information about Pythagoras was written down centuries after he lived, so very little reliable information is known about him. He was born on the island of Samos, and might have travelled widely in his youth, visiting Egypt and other places seeking knowledge. Around 530 BC, he moved to Croton, a Greek colony in southern Italy, and there set up a religious sect. His followers pursued the religious rites and practices developed by Pythagoras, and studied his philosophical theories. The society took an active role in the politics of Croton, but this eventually led to their downfall. The Pythagorean meeting-places were burned, and Pythagoras was forced to flee the city. He is said to have ended his days in Metapontum.
Pythagoras made influential contributions to philosophy and religious teaching in the late 6th century BC. He is often revered as a great mathematician, mystic and scientist, but he is best known for the Pythagorean theorem which bears his name. However, because legend and obfuscation cloud his work even more than with the other pre-Socratic philosophers, one can give account of his teachings to a little extent, and some have questioned whether he contributed much to mathematics and natural philosophy. Many of the accomplishments credited to Pythagoras may actually have been accomplishments of his colleagues and successors. Whether or not his disciples believed that everything was related to mathematics and that numbers were the ultimate reality is unknown. It was said that he was the first man to call himself a philosopher, or lover of wisdom,[3] and Pythagorean ideas exercised a marked influence on Plato, and through him, all of Western philosophy.
Contents |
Biographical sources[link]
Accurate facts about the life of Pythagoras are so few, and most information concerning him is of so late a date, and so untrustworthy, that it is impossible to provide more than a vague outline of his life. The lack of information by contemporary writers, together with the secrecy which surrounded the Pythagorean brotherhood, meant that invention took the place of facts. The stories which were created were eagerly sought by the Neoplatonist writers who provide most of the details about Pythagoras, but who were uncritical concerning anything which related to the gods or which was considered divine.[4] Thus many myths were created – such as that Apollo was his father; that Pythagoras gleamed with a supernatural brightness; that he had a golden thigh; that Abaris came flying to him on a golden arrow; that he was seen in different places at one and the same time.[5] With the exception of a few remarks by Xenophanes, Heraclitus, Herodotus, Plato, Aristotle, and Isocrates, we are mainly dependent on Diogenes Laërtius, Porphyry, and Iamblichus for the biographical details. Aristotle had written a separate work on the Pythagoreans, which unfortunately has not survived.[6] His disciples Dicaearchus, Aristoxenus, and Heraclides Ponticus had written on the same subject. These writers, late as they are, were among the best sources from whom Porphyry and Iamblichus drew, besides the legendary accounts and their own inventions. Hence historians are often reduced to considering the statements based on their inherent probability, but even then, if all the credible stories concerning Pythagoras were supposed true, his range of activity would be impossibly vast.[7]
Life[link]
Herodotus, Isocrates, and other early writers all agree that Pythagoras was born on Samos, the Greek island in the eastern Aegean, and we also learn that Pythagoras was the son of Mnesarchus.[8] His father was a gem-engraver or a merchant. His name led him to be associated with Pythian Apollo; Aristippus explained his name by saying, "He spoke (agor-) the truth no less than did the Pythian (Pyth-)," and Iamblichus tells the story that the Pythia prophesied that his pregnant mother would give birth to a man supremely beautiful, wise, and beneficial to humankind.[9] A late source gives his mother's name as Pythais.[10] As to the date of his birth, Aristoxenus stated that Pythagoras left Samos in the reign of Polycrates, at the age of 40, which would give a date of birth around 570 BC.[11]
It was natural for the ancient biographers to inquire as to the origins of Pythagoras' remarkable system. In the absence of reliable information, however, a huge range of teachers were assigned to Pythagoras. Some made his training almost entirely Greek, others exclusively Egyptian and Oriental. We find mentioned as his instructors Creophylus,[12] Hermodamas of Samos,[13] Bias,[12] Thales,[12] Anaximander,[14] and Pherecydes of Syros.[15] He is said too, to have been taught by a Delphic priestess named Themistoclea, who introduced him to the principles of ethics.[16][17] The Egyptians are said to have taught him geometry, the Phoenicians arithmetic, the Chaldeans astronomy, the Magians the principles of religion and practical maxims for the conduct of life.[18] Of the various claims regarding his Greek teachers, Pherecydes is mentioned most often.
Diogenes Laertius reported that Pythagoras had undertaken extensive travels, and had visited not only Egypt, but Arabia, Phoenicia, Judaea, Babylon, and even India, for the purpose of collecting all available knowledge, and especially to learn information concerning the secret or mystic cults of the gods.[19] Plutarch asserted in his book On Isis and Osiris that during his visit to Egypt, Pythagoras received instruction from the Egyptian priest Oenuphis of Heliopolis.[20] Other ancient writers asserted his visit to Egypt.[21] Enough of Egypt was known to attract the curiosity of an inquiring Greek, and contact between Samos and other parts of Greece with Egypt is mentioned.[22]
It is not easy to say how much Pythagoras learned from the Egyptian priests, or indeed, whether he learned anything at all from them. There was nothing in the symbolism which the Pythagoreans adopted which showed the distinct traces of Egypt. The secret religious rites of the Pythagoreans exhibited nothing but what might have been adopted in the spirit of Greek religion, by those who knew nothing of Egyptian mysteries. The philosophy and the institutions of Pythagoras might easily have been developed by a Greek mind exposed to the ordinary influences of the age. Even the ancient authorities note the similarities between the religious and ascetic peculiarities of Pythagoras with the Orphic or Cretan mysteries,[23] or the Delphic oracle.[24]
There is little direct evidence as to the kind and amount of knowledge which Pythagoras acquired, or as to his definite philosophical views. Everything of the kind mentioned by Plato and Aristotle is attributed not to Pythagoras, but to the Pythagoreans. Heraclitus stated that he was a man of extensive learning;[25] and Xenophanes claimed that he believed in the transmigration of souls.[26] Xenophanes mentions the story of his interceding on behalf of a dog that was being beaten, professing to recognise in its cries the voice of a departed friend. Pythagoras is supposed to have claimed that he had been Euphorbus, the son of Panthus, in the Trojan war, as well as various other characters, a tradesman, a courtesan, etc.[27] In his book The Life of Apollonius of Tyana, Philostratus wrote that Pythagoras knew not only who he was himself, but also who he had been.[28]
Many mathematical and scientific discoveries were attributed to Pythagoras, including his famous theorem,[29] as well as discoveries in the field of music,[30] astronomy,[31] and medicine.[32] But it was the religious element which made the profoundest impression upon his contemporaries. Thus the people of Croton were supposed to have identified him with the Hyperborean Apollo,[33] and he was said to have practised divination and prophecy.[34] In the visits to various places in Greece – Delos, Sparta, Phlius, Crete, etc. which are ascribed to him, he usually appears either in his religious or priestly guise, or else as a lawgiver.[35]
After his travels, Pythagoras moved (around 530 BC) to Croton, in Italy (Magna Graecia). Possibly the tyranny of Polycrates in Samos made it difficult for him to achieve his schemes there. His later admirers claimed that Pythagoras was so overburdened with public duties in Samos, because of the high estimation in which he was held by his fellow-citizens, that he moved to Croton.[36] On his arrival in Croton, he quickly attained extensive influence, and many people began to follow him. Later biographers tell fantastical stories of the effects of his eloquent speech in leading the people of Croton to abandon their luxurious and corrupt way of life and devote themselves to the purer system which he came to introduce.[37]
His followers established a select brotherhood or club for the purpose of pursuing the religious and ascetic practices developed by their master. The accounts agree that what was done and taught among the members was kept a profound secret. The esoteric teachings may have concerned the secret religious doctrines and usages, which were undoubtedly prominent in the Pythagorean system, and may have been connected with the worship of Apollo.[38] Temperance of all kinds seems to have been strictly urged. There is disagreement among the biographers as to whether Pythagoras forbade all animal food,[39] or only certain types.[40] The club was in practice at once "a philosophical school, a religious brotherhood, and a political association."[41]
Such an aristocratic and exclusive club could easily have made many people in Croton jealous and hostile, and this seems to have led to its destruction. The circumstances, however, are uncertain. Conflict seems to have broken out between the towns of Sybaris and Croton. The forces of Croton were headed by the Pythagorean Milo, and it is likely that the members of the brotherhood took a prominent part. After the decisive victory by Croton, a proposal for establishing a more democratic constitution, was unsuccessfully resisted by the Pythagoreans. Their enemies, headed by Cylon and Ninon, the former of whom is said to have been irritated by his exclusion from the brotherhood, roused the populace against them. An attack was made upon them while assembled either in the house of Milo, or in some other meeting-place. The building was set on fire, and many of the assembled members perished; only the younger and more active escaping.[42] Similar commotions ensued in the other cities of Magna Graecia in which Pythagorean clubs had been formed.
As an active and organised brotherhood the Pythagorean order was everywhere suppressed, and did not again revive. Still the Pythagoreans continued to exist as a sect, the members of which kept up among themselves their religious observances and scientific pursuits, while individuals, as in the case of Archytas, acquired now and then great political influence. Concerning the fate of Pythagoras himself, the accounts varied. Some say that he perished in the temple with his disciples,[43] others that he fled first to Tarentum, and that, being driven from there, he escaped to Metapontum, and there starved himself to death.[44] His tomb was shown at Metapontum in the time of Cicero.[45]
According to some accounts Pythagoras married Theano, a lady of Croton. Their children are variously stated to have included a son, Telauges, and three daughters, Damo, Arignote, and Myia.
Writings[link]
No texts by Pythagoras are known to have survived, although forgeries under his name — a few of which remain extant — did circulate in antiquity. Critical ancient sources like Aristotle and Aristoxenus cast doubt on these writings. Ancient Pythagoreans usually quoted their master's doctrines with the phrase autos ephe ("he himself said") — emphasizing the essentially oral nature of his teaching.
Mathematics[link]
The so-called Pythagoreans, who were the first to take up mathematics, not only advanced this subject, but saturated with it, they fancied that the principles of mathematics were the principles of all things.—Aristotle, Metaphysics 1–5 , cc. 350 BC
Pythagorean theorem[link]
Since the fourth century AD, Pythagoras has commonly been given credit for discovering the Pythagorean theorem, a theorem in geometry that states that in a right-angled triangle the area of the square on the hypotenuse (the side opposite the right angle) is equal to the sum of the areas of the squares of the other two sides—that is, Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): a^2 + b^2 = c^2 .
While the theorem that now bears his name was known and previously utilized by the Babylonians and Indians, he, or his students, are often said to have constructed the first proof. It must, however, be stressed that the way in which the Babylonians handled Pythagorean numbers implies that they knew that the principle was generally applicable, and knew some kind of proof, which has not yet been found in the (still largely unpublished) cuneiform sources.[46] Because of the secretive nature of his school and the custom of its students to attribute everything to their teacher, there is no evidence that Pythagoras himself worked on or proved this theorem. For that matter, there is no evidence that he worked on any mathematical or meta-mathematical problems. Some attribute it as a carefully constructed myth by followers of Plato over two centuries after the death of Pythagoras, mainly to bolster the case for Platonic meta-physics, which resonate well with the ideas they attributed to Pythagoras. This attribution has stuck down the centuries up to modern times.[47] The earliest known mention of Pythagoras's name in connection with the theorem occurred five centuries after his death, in the writings of Cicero and Plutarch.
Musical theories and investigations[link]
See also: Pythagorean tuning and Pythagorean hammers
According to legend, the way Pythagoras discovered that musical notes could be translated into mathematical equations was when one day he passed blacksmiths at work, and thought that the sounds emanating from their anvils being hit were beautiful and harmonious and decided that whatever scientific law caused this to happen must be mathematical and could be applied to music. He went to the blacksmiths to learn how this had happened by looking at their tools, he discovered that it was because the hammers were "simple ratios of each other, one was half the size of the first, another was 2/3 the size, and so on."
This legend has since proven to be false by virtue of the fact that these ratios are only relevant to string length (such as the string of a monochord), and not to hammer weight.[48][49] However, it may be that Pythagoras was indeed responsible for discovering these properties of string length.
Pythagoreans elaborated on a theory of numbers, the exact meaning of which is still debated among scholars. Another belief attributed to Pythagoras was that of the "harmony of the spheres". Thus the planets and stars moved according to mathematical equations, which corresponded to musical notes and thus produced a symphony.[50]
Tetractys[link]
Pythagoras was also credited with devising the tetractys, the triangular figure of four rows, which add up to the perfect number, ten. As a mystical symbol, it was very important to the worship of the Pythagoreans, who would swear oaths by it:
And the inventions were so admirable, and so divinised by those who understood them, that the members used them as forms of oath: "By him who handed to our generation the tetractys, source of the roots of ever-flowing nature."—Iamblichus, Vit. Pyth., 29
Religion and science[link]
Pythagoras’ religious and scientific views were, in his opinion, inseparably interconnected. Religiously, Pythagoras was a believer of metempsychosis. He believed in transmigration, or the reincarnation of the soul again and again into the bodies of humans, animals, or vegetables until it became immortal. His ideas of reincarnation were influenced by ancient Greek religion. Heraclides Ponticus reports the story that Pythagoras claimed that he had lived four lives that he could remember in detail,[51] and, according to Xenophanes, Pythagoras heard the cry of his dead friend in the bark of a dog.[52]
Lore[link]
Pythagoras became the subject of elaborate legends surrounding his historic persona. Aristotle described Pythagoras as a wonder-worker and somewhat of a supernatural figure, attributing to him such aspects as a golden thigh, which was a sign of divinity. According to Muslim tradition, Pythagoras was said to have been initiated by Hermes (Egyptian Thoth).[53] According to Aristotle and others' accounts, some ancients believed that he had the ability to travel through space and time, and to communicate with animals and plants.[54] An extract from Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable's entry entitled "Golden Thigh":
Pythagoras is said to have had a golden thigh, which he showed to Abaris, the Hyperborean priest, and exhibited in the Olympic games.[55]
Another legend describes his writing on the moon:
Pythagoras asserted he could write on the moon. His plan of operation was to write on a looking-glass in blood, and place it opposite the moon, when the inscription would appear photographed or reflected on the moon's disc.[56]
Pythagoreans[link]
See also: Pythagoreanism
Both Plato and Isocrates affirm that, above all else, Pythagoras was famous for leaving behind him a way of life.[57] Both Iamblichus and Porphyry give detailed accounts of the organisation of the school, although the primary interest of both writers is not historical accuracy, but rather to present Pythagoras as a divine figure, sent by the gods to benefit humankind.[58]
Pythagoras set up an organization which was in some ways a school, in some ways a brotherhood (and here it should be noted that sources indicate that as well as men there were many women among the adherents of Pythagoras),[59] and in some ways a monastery. It was based upon the religious teachings of Pythagoras and was very secretive. The adherents were bound by a vow to Pythagoras and each other, for the purpose of pursuing the religious and ascetic observances, and of studying his religious and philosophical theories. The claim that they put all their property into a common stock is perhaps only a later inference from certain Pythagorean maxims and practices.[60]
As to the internal arrangements of the sect, we are informed that what was done and taught among the members was kept a profound secret towards all. Porphyry stated that this silence was "of no ordinary kind." Candidates had to pass through a period of probation, in which their powers of maintaining silence (echemythia) were especially tested, as well as their general temper, disposition, and mental capacity.[61] There were also gradations among the members themselves. It was an old Pythagorean maxim, that every thing was not to be told to every body.[62] Thus the Pythagoreans were divided into an inner circle called the mathematikoi ("learners") and an outer circle called the akousmatikoi ("listeners").[63] Iamblichus describes them in terms of esoterikoi and exoterikoi (or alternatively Pythagoreioi and Pythagoristai),[64] according to the degree of intimacy which they enjoyed with Pythagoras. Porphyry wrote "the mathematikoi learned the more detailed and exactly elaborated version of this knowledge, the akousmatikoi (were) those who had heard only the summary headings of his (Pythagoras's) writings, without the more exact exposition."
There were ascetic practices (many of which had, perhaps, a symbolic meaning) in the way of life of the sect.[65] Some represent Pythagoras as forbidding all animal food, advocating a plant-based diet, and prohibiting consumption of beans. This may have been due to the doctrine of metempsychosis.[66] Other authorities contradict the statement. According to Aristoxenus,[67] he allowed the use of all kinds of animal food except the flesh of oxen used for ploughing, and rams.[68] There is a similar discrepancy as to the prohibition of fish and beans.[69] But temperance of all kinds seems to have been urged. It is also stated that they had common meals, resembling the Spartan system, at which they met in companies of ten.[70]
Considerable importance seems to have been attached to music and gymnastics in the daily exercises of the disciples. Their whole discipline is represented as encouraging a lofty serenity and self-possession, of which, there were various anecdotes in antiquity.[71] Iamblichus (apparently on the authority of Aristoxenus)[72] gives a long description of the daily routine of the members, which suggests many similarities with Sparta. The members of the sect showed a devoted attachment to each other, to the exclusion of those who did not belong to their ranks.[73] There were even stories of secret symbols, by which members of the sect could recognise each other, even if they had never met before.[74]
Influence[link]
Influence on Plato[link]
Pythagoras, or in a broader sense, the Pythagoreans, allegedly exercised an important influence on the work of Plato. According to R. M. Hare, this influence consists of three points: (1) The platonic Republic might be related to the idea of "a tightly organized community of like-minded thinkers", like the one established by Pythagoras in Croton. (2) There is evidence that Plato possibly took from Pythagoras the idea that mathematics and, generally speaking, abstract thinking is a secure basis for philosophical thinking as well as "for substantial theses in science and morals". (3) Plato and Pythagoras shared a "mystical approach to the soul and its place in the material world". It is probable that both were influenced by Orphism.[75]
Aristotle claimed that the philosophy of Plato closely followed the teachings of the Pythagoreans,[76] and Cicero repeats this claim: Platonem ferunt didicisse Pythagorea omnia ("They say Plato learned all things Pythagorean").[77] Bertrand Russell, in his A History of Western Philosophy, contended that the influence of Pythagoras on Plato and others was so great that he should be considered the most influential of all Western philosophers.
Influence on esoteric groups[link]
Pythagoras started a secret society called the Pythagorean brotherhood devoted to the study of mathematics. This had a great effect on future esoteric traditions, such as Rosicrucianism and Freemasonry, both of which were occult groups dedicated to the study of mathematics and both of which claimed to have evolved out of the Pythagorean brotherhood. The mystical and occult qualities of Pythagorean mathematics are discussed in a chapter of Manly P. Hall's The Secret Teachings of All Ages entitled "Pythagorean Mathematics". [78] Pythagorean theory was tremendously influential on later numerology, which was extremely popular throughout the Middle East in the ancient world. The 8th-century Muslim alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan grounded his work in an elaborate numerology greatly influenced by Pythagorean theory.[citation needed] Today, Pythagoras is revered as a prophet by the Ahl al-Tawhid or Druze faith along with his fellow Greek, Plato.
See also[link]
References[link]
- ^ "The dates of his life cannot be fixed exactly, but assuming the approximate correctness of the statement of Aristoxenus (ap. Porph. V.P. 9) that he left Samos to escape the tyranny of Polycrates at the age of forty, we may put his birth round about 570 BC, or a few years earlier. The length of his life was variously estimated in antiquity, but it is agreed that he lived to a fairly ripe old age, and most probably he died at about seventy-five or eighty." William Keith Chambers Guthrie, (1978), A history of Greek philosophy, Volume 1: The earlier Presocratics and the Pythagoreans, page 173. Cambridge University Press
- ^ Biographies
- ^ Cicero, Tusculan Disputations, 5.3.8–9 = Heraclides Ponticus fr. 88 Wehrli, Diogenes Laërtius 1.12, 8.8, Iamblichus VP 58. Burkert attempted to discredit this ancient tradition, but it has been defended by C.J. De Vogel, Pythagoras and Early Pythagoreanism (1966), pp. 97–102, and C. Riedweg, Pythagoras: His Life, Teaching, And Influence (2005), p. 92.
- ^ Iamblichus, Adhort. ad Philos. p. 324, ed. Kiessling.
- ^ Comp. Herodian, iv. 94, etc.
- ^ He alludes to it himself, Met. i. 5. p. 986. 12, ed. Bekker.
- ^
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1867). "article name needed". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. - ^ Herodotus, iv. 95, Isocrates, Busiris, 28–9; Later writers called him a Tyrrhenian or Phliasian, and gave Marmacus, or Demaratus, as the name of his father, Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 1; Porphyry, Vit. Pyth. 1, 2; Justin, xx. 4; Pausanias, ii. 13.
- ^ Riedweg, Christoph (2005). Pythagoras: His Life, Teaching and Influence. Cornell University. pp. 5–6, 59, 73.
- ^ Apollonius of Tyana ap. Porphyry, Vit. Pyth. 2
- ^ Porphyry, Vit. Pyth. 9
- ^ a b c Iamblichus, Vit. Pyth. 9
- ^ Porphyry, Vit. Pyth. 2, Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 2 C. Riedweg, S. Rendall ISBN 0-8014-7452-3 Retrieved 2012-02-08
- ^ Iamblichus, Vit. Pyth. 9; Porphyry, Vit. Pyth. 2
- ^ Aristoxenus and others in Diogenes Laërtius, i. 118, 119; Cicero, de Div. i. 49
- ^ Mary Ellen Waithe, Ancient women philosophers, 600 B.C.–500 A.D., p. 11
- ^ Malone, John C. (30 June 2009). Psychology: Pythagoras to present. MIT Press. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-262-01296-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=e6Qa6cMQj8AC&pg=PA22. Retrieved 25 October 2010.
- ^ Porphyry, Vit. Pyth. 6
- ^ Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 2; Porphyry, Vit. Pyth. 11, 12; Iamblichus, Vit. Pyth. 14, etc.
- ^ Plutarch, On Isis And Osiris, ch. 10.
- ^ Antiphon. ap. Porphyry, Vit. Pyth. 7; Isocrates, Busiris, 28–9; Cicero, de Finibus, v. 27; Strabo, xiv.
- ^ Herodotus, ii. 134, 135, iii. 39.
- ^ Iamblichus, Vit. Pyth. 25; Porphyry, Vit. Pyth. 17; Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 3
- ^ Ariston. ap. Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 8, 21; Porphyry, Vit. Pyth. 41
- ^ Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 6, ix. 1, comp. Herodotus, i. 29, ii. 49, iv. 95
- ^ Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 36, comp. Aristotle, de Anima, i. 3; Herodotus, ii. 123.
- ^ Porphyry, Vit. Pyth. 26; Pausanias, ii. 17; Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 5; Horace, Od. i. 28,1. 10
- ^ Flavius Philostratus, The Life of Apollonius of Tyana , , trad. F. C. Conybeare, Vol. 2, London, 1912, Book VI, p. 39.
- ^ Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 12 ; Plutarch, Non posse suav. vivi sec. Ep. p. 1094
- ^ Porphyry, in Ptol. Harm. p. 213; Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 12
- ^ Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 14 ; Pliny, Hist. Nat. ii. 8
- ^ Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 12, 14, 32
- ^ Porphyry, Vit. Pyth. 20; Iamblichus, Vit. Pyth. 31, 140; Aelian, Varia Historia, ii. 26; Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 36.
- ^ Cicero, de Divin. i. 3, 46; Porphyry, Vit. Pyth. 29.
- ^ Iamblichus, Vit. Pyth. 25; Porphyry, Vit. Pyth. 17; Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 3, 13; Cicero, Tusc. Qu. v. 3
- ^ Iamblichus, Vit. Pyth. 28; Porphyry, Vit. Pyth. 9
- ^ Porphyry, Vit. Pyth. 18; Iamblichus, Vit. Pyth. 37, etc.
- ^ Aelian, Varia Historia, ii. 26; Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 13; Iamblichus, Vit. Pyth. 8, 91, 141
- ^ as Empedocles did afterwards, Aristotle, Rhet. i. 14. § 2; Sextus Empiricus, ix. 127. This was also one of the Orphic precepts, Aristoph. Ran. 1032
- ^ Aristo ap. Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 20; comp. Porphyry, Vit. Pyth. 7; Iamblichus, Vit. Pyth. 85, 108
- ^ Thirlwall, Hist. of Greece, vol. ii. p. 148
- ^ Iamblichus, Vit. Pyth. 255–259; Porphyry, Vit. Pyth. 54–57; Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 39; comp. Plutarch, de Gen. Socr. p. 583
- ^ Arnob. adv. Gentes, i. p. 23
- ^ Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 39, 40; Porphyry, Vit. Pyth. 56; Iamblichus, Vit. Pyth. 249; Plutarch, de Stoic. Rep. 37
- ^ Cicero, de Fin. v. 2
- ^ There are about 100,000 unpublished cuneiform sources in the British Museum alone. Babylonian knowledge of proof of the Pythagorean Theorem is discussed by J. Høyrup, 'The Pythagorean "Rule" and "Theorem" – Mirror of the Relation between Babylonian and Greek Mathematics,' in: J. Renger (red.): Babylon. Focus mesopotamischer Geschichte, Wiege früher Gelehrsamkeit, Mythos in der Moderne (1999).
- ^ From Christoph Riedweg , Pythagoras, His Life, Teaching and Influence, Cornell: Cornell University Press, 2005: "Had Pythagoras and his teachings not been since the early Academy overwritten with Plato’s philosophy, and had this ‘palimpsest’ not in the course of the Roman Empire achieved unchallenged authority among Platonists, it would be scarcely conceivable that scholars from the Middle Ages and modernity down to the present would have found the Presocratic charismatic from Samos so fascinating. In fact, as a rule it was the image of Pythagoras elaborated by Neopythagoreans and Neoplatonists that determined the idea of what was Pythagorean over the centuries."
- ^ Weiss, Piero, and Richard Taruskin, eds. Music in the Western World: A History in Documents. 2nd ed. N.p.: Thomson Schirmer, 1984. 3. Print.
- ^ Christensen, Thomas, ed. The Cambridge history of Western music theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. 143. Print.
- ^ Christoph Riedweg, Pythagoras: His Life, Teaching and Influence, Cornell: Cornell University Press, 2005 .
- ^ Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 3–4
- ^ Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 36
- ^ See Antoine Faivre, in The Eternal Hermes (1995)
- ^ Huffman, Carl. Pythagoras (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
- ^ Brewer, E. Cobham, Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable
- ^ Brewer, E. Cobham, Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable
- ^ Plato, Republic, 600a, Isocrates, Busiris, 28
- ^ John Dillon and Jackson Hershbell, (1991), Iamblichus, On the Pythagorean Way of Life, page 14. Scholars Press.; D. J. O'Meara, (1989), Pythagoras Revived. Mathematics and Philosophy in Late Antiquity, pages 35–40. Clarendon Press.
- ^ Porphyry, Vit. Pyth. 19
- ^ comp. Cicero, de Leg. i. 12, de Off. i. 7; Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 10
- ^ Aristonexus ap. Iamblichus, Vit. Pyth. 94
- ^ Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 15; Aristonexus ap. Iamblichus, Vit. Pyth. 31
- ^ Iamblichus, Vit. Pyth. 80, cf. Aulus Gellius, i. 9
- ^ Iamblichus, Vit. Pyth. 80
- ^ comp. Porphyry, Vit. Pyth. 32; Iamblichus, Vit. Pyth. 96, etc.
- ^ Plutarch, de Esu Carn. pp. 993, 996, 997
- ^ Aristoxenus ap. Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 20
- ^ comp. Porphyry, Vit. Pyth. 7; Iamblichus, Vit. Pyth. 85, 108
- ^ Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 19, 34; Aulus Gellius, iv. 11; Porphyry, Vit. Pyth. 34, de Abst. i. 26; Iamblichus, Vit. Pyth. 98
- ^ Iamblichus, Vit. Pyth. 98; Strabo, vi.
- ^ Athenaeus, xiv. 623; Aelian, Varia Historia, xiv. 18; Iamblichus, Vit. Pyth. 197
- ^ Iamblichus, Vit. Pyth. 96–101
- ^ Aristonexus ap. Iamblichus, Vit. Pyth. 94, 101, etc., 229, etc.; comp. the story of Damon and Phintias; Porphyry, Vit. Pyth. 60; Iamblichus, Vit. Pyth. 233, etc.
- ^ Scholion ad Aristophanes, Nub. 611; Iamblichus, Vit. Pyth. 237, 238
- ^ R.M. Hare, Plato in C.C.W. Taylor, R.M. Hare and Jonathan Barnes, Greek Philosophers, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999 (1982), 103–189, here 117–9.
- ^ Metaphysics, 1.6.1 (987a)
- ^ Tusc. Disput. 1.17.39.
- ^ Hall, Manly The Secrets Teaching of All Ages Tarcher Penguin 2003 pages 191–221.
Sources[link]
Classical secondary sources[link]
Only a few relevant source texts deal with Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans, most are available in different translations. Other texts usually build solely on information in these works.
- Diogenes Laërtius, Vitae philosophorum VIII (Lives of Eminent Philosophers), c. 200 AD, which in turn references the lost work Successions of Philosophers by Alexander Polyhistor —
Life of Pythagoras, translated by Robert Drew Hicks (1925). - Porphyry, Vita Pythagorae (Life of Pythagoras), c. 270 AD — Porphyry, Life of Pythagoras, translated by Kenneth Sylvan Guthrie (1920)
- Iamblichus, De Vita Pythagorica (On the Pythagorean Life), c. 300 AD — Iamblichus, Life of Pythagoras, translated by Kenneth Sylvan Guthrie (1920)
- Apuleius also writes about Pythagoras in Apologia, c. 150 AD, including a story of him being taught by Babylonian disciples of Zoroaster
- Hierocles of Alexandria, Golden Verses of Pythagoras, c. 430 AD
Modern secondary sources[link]
- Burkert, Walter. Lore and Science in Ancient Pythagoreanism. Harvard University Press, June 1, 1972. ISBN 0-674-53918-4
- Burnyeat, M. F. "The Truth about Pythagoras". London Review of Books, 22 February 2007.
- Guthrie, W. K. A History of Greek Philosophy: Earlier Presocratics and the Pythagoreans, Cambridge University Press, 1979. ISBN 0-521-29420-7
- Kingsley, Peter. Ancient Philosophy, Mystery, and Magic: Empedocles and the Pythagorean Tradition. Oxford University Press, 1995.
- Hermann, Arnold. To Think Like God: Pythagoras and Parmenides—the Origins of Philosophy. Parmenides Publishing, 2005. ISBN 978-1-930972-00-1
- O'Meara, Dominic J. Pythagoras Revived. Oxford University Press, 1989. ISBN 0-19-823913-0 (paperback), ISBN 0-19-824485-1 (hardcover)
External links[link]
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Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Pythagoras |
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Pythagoras |
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Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Pythagoras. |
- Pythagoras on In Our Time at the BBC. (listen now)
- Pythagoras entry by Carl Huffman in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
- Pythagoras of Samos, The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews, Scotland
- Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans, Fragments and Commentary, Arthur Fairbanks Hanover Historical Texts Project, Hanover College Department of History
- Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans, Department of Mathematics, Texas A&M University
- Pythagoras and Pythagoreanism, The Catholic Encyclopedia
- Tetraktys
- Golden Verses of Pythagoras
- Pythagoras on Vegetarianism Quotes from primary source historical literature on Pythagoras' view on Vegetarianism, Justice and Kindness
- Homage to Pythagoras
- Occult conception of Pythagoreanism
- Pythagoreanism Web Article
- Wandering Souls: The Doctrine of Transmigration in Pythagorean Philosophy, by Dr. James Luchte
- 45-minute documentary about Pythagoras
- Io and Pi – theatrical play on Pythagoras' life
- The Symbols of Pythagoras at The Sacred Texts online
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Pythagoras |
| Alternative names | Πυθαγόρας (Greek) |
| Short description | Ionian philosopher |
| Date of birth | circa 570 BC |
| Place of birth | Samos |
| Date of death | circa 495 BC |
| Place of death | Metapontum |
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