Acadia (in the French language Acadie) was a colony of New France, in northeastern North America that included parts of eastern Quebec, the Maritime provinces, and modern-day Maine to the Kennebec River.[1] During much of the 17th and early 18th centuries, Norridgewock on the Kennebec River and Castine at the end of the Penobscot River were the southern-most settlements of Acadia.[2] The actual specification by the French government for the territory refers to lands bordering the Atlantic coast, roughly between the 40th and 46th parallels. Later, the territory was divided into the British colonies which became Canadian provinces and American states. The population of Acadia included descendants of emigrants from France (i.e., Acadians) along with those from the Wabanaki Confederacy. The two communities inter-married, which resulted in a significant portion of the population of Acadia being Métis.
The first capital of Acadia, established in 1605, was Port-Royal. A British force from Virginia attacked and burned the town in 1613 but it was later rebuilt nearby, where it remained the longest serving capital of French Acadia until the British conquest of Acadia in 1710.[3] Over seventy-four years there were six colonial wars, in which New England tried to capture Acadia starting with King William's War in 1689. During these wars, along with some French troops from Quebec, some Acadians, the Wabanaki Confederacy, and French priests continuously raided New England settlements along the border in Maine. While Acadia was officially conquered in 1710 during Queen Anne's War, present-day New Brunswick and much of Maine remained contested territory. Present-day Prince Edward Island and Cape Breton were conceded by Britain to France and renamed Île Saint-Jean and Île Royale. By militarily defeating the Wabanaki Confederacy and the French priests, present-day Maine fell during Father Rale's War. During King George's War, France and New France made significant attempts to regain mainland Nova Scotia. After Father Le Loutre's War, present-day New Brunswick fell to the New Englanders. Finally, during the French and Indian War, both Île Royale and Île Saint-Jean fell to the New Englanders in 1758.
Today, Acadia is used to refer to regions of North America that are historically associated with the lands, descendants, and/or culture of the former French region. It particularly refers to regions of The Maritimes with French roots, language, and culture, primarily in New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, the Magdalen Islands and Prince Edward Island, as well as in Maine.[4] It can also be used to refer to the Acadian diaspora in southern Louisiana, a region also referred to as Acadiana. In the abstract, Acadia refers to the existence of a French culture in any of these regions.
People living in Acadia, and sometimes former residents and their descendants, are called Acadians, also later known as Cajuns after resettlement in Louisiana.
The origin of the designation Acadia is credited to the explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano, who on his 16th century map applied the ancient Greek name "Arcadia" to the entire Atlantic coast north of Virginia (note the inclusion of the 'r' of the original Greek name). "Arcadia" derives from the Arcadia district in Greece which since Classical antiquity had the extended meanings of "refuge" or "idyllic place". The Dictionary of Canadian Biography says: "Arcadia, the name Verrazzano gave to Maryland or Virginia 'on account of the beauty of the trees,' made its first cartographical appearance in the 1548 Gastaldo map and is the only name on that map to survive in Canadian usage. . . . In the 17th century Champlain fixed its present orthography, with the 'r' omitted, and Ganong has shown its gradual progress northwards, in a succession of maps, to its resting place in the Atlantic Provinces."
The history of Acadia was significantly influenced by the warfare that took place on its soil during the 17th and 18th century.[5] Prior to that time period, the Mi’kmaq lived in Acadia for centuries. The French arrived in 1604, and Catholic Mi’kmaq and Acadians were the predominant populations in the colony for the next 150 years.
Early European colonists, who would later become known as Acadians, were French subjects primarily from the Pleumartin to Poitiers in the Vienne département of west-central France. The first French settlement was established by Pierre Dugua Des Monts, Governor of Acadia, under the authority of King Henry IV, on Saint Croix Island in 1604. The following year, the settlement was moved across the Bay of Fundy to Port Royal after a difficult winter on the island and deaths from scurvy. In 1607 the colony received bad news: King Henry had revoked Sieur de Monts' royal fur monopoly, citing that the income was insufficient to justify supplying the colony further. Thus recalled, the last of the Acadians left Port Royal in August 1607. Their allies, the native Mi'kmaq nation, kept careful watch over their possessions, though. When the former Lieutenant Governor, Jean de Biencourt de Poutrincourt et de Saint-Just, returned in 1610, he found Port Royal just as it was left.[6]
Siege of
St. John (1645) - d'Aulnay defeats La Tour in Acadia
A number of years later, Acadia was plunged into what some historians have described as a civil war in Acadia (1640–1645). The war was between Port Royal, where Governor of Acadia Charles de Menou d'Aulnay de Charnisay was stationed, and present-day Saint John, New Brunswick, where Governor of Acadia Charles de Saint-Étienne de la Tour was stationed.[7] In the war, there were four major battles. D'Aulnay ultimately won the war against La Tour.
During the first 80 years the French and Acadians were in Acadia, there were ten significant battles as the English, Scottish, Dutch and French fought for possession of the colony. These battles happened at Port Royal, Saint John,[8] Cap de Sable (present-day Port La Tour, Nova Scotia), Jemseg, Castine and Baleine.
During the next seventy four years, there were six colonial wars that took place in Nova Scotia and Acadia (see the French and Indian Wars as well as Father Rale's War and Father Le Loutre's War). These wars were fought between New England and New France and their respective native allies before the British defeated the French in North America (1763). After the New England Conquest of Acadia in 1710, mainland Nova Scotia was under the control of New England, but both present-day New Brunswick and virtually all of present-day Maine remained contested territory between New England and New France.
The war was fought on two fronts: the southern border of Acadia, which New France defined as the Kennebec River in southern Maine.[9] The other front was in Nova Scotia and involved preventing New Englanders from taking the capital of Acadia, Port Royal (See Queen Anne's War), establishing themselves at Canso (See Father Rale's War) and founding Halifax (see Father Le Loutre's War).
In response to King Phillips War in New England, the native peoples in Acadia joined the Wabanaki Confederacy to form a political and military alliance with New France.[10] The Confederacy remained significant military allies to New France through six wars. Until the final war - the French and Indian War- the Wabanaki Confederacy remained the dominant military force in the region.
Toward the end of the 17th century, Catholic priests became more engaged in temporal affairs than simply religious affairs. To secure New France's claim to Acadia, it established Catholic missions (churches) among the four largest native villages in the region: one on the Kennebec River (Norridgewock); one further north on the Penobscot River (Penobscot), one on the St. John River (Medoctec).[11][12] and one at Shubenacadie (Saint Anne's Mission).[13]
During King William's War, some Acadians, the Wabanaki Confederacy and the French Priests participated in defending Acadia at its border with New England, which New France defined as the Kennebec River in southern Maine.[1] Toward this end, the members of the Wabanaki Confederacy on the Saint John River and other places, joined the New France expedition against present-day Bristol, Maine (the Siege of Pemaquid (1689)), Salmon Falls and present-day Portland, Maine.
In response, the New Englanders retaliated by attacking Port Royal and present-day Guysborough. In 1694, the Wabanaki Confederacy participated in the Raid on Oyster River at present-day Durham, New Hampshire. Two years later, New France, led by Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville, returned and fought a naval battle in the Bay of Fundy before moving on to raid Bristol, Maine again.
In retaliation, the New Englanders, led by Benjamin Church, engaged in a Raid on Chignecto (1696) and the siege of the Capital of Acadia at Fort Nashwaak.
At the end of the war England returned the territory to France in the Treaty of Ryswick and the borders of Acadia remained the same.
During Queen Anne's War, some Acadians, the Wabanaki Confederacy and the French Priests participated again in defending Acadia at its border against New England. They made numerous raids on New England settlements along the border in the Northeast Coast Campaign and the famous Raid on Deerfield. In retaliation, Major Benjamin Church went on his fifth and final expedition to Acadia. He raided present-day Castine, Maine and then continued on by conducting raids against Grand Pre, Pisiquid and Chignecto. A few years later, defeated in the Siege of Pemaquid (1696), Captain March made an unsuccessful siege on the Capital of Acadia, Port Royal (1707). The New Englanders were successful with the Siege of Port Royal (1710), while the Wabanaki Conferacy were successful in the near-by Battle of Bloody Creek in 1711 and continued raids along the Maine frontier.[14]
During Queen Anne's War, the Conquest of Acadia (1710) was confirmed by the Treaty of Utrecht of 1713. Acadia was defined as mainland-Nova Scotia by the French. Present-day New Brunswick and most of Maine remained contested territory, while New England conceded present-day Prince Edward Island and Cape Breton Island, which France quickly renamed Île St Jean and Île Royale (Cape Breton Island) respectively. On the latter island, the French established a fortress at Louisbourg to guard the sea approaches to Quebec.
On June 23, 1713, the French residents of Nova Scotia were given one year to declare allegiance to Britain or leave the region.[citation needed] In the meantime, the French signalled their preparedness for future hostilities by beginning the construction of Fortress Louisbourg on Île Royale, now Cape Breton Island. The British grew increasingly alarmed by the prospect of disloyalty in wartime of the Acadians now under their rule. French missionaries worked to maintain the loyalty of Acadians, and to maintain a hold on the mainland part of Acadia.
Despite the British conquest in 1710, Nova Scotia and Acadia remained primarily occupied by Catholic Acadians and Mi'kmaq.
During the excalation that proceeded Father Rale's War (1722–1725), some Acadians, the Wabanaki Confederacy and the French Priests participated again in defending Acadia at its border against New England. Present-day New Brunswick and most of Maine remained contested territory between New England and Acadia. Mi'kmaq raided the new fort at Canso, Nova Scotia (1720). The Confederacy made numerous raids on New England settlements along the border into New England. Towards the end of January 1722, Governor Shute chose to launch a punitive expedition against Father Rale at Norridgewock.[15] This breach of the border of Acadia drew all of the tribes of the Wabanaki Confederacy into the conflict.
Under potential siege by the Confederacy, in May 1722, Lieutenant Governor John Doucett took 22 Mi'kmaq hostage at Annapolis Royal to prevent the capital from being attacked.[16] In July 1722 the Abenaki and Mi'kmaq created a blockade of Annapolis Royal, with the intent of starving the capital.[17] The natives captured 18 fishing vessels and prisoners from present-day Yarmouth to Canso. They also seized prisoners and vessels from the Bay of Fundy.
As a result of the escalating conflict, Massachusetts Governor Samuel Shute officially declared war on July 22, 1722.[18] The first battle of Father Rale's War happened in the Nova Scotia theatre.[19] In response to the blockade of Annapolis Royal, at the end of July 1722, New England launched a campaign to end the blockade and retrieve over 86 New England prisoners taken by the natives. One of these operations resulted in the Battle at Jeddore.[20] The next was a raid on Canso in 1723.[21] Then in July 1724 when a group of sixty Mikmaq and Maliseets raided Annapolis Royal.[22]
As a result of Father Rale's War, present-day Maine fell to the New Englanders with the defeat of Father Rale at Norridgewock and the subsequent retreat of the native population from the Kennebec and Penobscot rivers.
King George's War began when the war declarations from Europe reached the French fortress at Louisbourg first, on May 3, 1744, and the forces there wasted little time in beginning hostilities. Concerned about their overland supply lines to Quebec, they first raided the British fishing port of Canso on May 23, and then organized an attack on Annapolis Royal, then the capital of Nova Scotia. However, French forces were delayed in departing Louisbourg, and their Mi'kmaq and Maliseet allies decided to attack on their own in early July. Annapolis had received news of the war declaration, and was somewhat prepared when the Indians began besieging Fort Anne. Lacking heavy weapons, the Indians withdrew after a few days. Then, in mid-August, a larger French force arrived before Fort Anne, but was also unable to mount an effective attack or siege against the garrison, which had received supplies and reinforcements from Massachusetts. In 1745, British colonial forces conducted the Siege of Port Toulouse (St. Peter's) and then captured Fortress Louisbourg after a siege of six weeks. France launched a major expedition to recover Acadia in 1746. Beset by storms, disease, and finally the death of its commander, the Duc d'Anville, it returned to France in tatters without reaching its objective. French officer Jean-Baptiste Nicolas Roch de Ramezay also arrived from Quebec and conducted the Battle at Port-la-Joye on Île Saint-Jean and the Battle of Grand Pré.
Despite the British Conquest of Acadia in 1710, Nova Scotia remained primarily occupied by Catholic Acadians and Mi'kmaq. Present-day New Brunswick remained contested territory between New England and Acadia. To prevent the establishment of Protestant settlements in the region, Mi'kmaq raided the early British settlements of present-day Shelburne (1715) and Canso (1720). A generation later, Father Le Loutre's War began when Edward Cornwallis arrived to establish Halifax with 13 transports on June 21, 1749.[23] By unilaterally establishing Halifax the British were violating earlier treaties with the Mi'kmaq (1726), which were signed after Father Rale's War.[24] The British quickly began to build other settlements. To guard against Mi'kmaq, Acadian and French attacks on the new Protestant settlements, British fortifications were erected in Halifax (Citadel Hill) (1749), Dartmouth (1750), Bedford (Fort Sackville) (1751), Lunenburg (1753) and Lawrencetown (1754).[25] There were numerous Mi'kmaq and Acadian raids on these villages such as the Raid on Dartmouth (1751).
Within 18 months of establishing Halifax, the British also took firm control of peninsula Nova Scotia by building fortifications in all the major Acadian communities: present-day Windsor (Fort Edward); Grand Pre (Fort Vieux Logis) and Chignecto (Fort Lawrence). (A British fort already existed at the other major Acadian centre of Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia. Cobequid remained without a fort.)[25] There were numerous Mi'kmaq and Acadian raids on these fortifications such as the Siege of Grand Pre.
Main article:
Great UpheavalIn the years after the British conquest, the Acadians refused to swear unconditional oaths of allegiance to the British crown. During this time period some Acadians participated in militia operations against the British and maintained vital supply lines to Fortress Louisbourg and Fort Beausejour.[26] During the French and Indian War, the British sought to neutralize any military threat Acadians posed and to interrupt the vital supply lines Acadians provided to Louisbourg by deporting them.[27]
During the French and Indian War this process began in 1755, after the British captured Fort Beauséjour and began the expulsion of the Acadians with the Bay of Fundy Campaign. Between six and seven thousand Acadians were expelled from Nova Scotia [28] to the lower British American colonies.[29] Some Acadians eluded capture by fleeing deep into the wilderness or into French-controlled Canada. The Quebec town of L'Acadie (now a sector of Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu) was founded by expelled Acadians.[30] After the Siege of Louisbourg (1758), a second wave of the expulsion began with the St. John River Campaign, Petitcodiac River Campaign, Gulf of St. Lawrence Campaign and the Île Saint-Jean Campaign.
The Acadians and the Wabanaki Confederacy created a significant resistance to the New Englanders throughout the war. They repeatedly raided Canso, Lunenburg, Halifax, Chignecto and into New England.[31]
Any pretense that France might maintain or regain control over the remnants of Acadia came to an end with the fall of Montreal in 1760 and the 1763 Treaty of Paris, which permanently ceded almost all of eastern New France to Britain. After 1764, many exiled Acadians finally settled in Louisiana, which had been transferred by France to Spain at the end of the French and Indian War. The name Acadian was corrupted to Cajun, which was first used as a pejorative term until its later mainstream acceptance. Britain eventually moderated its policies and allowed Acadians to return to Nova Scotia.
Acadia was located in territory disputed between France and Great Britain. England controlled the area from 1654 until 1670 and control was permanently regained by its successor state, the Kingdom of Great Britain, in 1713. Although France controlled the territory in the remaining periods, French monarchs consistently neglected Acadia, failing to contribute much, if at all, to its defence, development, colonization, or administration, leaving the colonists to rely on themselves.[32] The government of New France was located in Quebec, but it had only nominal authority over the Acadians.[33] Landlords owned wide swaths of the land, and while they sometimes collected dues from the settlers, they exercised no other legal powers.[34]
With no strong royal authority, the Acadians implemented village self-rule.[35] Even after Canada had given up its elected spokesmen, the Acadians continued to demand a say in their own government, as late as 1706 petitioning the monarchy to allow them to elect spokesmen each year by a plurality of voices. In a sign of his indifference to the colony, Louis XV agreed to their demand.[34] Male elders of the community settled internal disputes and spoke to the government on behalf of their neighbours, sometimes with the help of the priests.[36]
Most of the immigrants to Acadia were French peasants whose oppression by the noble landholders had left them with a deep suspicion of those in authority. This suspicion was transplanted to those in authority in Acadia as well, be they French or English.[37] Acadians regularly protested the actions of local administrators and clergymen to higher authorities in Quebec and France. If their appeals failed, which they usually did, the Acadians would procrastinate or resort to passive resistance techniques, including subterfuge, to continue defying the authorities.[32] Administrators complained of constant in-fighting among the population, which filed many petty civil suits with colonial magistrates. Most of these were over boundary lines, as the Acadians were very quick to protect their new lands.[38]
After a 1692 visit, Antoine Laumet de La Mothe, sieur de Cadillac, described the Acadian men as "'well-built, of good height, and they would be accepted without difficulty as soldiers in a guards' regiment. [They are] well-proportioned and their hair is usually blond. [They are] robust, and will endure great fatigue; [they] are fine subjects of the king, passionately loving the French of Europe'".[39] Most Acadians were illiterate, and many of the records, including notarial deeds, were destroyed or scattered during the Great Expulsion. For a time, Port Royal did have schools, but these were closed when the British excluded Roman Catholic religious orders from operating in Acadia.[39] While Acadia was under French rule, all settlers were required to be baptised in the Roman Catholic faith.[40] Despite their nominal faith, Acadians often worked on Sundays and religious holidays.[39]
Before 1654, trading companies and patent holders concerned with fishing recruited men in France to come to Acadia to work at the commercial outposts.[41] The original Acadian population was a small number of indentured servants and soldiers brought by the fur-trading companies. Gradually, fishermen began settling in the area as well, rather than return to France with the seasonal fishing fleet.[32] The majority of the recruiting took place at La Rochelle. Between 1653 and 1654, 104 men were recruited at La Rochelle. Of these, 31% were builders, 15% were soldiers and sailors, 8% were food preparers, 6.7% were farm workers, and an additional 6.7% worked in the clothing trades.[41] Fifty-five percent of Acadia's first families came from the Centre-Ouest region of France, primarily from Poitou, Aunis, Angoumois, and Saintonge. Over 85% of these (47% of the total), were former residents of the La Chaussée area of Poitou.[38] Many of the families who arrived in 1632 with Razilly shared some blood ties; those not related by blood shared cultural ties with the others.[38] The number of original immigrants was very small, and only about 100 surnames existed within the Acadian community.[32]
Some of the earliest settlers married women of the local Mi'kmaq tribe who had converted to Roman Catholicism.[32] A Parisian lawyer, Marc Lescarbot, who spent several months in Acadia in 1606, described the Micmac as having "courage, fidelity, generosity, and humanity, and their hospitality is so innate and praiseworthy that they receive among them every man who is not an enemy. They are not simpletons. ... So that if we commonly call them Savages, the word is abusive and unmerited."[42]
Most of the immigrants to Acadia were peasants in Europe, making them social equals in the New World. The colony had limited economic support or cultural contacts with France, leaving a "social vacuum" that allowed "individual talents and industry ... [to supplant] inherited social position as the measure of a man's worth."[43] Acadians lived as social equals, with the elderly and priests considered slightly superior.[34] Unlike the French colonists in Canada and the early English colonies in Plymouth and Jamestown, Acadians maintained an extended kinship system,[43] and the large extended families assisted in building homes and barns, as well as cultivating and harvesting crops.[44] They also relied on interfamily cooperation to accomplish community goals, such as building dikes or reclaiming tidal marshes.[45]
Marriages were generally not love matches but were arranged for economic or social reasons. Parental consent was required for anyone under 25 who wished to marry, and both the mother's and father's consent was recorded in the marriage deed.[46] Divorce was not permitted in New France, and annulments were almost impossible to get. Legal separation was offered as an option but was seldom used.[47]
The Acadians were suspicious of outsiders and did not readily cooperate with census takers. The first reliable population figures for the area came with the census of 1671, which noted fewer than 450 people. By 1714, the Acadian population had expanded to 2,528 individuals, mostly from natural increase rather than immigration.[32] Most Acadian women in the 18th century gave birth to living children an average of eleven times. Although these numbers are identical to those in Canada, 75% of Acadian children reached adulthood, many more than in other parts of New France. The isolation of the Acadian communities meant the people were not exposed to many of the imported epidemics, allowing the children to remain healthier.[48]
In the 18th century, some Acadians migrated to nearby Île Saint-Jean (now Prince Edward Island) to take advantage of the fertile cropland. In 1732, the island had 347 settlers but with 25 years its population had expanded to 5000 Europeans.[49]
Most Acadian households were self-sufficient,[50] with families engaged in subsistence farming supplemented by means of fishing and hunting.[51] In the early days of the colony, Acadia was an "economic backwater", with few trade goods and little money to attract merchants. Acadia was not near the sea lanes which brought ships to Quebec and Boston, and transportation within the peninsula was difficult.[50] Farms tended to remain small plots of land worked by individual families rather than slave labor.[52] Farmers grew wheat, peas, cabbage, turnips, and apples, and raised maize as a secondary crop. Barley, oats, and potatoes were also planted as feed for the livestock, including cattle, pigs, and poultry. These animals provided a steady supply of meat to the Acadians, which they supplemented with fish.[47]
After 1630, the Acadians began to build dikes and drain the sea marsh above Port Royal. The high salinity of the reclaimed coastal marshland meant that the land would need to sit for three years after it was drained before it could be cultivated.[44] The land reclamation techniques that were used closely resembled the enclosures near La Rochelle that helped make solar salt.[32]
As time progressed, the Acadian agriculture improved, and Acadians traded with the British colonies in New England to gain ironware, fine cloth, rum, and salt. During the French administration of Acadia, this trade was illegal, but it did not stop some English traders from establishing small stores in Port Royal.[39] Under English rule, the Acadians often smuggled their excess food to Boston merchants at Baie Verte and to the French at Louisbourg on Cape Breton Island.[53]
Many adult sons who did not inherit land from their parents settled on adjacent vacant lands to remain close to their families.[54] As the best land was taken, some moved further north of Port Royal, into the Upper Bay of Fundy settlements, including Mines, Pisiquid, and Beaubassin. Many of the pioneers into that area persuaded some of their relatives to accompany them, and most of the frontier settlements contained only five to ten interrelated family units.[55]
- ^ a b William Williamson. The history of the state of Maine. Vol. 2. 1832. p. 27
- ^ Griffiths, E. From Migrant to Acadian. McGill-Queen's University Press. 2005. p.61; John Ried. International Region of the Northeast. In Buckner, Campbell, and Frank (eds). The Acadiensis Reader: Volume One: Atlantic Canada Before Confederation. 1998. p. 40
- ^ For the 144 years prior to the founding of Halifax (1749), Port Royal/ Annapolis Royal was the capital of Acadia 112 of those years (78% of the time). The other locations that served as the Capital of Acadia are: LaHave, Nova Scotia (1632-1636 ); present day Castine, Maine (1670-1674); Beaubassin (1678-1684); Jemseg, New Brunswick(1690-1691); present day Fredericton, New Brunswick (1691-1694), and present day Saint John, New Brunswick (1695-1699). (See Brenda Dunn. Port Royal/ Annapolis Royal. 2004. Nimbus Publishing)
- ^ Beaujot (1998), p. 79.
- ^ John G. Reid. An International Region of the Northeast: Rise and Decline, 1635-1762. In Buckner, Campbell and Frank (eds) The Acadiensis Reader: Volume 1. Third Edtion. 1998. p. 31
- ^ Faragher, John Mack (2005). A Great and Noble Scheme. W.W. Norton & Co., New York. pp. 17–19. ISBN 0-393-05135-8
- ^ M. A. MacDonald, Fortune & La Tour: The civil war in Acadia, Toronto: Methuen. 1983
- ^ Until 1784, New Brunswick was considered part of Nova Scotia.
- ^ William Williamson 1832. p. 27
- ^ http://www.wabanaki.com/Harald_Prins.htm
- ^ "Meductic Indian Village / Fort Meductic National Historic Site of Canada". Parks Canada. http://www.historicplaces.ca/en/rep-reg/place-lieu.aspx?id=14831. Retrieved December 20, 2011.
- ^ John Grenier, The Far Reaches of Empire. University of Oklahoma Press, 2008, p. 51, p. 54.
- ^ http://www.northeastarch.com/sainte_anne.html
- ^ Drake. The Border Wars of New England. pp. 264-266
- ^ http://www.biographi.ca/009004-119.01-e.php?BioId=35180
- ^ Grenier, p. 56
- ^ Beamish Murdoch. History of Nova Scotia or Acadia, p. 399
- ^ A history of Nova-Scotia, or Acadie, Volume 1, by Beamish Murdoch, p. 398
- ^ The Nova Scotia theatre of the Dummer War is named the "Mi'kmaq-Maliseet War" by John Grenier. The Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia 1710-1760. University of Oklahoma Press. 2008.
- ^ Beamish Murdoch. A history of Nova-Scotia, or Acadie, Volume 1, p. 399; Geoffery Plank, An Unsettled Conquest, p. 78
- ^ Benjamin Church, p. 289; John Grenier, p. 62
- ^ Faragher, John Mack, A Great and Noble Scheme New York; W. W. Norton & Company, 2005. pp. 164-165; Brenda Dunn, p. 123
- ^ The framework Father Le Loutre's War is developed by John Grenier in his books The Far Reaches of Empire. War in Nova Scotia, 1710-1760. (University of Oklahoma Press, 2008) and The first way of war: American war making on the frontier, 1607-1814 (Cambridge University Press, 2005). He outlines his rational for naming these conflicts as Father Le Loutre's War; Thomas Beamish Akins. History of Halifax, Brookhouse Press. 1895. (2002 edition). p 7
- ^ Wicken, p. 181; Griffith, p. 390; Also see http://www.northeastarch.com/vieux_logis.html
- ^ a b John Grenier. The Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia, 1710-1760. Oklahoma University Press.
- ^ John Grenier, Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia 1710-1760. Oklahoma University Press. 2008
- ^ Stephen E. Patterson. "Indian-White Relations in Nova Scotia, 1749-61: A Study in Political Interaction." Buckner, P, Campbell, G. and Frank, D. (eds). The Acadiensis Reader Vol 1: Atlantic Canada Before Confederation. 1998. pp.105-106.; Also see Stephen Patterson, Colonial Wars and Aboriginal Peoples, p. 144.
- ^ Mouhot, Jean-Francois (2009) Les Réfugiés Acadiens en France (1758-1785): L'Impossible réintégration?, Editions du Septentrion, Québec, 456p. ISBN 2-89448-513-1
- ^ Lacoursière, Jacques (1995). Histoire populaire du Québec, Tome 1, des origines à 1791. Éditions du Septentrion, Québec. p. 270. ISBN 2-89448-050-4; see also John Mack Faragher (2005). A Great and Noble Scheme: The Tragic Story of the Expulsion of the French Acadians from their American Homeland, New York: W.W. Norton, 562 pages ISBN 0-393-05135-8 (online excerpt).
- ^ Ville de Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu history
- ^ John Grenier. War in Nova Scotia. 2008.
- ^ a b c d e f g Moogk (2000), p. 7.
- ^ Moogk (2000), p. 9.
- ^ a b c Moogk (2000), p. 175.
- ^ Moogk (2000), p. 176.
- ^ Moogk (2000), p. 73.
- ^ Moogk (2000), p. 4.
- ^ a b c Brasseaux (1987), p. 8.
- ^ a b c d Moogk (2000), p. 174.
- ^ Moogk (2000), p. 62.
- ^ a b Moogk (2000), p. 92.
- ^ Moogk (2000), p. 18.
- ^ a b Brasseaux (1987), p. 3.
- ^ a b Brasseaux (1987), p. 11.
- ^ Moogk (2000), p. 270.
- ^ Moogk (2000), p. 180.
- ^ a b Moogk (2000), p. 229.
- ^ Moogk (2000), p. 219.
- ^ Moogk (2000), p. 6.
- ^ a b Brasseaux (1987), p. 10.
- ^ Brasseaux (1987), p. 9.
- ^ Moogk (2000), p. 12.
- ^ Brasseaux (1987), p. 16.
- ^ Moogk (2000), p. 178.
- ^ Brasseaux (1987), p. 12.
- Bibliography
- Beaujot, Roderic (1998), "Demographic Considerations in Canadian Language Policy", in Ricento, Thomas; Burnaby, Barbara, Language and Politics in the United States and Canada: Myths and Realities, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, ISBN 0-8058-2838-9, http://books.google.ca/books?id=t9IM2_Nn-NMC&lpg=PP1&dq=Language%20and%20Politics%20in%20the%20United%20States%20and%20Canada%3A%20Myths%20and%20Realities&pg=PA71#v=onepage&q&f=true
- Brasseaux, Carl A. (1987), The Founding of New Acadia: The Beginnings of Acadian Life in Louisiana, 1765–1803, Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, ISBN 0-8071-1296-8, http://books.google.ca/books?id=R3xaRPSluLsC&lpg=PP1&dq=he%20Founding%20of%20New%20Acadia%3A%20The%20Beginnings%20of%20Acadian%20Life%20in%20Louisiana%2C%201765%E2%80%931803&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true
- Moogk, Peter (2000), La Nouvelle France: The Making of French Canada—A Cultural History, East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press, ISBN 0-87013-528-7
- Clark, Andrew Hill (1968), Acadia: The Geography of Early Nova Scotia to 1760, University of Wisconsin Press, ISBN 0-299-05080-7
- Magord, André, The Quest for Autonomy in Acadia (Bruxelles etc., Peter Lang, 2008) (Études Canadiennes - Canadian Studies, 18).
- Plank, (2001), An Unsettled Conquest: The British Campaign against the Peoples of Acadia, University of Pennsylvania Press ISBN 0-8122-1869-8
- Dean Jobb, ( 2005) The Acadians: A People's Story of Exile and Triumph. John Wiley & Sons, (published in the United States as The Cajuns: A People's Story of Exile and Triumph)
- Philip Henry Smith (1884) Acadia: A lost chapter in American history Oxford University
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