A metronome is any device that produces regular, metrical ticks (beats, clicks) — settable in beats per minute. These ticks represent a fixed, regular aural pulse; some metronomes also include synchronized visual motion (e.g. pendulum-swing). The metronome dates from the early 19th century, where it was patented by Johann Maelzel in 1815 as a tool for musicians, under the title ''"Instrument/Machine for the Improvement of all Musical Performance, called Metronome"''.

In the 20th century and esp. today the metronome is generally positively regarded in Europe and Western culture. The metronome is used by some musicians for practice in maintaining a consistent tempo with steady regular beats and it can be used by composers, as an approximate way of specifying the tempo.

Yet in stark contrasting with this postivistic view, research on the history of the metronome and its influence on performance practice, reveals criticisms of metronome use, and highlights differences of "performance practice" and cultural perception/values between the current modern European/Western society (which values the metronome), and the same society during previous times (beginning of the 19th century and earlier: classical/romantic/baroque eras etc.).

Accordingly, some musicians consider the metronome to be a highly controversial tool in regard to music, with some rejecting the metronome altogether. Some composers considering metronome-tempo-marks to have only little value, or to hinder creative musical interpretation: Johannes Brahms said: ''"I am of the opinion that metronome marks go for nothing. As far as I know, all composers have, as I, retracted their metronome marks in later years."''

Etymology

The word metronome first appeared in English c.1815 and is Greek in origin:

''metron'' = measure, ''nomos'' = regulating

History

Galileo Galilei first studied and discovered concepts involving the pendulum in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. In 1696, Etienne Loulié first successfully used an adjustable pendulum in the construction of the first mechanical metronome; however, his design did not produce any sound and did not include an escapement with which to keep the pendulum in motion. In order to get the correct pulse with this kind of visual devices, one need to watch the precise moment where the pendulum is exactly vertical, as the left and right positions are constantly changing due to the decreasing amplitude.

The more familiar mechanical musical chronometer was invented by Dietrich Nikolaus Winkel in Amsterdam in 1814. Through questionable practice, Johann Maelzel, incorporating Winkel's ideas added a scale and called it metronome, started manufacturing the metronome under his own name in 1816: "Maelzel's Metronome". The original text of Maelzel's patent in England (1815) can be downloaded.

Ludwig van Beethoven was the first notable composer to indicate specific metronome markings in his music, in 1817.

Usage

Metronomes may be used by musicians when practicing in order to maintain a constant tempo; by adjusting the metronome, facility can be achieved at varying ''tempi''. Even in pieces that do not require a strictly constant tempo (such as in the case of rubato), a metronome "marking" is sometimes given by the composer to give an indication of the general tempo intended, found in the score at the beginning of a piece or movement thereof.

Tempo is almost always measured in beats per minute (BPM); metronomes can be set to variable tempi, usually ranging from 40 to 208 BPM; another marking denoting metronome tempi is M.M., or Mälzel's Metronome.

More specific uses are given below:

Learning consistency of tempo and rhythmic beats

Practicing technique (during drills: setting the metronome progressively to higher speeds; or during performance: exposing slow-downs due to technical difficulties)

Sheetmusic often has metronome-markings, that show the speed at which the work should be played

Click tracks: Musicians can separately play the different parts of a word, according to a synchronized click-track (using headphones); and audio-engineers then mix the tracks together, synchronizing the parts at the clicks.

Backing tracks are often created with electronic synthesisers and inherently adhere to strict beats

Types of metronomes

Mechanical metronomes

One common type of metronome is the mechanical metronome which uses an adjustable weight on the end of an inverted pendulum rod to control the tempo: The weight is slid up the pendulum rod to decrease tempo, or down to increase tempo. (The mechanism is also known as a double-weighted pendulum. There is a second, fixed weight on the other side of the pendulum pivot, hidden in the metronome case.) The pendulum swings back and forth in tempo, while a mechanism inside the metronome produce a clicking sound with each oscillation.

Electronic metronomes

Most modern metronomes are electronic and use a quartz crystal to maintain accuracy, comparable to those used in wristwatches. The simplest electronic metronomes have a dial or buttons to control the tempo; some also produce tuning notes, usually around the range of A440 (440 hertz). Sophisticated metronomes can produce two or more distinct sounds. Tones can differ in pitch, volume, and/or timbre to demarcate downbeats from other beats, as well as compound and complex time signatures. A popular quartz metronome manufacturer is Seiko.

Many electronic musical keyboards have built-in metronome functions.

Software metronomes

Metronomes now exist in software form, either as stand alone applications or often in music sequencing and audio multitrack software packages. In recording studio applications, such as film scoring, a software metronome is often used to generate a click track to synchronize musicians.

Metronome Tracks / Click Tracks

These days with the growing popularity of iPod and other portable mp3 players, musicians now have the option of using mp3 metronome click tracks instead of a regular metronome. Metronome tracks are a lot more flexible in that they can be made by the musician and can use different sounds and samples instead of just the regular metronome beep we have all become accustomed to. It also means musicians no longer have to carry an additional metronome along to lessons or practice sessions. There are a number of free open-source software programs musicians can use to create their own mp3 metronome tracks - Audacity is one example of such a program.

Use of the metronome as an instrument

Perhaps the most famous, and most direct, use of the metronome as an instrument is György Ligeti's 1962 composition, ''Poème Symphonique for 100 metronomes''.

The clicking sounds of mechanical metronomes have been sometimes used to provide a soft rhythm track without using any percussion. Paul McCartney did this twice:Once on "Blackbird" in 1968 & once in 1989 on "Distractions" (''Flowers in the Dirt'') , where McCartney, following the metronome's regular beat, performed the whole rhythm track by hitting various parts of his own body. Also, in Ennio Morricone's theme "Farewell to Cheyenne" (featured on ''Once Upon a Time in the West''), the steady clip-clop beat is provided by the deliberately distorted and slowed-down sound of a mechanical metronome.

Views on the metronome

Positive view of the metronome

In the 20th century the metronome is usually positively viewed by performers, musicologists (who spend considerable time analyzing metronome markings), teachers and conservatories. The common view is reflected in the following quote:

Metronomes are often recommended to students without reservation:

Numerous other quotations in favour of the metronome, can be found in the book Metronome Techniques: Potpourri of quotations.

Metronome, strict rhythm: modern performance practice

The quotations above show the importance of the metronome in the 20th century (''"Most music teachers consider the metronome indispensable, and most professional musicians, in fact, continue to practice with a metronome throughout their careers"'').

A strict rhythmic performance can be seen as a of Modern performance practice, which - though highly prevalent today - stands in stark contrast, with earlier performance practices.

In the early 19th century the metronome was ''not'' used for ticking all through a piece, but only to check the tempo and then set it aside. This is in great contrast with many musicians today:

There are writers who draw parallels between today's modern society which is "ordered by the clock" and the metronomic performance practice of today's musicians.

While this section highlights the modern trends of strict mechanical performance as something widespread in the 20th century and beyond; it is interesting to observe that as early as 1860, there were people who firmly advocated this type of "modern" performance practice:

While some welcomed the metronome in the 19th century, there were also critical voices, as is shown in the next section.

Criticism of metronome use

A metronome only provides a fixed, rigid, relentless pulse; therefore any metronome markings on sheet music cannot accurately communicate the pulse, swing, or groove of music: The pulse is often not regular; e.g. in accelerando, rallentando; or in musical expression as in phrasing (rubato, etc.).

Some argue that a metronomic performance stands in conflict with an expressive culturally-aware performance of music, so that a metronome is in this respect a very limited tool. Even such highly rhythmical musical forms as Samba, if performed in correct cultural style, cannot be captured with the beats of a metronome.

A style of performance that is unfailingly regular rhythmically may be criticized as being "metronomic."

Many notable composers, including Felix Mendelssohn, Richard Wagner, Giuseppe Verdi and Johannes Brahms, have criticised the use of the metronome.

Quotations

Numerous other quotations critical of the metronome can be found at Wikiquote: Metronome.

See also

Rhythm

''Poème Symphonique for 100 metronomes''

Beat

Tempo rubato

References

External links

The Metronomic Performance Practice: A History of Rhythm, Metronomes, and the Mechanization of Musicality; PhD Thesis by Alexander Evan Bonus

Category:Pendulums Category:Rhythm Category:1815

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