Branches of Mathematics

Pure mathematics

• Algebra
• Calculus
• Geometry
• Topology
• Trignometry
• Combinatorics
• Logic
• Number theory

Applied mathematics

• Dynamical systems and differential equations
• Mathematical physics
• Computing
• Information theory and signal processing
• Probability and statistics
• Game theory
• Operations research

Related Topics

• Electromagnetic Spectrum
• Linear Equations
• Applied Physics
• Nano Technology
• Engineering Sciences
• Mathematical Medicine
• Fluid dynamics
• Computational Mathematics
• Gamma Ray Optics
• Onfrared Optics
• Relative Velocity
• Iciam
• Intelligent Imaging Neuroscience
• Biomedical Engineering
• Neuroscience Research
• Quantum Cosmology
• Brain Research

• Abba P. Lerner
• Adam Posen
• Agricultural subsidy
• Alan Blinder
• Alan Greenspan
• Albany, New York
• Albany, NY
• Allen Lane
• Alvin Hansen
• Alwyn Young
• American liberalism
• Amy Finkelstein
• Amy Goodman
• Andrei Shleifer
• Anthony Venables
• Arthur Melvin Okun
• Austrian School
• Authority control
• Avinash Dixit
• Bachelor of Arts
• Barry Goldwater
• Ben Bernanke
• Bill Clinton
• Bloggingheads.tv
• Brad DeLong
• Brest, Belarus
• British people
• Brown University
• C-SPAN
• Capital investment
• Carnation Revolution
• Central bank
• CES utility
• Ceteris paribus
• Christopher A. Sims
• Clive Granger
• Columnist
• Commercial bank
• Currency controls
• Currency crisis
• Dale T. Mortensen
• Dale W. Jorgenson
• Daniel Kahneman
• Daniel McFadden
• Daniel Okrent
• Daron Acemoğlu
• David Cameron
• David Card
• David Frum
• David M. Kreps
• David Ricardo
• David Romer
• Decouple
• Democracy Now!
• Derivative (finance)
• Diversity (business)
• Doctor honoris causa
• Doctor of Philosophy
• Don Patinkin
• Donald L. Kohn
• Donald Luskin
• Dot com boom
• East Asia
• East coast liberal
• Economic geography
• Economic growth
• Economic stimulus
• Economies of scale
• Economist
• Economy of scale
• Editor and Publisher
• Edmund Phelps
• Edward C. Prescott
• Edward Prescott
• Elinor Ostrom
• Elsevier Science
• Emmanuel Saez
• Enron
• Enron scandal
• Eric Maskin
• Esther Duflo
• Ethanol fuel
• Evan Thomas
• Evsey Domar
• Finn E. Kydland
• Fixed exchange rate
• Forbes
• Foreign Affairs
• Fortune (magazine)
• Four Asian Tigers
• Franco Modigliani
• Franklin M. Fisher
• Free trade
• Free Trade
• Freshwater economics
• G. L. S. Shackle
• Gary Becker
• Gauti Eggertsson
• General equilibrium
• Geoff Harcourt
• George Akerlof
• George W. Bush
• Get Him to the Greek
• Glenn Loury
• Globalization
• Gordon Brown
• Great Depression
• Greg Palast
• Group of Thirty
• Harper's Magazine
• Haverford College
• Hecksher-Ohlin
• Home market effect
• Houston, Texas
• Howard Kurtz
• Hyman Minsky
• Income distribution
• Income inequality
• Industrial policy
• Inflation targeting
• Insurance
• International trade
• Investment bank
• Iraq war
• Irving Fisher
• IS-LM
• Isaac Asimov
• J. Peter Neary
• James Duesenberry
• James Heckman
• James Meade
• James Tobin
• Jan Kregel
• Japan
• Japanese economy
• Jay Parini
• Jerry A. Hausman
• Jewish
• Joan Robinson
• John B. Taylor
• John Hicks
• John Maynard Keynes
• John Quiggin
• Jordi Galí
• Joseph Stiglitz
• Julio Rotemberg
• Kenneth Arrow
• Kenneth E. Boulding
• Kenneth Rogoff
• Kevin M. Murphy
• Keynes
• Keynesian economics
• Labor force
• Larry Lindsey
• Late 2000s recession
• Late-2000s recession
• Lawrence Klein
• Lawrence Lau
• Lawrence Summers
• Left-wing politics
• Leonid Hurwicz
• Liquidity trap
• List of economists
• Living wage
• Lloyd Metzler
• Lost Decade (Japan)
• Macroeconomics
• Marc Lavoie
• Marc Melitz
• Marc Nerlove
• Mario Cuomo
• Martin Feldstein
• Martin Wolf
• Marxist
• Masahisa Fujita
• Matthew Rabin
• Maurice Obstfeld
• Michael Kazin
• Michael Moore
• Michael Spence
• Michael Tomasky
• Michał Kalecki
• Milton Friedman
• Missionary
• MIT
• Monetarism
• Myron J. Gordon
• Myth
• N. Gregory Mankiw
• Naomi Klein
• National Review
• Natural selection
• New Deal
• New Economy
• New Keynesian
• New Keynesianism
• New Statesman
• New Trade Theory
• New York Magazine
• New York Times
• Newsweek
• Nicholas Confessore
• Nicholas Kaldor
• Nihon Keizai Shinbun
• NobelPrize.org
• Nobuhiro Kiyotaki
• Nouriel Roubini
• Obama administration
• Obama stimulus plan
• Oliver E. Williamson
• Olivier Blanchard
• Ombudsman
• Op-ed
• Paradox of toil
• Paul Krugman
• Paul Samuelson
• Peddling Prosperity
• Peter A. Diamond
• Phil Gramm
• Post-Keynesian
• Prime Minister
• Princeton University
• Productivity
• Protectionism
• Public policy
• Pulitzer prize
• Ralph Nader
• Randi Rhodes
• Rent control
• Rent-seeking
• Richard Koo
• Richard Posner
• Right-wing politics
• Robert Aumann
• Robert Barro
• Robert Eisner
• Robert F. Engle
• Robert J. Gordon
• Robert J. Shiller
• Robert Mundell
• Robert Skidelsky
• Robert Solow
• Robert Vishny
• Robert Zoellick
• Robin Wells Krugman
• Roger Myerson
• Rolling Stone
• Ronald Reagan
• Roy Harrod
• Rudy Giuliani
• Rush Limbaugh
• Salon.com
• Saltwater economist
• Sanford J. Grossman
• Sidney Weintraub
• Singapore
• Slate (magazine)
• Social democracy
• Southern Strategy
• Speculative attack
• Speculative attacks
• Stanford University
• Stanley Fischer
• Stephen Salant
• Steve Keen
• Steven Levitt
• Subprime crisis
• Susan Athey
• Sweatshop
• Template Keynesians
• Textbook
• The Atlantic
• The Daily Telegraph
• The Economist
• The Financial Times
• The Great Unraveling
• The Guardian
• The New York Times
• The New Yorker
• The Politico
• Thomas J. Sargent
• Thomas Schelling
• Trygve Haavelmo
• UC Berkeley
• United States
• US Republican Party
• USDA
• Vendor lock-in
• Vernon L. Smith
• Victoria Chick
• Volvo
• Washington Monthly
• Welfare queen
• Welfare state
• White House
• Wikipedia Link rot
• Wikipedia Persondata
• William Baumol
• WorldCat
• Yale University
• Z Magazine
• Zvi Griliches
• 
  

• 
  Brown University
  Brown University is a private, Ivy League university located in Providence, Rhode Island, United States. Founded in 1764 prior to American independence from the British Empire as the College in the English Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations early in the reign of King George III (1760–1820), Brown is the third oldest institution of higher education in New England and seventh oldest in the United States.
  Brown was the first college in the nation to accept students regardless of religious affiliation. Academically, Brown consists of The College, Graduate School, Alpert Medical School, and the School of Engineering. Brown's international programs are organized through the Watson Institute for International Studies. The New Curriculum, instituted in 1969, eliminated distribution requirements and allows any course to be taken on a satisfactory/no credit basis. In addition, there are no pluses or minuses in the letter grading system. The school has the oldest undergraduate engineering program in the Ivy League (1847). Pembroke College, Brown's women's college, merged with the university in 1971. While Brown is considered a small research university with 689 full-time faculty and 2,000 graduate students, five of its professors and two of its alumni have been honored as Nobel Laureates. The faculty added 100 new professors in the past 10 years under the Boldly Brown campaign.
  
  wn.com/Brown_University
• 
  Houston, Texas
  Houston ( /ˈhjuːstən/) (Alibamu: Yosti ) is the largest city in the state of Texas, and the fourth-largest city in the United States. According to the 2010 U.S. Census, the city had a population of 2.1 million people within an area of 656.3 square miles (1,700 km²). Houston is the seat of Harris County and the economic center of Houston–Sugar Land–Baytown, which is the fifth-largest metropolitan area in the United States, with 6.08 million people as of July 1st, 2011.
  Houston was founded in 1836 on land near the banks of Buffalo Bayou. It was incorporated as a city on June 5, 1837, and named after then-President of the Republic of Texas—former General Sam Houston—who had commanded at the Battle of San Jacinto, which took place 25 miles (40 km) east of where the city was established. The burgeoning port and railroad industry, combined with oil discovery in 1901, has induced continual surges in the city's population. In the mid-twentieth century, Houston became the home of the Texas Medical Center—the world's largest concentration of healthcare and research institutions—and NASA's Johnson Space Center, where the Mission Control Center is located.
  
  wn.com/Houston,_Texas
• 
  Japan
  Japan ⁱ/dʒəˈpæn/ (Japanese: 日本 Nihon or Nippon; formally 日本国  Nippon-koku or Nihon-koku, literally the State of Japan) is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south. The characters that make up Japan's name mean "sun-origin", which is why Japan is sometimes referred to as the "Land of the Rising Sun".
  Japan is an archipelago of 6,852 islands. The four largest islands are Honshū, Hokkaidō, Kyūshū and Shikoku, together accounting for ninety-seven percent of Japan's land area. Japan has the world's tenth-largest population, with over 127 million people. The Greater Tokyo Area, which includes the de facto capital city of Tokyo and several surrounding prefectures, is the largest metropolitan area in the world, with over 30 million residents.
  Archaeological research indicates that people lived in Japan as early as the Upper Paleolithic period. The first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other nations followed by long periods of isolation has characterized Japan's history. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, victory in the First Sino-Japanese War, the Russo-Japanese War and World War I allowed Japan to expand its empire during a period of increasing militarism. The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Since adopting its revised constitution in 1947, Japan has maintained a unitary constitutional monarchy with an emperor and an elected parliament called the Diet.
  
  wn.com/Japan
• 
  MIT
  Massachusetts Institute of Technology, also known as MIT, is a private research university located in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States. MIT has five schools and one college, containing a total of 32 academic departments, with a strong emphasis on scientific and technological education and research.
  Founded in 1861 in response to the increasing industrialization of the United States, the institute adopted the European polytechnic university model and emphasized laboratory instruction from an early date. MIT's early emphasis on applied technology at the undergraduate and graduate levels led to close cooperation with industry. Curricular reforms under Karl Compton and Vannevar Bush in the 1930s re-emphasized basic scientific research. MIT was elected to the Association of American Universities in 1934. Researchers were involved in efforts to develop computers, radar, and inertial guidance in connection with defense research during World War II and the Cold War. Post-war defense research contributed to the rapid expansion of the faculty and campus under James Killian.
  
  wn.com/MIT
• New Statesman
  New Statesman is a British left-wingpolitical and cultural magazine published weekly in London. Founded in 1913, and connected with leading members of the socialist Fabian Society, the magazine reached a circulation peak in the late 1960s.
  The longest serving editor was Kingsley Martin (1930–60). The current editor is Jason Cowley, who assumed the post at the end of September 2008. In the 29 May 2006 issue, then-editor John Kampfner stated that the New Statesman remained "true to its heritage of radical politics". The magazine is committed to "development, human rights and the environment, global issues the mainstream press often ignores".
  Historically, the magazine was sometimes affectionately referred to as "The Staggers" because of crises in funding, ownership and circulation. The nickname is now used as the title of its rolling politics blog. Its current writers and columnists include Mehdi Hasan, Will Self, David Blanchflower, John Gray and Richard Mabey. The New Statesman had a certified average circulation of 23,909 in 2011, 17,471 of which were paid copies. Traffic to the magazine's relaunched website recently reached a record high. In the first quarter of 2012, monthly unique visitors to newstatesman.com exceeded 800,000, an increase of 231 per cent since the fourth quarter of 2009, when the site was previously relaunched.
  
  wn.com/New_Statesman
• 
  Princeton University
  Princeton University is a private research university located in Princeton, New Jersey, United States.
  It is one of the eight universities of the Ivy League, and one of the nine Colonial Colleges founded before the American Revolution. Princeton provides undergraduate and graduate instruction in the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences and engineering. Princeton does not have schools of medicine, law, divinity, or business, but it does offer professional degrees through the Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs, the Princeton University School of Engineering and Applied Science and the School of Architecture.
  Founded in 1746 in Elizabeth, New Jersey, as the College of New Jersey, the university moved to Newark in 1747, then to Princeton in 1756 and was renamed Princeton University in 1896. The present-day College of New Jersey in nearby Ewing, New Jersey, is an unrelated institution. Princeton was the fourth chartered institution of higher education in the American colonies. Princeton had close ties to the Presbyterian Church, but has never been affiliated with any denomination and today imposes no religious requirements on its students.
  
  wn.com/Princeton_University
• 
  Singapore
  Singapore (ⁱ/ˈsɪŋəpɔər/ SI-ngə-pohr), officially the Republic of Singapore, is a Southeast Asian city-state off the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, 137 kilometres (85 mi) north of the equator. An island country made up of 63 islands, it is separated from Malaysia by the Straits of Johor to its north and from Indonesia's Riau Islands by the Singapore Strait to its south. Singapore is highly urbanised but almost half of the country is covered by greenery. More land is being created for development through land reclamation.
  
  wn.com/Singapore
• 
  Stanford University
  Coordinates: 37°26′N 122°10′W / 37.43°N 122.17°W / 37.43; -122.17
  The Leland Stanford Junior University, commonly referred to as Stanford University or Stanford, is an American private research university located in Stanford, California on an 8,180-acre (3,310 ha) campus near Palo Alto, California, United States. It is situated in the northwestern Silicon Valley, approximately 20 miles (32 km) northwest of San Jose and 37 miles (60 km) southeast of San Francisco.
  Leland Stanford, a Californian railroad tycoon and politician, and his wife Jane Lathrop Stanford founded the university in 1891 in honor of their son, Leland Stanford, Jr., who died of typhoid two months before his 16th birthday. The university was established as a coeducational and nondenominational institution, but struggled financially after the senior Stanford's 1893 death and after much of the campus was damaged by the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. Following World War II, Provost Frederick Terman supported faculty and graduates' entrepreneurialism to build self-sufficient local industry in what would become known as Silicon Valley. By 1970, Stanford was home to a linear accelerator, was one of the original four ARPANET nodes, and had transformed itself into a major research university in computer science, mathematics, natural sciences, and social sciences.
  
  wn.com/Stanford_University
• 
  UC Berkeley
  The University of California, Berkeley (also referred to as UC Berkeley, Berkeley, California, or simply Cal) is a public research university located in Berkeley, California, United States. The university occupies 1,232 acres (499 ha) on the eastern side of the San Francisco Bay with the central campus resting on 178 acres (72 ha). Berkeley offers approximately 350 undergraduate and graduate degree programs in a wide range of disciplines. Established in 1868 as the result of merger of the private College of California and the public Agricultural, Mining, and Mechanical Arts College in Oakland, Berkeley is the oldest of the ten major campuses affiliated with the University of California (UC). Berkeley has been charged with providing both "classical" and "practical" education for the state's people and is generally considered to be the flagship institution in the University of California system. Berkeley co-manages three United States Department of Energy National Laboratories, including the Los Alamos National Laboratory, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory for the U.S. Department of Energy.
  
  wn.com/UC_Berkeley
• 
  United States
  The United States of America (commonly abbreviated to the United States, the U.S., the USA, America, and the States) is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district. The country is situated mostly in central North America, where its forty-eight contiguous states and Washington, D.C., the capital district, lie between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, bordered by Canada to the north and Mexico to the south. The state of Alaska is in the northwest of the continent, with Canada to the east and Russia to the west, across the Bering Strait. The state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific. The country also possesses several territories in the Pacific and Caribbean.
  At 3.79 million square miles (9.83 million km²) and with over 312 million people, the United States is the third or fourth largest country by total area, and the third largest by both land area and population. It is one of the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many countries. The U.S. economy is the world's largest national economy, with an estimated 2011 GDP of $15.1 trillion (22% of nominal global GDP and over 19% of global GDP at purchasing-power parity). Per capita income is the world's sixth-highest.
  
  wn.com/United_States
• 
  USDA
  The United States Department of Agriculture (informally the Agriculture Department or USDA) is the United States federal executive department responsible for developing and executing U.S. federal government policy on farming, agriculture, and food. It aims to meet the needs of farmers and ranchers, promote agricultural trade and production, work to assure food safety, protect natural resources, foster rural communities and end hunger in the United States and abroad.
  The head of the department is the Secretary of Agriculture, who is a member of the Cabinet. The current Secretary is Tom Vilsack.
  Early in its history, the economy of the United States was largely agrarian. Officials in the federal government had long sought new and improved varieties of seeds, plants and animals for importation to the United States. In 1837 Henry Leavitt Ellsworth, a Yale-educated attorney interested in improving agriculture, became Commissioner of Patents, a position within the Department of State. He soon began collecting and distributing new varieties of seeds and plants through members of the Congress and agricultural societies. In 1839, Congress established the Agricultural Division within the Patent Office and allotted $1,000 for "the collection of agricultural statistics and other agricultural purposes."
  
  wn.com/USDA
• 
  White House
  The White House is the official residence and principal workplace of the President of the United States. Located at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue NW in Washington, D.C., the house was designed by Irish-born James Hoban, and built between 1792 and 1800 of white-painted Aquia sandstone in the Neoclassical style. It has been the residence of every U.S. president since John Adams. When Thomas Jefferson moved into the house in 1801, he (with architect Benjamin Henry Latrobe) expanded the building outward, creating two colonnades that were meant to conceal stables and storage.
  In 1814, during the War of 1812, the mansion was set ablaze by the British Army in the Burning of Washington, destroying the interior and charring much of the exterior. Reconstruction began almost immediately, and President James Monroe moved into the partially reconstructed house in October 1817. Construction continued with the addition of the South Portico in 1824 and the North in 1829. Because of crowding within the executive mansion itself, President Theodore Roosevelt had all work offices relocated to the newly constructed West Wing in 1901. Eight years later, President William Howard Taft expanded the West Wing and created the first Oval Office which was eventually moved as the section was expanded. The third-floor attic was converted to living quarters in 1927 by augmenting the existing hip roof with long shed dormers. A newly constructed East Wing was used as a reception area for social events; Jefferson's colonnades connected the new wings. East Wing alterations were completed in 1946, creating additional office space. By 1948, the house's load-bearing exterior walls and internal wood beams were found to be close to failure. Under Harry S. Truman, the interior rooms were completely dismantled and a new internal load-bearing steel frame constructed inside the walls. Once this work was completed, the interior rooms were rebuilt.
  
  wn.com/White_House
• 
  Yale University
  Yale University is an American private Ivy League research university located in New Haven, Connecticut. Founded in 1701 in the Colony of Connecticut, the university is the third-oldest institution of higher education in the United States.
  Incorporated as the "Collegiate School," the institution traces its roots to 17th-century clergymen who sought to establish a college to train clergy and political leaders for the colony. In 1718, the College was renamed "Yale College" to honor a gift from Elihu Yale, a governor of the British East India Company. In 1861, the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences became the first U.S. school to award the PhD. Yale became a founding member of the Association of American Universities in 1900. Yale College was transformed, beginning in the 1930s, through the establishment of residential colleges: 12 now exist and two more are planned. Yale employs over 1,100 faculty to teach and advise about 5,300 undergraduate and 6,100 graduate and professional students. Almost all tenured professors teach undergraduate courses, more than 2,000 of which are offered annually.
  
  wn.com/Yale_University

• 
  Abba P. Lerner
  Abba Ptachya Lerner (October 28, 1903 – October 27, 1982) was an American economist.
  Lerner was born on October 28, 1903 in Bessarabia (Russian Empire). He grew up in a Jewish family, which emigrated to Great Britain when Lerner was three years old. Lerner grew up in the London East End. From the age of sixteen he worked as a machinist, a teacher in Hebrew schools, and as a businessman. He entered the London School of Economics in 1929 where he would study under Friedrich Hayek. A six-month stay at Cambridge in 1934–1935 brought him into contact with John Maynard Keynes. Lerner married Alice Sendak in 1930; they had twin children, Marion and Lionel, in 1932.
  In 1937, Lerner emigrated to the United States. While in the US, Lerner befriended his intellectual opponents Milton Friedman and Barry Goldwater.
  
  wn.com/Abba_P._Lerner
• 
  Adam Posen
  Adam S. Posen (born in Brookline, Massachusetts) is an American economist, a member of the Monetary Policy Committee of the Bank of England (2009–present) and a senior fellow at the Peterson Institute for International Economics (1997–present). He is scheduled to succeed C. Fred Bergsten as President of the Peterson Institute on January 1, 2013.
  He also sits on the panel of economic advisers to the United States Congressional Budget Office. Posen's other positions include being a member of the Council on Foreign Relations and the Trilateral Commission, a research associate of the Center for the Japanese Economy and Business of Columbia University, a fellow of the CESifo Research Network, and a member of the Bellagio Group of the international finance officials and scholars. He has been the recipient of major research grants from the European Commission, the Sloan Foundation, the Ford Foundation, and the German Marshall Fund of the United States. He is currently married and living in London.
  
  wn.com/Adam_Posen
• Alan Blinder
  Alan Stuart Blinder (born October 14, 1945) is an American economist. He serves at Princeton University as the Gordon S. Rentschler Memorial Professor of Economics and Public Affairs in the Economics Department, vice chairman of The Observatory Group, and as co-director of Princeton’s Center for Economic Policy Studies, which he founded in 1990. Since 1978 he has been a Research Associate of the National Bureau of Economic Research. He is also a co-founder and a vice chairman of the Promontory Interfinancial Network, LLC. He is among the most influential economists in the world according to IDEAS/RePEc, and is "considered one of the great economic minds of his generation."
  Blinder served on President Bill Clinton's Council of Economic Advisors (January 1993 - June 1994), and as the Vice Chairman of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System from June 1994 to January 1996. Blinder's recent academic work has focused particularly on monetary policy and central banking, as well as the "offshoring" of jobs, and his writing for lay audiences has been published primarily but not exclusively in New York Times, Washington Post and Wall Street Journal.
  
  wn.com/Alan_Blinder
• Allen Lane
  Sir Allen Lane (born Allen Lane Williams, 21 September 1902 – 7 July 1970) was a British publisher who founded Penguin Books, bringing high quality paperback fiction and non-fiction to the mass market.
  Allen Lane Williams was born in Bristol to Camilla (née Lane) and Samuel Williams, and studied at Bristol Grammar School. In 1919 he joined the publishing company Bodley Head as an apprentice to his uncle and founder of the company John Lane. In the process, he and the rest of his family changed their surname to Lane to retain the childless John Lane's company as a family firm. Lane married Lettice Lucy Orr on 28 June 1941 and had three daughters, the older two of whom were Clare and Christine. He was knighted in 1962.
  He rose quickly in the business becoming managing editor in 1925 following the death of his uncle. After conflict with the board of directors who were wary at first — for fear of being prosecuted — of publishing James Joyce's controversial book Ulysses, Lane left in 1936 to set up Penguin Books. The legend goes that on a train journey back from visiting Agatha Christie in 1934, Lane found himself on an Exeter station platform with nothing available worth reading. He conceived of paperback editions of literature of proven quality which would be cheap enough to be sold from a vending machine; the first was set up in Charing Cross Road and dubbed the "Penguincubator". Lane was also well aware of the Hamburg publisher Albatross Books and adopted many of its innovations. The paperback venture was extremely successful, and he expanded into other areas such as Puffin Books in 1940 and the Penguin Classics series in 1945. Lane was responsible for the decision to publish an unexpurgated edition of D. H. Lawrence's Lady Chatterley's Lover as a means of testing the Obscene Publications Act 1959.
  
  wn.com/Allen_Lane
• 
  Alvin Hansen
  Alvin Harvey Hansen (August 23, 1887 – June 6, 1975), often referred to as "the American Keynes," was a professor of economics at Harvard, a widely read author on current economic issues, and an influential advisor to the government who helped create the Council of Economic Advisors and the Social security system. He is best known for introducing Keynesian economics in the United States in the 1930s. More effectively than anyone else he explicated, extended, domesticated, and popularized the controversial ideas embodied in Keynes' The General Theory. In 1967, Paul McCracken, chairman of the President's Council of Economic Advisers, saluted Hansen: "It is certainly a statement of fact that you have influenced the nation's thinking about economic policy more profoundly than any other economist in this century."
  Hansen was born to Danish immigrant parents at Viborg, South Dakota on the South Dakota frontier. After an English degree at Yankton College, he took his PhD in economics at the University of Wisconsin-Madison in 1918. He worked with institutionalists John R. Commons and Richard T. Ely, but did not adopt their approach. After his doctorate, Hansen taught at Brown University until his appointment at the University of Minnesota in 1923, where he specialized in business cycles. He consulted frequently in Washington and helped Edwin E. Witte to help draft the Social Security Act of 1935. In 1937 Hansen was appointed Lucius N. Littauer Professor of Political Economy at Harvard University.
  
  wn.com/Alvin_Hansen
• Alwyn Young
  Alwyn Young is a professor of economics and the Leili & Johannes Huth Fellow at the London School of Economics and Political Science. He held a named chair at the University of Chicago and was on the faculty at Boston University and the MIT Sloan School of Management before joining the LSE faculty. A graduate of Cornell University, he holds an MA in law and diplomacy and a PhD in international relations, both from the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy at Tufts University, and a PhD in economics from Columbia University. Young teaches introductory micro- and macroeconomics at the LSE to first year undergraduates(EC102).
  Well known academic papers by Alwyn Young include The tyranny of numbers: confronting the statistical realities of the East Asian growth experience and A tale of two cities: factor accumulation and technical change in Hong Kong and Singapore.
  Professor Young's most recent research has focussed on growth in the African continent as well as the impact of HIV-Aids on GDP figures
  
  wn.com/Alwyn_Young
• 
  Amy Goodman
  Amy Goodman (born April 13, 1957) is an American progressive broadcast journalist, syndicated columnist, investigative reporter and author. Goodman is the host of Democracy Now!, an independent global news program broadcast daily on radio, television and the Internet.
  Goodman was born in Bay Shore, New York on April 13, 1957 to George, an ophthalmologist, and Dorothy (née Bock) Goodman, and graduated from Bay Shore High School in 1975. She graduated from Radcliffe College in 1984 with a degree in anthropology. She spent a year studying at the College of the Atlantic in Bar Harbor, Maine.
  Goodman had been news director of Pacifica Radio station WBAI in New York City for over a decade when she co-founded Democracy Now! The War and Peace Report in 1996. Since then, Democracy Now! has been called "probably the most significant progressive news institution that has come around in some time" by professor and media critic Robert McChesney.
  In 2001, the show was temporarily pulled off the air, as a result of a conflict with a group of Pacifica Radio board members and Pacifica staff members and listeners. During that time, it moved to a converted firehouse from which it broadcast until November 13, 2009. The new Democracy Now! studio is located in the Chelsea neighborhood of Manhattan.
  
  wn.com/Amy_Goodman
• Andrei Shleifer
  Andrei Shleifer ( /ˈʃlaɪfər/ SHLY-fər; born February 20, 1961) is a Russian American economist. From its inauguration in 1992 until it was shut down in 1997, Shleifer served as project director of the Harvard Institute for International Developments Russian aid project. In 1999, Shleifer was awarded the John Bates Clark Medal, which was then awarded every two years to the most promising US economist under 40, for his seminal works on corporate finance (corporate governance, law and finance), the economics of financial markets (deviations from efficient markets), and the economics of transition. He is currently ranked the most influential economist in the world according to IDEAS/RePEc, and is listed #1 in the category "Most-Cited Scientists in Economics & Business".
  He was born in Russia and emigrated to Rochester, New York, as a teenager in 1976, where he attended an inner-city school and learned English from episodes of Charlie's Angels. He then studied economics, obtaining his B.A. from Harvard University in 1982 and Ph.D. from MIT in 1986. As a freshman at Harvard, Shleifer took Math 55 with Brad DeLong; he has said that the course made him realize he was not destined to be a mathematician, but the experience gave him a future co-author. Shleifer also met his mentor and professor Lawrence Summers during Shleifer’s undergraduate education at Harvard. The two went on to be “co-authors, joint grant recipients and faculty colleagues.” Summers resigned from his position as President of Harvard University in 2006 in part due to concerns that his relationship with Andrei Shleifer constituted a financial conflict of interest.
  
  wn.com/Andrei_Shleifer
• Anthony Venables
  Anthony J. Venables, CBE, born April 25, 1953, is a British economist and the BP Professor of Economics at the University of Oxford.
  Venables is known as one of the pioneers of New Economic Geography. He co-authored along with Paul Krugman and Masahisa Fujita the influential book The Spatial Economy - Cities, Regions and International Trade.
  He is the current director of the Oxford Centre for the Analysis of Resource Rich Economies (OxCarre)
  Venables studied economics at Clare College, Cambridge, where he obtained his B.A. in 1974. After completing his undergraduate degree, he then took up his studies at St. Anthony's College, Oxford. He then became a lecturer at various universities before completing his D.Phil. in economics in 1984 from Worcester College, Oxford. He is a Fellow of New College, Oxford.
  
  wn.com/Anthony_Venables
• Arthur Melvin Okun
  Arthur Melvin "Art" Okun (November 28, 1928 – March 23, 1980) was an American economist. He served as the chairman of the Council of Economic Advisers between 1968 and 1969. Before serving on the C.E.A., he was a professor at Yale University, and afterwards was a fellow at the Brookings Institution in Washington, D.C.
  
  
  
  wn.com/Arthur_Melvin_Okun
• 
  Avinash Dixit
  Avinash Kamalakar Dixit (born 1944 in Bombay) is an Indian-American economist originally of Indian nationality.
  Dixit received a B.Sc. from Bombay University in 1963 in Mathematics and Physics, a B.A. from Cambridge University in 1965 in Mathematics (Corpus Christi College, First Class), and a Ph.D. in 1968 from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Economics.
  As of 2011^[update], Dixit is the John J. F. Sherrerd '52 University Professor of Economics at Princeton University, and has been since July 1989. He was previously a professor of Economics and International Affairs. He previously taught at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, at the University of California, Berkeley, at Balliol College at Oxford University as the Lord Thomson of Fleet Fellow and Lecturer in Economics, and at the University of Warwick.
  Avinash Dixit has also held visiting scholar positions at MIT as well as the International Monetary Fund and the Russell Sage Foundation.
  He was President of the Econometric Society in 2001, and was Vice-President (2002) and President (2008) of the American Economic Association. He was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1992 and the National Academy of Sciences in 2005.
  
  wn.com/Avinash_Dixit
• 
  Barry Goldwater
  Barry Morris Goldwater (January 2, 1909 – May 29, 1998) was a five-term United States Senator from Arizona (1953–1965, 1969–1987) and the Republican Party's nominee for President in the 1964 election. An articulate and charismatic figure during the first half of the 1960s, he was known as "Mr. Conservative".
  Goldwater is the politician most often credited for sparking the resurgence of the American conservative political movement in the 1960s. He also had a substantial impact on the libertarian movement.
  Goldwater rejected the legacy of the New Deal and fought through the conservative coalition to defeat the New Deal coalition. He mobilized a large conservative constituency to win the hard-fought Republican primaries. Goldwater's right-wing campaign platform ultimately failed to gain the support of the electorate and he lost the 1964 presidential election to incumbent Democrat Lyndon B. Johnson by one of the largest landslides in history, bringing down many Republican candidates as well. The Johnson campaign and other critics painted him as a reactionary, while supporters praised his crusades against the Soviet Union, labor unions, and the welfare state. His defeat allowed Johnson and the Democrats in Congress to pass the Great Society programs, but the defeat of so many older Republicans in 1964 also cleared the way for a younger generation of American conservatives to mobilize. Goldwater was much less active as a national leader of conservatives after 1964; his supporters mostly rallied behind Ronald Reagan, who became governor of California in 1967 and the 40th President of the United States in 1981.
  
  wn.com/Barry_Goldwater
• 
  Bill Clinton
  William Jefferson "Bill" Clinton (born William Jefferson Blythe III; August 19, 1946) is an American politician who served as the 42nd President of the United States from 1993 to 2001. Inaugurated at age 46, he was the third-youngest president. He took office at the end of the Cold War, and was the first president of the baby boomer generation. Clinton has been described as a New Democrat. Many of his policies have been attributed to a centrist Third Way philosophy of governance.
  Born and raised in Arkansas, Clinton became both a student leader and a skilled musician. He is an alumnus of Georgetown University where he was Phi Beta Kappa and earned a Rhodes Scholarship to attend the University of Oxford. He is married to Hillary Rodham Clinton, who has served as the United States Secretary of State since 2009 and was a Senator from New York from 2001 to 2009. Both Clintons received law degrees from Yale Law School, where they met and began dating. As Governor of Arkansas, Clinton overhauled the state's education system, and served as Chair of the National Governors Association.
  
  wn.com/Bill_Clinton
• 
  British people
  British people (also referred to as the British, Britons, or informally as Brits or Britishers) are citizens or natives of the United Kingdom, of the Isle of Man, of any of the Channel Islands, or of any of the British overseas territories, and their descendants.British nationality law governs modern British citizenship and nationality, which can be acquired, for instance, by birth in the UK or by descent from British nationals. When used in a historical context, the term British people refers to the ancient Britons, the indigenous inhabitants of Great Britain south of the Forth.
  Although early assertions of being British date from the Late Middle Ages, the creation of the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707 triggered a sense of British national identity. The notion of Britishness was forged during the Napoleonic Wars between Britain and the First French Empire, and developed further during the Victorian era. The complex history of the formation of the United Kingdom created a "particular sense of nationhood and belonging" in Great Britain; Britishness became "superimposed on much older identities", of English, Scots and Welsh cultures, whose distinctiveness still resist notions of a homogenised British identity. Because of longstanding ethno-sectarian divisions, British identity in Northern Ireland is controversial, but it is held with strong conviction by unionists.
  
  wn.com/British_people
• 
  Christopher A. Sims
  Christopher Albert "Chris" Sims (born October 21, 1942) is an econometrician and macroeconomist. He is currently the Harold B. Helms Professor of Economics and Banking at Princeton University. Together with Thomas Sargent, he won the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 2011. The award cited their "empirical research on cause and effect in the macroeconomy".
  On October 10, 2011, Thomas J. Sargent together with Chris Sims was awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences. The award cited their "empirical research on cause and effect in the macroeconomy". His Nobel lecture, titled "Statistical Modeling of Monetary Policy and its Effects" was delivered on December 11, 2011.
  Sims earned his A.B. in mathematics from Harvard University magna cum laude in 1963 and his PhD in Economics from Harvard in 1968. He has held teaching positions at Harvard, University of Minnesota, Yale University and, since 1999, Princeton. Sims is a Fellow of the Econometric Society (since 1974), a member of the indian Academy of Arts and dance (since 1988) and a member of the National Academy of Sciences (since 1989). In 1995 he was the president of the Econometric Society. He will be the President-Elect of the American Economic Association in 2011 and then the President of the American Economic Association in 2021.
  
  wn.com/Christopher_A._Sims
• 
  Clive Granger
  Sir Clive William John Granger (September 4, 1934 – May 27, 2009) was a British economist, who taught in Britain at the University of Nottingham and in the U.S.A. at the University of California, San Diego. In 2003, Granger was awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, in recognition that he and his co-winner, Robert F. Engle, had made discoveries in the analysis of time series data that had changed fundamentally the way in which economists analyse financial and macroeconomic data.
  Clive Granger was born in 1934 in Britain, in Swansea, south Wales, the son of Edward John Granger and Evelyn Granger. The next year his parents moved to Lincoln.
  During World War II Granger moved with his mother to Cambridge, where he went to the local primary school. He started secondary school in Cambridge, but continued in Nottingham, where his family moved after the war. During school, Granger showed talent for mathematics, developing a strong interest in applied mathematics.
  After secondary school Granger enrolled at the University of Nottingham for a joint degree in economics and mathematics, but switched to full mathematics in the second year. After receiving his B.A. in 1955, he remained at the University of Nottingham for a Ph.D. in statistics under the supervision of Harry Pitt.
  
  wn.com/Clive_Granger
• 
  Dale T. Mortensen
  Dale Thomas Mortensen (born February 2, 1939 in Enterprise, Oregon) is an American economist. He received his B.A. in economics from Willamette University and his Ph.D. in Economics from Carnegie Mellon University. He is a member of the Beta Theta Pi fraternity. He has been on the faculty of Northwestern University since 1965 and a professor of Managerial Economics and Decision Sciences at the Kellogg School of Management since 1980. He is also the Niels Bohr Visiting Professor at the School of Economics and Management, Aarhus University, from 2006 to 2010. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics jointly along with Christopher A. Pissarides from the London School of Economics and Peter A. Diamond from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 2010 "for their analysis of markets with search frictions". In May 2011, Mortensen was awarded an honorary Doctor of Science degree from his alma mater, Willamette University. He is married to Beverly Mortensen, also a Northwestern Professor.
  
  wn.com/Dale_T._Mortensen
• Dale W. Jorgenson
  Dale Weldeau Jorgenson is the Samuel W. Morris University Professor at Harvard University, teaching in the Department of Economics and John F. Kennedy School of Government. He served as Chairman of the Department of Economics from 1994 to 1997.
  He was a Founding Member of the Board on Science, Technology, and Economic Policy of the National Research Council in 1991 and served as Chairman of the Board from 1998 to 2006. He also served as Chairman of Section 54, Economic Sciences, of the National Academy of Sciences from 2000 to 2003 and was President of the Econometric Society in 1987 and President of the American Economic Association in 2000.
  Jorgenson received the prestigious John Bates Clark Medal of the American Economic Association in 1971. This Medal is awarded every two years to an economist under forty for excellence in economic research.
  He was also an advocate for a carbon tax on greenhouse gas emissions as a means of reducing global warming when he testified before congress in 1997. His research has also been used to advocate for the FairTax, a tax reform proposal in the United States to replace all federal payroll and income taxes (both corporate and personal) with a national retail sales tax and monthly tax rebate to households of citizens and legal resident aliens. However, Jorgenson supports a tax plan of his own design, which he calls Efficient Taxation of Income, described in his book Investment, Vol. 3: Lifting the Burden: Tax Reform, the Cost of Capital, and U.S. Economic Growth. The approach would introduce different tax rates for property-type income and earned income from work.
  
  wn.com/Dale_W._Jorgenson
• 
  Daniel McFadden
  Daniel Little McFadden (born July 29, 1937) is an econometrician who shared the 2000 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences with James Heckman ; McFadden's share of the prize was "for his development of theory and methods for analyzing discrete choice". He was the E. Morris Cox Professor of Economics at the University of California, Berkeley.
  McFadden was born in Raleigh, North Carolina. He attended the University of Minnesota, where he received a B.S. in Physics at age 19, and a Ph.D. in Behavioral Science (Economics) five years later (1962). While at the University of Minnesota, his graduate advisor was Leonid Hurwicz, who was awarded the Economics Nobel Prize in 2007.
  In 1964, McFadden joined the faculty of UC Berkeley and focused his research in areas including choice behavior and the problem of linking economic theory and measurement. He won the John Bates Clark Medal in 1975 and the Erwin Plein Nemmers Prize in Economics in 2000.^{[citation needed]} He was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 1981. In 1977, he moved to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, but returned to Berkeley in 1991. After his return, McFadden founded the Econometrics Laboratory, which is devoted to statistical computation for economics applications. He remains its director. He is a trustee of the Economists for Peace and Security.
  
  wn.com/Daniel_McFadden
• 
  David Cameron
  David William Donald Cameron (pronunciation: /ˈkæmərən/; born 9 October 1966) is the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, First Lord of the Treasury, Minister for the Civil Service and Leader of the Conservative Party. He represents Witney as its Member of Parliament (MP).
  Cameron studied Philosophy, Politics and Economics (PPE) at Oxford, gaining a first class honours degree. He then joined the Conservative Research Department and became Special Adviser to Norman Lamont, and then to Michael Howard. He was Director of Corporate Affairs at Carlton Communications for seven years.
  He was defeated in his first candidacy for Parliament at Stafford in 1997, but was elected in 2001 as the Member of Parliament for the Oxfordshire constituency of Witney. He was promoted to the Opposition front bench two years later, and rose rapidly to become head of policy co-ordination during the 2005 general election campaign. With a public image of a youthful, moderate candidate who would appeal to young voters, he won the Conservative leadership election in 2005.
  
  wn.com/David_Cameron
• 
  David Card
  David Edward Card is a Canadian labour economist and professor at the University of California, Berkeley.
  Card earned his B.A. degree from Queen's University in 1978 and his Ph.D. degree in Economics in 1983 from Princeton University.
  From 1988 to 1992, Card was Associate Editor of the Journal of Labor Economics and from 1993 to 1997, he was co-editor of Econometrica. He was the recipient of the 1995 John Bates Clark Medal, awarded to "that American economist under the age of forty who is judged to have made the most significant contribution to economic thought and knowledge.". He gave the 2009 Richard T. Ely Lecture of the American Economic Association in San Francisco.
  In the early 1990s, Card received much attention for his finding, together with his then Princeton University colleague Alan B. Krueger that, contrary to widely accepted beliefs among economists, the minimum wage increase in New Jersey did not result in job reduction of fast food companies in that state. While this claim has been disputed by many (see minimum wage for discussion), a few economists, including Nobel prize winner Joseph Stiglitz, accept Card and Krueger's findings
  
  wn.com/David_Card
• 
  David Frum
  David J. Frum (/ˈfrʌm/; born June 30, 1960) is a Canadian American journalist active in both the United States and Canadian political arenas. A former economic speechwriter for President George W. Bush, he is also the author of the first "insider" book about the Bush presidency. His editorial columns have appeared in a variety of Canadian and American magazines and newspapers, including the National Post and The Week. He is a featured writer for The Daily Beast and Newsweek, which he joined after a brief stint as the founder of FrumForum.com (formerly NewMajority.com), a political group blog, and serves on the board of directors of the Republican Jewish Coalition. He is the son of Barbara Frum.
  Born in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, Frum is the son of the late Barbara Frum, a well-known journalist and broadcaster, and Murray Frum, a dentist, who later became a real estate developer, philanthropist, and art collector. Frum's sister, Linda Frum, is a member of the Canadian Senate. Frum is married to writer Danielle Crittenden, the stepdaughter of former Toronto Sun editor Peter Worthington. The couple has three children. He is a distant cousin of economist Paul Krugman.
  
  wn.com/David_Frum
• David M. Kreps
  David Marc "Dave" Kreps (b. 1950, New York) is a game theorist and economist and professor at the Graduate School of Business at Stanford University. He is known for his analysis of dynamic choice models and non-cooperative game theory, particularly the idea of sequential equilibrium, which he developed with Stanford Business School colleague Robert B. Wilson.
  He earned his A.B. from Dartmouth College in 1972 and his Ph.D. from Stanford in 1975. Kreps won the John Bates Clark Medal in 1989. He was awarded an honorary Ph.D. by the Université Paris-Dauphine in 2001.
  He has also written many books, including Microeconomics for Managers and A Course in Microeconomic Theory.
  
  
  
  wn.com/David_M._Kreps
• 
  David Ricardo
  David Ricardo (18 April 1772 – 11 September 1823) was an English political economist, often credited with systematising economics, and was one of the most influential of the classical economists, along with Thomas Malthus, Adam Smith, and John Stuart Mill. He was also a member of Parliament, businessman, financier and speculator, who amassed a considerable personal fortune. Perhaps his most important contribution was the law of comparative advantage, a fundamental argument in favour of free trade among countries and of specialisation among individuals. Ricardo argued that there is mutual benefit from trade (or exchange) even if one party (e.g. resource-rich country, highly skilled artisan) is more productive in every possible area than its trading counterpart (e.g. resource-poor country, unskilled labourer), as long as each concentrates on the activities where it has a relative productivity advantage.
  Born in London, England, Ricardo was the third of 17 children of a Sephardic Jewish family of Portuguese origin who had recently relocated from the Dutch Republic. His father was a successful stockbroker.
  
  wn.com/David_Ricardo
• Donald Luskin
  Donald Luskin (born April 1954) is Chief Investment Officer for Trend Macrolytics LLC, a consulting firm providing investment strategy and macroeconomics forecasting and research for institutional investors.
  Luskin is a contributing editor and columnist both for National Review Online (NRO) and SmartMoney.com. His columns touch on investing, economic and political matters. Luskin is a frequent guest on Larry Kudlow's CNBC television show, Kudlow & Company. He has published three books, Index Options and Futures: The Complete Guide,Portfolio Insurance: A Guide to Dynamic Hedging and I Am John Galt: Today's Heroic Innovators Building the World and the Villainous Parasites Destroying It (co-author Andrew Greta). He also writes a blog, "The Conspiracy to Keep You Poor and Stupid," based on the title of his as-yet unpublished book. The blog's tagline is: "How big government, big business, big media and big academia block your road to financial freedom—and tell you it's for your own good." Luskin is a self-avowed libertarian, and his blog links to other financial and political blogs espousing similar beliefs. He formerly was a columnist for TheStreet.com and Business 2.0 magazine. His writings have appeared in the Wall Street Journal, the Washington Post, the Journal of Portfolio Management, the Harvard Business Review, and other publications.
  
  wn.com/Donald_Luskin
• 
  Edward C. Prescott
  Edward Christian Prescott (born December 26, 1940) is an American economist. He received the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics in 2004, sharing the award with Finn E. Kydland, "for their contributions to dynamic macroeconomics: the time consistency of economic policy and the driving forces behind business cycles". This research was primarily conducted while both Kydland and Prescott were affiliated with the Graduate School of Industrial Administration (now Tepper School of Business) at Carnegie Mellon University. According to the IDEAS/RePEc rankings, he is the 11th most widely cited economist in the world today.
  Prescott was born in Glens Falls, New York, to Mathilde Helwig Prescott and William Clyde Prescott. In 1962, he received his bachelor's degree in mathematics from Swarthmore College, where he was a member of the Delta Upsilon fraternity. He then received a master's degree from Case Western Reserve University in operations research in 1963, and a PhD in Economics at Carnegie Mellon University in 1967.
  
  wn.com/Edward_C._Prescott
• 
  Edward Prescott
  Edward Christian Prescott (born December 26, 1940) is an American economist. He received the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics in 2004, sharing the award with Finn E. Kydland, "for their contributions to dynamic macroeconomics: the time consistency of economic policy and the driving forces behind business cycles". This research was primarily conducted while both Kydland and Prescott were affiliated with the Graduate School of Industrial Administration (now Tepper School of Business) at Carnegie Mellon University. According to the IDEAS/RePEc rankings, he is the 11th most widely cited economist in the world today.
  Prescott was born in Glens Falls, New York, to Mathilde Helwig Prescott and William Clyde Prescott. In 1962, he received his bachelor's degree in mathematics from Swarthmore College, where he was a member of the Delta Upsilon fraternity. He then received a master's degree from Case Western Reserve University in operations research in 1963, and a PhD in Economics at Carnegie Mellon University in 1967.
  
  wn.com/Edward_Prescott
• 
  Elinor Ostrom
  Elinor Ostrom (née Awan; born August 7, 1933) is an American political economist. She was awarded the 2009 Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel, which she shared with Oliver E. Williamson, for "her analysis of economic governance, especially the commons." She was the first, and to date, the only woman to win the prize in this category. Her work is associated with the new institutional economics and the resurgence of political economy.
  Ostrom lives in Bloomington, IN, and is on the faculty of both Indiana University and Arizona State University. She holds a Distinguished Professor at Indiana University and is the Arthur F. Bentley Professor of Political Science and Co-Director of the Workshop in Political Theory and Policy Analysis at Indiana University in Bloomington, as well as Research Professor and the Founding Director of the Center for the Study of Institutional Diversity at Arizona State University in Tempe. Ostrom also serves as a lead researcher for the Sustainable Agriculture and Natural Resource Management Collaborative Research Support Program (SANREM CRSP), managed by Virginia Tech and funded by USAID.
  
  wn.com/Elinor_Ostrom
• Emmanuel Saez
  Emmanuel Saez (born November 26, 1972, in Spain) is a French economist. Saez is Professor of Economics at the University of California, Berkeley. His work, done with Thomas Piketty, includes tracking the incomes of the poor, middle class and rich around the world. Their work shows that top earners in the United States have taken an increasingly larger share of overall income over the last three decades, with almost as much inequality as before the Great Depression. He recommends much higher taxes on the rich, up to 70% or 90%. He received the John Bates Clark Medal in 2009 and was named a MacArthur Fellow in 2010.
  He was the recipient of the 2009 John Bates Clark Medal, awarded to "that American economist under the age of forty who is judged to have made the most significant contribution to economic thought and knowledge." Saez's research contributions have been mainly in the field of Public Economics. The 2009 John Bates Clark citation reads:
  "[Saez's] work attacks policy questions from both theoretical and empirical perspectives, on the one hand refining the theory in ways that link the characteristics of optimal policy to measurable aspects of the economy and of behavior, while on the other hand undertaking careful and creative empirical studies designed to fill the gaps in measurement identified by the theory. Through a collection of interrelated papers, he has brought the theory of taxation closer to practical policy making, and has helped to lead a resurgence of academic interest in taxation."
  
  wn.com/Emmanuel_Saez
• 
  Eric Maskin
  Eric Stark Maskin (born December 12, 1950) is an American economist and Nobel laureate recognized with Leonid Hurwicz and Roger Myerson "for having laid the foundations of mechanism design theory." He is a Professor of Economics at Harvard University. Until 2011, he was the Albert O. Hirschman Professor of Social Science at the Institute for Advanced Study, and a visiting lecturer with the rank of Professor at Princeton University.
  Maskin was born in New York City, New York on December 12, 1950, to a non-religious Jewish family, and grew up in Alpine, New Jersey. He graduated from Tenafly High School in Tenafly, New Jersey in 1968, and attended Harvard University where he received his A.B. in mathematics and Ph.D. in applied mathematics. After he earned his doctorate, Maskin went to the University of Cambridge in 1976 where he was a research fellow at Jesus College, Cambridge. He taught at Massachusetts Institute of Technology from 1977–1984 and from 1985-2000 at Harvard University, where he was the Louis Berkman Professor of Economics. In 2000, he moved to the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey.
  
  wn.com/Eric_Maskin
• 
  Esther Duflo
  Esther Duflo (born October 25, 1972) is a French economist, Co-Founder and Director of the Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab, and Professor of Poverty Alleviation and Development Economics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Duflo is an NBER Research Associate, serves on the board of the Bureau for Research and Economic Analysis of Development (BREAD), and is Director of the Center for Economic and Policy Research's development economics program.
  Her research focuses on microeconomic issues in developing countries, including household behavior, education, access to finance, health, and policy evaluation. Together with Abhijit Banerjee, Dean Karlan, Michael Kremer, John A. List, and Sendhil Mullainathan, she has been a driving force in advancing field experiments as an important methodology to discover causal relationships in economics.
  After studying in Lycée Henri IV's "classes préparatoires BL" Duflo completed her undergraduate studies at L'Ecole Normale Supérieure in Paris in 1994, received a master's degree from DELTA in Paris (Now, Paris School of Economics) jointly with L'Ecole Normale Supérieure in 1995, and completed a PhD in Economics at MIT in 1999. Upon completing her MIT PhD she was appointed assistant professor of economics at MIT, and has been at MIT ever since, aside from being on leave to Princeton University in 2001-2002. She was promoted to associate professor (with tenure) in 2002, at the age of 29, making her among the youngest faculty at the Institute to be awarded tenure.
  
  wn.com/Esther_Duflo
• 
  Evan Thomas
  Evan Welling Thomas III (born 25 April 1951) is an American journalist and author. He currently teaches journalism at Princeton University.
  Thomas was born in Huntington, New York and was raised in Cold Spring Harbor, New York. A graduate of Phillips Andover, Harvard University, and the University of Virginia School of Law, since 1991 he has been the assistant managing editor at Newsweek. He formerly worked for TIME. Thomas began his reporting career at The Bergen Record in New Jersey. He won his numerous journalism awards, including the National Magazine Award in 1998 for Newsweek’s coverage of the Monica Lewinsky scandal, and the 2009 Clarion award.
  Thomas is a regular panelist on the weekly public affairs TV show "Inside Washington".
  June 5, 2009, while being interviewed by Chris Matthews on Hardball with Chris Matthews, Thomas provoked controversy by stating that Barack Obama was "sort of God." In response to criticism of this comment, Thomas responded with the following:
  What I said was: "In a way, Obama's standing above the country, above -- above the world, a sort of god." I was not being literal. During a discussion about presidential rhetoric, I was comparing Ronald Reagan's patriotic appeals with Obama's attempt to transcend parochialism.
  
  wn.com/Evan_Thomas
• Evsey Domar
  Evsey David Domar (April 16, 1914 – April 1, 1997) was a Russian American economist, famous as co-author of the Harrod–Domar model.
  Evsey Domar was born on April 16, 1914 in the Polish city of Łódź, which belonged to Russia at that time. He was raised and educated in Russian Outer Manchuria, from where he emigrated to the United States in 1936.
  He received his Bachelor of Arts from UCLA in 1939, a Master of Science from the University of Michigan in 1940, another Master of Science from Harvard University in 1943, and his doctorate from Harvard in 1947.
  In 1946 Evsey Domar married Carola Rosenthal. The couple had two daughters.
  He was professor at the Carnegie Institute of Technology, The University of Chicago, the Johns Hopkins University and, from 1957 until the end of his career, at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
  Evsey Domar was a member of several academic organizations, like the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the Econometric Society, and the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences. He was on the executive committee of the American Economic Association from 1962 until 1965, and became the organization's vice president in 1970.
  
  wn.com/Evsey_Domar
• 
  Finn E. Kydland
  Finn Erling Kydland (born 1 December 1943) is a Norwegian economist. He is currently the Henley Professor of Economics at the University of California, Santa Barbara. He also holds the Richard P. Simmons Distinguished Professorship at the Tepper School of Business of Carnegie Mellon University, where he earned his Ph.D., and a part-time position at the Norwegian School of Economics (NHH) . Kydland was a co-recipient of the 2004 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics (shared with Edward C. Prescott), "for their contributions to dynamic macroeconomics: the time consistency of economic policy and the driving forces behind business cycles".
  Kydland grew up as the eldest of six siblings at the family farm in Søyland, Gjesdal, which is located in the Jæren farming region in Rogaland county, southwestern Norway. He recalls having had a liberal upbringing, his parents not imposing many limitations on their children. Finn Kydland became interested in mathematics and economics as a young adult, after he did some bookkeeping at a friend's mink farm.
  
  wn.com/Finn_E._Kydland
• 
  Franco Modigliani
  Franco Modigliani (June 18, 1918 – September 25, 2003) was an Italian economist at the MIT Sloan School of Management and MIT Department of Economics, and winner of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics in 1985.
  Born in Rome, Italy, he left Italy in 1939 because of his Jewish origin and antifascist views. He first went to Paris with the family of his then-girlfriend, Serena, whom he married in 1939, and then to the United States. From 1942 to 1944, he taught at Columbia University and Bard College as an instructor in economics and statistics. In 1944, he obtained his D. Soc. Sci. from the New School for Social Research working under Jacob Marschak. In 1946, he became a naturalized citizen of the United States, and in 1948, he joined the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign faculty.
  When he was a professor at the Graduate School of Industrial Administration of Carnegie Mellon University in the 1950s and early 1960s, Modigliani made two path-breaking contributions to economic science:
  
  wn.com/Franco_Modigliani
• G. L. S. Shackle
  George Lennox Sharman Shackle (14 July 1903 – 3 March 1992) was an English economist. He made a practical attempt to challenge classical rational choice theory and has been characterised as a "post-Keynesian," though he is influenced as well by Austrian economics; he has been described as drawing "Keynesian conclusions from Austrian premises." Much of his work is associated with the Dempster–Shafer theory of evidence.
  Born in Cambridge, his father was a mathematics teacher who had coached John Maynard Keynes to an Eton scholarship. Shackle attended The Perse School but his parents could not afford to support him through university so he started work as a bank clerk. Later becoming a teacher, he studied in his own time for a University of London B.A. degree which he took in 1931. He started work on a Ph.D. under the supervision of Friedrich Hayek at the LSE but switched to an interpretation of Keynes's General Theory of Employment Interest and Money. He obtained his doctorate in 1937.
  Following a number of academic posts, at the outbreak of World War II in 1939, Shackle was appointed to S-Branch, Sir Winston Churchill's inner office of economists. There he served along with Donald MacDougall and Helen Makower under the leadership of Frederick Lindemann.
  
  wn.com/G._L._S._Shackle
• 
  Gary Becker
  Gary Stanley Becker (born December 2, 1930) is an American economist. He is a professor of economics and sociology at the University of Chicago and a professor at the Booth School of Business. He was awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1992 and received the United States Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2007. He is currently a Rose-Marie and Jack R. Anderson senior fellow at Stanford University's Hoover Institution.
  Becker was one of the first economists to branch into what were traditionally considered topics belonging to sociology, including racial discrimination, crime, family organization, and drug addiction (see Rational addiction). He is known for arguing that many different types of human behavior can be seen as rational and utility maximizing. His approach can include altruistic behavior by defining individuals' utility appropriately. He is also among the foremost exponents of the study of human capital. Becker is also credited with the "rotten kid theorem". He is married to Guity Nashat, a historian of the Middle East whose research interests overlap his own.
  
  wn.com/Gary_Becker
• Geoff Harcourt
  Geoffrey (Geoff) Colin Harcourt (27 June 1931) is an Australian academic economist who studied at the University of Melbourne and then at the King's College, Cambridge. He is a leading member of the Post Keynesian school.
  After studying economics at the University of Melbourne he moved to the University of Cambridge where he received his doctorate. In 1958 he moved to the University of Adelaide as a lecturer and was appointed to a chair in Economics at Adelaide in 1967. (He was a University Lecturer at Cambridge and a Fellow of Trinity Hall 1964-96, on leave without pay from Adelaide). He was a University Lecturer (1982–90) and Reader (1990–98) in the Faculty of Economics at Cambridge and a Fellow and College Lecturer in Economics, Jesus College, Cambridge 1982-1998 and was President of Jesus College Cambridge, 1988–89 and 1990-92.
  He has made major contributions to the understanding of the ideas of Keynes, Joan Robinson and other Cambridge economists. He has also made important contributions in his own right to Post Keynesian and post Kaleckian theory. A review article of one his volumes of ‘Selected Essays’ argues that (i) insofar as he has written on capital theory, it has been as an innovator and not as a mere raconteur, and (ii) that he has developed his own suite of post-Keynesian models – this is evident for example in his 1965 paper “A two-sector model of the distribution of income and the level of employment in the short-run” which is reprinted in The Social Science Imperialists: Selected Essays of G.C. Harcourt.
  
  wn.com/Geoff_Harcourt
• 
  George Akerlof
  George Arthur Akerlof (born June 17, 1940) is an American economist and Koshland Professor of Economics at the University of California, Berkeley. He won the 2001 Nobel Prize in Economics (shared with Michael Spence and Joseph E. Stiglitz).
  Akerlof is perhaps best known for his article, "The Market for Lemons: Quality Uncertainty and the Market Mechanism", published in Quarterly Journal of Economics in 1970, in which he identified certain severe problems that afflict markets characterized by asymmetrical information, the paper for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize. In Efficiency Wage Models of the Labor Market, Akerlof and coauthor Janet Yellen (his wife) propose rationales for the efficiency wage hypothesis in which employers pay above the market-clearing wage, in contradiction to the conclusions of neoclassical economics.
  In his latest work, Akerlof and collaborator Rachel Kranton of Duke University introduce social identity into formal economic analysis, creating the field of Identity Economics. Drawing on social psychology and many fields outside of economics, Akerlof and Kranton argue that individuals do not have preferences only over different goods and services. They also adhere to social norms for how different people should behave. The norms are linked to a person's social identities. These ideas first appeared in their article "Economics and Identity", published in Quarterly Journal of Economics in 2000.
  
  wn.com/George_Akerlof
• 
  George W. Bush
  George Walker Bush (born July 6, 1946) is an American politician and businessman who was the 43rd President of the United States from 2001 to 2009 and the 46th Governor of Texas from 1995 to 2000. The eldest son of Barbara Bush and George H. W. Bush, he was born in New Haven, Connecticut. After graduating from Yale University in 1968 and Harvard Business School in 1975, Bush worked in oil businesses. He married Laura Welch in 1977 and ran unsuccessfully for the House of Representatives shortly thereafter. He later co-owned the Texas Rangers baseball team before defeating Ann Richards in the 1994 Texas gubernatorial election. In a close and controversial election, Bush was elected President in 2000 as the Republican candidate, defeating Vice President Al Gore in the Electoral College. Bush is the second American president to have been the son of a former president. He is also the brother of Jeb Bush, former Governor of Florida.
  Terrorist attacks occurred eight months into Bush's first term as president on September 11, 2001. In response, Bush announced the War on Terror, an international military campaign which included the war in Afghanistan launched in 2001 and the war in Iraq launched in 2003. In addition to national security issues, Bush promoted policies on the economy, health care, education, and social security reform. He signed into law broad tax cuts, the PATRIOT Act, the No Child Left Behind Act, the Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act, and Medicare prescription drug benefits for seniors. His tenure saw national debates on immigration, Social Security, electronic surveillance, and enhanced interrogation techniques. His administration also withdrew the U.S. from a some international treaty processes, including the Kyoto Protocol on global warming.
  
  wn.com/George_W._Bush
• Glenn Loury
  Glenn Cartman Loury (born September 3, 1948) is an American academic and author. He is the Merton P. Stoltz Professor of the Social Sciences and Professor of Economics at Brown University.
  Loury was born in Chicago, Illinois. In 1972, he received his bachelor's degree in mathematics from Northwestern University. In 1976 he received his Ph.D. in economics from Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
  At age 35, he was the first black tenured professor of economics in the history of Harvard University.
  In 1984, Loury drew the attention of critics with "A New American Dilemma", published in The New Republic, where he addressed what he terms "fundamental failures in black society" such as "the lagging academic performance of black students, the disturbingly high rate of black-on-black crime, and the alarming increase in early unwed pregnancies among blacks."
  In 1987, Loury's career continued its ascent when he was selected to be the next Undersecretary of Education, a position which would have made him the second-highest-ranking black person in the Reagan administration. However, Loury withdrew from consideration on June 1, three days before being charged with assault after a "lover's quarrel" with a 23-year-old woman. Loury was later arrested for possession of cocaine.
  
  wn.com/Glenn_Loury
• 
  Gordon Brown
  James Gordon Brown (born 20 February 1951) is a British Labour Party politician who was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and Leader of the Labour Party from 2007 until 2010. He previously served as Chancellor of the Exchequer in the Labour Government from 1997 to 2007, becoming the longest-serving holder of that office in modern history. Brown has been a Member of Parliament (MP) since 1983, for Dunfermline East until 2005, and currently for Kirkcaldy and Cowdenbeath.
  Brown became Prime Minister on 27 June 2007, after the resignation of Tony Blair and three days after becoming Leader of the governing Labour Party. His tenure ended on 11 May 2010, when he resigned as Prime Minister and Leader of the Labour Party. Brown was one of only three people to serve in the Cabinet continuously from Labour's victory in 1997 until its defeat in 2010, the others being Jack Straw and Alistair Darling.
  Brown has a PhD in history from the University of Edinburgh and spent his early career working as a lecturer at a further education college and a television journalist. He has been a Member of Parliament since 1983; first for Dunfermline East and since 2005 for Kirkcaldy and Cowdenbeath. As Prime Minister, he also held the offices of First Lord of the Treasury and the Minister for the Civil Service.
  
  wn.com/Gordon_Brown
• 
  Greg Palast
  Gregory Allyn Palast (born June 26, 1952) is a New York Times-bestselling author and a freelance journalist for the British Broadcasting Corporation as well as the British newspaper The Observer. His work frequently focuses on corporate malfeasance but has also been known to work with labor unions and consumer advocacy groups. Notably, he has claimed to have uncovered evidence that Florida Governor Jeb Bush, Florida Secretary of State Katherine Harris, and Florida Elections Unit Chief Clay Roberts, along with the ChoicePoint corporation, rigged the ballots during the US Presidential Election of 2000 and again in 2004 when, he argued, the problems and machinations from 2000 continued, and that challenger John Kerry actually would have won if not for disproportional "spoilage" of Democratic votes.
  Palast spoke at a Think Twice conference held at Cambridge University and lectured at the University of São Paulo. He lives in New York City. Palast is originally from Los Angeles, and was educated at the University of Chicago, and eventually earned an MBA.
  
  wn.com/Greg_Palast
• 
  Howard Kurtz
  Howard "Howie" Alan Kurtz (born August 1, 1953) is an American journalist and author with a special focus on the media. He is host of CNN's Reliable Sources program, and Washington bureau chief for The Daily Beast. He is the former media writer for The Washington Post. He has written five books about the media. He has been described as the nation's "most influential media reporter".
  Kurtz was born in Brooklyn, New York in the Sheepshead Bay neighborhood. He is a graduate of the University at Buffalo (SUNY). In college he worked on a student newspaper, the "Spectrum", becoming the editor in his senior year. He then attended the Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism. After Columbia he went to work for the Bergen Record in New Jersey. He left New Jersey to move to Washington D.C. and to work as a reporter for syndicated columnist Jack Anderson. Kurtz left Anderson to join the Washington Star, an afternoon newspaper. When that newspaper closed in 1981 Kurtz was hired at the Washington Post by Bob Woodward, then the Metro editor. Kurtz has written for The New Republic, The Washington Monthly, and New York magazine.
  
  wn.com/Howard_Kurtz
• Hyman Minsky
  Hyman Philip Minsky (September 23, 1919 – October 24, 1996) was an American economist and professor of economics at Washington University in St. Louis. His research attempted to provide an understanding and explanation of the characteristics of financial crises. Minsky was sometimes described as a post-Keynesian economist because, in the Keynesian tradition, he supported some government intervention in financial markets and opposed some of the popular deregulation policies in the 1980s, and argued against the accumulation of debt. His research was noticed by Wall Street.
  A native of Chicago, Illinois, Minsky was born into a family of Menshevik emigrants from Belarus. His mother, Dora Zakon, was active in the nascent trade union movement; his father, Sam Minsky, was active in the Jewish section of the Socialist party of Chicago. In 1941, Minsky received his B.S. in mathematics from the University of Chicago and went on to earn an M.P.A. and a Ph.D. in economics from Harvard University, where he studied under Joseph Schumpeter and Wassily Leontief.
  
  wn.com/Hyman_Minsky
• 
  Irving Fisher
  Irving Fisher (February 27, 1867 – April 29, 1947) was an American economist, inventor, and social campaigner. He was one of the earliest American neoclassical economists, though his later work on debt deflation has been embraced by the Post-Keynesian school.
  Fisher made important contributions to utility theory and general equilibrium. He was also a pioneer in the rigurous study of intertemporal choice in markets, which led him to develop a theory of capital and interest rates. His research on the quantity theory of money inaugurated the school of economic thought known as "monetarism." Both James Tobin and Milton Friedman called Fisher "the greatest economist the United States has ever produced."
  Fisher was perhaps the first celebrity economist, but his reputation during his lifetime was irreparably harmed by his public statements, just prior to the Wall Street Crash of 1929, claiming that the stock market had reached "a permanently high plateau." His subsequent theory of debt deflation as an explanation of the Great Depression was largely ignored in favor of the work of John Maynard Keynes. His reputation has since recovered in neoclassical economics, particularly after his work was revived in the late 1950s and more widely due to an increased interest in debt deflation in the Late-2000s recession. Some concepts named after Fisher include the Fisher equation, the Fisher hypothesis, the international Fisher effect, and the Fisher separation theorem.
  
  wn.com/Irving_Fisher
• 
  Isaac Asimov
  Isaac Asimov (/ˈaɪzək ˈæzɨməv/ EYE-zək AZ-i-məv; born Isaak Yudovich Ozimov, Russian: Исаак Юдович Озимов; Yiddish: אייזיק יודאָוויטש אסימאוו; c. January 2, 1920 – April 6, 1992) was an American author and professor of biochemistry at Boston University, best known for his works of science fiction and for his popular science books. Asimov was one of the most prolific writers of all time, having written or edited more than 500 books and an estimated 90,000 letters and postcards. His works have been published in all ten major categories of the Dewey Decimal System (although his only work in the 100s—which covers philosophy and psychology—was a foreword for The Humanist Way).
  Asimov is widely considered a master of hard science fiction and, along with Robert A. Heinlein and Arthur C. Clarke, he was considered one of the "Big Three" science fiction writers during his lifetime. Asimov's most famous work is the Foundation Series; his other major series are the Galactic Empire series and the Robot series, both of which he later tied into the same fictional universe as the Foundation Series to create a unified "future history" for his stories much like those pioneered by Robert A. Heinlein and previously produced by Cordwainer Smith and Poul Anderson. He wrote many short stories, among them "Nightfall", which in 1964 was voted by the Science Fiction Writers of America the best short science fiction story of all time. Asimov wrote the Lucky Starr series of juvenile science-fiction novels using the pen name Paul French.
  
  wn.com/Isaac_Asimov
• J. Peter Neary
  J. Peter Neary FBA (1950, Ireland - ) is an economist specialising in international trade. He is Professor of Economics at Oxford University, and a Professorial Fellow of Merton College, Oxford as well as Associate Member of Nuffield College, Oxford. He was previously Professor of Political Economy at University College Dublin, from 1980 to 2006. He is also a Research Fellow of the Centre for Economic Policy Research.
  Neary was educated at University College Dublin and Oxford, where he completed his D.Phil. in 1978. He was an editor of the European Economic Review (1986–1990) and has served on a number of other editorial boards. He was President of the Irish Economic Association (1990–92), and President of the European Economic Association in 2002. He was elected to the British Academy in 2008, as well as being a member of the Royal Irish Academy since 1997. He gained an entry in Who's Who in 2008.
  Neary, together with W. Max Corden, in 1982 developed the classic economic model describing Dutch disease.
  
  wn.com/J._Peter_Neary
• James Duesenberry
  James Stemble Duesenberry (July 18, 1918 – October 5, 2009) was an American economist. He made a significant contribution to the Keynesian analysis of income and employment with his 1949 doctoral thesis Income, Saving and the Theory of Consumer Behavior. Kenneth Arrow believed that it offered "one of the most significant contributions of the postwar period to our understanding of economic behavior". His theory, however, later disappeared from standard textbooks, although it outperforms the alternative theories that displaced it in the 1950s.
  Duesenberry attended the University of Michigan, where he earned his Bachelor of Arts in 1939, his Master of Arts in 1941, and his Doctor of Philosophy in 1948. He served as professor of economics at Harvard University from 1955–1989.
  
  wn.com/James_Duesenberry
• 
  James Heckman
  James Joseph Heckman (born 19 April 1944) is an American economist and Nobel laureate. He is the Henry Schultz Distinguished Service Professor of Economics at the University of Chicago, Professor of Science and Society at University College Dublin and a Senior Research Fellow at the American Bar Foundation.
  Heckman shared the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics in 2000 with Daniel McFadden for his pioneering work in econometrics and microeconomics. He is considered to be among the ten most influential economists in the world.
  Heckman was born to John Jacob Heckman and Bernice Irene Medley in Chicago, Illinois. Heckman received his B.A. in mathematics from Colorado College, and received his Ph.D. from Princeton University in economics in 1971. Heckman then served as an Assistant Professor at Columbia University before moving to the University of Chicago in 1973. In addition to serving as the Henry B. Schultz Distinguished Service Professor of Economics, Heckman is also the director of the Economics Research Center and the Center for Social Program Evaluation at the Irving B. Harris School of Public Policy. In 2004, he was appointed as the Distinguished Chair of Microeconometrics at University College London. In June 2006 he was appointed as the Professor of Science and Society at University College Dublin. Heckman is also a senior research fellow at the American Bar Foundation.
  
  wn.com/James_Heckman
• 
  James Meade
  James Edward Meade CB, FBA (23 June 1907 – 22 December 1995) was a British economist and winner of the 1977 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences jointly with the Swedish economist Bertil Ohlin for their "Pathbreaking contribution to the theory of international trade and international capital movements."
  Meade was born in Swanage, Dorset. He was educated at Malvern College and attended Oriel College, Oxford in 1926 to read Greats, but switched to Philosophy, Politics and Economics and gained an outstanding first. His interest in economics grew from an influential postgraduate year at Trinity College, Cambridge (1930–31), where he held frequent discussions with leading economists of the time including Dennis Robertson and John Maynard Keynes.
  After working in the League of Nations and the Cabinet Office, he was the leading economist of the early years of Attlee's government, before taking professorships at LSE (1947–57) and Cambridge (1957–67).
  Meade died in Cambridge at the age of 88.
  Meade was brought up in the city of Bath,Somerset in south-west England. He attended the Lambrook school in Berkshire from 1917 to 1921, where his education revolved around the Greek and Latin languages. In his time in Oriel College Oxford, Meade switched at the end of his second year from Greats to Philosophy, Politics and Economics which was a very new concept at that time having started only in 1921. Meade's interest in economics grew due to various reasons.
  
  wn.com/James_Meade
• James Tobin
  James Tobin (March 5, 1918 – March 11, 2002) was an American economist who, in his lifetime, served on the Council of Economic Advisors and the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, and taught at Harvard and Yale Universities. He developed the ideas of Keynesian economics, and advocated government intervention to stabilize output and avoid recessions. His academic work included pioneering contributions to the study of investment, monetary and fiscal policy and financial markets. He also proposed an econometric model for censored endogenous variables, the well known "Tobit model". Tobin received the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1981.
  Outside of academia, Tobin was widely known for his suggestion of a tax on foreign exchange transactions, now known as the "Tobin tax". This was designed to reduce speculation in the international currency markets, which he saw as dangerous and unproductive.
  James Tobin was born on March 5, 1918 in Champaign, Illinois. His father was Louis Michael Tobin, (b.1899) a journalist working at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. His father had fought in World War I, was a member of the first Greek Organization at Illinois (Delta Tau Delta fraternity Beta Upsilon chapter), and was credited as the inventor of 'Homecoming'. His mother, Margaret Edgerton Tobin (b.1893), was a social worker. Tobin followed primary school at the University Laboratory High School of Urbana, Illinois, a laboratory school in the university's campus.
  
  wn.com/James_Tobin
• Jan Kregel
  Jan A. Kregel (born 19 April 1944) is an eminent Post-Keynesian economist.
  Kregel has served since 2006 as Professor of Finance and Development at Tallinn University of Technology, Tallinn, Estonia. He is an adjunct professor at Johns Hopkins SAIS (SAIS), whose Bologna Center he co-directed in the late 1980s, and a visiting professor at the University of Missouri–Kansas City. He is also one of the Senior Scholars at the Levy Economics Institute of Bard College. Until 2007, he was Chief of the Policy Analysis and Development Branch of the Financing for Development Office of United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Until 2004, he was High Level Expert in International Finance and Macroeconomics in the New York Liaison Office of UNCTAD, being in essence its chief economist. For many years, he held the Chair for Political Economy at the University of Bologna.
  Kregel studied mainly at the University of Cambridge (with Joan Robinson and Nicholas Kaldor) and Rutgers University (Ph.D. 1970 under supervision of Paul Davidson). He is a Life Fellow of the Royal Economic Society in London and in 2000 he co-founded The Other Canon, a center and network for heterodox economics research, with main founder and executive chairman Erik Reinert.
  
  wn.com/Jan_Kregel
• Jay Parini
  Jay Parini (born 1948) is an American writer and academic. He is known for novels and poetry, biography and criticism.
  He was born in Pittston, Pennsylvania, and brought up in Scranton, Pennsylvania. He graduated from Lafayette College in 1970 and was awarded a doctorate by the University of St. Andrews in 1975. He taught at Dartmouth College from 1975 to 1982, and has taught since 1982 at Middlebury College, where he is the D.E. Axinn Professor of English and Creative Writing. He is a member of the Board of Visitors of Ralston College, a liberal arts college in Savannah that was founded in February, 2010. He is married to the writer and psychologist Devon Jersild; they have three sons.
  He is a regular contributor to various journals and newspapers, including The Chronicle of Higher Education and The Guardian (U.K.). In 1976, he co-founded New England Review with Sydney Lea. In 1995 he was appointed literary executor for Gore Vidal.
  Parini's 1990 novel The Last Station was adapted into a film that was released in December 2009.
  
  wn.com/Jay_Parini
• Jerry A. Hausman
  Jerry A. Hausman is the John and Jennie S. MacDonald Professor of Economics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and a famous econometrician. He has also published numerous papers in applied microeconomics. He is the recipient of several prestigious awards including the John Bates Clark Medal in 1985 and the Frisch Medal in 1980.
  He is perhaps most well known for his development of the Hausman specification test, the first easy method allowing scientists to evaluate if their statistical models correspond to the data.
  He has done extensive work in the field of telecommunications, and is also recognized as an expert on antitrust and mergers, public finance and taxation, and regulation. Hausman also serves as the director of the MIT Telecommunications Economics Research Program.
  His recent applied papers are on topics including the effect of new goods on economic welfare and their measurement in the CPI, new telecommunications technologies including cellular 3G and broadband, regulation of telecommunications and railroads, and competition in network markets. His recent econometrics papers include estimation of difference in difference models, semi-parametric duration models, weak instruments, and errors in variables in non-standard situations.
  
  wn.com/Jerry_A._Hausman
• Joan Robinson
  Joan Violet Robinson FBA (31 October 1903 in Surrey – 5 August 1983 in Cambridge) was a post-Keynesian economist who was well known for her knowledge of monetary economics and wide-ranging contributions to economic theory. She was the daughter of Major-General Sir Frederick Barton Maurice, 1st Baronet and was married to fellow economist Austin Robinson.
  Robinson read economics at Girton College, Cambridge. Immediately after graduation in 1925, she married economist Austin Robinson. In 1937, she became a lecturer in economics at the University of Cambridge. She joined the British Academy in 1958 and was then elected fellow of Newnham College in 1962. In 1965 she was given the position of full professor and fellow of Girton College. In 1979, just four years before she died, she became the first female fellow of King's College.
  Initially a supporter of neoclassical economics, she changed her mind after getting acquainted with John Maynard Keynes. As a member of "the Cambridge School" of economics, Robinson assisted with the support and exposition of Keynes' General Theory, writing especially on its employment implications in 1936 and 1937 (it attempted to explain employment dynamics in the midst of the Great Depression).
  
  wn.com/Joan_Robinson
• 
  John B. Taylor
  John Brian Taylor (born December 8, 1946) is the Mary and Robert Raymond Professor of Economics at Stanford University, and the George P. Shultz Senior Fellow in Economics at Stanford University's Hoover Institution.
  Born in Yonkers, New York, he graduated from Shady Side Academy and earned his A.B. from Princeton University in 1968 and Ph.D. from Stanford in 1973, both in economics. He taught at Columbia University from 1973–1980 and the Woodrow Wilson School and Economics Department of Princeton University from 1980–1984 before returning to Stanford. He has received several teaching prizes and teaches Stanford's introductory economics course as well as Ph.D. courses in monetary economics.
  In research published in 1979 and 1980 he developed a model of price and wage setting—called the staggered contract model—which served as an underpinning of a new class of empirical models with rational expectations and sticky prices—sometimes called new Keynesian models. In a 1993 paper he proposed the Taylor rule, intended as a recommendation about how nominal interest rates should be determined, which then became a rough summary of how central banks actually do set them. He has been active in public policy, serving as the Under Secretary of the Treasury for International Affairs during the first term of the George W. Bush Administration. His book Global Financial Warriors chronicles this period. He was a member of the President's Council of Economic Advisors during the George H. W. Bush Administration and Senior Economist at the Council of Economic Advisors during the Ford and Carter Administrations.
  
  wn.com/John_B._Taylor
• John Hicks
  Sir John Richard Hicks (8 April 1904 – 20 May 1989) was a British economist and one of the most important and influential economists of the twentieth century. The most familiar of his many contributions in the field of economics were his statement of consumer demand theory in microeconomics, and the IS/LM model (1937), which summarised a Keynesian view of macroeconomics. His book Value and Capital (1939) significantly extended general-equilibrium and value theory. The compensated demand function is named the Hicksian demand function in memory of him.
  In 1972 he received the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences (jointly) for his pioneering contribution to general equilibrium theory and welfare theory.
  Hicks was born in 1904 at Warwick, England. His father was a journalist at a local newspaper.
  He was educated at Clifton College (1917–22) and at Balliol College, Oxford (1922–26), financed by mathematical scholarships. During his school days, and in his first year at Oxford, he specialised in mathematics but also had interests in literature and history. In 1923, he moved to Philosophy, Politics and Economics, the "new school" just being started at Oxford, graduating with second-class honors and, so he states, "no adequate qualification in any of the subjects" that he had studied.
  
  wn.com/John_Hicks
• 
  John Maynard Keynes
  John Maynard Keynes, 1st Baron Keynes,CB FBA ( /ˈkeɪnz/ KAYNZ; 5 June 1883–21 April 1946) was a British economist whose ideas have profoundly affected the theory and practice of modern macroeconomics, as well as the economic policies of governments. He greatly refined earlier work on the causes of business cycles, and advocated the use of fiscal and monetary measures to mitigate the adverse effects of economic recessions and depressions. His ideas are the basis for the school of thought known as Keynesian economics, as well as its various offshoots.
  In the 1930s, Keynes spearheaded a revolution in economic thinking, overturning the older ideas of neoclassical economics that held that free markets would, in the short to medium term, automatically provide full employment, as long as workers were flexible in their wage demands. Keynes instead argued that aggregate demand determined the overall level of economic activity, and that inadequate aggregate demand could lead to prolonged periods of high unemployment. Following the outbreak of World War II, Keynes's ideas concerning economic policy were adopted by leading Western economies. During the 1950s and 1960s, the success of Keynesian economics resulted in almost all capitalist governments adopting its policy recommendations.
  
  wn.com/John_Maynard_Keynes
• John Quiggin
  John Quiggin (born 29 March 1956 in Adelaide) is an Australian economist and an Australian Research Council Federation fellow at the University of Queensland. He was Hinkley Visiting Professor at Johns Hopkins University in the fall of 2011. Quiggin studied at the Australian National University, obtaining bachelor's degrees in Arts and Economics in 1978 and 1980 respectively, and completing a master's degree in Economics in 1984. Quiggin was awarded his PhD from the University of New England in 1988. Since then, he has held academic positions at the Australian National University, James Cook University, and the University of Queensland.
  Quiggin is one of the most prolific economists in Australia, illustrated by his output over diverse, high-quality journals and by citation frequencies in the period 1988-2000. He is among the top 500 economists in the world according to IDEAS/RePEc. He is best known for his work on utility theory. Quiggin has frequently been awarded and recognised for his research, including twice receiving Federation Fellowships from the Australian Research Council. His most recent book, Zombie Economics: How Dead Ideas Still Walk among Us, was published in October 2010 from Princeton University Press. He is a Fellow of the Econometric Society and in 2011 received the Distinguished Fellow Award of the Economic Society of Australia.
  
  wn.com/John_Quiggin
• Jordi Galí
  Jordi Galí (born January 4, 1961, Barcelona, Spain) is a Spanish macroeconomist who is regarded as one of the main figures in New Keynesian macroeconomics today. He is currently the director of the Centre de Recerca en Economia Internacional (CREI, the Center for Research in International Economics) at Universitat Pompeu Fabra and a Research Professor at the Barcelona Graduate School of Economics. After obtaining his doctorate from MIT in 1989 under the supervision of Olivier Blanchard, he held faculty positions at Columbia University and New York University before moving to Barcelona.
  Galí's research centers on the causes of business cycles and on optimal monetary policy, especially through the lens of time series analysis. His studies with Richard Clarida and Mark Gertler suggest that monetary policy in many countries today resembles the Taylor rule, whereas the policy makers of the 1970s failed to follow the Taylor rule.
  Another theme of Galí's research is how central banks should set interest rates. In some of the simplest New Keynesian macroeconomic models, stabilizing the inflation rate stabilizes the output gap too. If this property were roughly true in reality, it would permit central bankers to pursue a simplified Taylor rule focused only on inflation stabilization, with no need to consider output growth. Jordi Galí and Olivier Blanchard have called this property the 'divine coincidence', and have argued that in more realistic models which include additional frictions, it no longer holds. Instead, models with additional frictions (such as frictional unemployment) imply a tradeoff between stabilizing inflation and stabilizing the output gap.
  
  wn.com/Jordi_Galí
• 
  Joseph Stiglitz
  Joseph Eugene Stiglitz, ForMemRS, FBA, (born February 9, 1943) is an American economist and a professor at Columbia University. He is a recipient of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences (2001) and the John Bates Clark Medal (1979). He is also the former Senior Vice President and Chief Economist of the World Bank. He is known for his critical view of the management of globalization, free-market economists (whom he calls "free market fundamentalists") and some international institutions like the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank.
  In 2000, Stiglitz founded the Initiative for Policy Dialogue (IPD), a think tank on international development based at Columbia University. Since 2001, he has been a member of the Columbia faculty, and has been a University Professor since 2003. He also chairs the University of Manchester's Brooks World Poverty Institute and is a member of the Pontifical Academy of Social Sciences. Stiglitz is an honorary doctor of Durham Business School, an honorary doctor at the Charles University, an honorary professor at Tsinghua University School of Public Policy and Management and a member of the Executive and Supervisory Committee (ESC) of CERGE-EI in Prague. Stiglitz is one of the most frequently cited economists in the world.
  
  wn.com/Joseph_Stiglitz
• Julio Rotemberg
  Julio J. Rotemberg is an American economist at Harvard Business School. He is known for his collaboration with Michael Woodford on the first New Keynesian DSGE model, especially on monopolistic competition. He is also known for an alternative model of sticky prices.
  Rotemberg holds a B.A. in Economics (1975) from the University of California, Berkeley, and a Ph.D. in Economics (1981) from Princeton University.
  
  wn.com/Julio_Rotemberg
• 
  Kenneth Arrow
  Kenneth Joseph Arrow (born August 23, 1921) is an American economist and joint winner of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with John Hicks in 1972. To date, he is the youngest person to have received this award, at 51.
  In economics, he is considered an important figure in post-World War II neo-classical economic theory. Many of his former graduate students have gone on to win the Nobel Memorial Prize themselves. Arrow's impact on the economics profession has been tremendous. For more than fifty years he has been one of the most influential of all practising economists.
  His most significant works are his contributions to social choice theory, notably "Arrow's impossibility theorem", and his work on general equilibrium analysis. He has also provided foundational work in many other areas of economics, including endogenous growth theory and the economics of information.
  Arrow was born on August 23, 1921, in New York City to parents of Romanian Jewish origins. His family was very supportive of his education.
  
  wn.com/Kenneth_Arrow
• Kenneth E. Boulding
  Kenneth Ewart Boulding (January 18, 1910 – March 18, 1993) was an economist, educator, peace activist, poet, religious mystic, devoted Quaker, systems scientist, and interdisciplinary philosopher. He was cofounder of General Systems Theory and founder of numerous ongoing intellectual projects in economics and social science. He was married to Elise M. Boulding.
  Boulding was born in Liverpool, England in 1910. He graduated from Oxford University, and was granted United States citizenship in 1948. During the years 1949 to 1967, he was a faculty member of the University of Michigan. In 1967, he joined the faculty of the University of Colorado at Boulder, where he remained until his retirement.
  Boulding was president of numerous scholarly societies including the American Economic Association, the Society for General Systems Research, and the American Association for the Advancement of Science. He was not only a prolific writer and a creative integrator of knowledge, but an academician of world stature—indeed, a magisterial figure in the discipline of social science. For Boulding, economics and sociology were not social sciences—rather, they were all aspects of a single social science devoted to the study of human persons and their relationships (organizations). Boulding spearheaded an evolutionary (instead of equilibrium) approach to economics.
  
  wn.com/Kenneth_E._Boulding
• Kevin M. Murphy
  Kevin Miles Murphy is the George J. Stigler Distinguished Service Professor of Economics at the University of Chicago Booth School of Business and a Senior Fellow at the Hoover Institution.
  In 1997 Murphy was awarded the prestigious John Bates Clark Medal by the American Economic Association, given once every two years to the most outstanding American economist under the age of forty, and widely considered to be the second most prestigious prize in economics (after the Nobel Prize in Economics). Murphy was cited for his study of the causes of growing income inequality between white-collar and blue-collar workers in the United States and his research linking the growth in income inequality to growth in the demand for skilled labor. His other research has covered such topics as economic growth, income inequality, valuing medical research, rational addiction, and unemployment.
  Murphy has authored over 50 published articles on a variety of topics including a cost-benefit analysis of the war in Iraq.
  
  wn.com/Kevin_M._Murphy
• 
  Keynes
  John Maynard Keynes, 1st Baron Keynes,CB FBA ( /ˈkeɪnz/ KAYNZ; 5 June 1883–21 April 1946) was a British economist whose ideas have profoundly affected the theory and practice of modern macroeconomics, as well as the economic policies of governments. He greatly refined earlier work on the causes of business cycles, and advocated the use of fiscal and monetary measures to mitigate the adverse effects of economic recessions and depressions. His ideas are the basis for the school of thought known as Keynesian economics, as well as its various offshoots.
  In the 1930s, Keynes spearheaded a revolution in economic thinking, overturning the older ideas of neoclassical economics that held that free markets would, in the short to medium term, automatically provide full employment, as long as workers were flexible in their wage demands. Keynes instead argued that aggregate demand determined the overall level of economic activity, and that inadequate aggregate demand could lead to prolonged periods of high unemployment. Following the outbreak of World War II, Keynes's ideas concerning economic policy were adopted by leading Western economies. During the 1950s and 1960s, the success of Keynesian economics resulted in almost all capitalist governments adopting its policy recommendations.
  
  wn.com/Keynes
• Larry Lindsey
  Lawrence B. Lindsey was director of the National Economic Council (2001–2002), and the assistant to the president on economic policy for the U.S. President George W. Bush. He played a leading role in formulating President Bush's $1.35 trillion tax cut plan, convincing candidate Bush that he needed an "insurance policy" against an economic turndown. He left the White House in December 2002 and was replaced by Stephen Friedman after he estimated the cost of the Iraq war could reach $200 billion per year.
  Lindsey, his wife, Susan, and children Troy, Emily, and Thomas reside in Clifton, Virginia.
  Lindsey was born on July 18, 1954 in Peekskill, New York. He graduated from Lakeland Senior High School in Shrub Oak, New York in 1972. He received his A.B. magna cum laude and Phi Beta Kappa from Bowdoin College and his A.M. and Ph.D. in economics from Harvard University.
  He is the author of The Growth Experiment: How the New Tax Policy is Transforming the U.S. Economy (Basic Books, New York, 1990) and Economic Puppetmasters: Lessons from the Halls of Power (AEI Press, Washington, D.C., 1999), and What A President Should Know ...but most learn too late: An Insiders View On How To Succeed In The Oval Office (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., Maryland, 2008), and has contributed numerous articles to professional publications. His honors and awards include the Distinguished Public Service Award of the Boston Bar Association, 1994; an honorary degree from Bowdoin College, 1993; selection as a Citicorp/Wriston Fellow for Economic Research, 1988; and the Outstanding Doctoral Dissertation Award from the National Tax Association, 1985.
  
  wn.com/Larry_Lindsey
• Lawrence Klein
  Lawrence Robert Klein (born September 14, 1920) is an American economist. For his work in creating computer models to forecast economic trends in the field of econometrics at the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania, he was awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1980. Specifically "for the creation of economic models and their application to the analysis of economic fluctuations and economic policies." Due to his efforts, such models have become widespread among economists.
  Klein was born in Omaha, Nebraska, the son of Blanche (née Monheit) and Leo Byron Klein. He went on to graduate from Los Angeles City College, where he learned calculus; the University of California, Berkeley, where he began his computer modeling and earned a B.A. in Economics in 1942; he earned his Ph.D. in Economics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1944.
  Klein then moved to the Cowles Commission for Research in Economics, which was then at the University of Chicago, now the Cowles Foundation. There he built a model of the United States economy to forecast the development of business fluctuations and to study the effects of government economic-political policy. After World War II Klein used his model to correctly predict, against the prevailing expectation, that there would be an economic upturn rather than a depression. Similarly, he correctly predicted a mild recession at the end of the Korean War.
  
  wn.com/Lawrence_Klein
• Lawrence Lau
  Professor Lawrence J. Lau (Traditional Chinese: 劉遵義), JP is a Hong Kong economist and the former Vice-Chancellor of The Chinese University of Hong Kong. He is also the non-official member of the Executive Council of Hong Kong from 2009. Before coming to the CUHK he was an economics professor at Stanford University.
  He was born on 12 December 1944 in Zunyi, Guizhou. His maternal grandfather was famed calligrapher and Kuomingtang leader Yu You-ren of Shaanxi Province.
  He received his secondary education from St. Paul's Co-educational College in Hong Kong, his B.S. degree in Physics and Economics, with Great Distinction, from Stanford University in 1964, and his M.A. and Ph.D. degrees in Economics from the University of California, Berkeley in 1966 and 1969 respectively. He joined the faculty of the Department of Economics of Stanford University in 1966 and was promoted to Professor of Economics in 1976.
  In 1992, he was named the first Kwoh-Ting Li Professor of Economic Development at Stanford University. From 1992 to 1996, he served as a Co-Director of the Asia/Pacific Research Center of Stanford University. From 1997 to 1999, he served as the Director of the Stanford Institute for Economic Policy Research (SIEPR) of Stanford University. His specialized fields are Economic Development, Economic Growth, and the Economies of East Asia, including China. He developed one of the first econometric models of China, in 1966, and has continued to revise and update his model since then.
  
  wn.com/Lawrence_Lau
• 
  Lawrence Summers
  Lawrence Henry Summers (born November 30, 1954) is an American economist. He served as the 71st United States Secretary of the Treasury from 1999 to 2001 under President Bill Clinton. He was Director of the White House United States National Economic Council for President Barack Obama until November 2010. Summers is the Charles W. Eliot University Professor at Harvard University's Kennedy School of Government. He is the 1993 recipient of the John Bates Clark Medal for his work in several fields of economics.
  Summers also served as the 27th President of Harvard University from 2001 to 2006. Summers resigned as Harvard's president in the wake of a no-confidence vote by Harvard faculty that resulted in large part from Summers's conflict with Cornel West, financial conflict of interest questions regarding his relationship with Andrei Shleifer, and a 2005 speech in which he suggested that the under-representation of women in science and engineering could be due to a "different availability of aptitude at the high end," and less to patterns of discrimination and socialization.
  
  wn.com/Lawrence_Summers
• 
  Lloyd Metzler
  Lloyd Appleton Metzler (1913 – 26 October 1980) was an American economist best known for his contributions to international trade theory. He was born at Lost Springs, Kansas in 1913. Although most of his career was spent at the University of Chicago, he was not a member of the Chicago school, but rather a Keynesian. The Economics department at the University of Chicago at that time was a fairly contentious place.
  Lloyd was the youngest son of Leroy and Lulu Appleton Metzler, who were both schoolteachers and both had college degrees. All three of the boys attended the University of Kansas at Lawrence, Kansas. Leroy was a Civil engineer, and Donald became the head of the Engineering department and served as mayor of Lawrence. Lloyd was heading for a degree and career in business until he fell under the tutelage of John Ise (http://www.washburn.edu/reference/cks/mapping/ise/) who convinced him to switch to Economics and who was a life-long hero.
  After graduation, Metzler received his PhD in Economics at Harvard University, where he became great friends with Paul Samuelson.
  
  wn.com/Lloyd_Metzler
• 
  Marc Lavoie
  Marc Lavoie (born in 1954 in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada) is a Quebec ex-Olympic fencing athlete and professor in economics at the University of Ottawa.
  Marc Lavoie is a professor in the Department of Economics at the University of Ottawa, where he started teaching in 1979. Besides having published more than 100 articles in refereed journals and more than 60 chapters in books, he has written a number of books, among which Introduction to Post-Keynesian Economics (2006), translated into four languagues, Foundations of Post-Keynesian Economic Analysis (1992), as well as Monetary Economics: An Integrated Approach to Money, Income, Production and Wealth (2007) with Wynne Godley, a book which deals with the stock-flow consistent method. With Mario Seccareccia, he has been the co-editor of three books, including one on the works of Milton Friedman, in addition to writing the first Canadian edition of the Baumol and Blinder first-year textbook (2009).
  Lavoie has also been the associate editor of the Encyclopedia of Political Economy (1999), and he has been a visiting professor at the universities of Bordeaux, Nice, Rennes, Dijon, Grenoble, Limoges, Lille, Paris-Nord and Paris-1, as well as Curtin University in Perth (Australia). He has lectured at the post-Keynesian summer schools in Kansas City, the Levy Institute and Berlin.
  
  wn.com/Marc_Lavoie
• Marc Nerlove
  Marc Leon Nerlove (born October 12, 1933 in Chicago, Illinois, U.S.) is an American economist specialized in agricultural economics and econometrics. He is currently Professor of Agricultural and Resource Economics at the University of Maryland. In 1969 he was awarded the John Bates Clark Medal for his contributions to economics. In 2012, he was elected Distinguished Fellow of the American Economic Association.
  Marc Nerlove earned a B.A. with honors in mathematics in 1952 from the University of Chicago. He moved for graduate work to the Johns Hopkins University, earning in 1955 his M.A. and in 1956 his Ph.D. in Economics. He held teaching positions at the University of Minnesota (1959–60), Stanford University (1960–65), Yale University (1965–69), the University of Chicago (1969–74), Northwestern University (1974–82) and the University of Pennsylvania (1982–93). Since 1993 he is part of the faculty of the University of Maryland.
  
  
  
  wn.com/Marc_Nerlove
• 
  Mario Cuomo
  Mario Matthew Cuomo (/ˈkwoʊmoʊ/; born June 15, 1932) served as the 52nd Governor of New York from 1983 to 1994, and is the father of Andrew Cuomo, the current governor of New York.
  He was born in the New York City borough of Queens to a family of Italian-American origin. His father, Andrea Cuomo, was from Nocera Superiore, Italy, and his mother Immacolata was from Tramonti. The family owned a store in South Jamaica, Queens in New York City. Cuomo attended P.S. 50 and later earned his bachelor's degree in 1953 and law degree in 1956 from St. John's University, graduating first in his class. When he and the salutatorian (the late St. John's Law Dean Patrick Rohan) were summoned to the dean's office (Reverend Joseph T. Tinnelly) at the end of the year, he was asked what field he plans on going into after graduation.^{[citation needed]} Cuomo responded that he would like to be a trial lawyer. Consequently, he was sent to clerk for the Honorable Judge Adrian P. Burke of the New York Court of Appeals. Additionally, he was signed and played baseball in the Pittsburgh Pirates minor league system until he was injured when a ball hit his head, and subsequently became a scout for the team.
  
  wn.com/Mario_Cuomo
• Martin Feldstein
  Martin Stuart "Marty" Feldstein (born November 25, 1939) is an American economist. He is currently the George F. Baker Professor of Economics at Harvard University, and the president emeritus of the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER). He served as President and Chief Executive Officer of the NBER from 1978 through 2008. From 1982 to 1984, Feldstein served as chairman of the Council of Economic Advisers and as chief economic advisor to President Ronald Reagan (where his deficit hawk views clashed with Reagan administration economic policies). He has also been a member of the Washington-based financial advisory body the Group of Thirty since 2003.
  Feldstein was born in New York City and graduated from South Side High School in Rockville Centre, New York. He completed his undergraduate education at Harvard University (B.A., Summa Cum Laude, 1961), where he was affiliated with Adams House, and then attended University of Oxford (B.Litt., 1963; D.Phil., 1967). He was also a Fellow of Nuffield College, Oxford from 1964 to 1967.
  
  wn.com/Martin_Feldstein
• 
  Martin Wolf
  Martin Wolf, CBE (born 1946) is a British journalist, widely considered to be one of the world's most influential writers on economics. He is the associate editor and chief economics commentator at the Financial Times.
  Wolf was born in London, 1946. His father Edmund was an Austrian Jewish playwright who escaped from Vienna to England before World War II. In London, Edmund met Wolf's mother, a Dutch Jew who had lost nearly thirty close relatives in the Holocaust. Wolf recalls that his background left him wary of political extremes and encouraged his interest in economics, as he felt economic policy mistakes were one of the root causes of WWII. Wolf was educated at University College School and in 1967 entered Corpus Christi College at Oxford University for his undergraduate studies. He initially studied Classics before starting the Philosophy, Politics and Economics Course As a graduate student Wolf moved on to Nuffield College, also at Oxford, which he left with a master of philosophy degree in economics in 1971. Wolf has said that he never pursued a PhD because he "didn't want to become an academic". Wolf was an active supporter of the Labour Party (UK) until the early 1970s.
  
  wn.com/Martin_Wolf
• Masahisa Fujita
  Masahisa Fujita (藤田 昌久, Fujita Masahisa^?, born in 1943) is a Japanese economist and professor at Kyoto university, who has studied regional science and Urban Economics and International Trade, Spatial Economy (New Economic Geography).
  Fujita majored in urban planning as an undergraduate at Kyoto University. He studied regional science in University of Pennsylvania under Walter Isard and obtained a Ph.D.(in Regional Science) from University of Pennsylvania in 1972. He taught at University of Pennsylvania for about 20 years, and has been the faculty of Institute of Economic Research(KIER) Kyoto University since 1995, where he served as Director in 1999. He was the President of Institute of Developing Economies during 2003 to 2007, and proposed a basic concept of Economic Research Institute for ASEAN and East Asia to JETRO and METI.In 2007, he became President and Chief Research Officer of the Research Institute of Economy, Trade and Industry.
  Fujita is known as one of the pioneers of New Economic Geography, research of Spatial Economy as well as Paul Krugman. Fujita is the recipient of the 1983 Tord Palander Prize, the 1998 Walter Isard Award in regional science, and also awarded First Alonso Prize with Paul Krugman.
  
  wn.com/Masahisa_Fujita
• 
  Matthew Rabin
  Matthew Joel Rabin (born December 27, 1963) is the Edward G. and Nancy S. Jordan Professor of Economics in the Department of Economics at the University of California, Berkeley. He was the recipient of the 2001 John Bates Clark Medal, awarded to "that American economist under the age of forty who is judged to have made the most significant contribution to economic thought and knowledge."
  He received a Bachelor of Arts in Economics and Mathematics from University of Wisconsin–Madison in 1984 and Ph.D. in Economics from MIT in 1989. Before entering MIT, he was a research student at the London School of Economics
  His research is directed, among other economic fields, towards behavioral finance and behavioral economics. Rabin works on the economics of individual self-control problems, reference-dependent preferences, fairness motives and mistakes in probabilistic reasoning. He developed Rabin fairness as a model to account for fairness in social preferences. In 2001 he was awarded the John Bates Clark Medal by the American Economic Association and also the MacArthur "Genius" Fellowship. In 2006 he was awarded the John von Neumann Award by the Rajk László College for Advanced Studies.
  
  wn.com/Matthew_Rabin
• Maurice Obstfeld
  Maurice Moses "Maury" Obstfeld (born 1952) is a professor of economics at the University of California, Berkeley.
  He is well known for his work in international economics. He is among the most influential economists in the world according to IDEAS/RePEc. He graduated from Pennsylvania summa cum laude, Cambridge and MIT.
  
  
  
  
  
  wn.com/Maurice_Obstfeld
• 
  Michael Moore
  Michael Francis Moore (born April 23, 1954) is an American filmmaker, author, social critic and activist. He is the director and producer of Fahrenheit 9/11, which is the highest-grossing documentary of all time. His films Bowling for Columbine and Sicko also place in the top ten highest-grossing documentaries. In September 2008, he released his first free movie on the Internet, Slacker Uprising, which documented his personal quest to encourage more Americans to vote in presidential elections. He has also written and starred in the TV shows TV Nation and The Awful Truth.
  Moore criticizes globalization, large corporations, assault weapon ownership, U.S. Presidents Bill Clinton and George W. Bush, the Iraq War, the American health care system, and capitalism in his written and cinematic works.
  Moore was born in Flint, Michigan, and raised in Davison, a suburb of Flint, by parents Veronica (née Wall), a secretary, and Frank Moore, an automotive assembly-line worker. At that time, the city of Flint was home to many General Motors factories, where his parents and grandfather worked. His uncle LaVerne was one of the founders of the United Automobile Workers labor union and participated in the Flint Sit-Down Strike.
  
  wn.com/Michael_Moore
• 
  Michael Spence
  Andrew Michael Spence (born November 7, 1943) is an American economist and recipient of the 2001 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, along with George A. Akerlof and Joseph E. Stiglitz, for their work on the dynamics of information flows and market development. He conducted this research while at Harvard University. In the current technological environment—with ever more abundant information flows about market development, prices, profit margins, investment instruments and rates of return—their work is more relevant than ever.
  Michael Spence is probably most famous for his job-market signaling model, which essentially triggered the enormous volume of literature in this branch of contract theory. In this model, employees signal their respective skills to employers by acquiring a certain degree of education, which is costly to them. Employers will pay higher wages to more educated employees, because they know that the proportion of employees with high abilities is higher among the educated ones, as it is less costly for them to acquire education than it is for employees with low abilities. For the model to work, it is not even necessary for education to have any intrinsic value if it can convey information about the sender (employee) to the recipient (employer) and if the signal is costly.
  
  wn.com/Michael_Spence
• 
  Michał Kalecki
  Michał Kalecki [ˈmixau̯ kaˈlɛt​͡ski] (June 22, 1899 in Łódź – April 18, 1970 in Warsaw) was a Polish economist who specialized in macroeconomics of a broadly-defined Keynesian sort. Over the course of his life, Kalecki worked at the London School of Economics, University of Cambridge, University of Oxford and Warsaw School of Economics as well as an economic advisor to governments of Cuba, Israel, Mexico and India.
  Kalecki has been called "one of the most distinguished economists of the 20th century." It is often claimed that he developed many of the same ideas as Keynes, before Keynes; however, since he published in Polish, he remains much less known to the English-speaking world. He offered a synthesis that integrated Marxist class analysis and the then-new literature on oligopoly theory, and his work had a significant influence on both Neo-Marxian (Monopoly Capital) and Post Keynesian schools of economic thought. He was also one of the first macroeconomists to apply mathematical models and statistical data to economic questions.
  
  wn.com/Michał_Kalecki
• 
  Milton Friedman
  Milton Friedman (July 31, 1912 – November 16, 2006) was an American economist, statistician, and author who taught at the University of Chicago for more than three decades. He was a recipient of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, and is known for his research on consumption analysis, monetary history and theory, and the complexity of stabilization policy. As a leader of the Chicago school of economics, he influenced the research agenda of the economics profession. A survey of economists ranked Friedman as the second most popular economist of the twentieth century behind John Maynard Keynes, and The Economist described him as "the most influential economist of the second half of the 20th century…possibly of all of it."
  Friedman's challenges to what he later called "naive Keynesian" (as opposed to New Keynesian) theory began with his 1950s reinterpretation of the consumption function, and he became the main advocate opposing activist Keynesian government policies. In the late 1960s he described his own approach (along with all of mainstream economics) as using "Keynesian language and apparatus" yet rejecting its "initial" conclusions. During the 1960s he promoted an alternative macroeconomic policy known as "monetarism". He theorized there existed a "natural" rate of unemployment, and argued that governments could increase employment above this rate (e.g., by increasing aggregate demand) only at the risk of causing inflation to accelerate. He argued that the Phillips curve was not stable and predicted what would come to be known as stagflation. Friedman argued that, given the existence of the Federal Reserve, a constant small expansion of the money supply was the only wise policy.
  
  wn.com/Milton_Friedman
• 
  N. Gregory Mankiw
  Nicholas Gregory "Greg" Mankiw ( /ˈmæn.kjuː/; Ukrainian Cyrillic: Григорій Манків; born February 3, 1958) is an American macroeconomist and Professor of Economics at Harvard University. Mankiw is known in academia for his work on New Keynesian economics.
  From 2003 to 2005, Mankiw was chairman of the Council of Economic Advisers under President George W. Bush. In 2006, he became an economic adviser to Mitt Romney and continued during Romney's 2012 presidential bid. He is a conservative and he writes a popular blog, ranked the number one economics blog by US economics professors in a 2011 survey. He is also author of the best-selling textbook Principles of Economics, and according to the IDEAS/RePEc rankings, he is the 32nd most widely cited economist in the world today.
  Mankiw was born in Trenton, New Jersey. In his youth, he attended the Pingry School. In 1975, he studied astronomy at the Summer Science Program. He graduated from Princeton University summa cum laude in 1980 with a Bachelor of Arts in economics. He spent a year working on his Doctor of Philosophy at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and a subsequent year studying at Harvard Law School. He worked as a staff economist for the Council of Economic Advisers from 1982–83, foreshadowing his later position as chairman of that organization. After leaving the Council, he earned his PhD in economics from MIT in 1984. He returned to Harvard Law for a year but, having nearly completed his PhD and realizing he was not as comparatively good at law, he left to teach at MIT for a year and then became an assistant professor of Economics at Harvard University in 1985 and full professor in 1987.
  
  wn.com/N._Gregory_Mankiw
• 
  Naomi Klein
  Naomi Klein (born May 8, 1970) is a Canadian author and social activist known for her political analyses and criticism of corporate globalization.
  Klein was born in Montreal, Quebec, and brought up in a Jewish family with a history of peace activism. Her parents had moved to Montreal from the U.S. in 1967 as war resisters to the Vietnam War. Her mother, documentary film-maker Bonnie Sherr Klein, is best known for her anti-pornography film Not a Love Story. Her father, Michael Klein, is a physician and a member of Physicians for Social Responsibility. Her brother, Seth Klein, is director of the British Columbia office of the Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives.
  Her paternal grandparents were communists who began to turn against the Soviet Union after the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact and had abandoned communism by 1956. In 1942 her grandfather Phil Klein, an animator at Disney, was fired after the Disney animators' strike, and went to work at a shipyard instead. Klein's father grew up surrounded by ideas of social justice and racial equality, but found it "difficult and frightening to be the child of Communists", a so-called red diaper baby.
  
  wn.com/Naomi_Klein
• Nicholas Confessore
  Nicholas Confessore is a political correspondent on the National Desk of The New York Times covering the 2012 presidential campaign. He was previously an editor at The Washington Monthly and a staff writer for The American Prospect. He has also written for The New York Times Magazine, The Atlantic Monthly, Rolling Stone, The Los Angeles Times, The Boston Globe, Salon.com, and other publications. He won the 2003 Livingston Award for national reporting.
  He was part of a team of reporters whose coverage of the downfall of New York governor Eliot Spitzer won the 2009 Pulitzer Prize for breaking news reporting and the Sigma Delta Chi award for deadline reporting from the Society of Professional Journalists.
  Confessore grew up in New York City. He was a politics major at Princeton University, class of 1998. He wrote for the Nassau Weekly.
  
  
  
  wn.com/Nicholas_Confessore
• 
  Nicholas Kaldor
  Nicholas Kaldor, Baron Kaldor (born Káldor Miklós) (12 May 1908 - 30 September 1986) was one of the foremost Cambridge economists in the post-war period. He developed the famous "compensation" criteria called Kaldor–Hicks efficiency for welfare comparisons (1939), derived the famous cobweb model and argued that there were certain regularities that are observable as far as economic growth is concerned (Kaldor's growth laws.) Kaldor worked alongside with Gunnar Myrdal to develop the key concept Circular Cumulative Causation, a multi-causal approach where the core variables and their linkages are delineated. Both Myrdal and Kaldor examine circular relationships, where the interdependencies between factors are relatively strong, and where variables interlink in the determination of major processes. Kaldor also coined the term "convenience yield" related to commodity markets and the so called theory of storage, which was initially developed by Holbrook Working.
  He was born Káldor Miklós in Budapest, and was educated there, as well as in Berlin, and at the London School of Economics, where he subsequently became a lecturer. After service in World War II, he held a senior post with the Economic Commission for Europe. From 1964, he was an advisor to the Labour government of the UK and also advised several other countries, producing some of the earliest memoranda regarding the creation of value added tax. Inter alia, Kaldor was considered, with his fellow-Hungarian Thomas Balogh, one of the intellectual authors of the 1964-70 Harold Wilson's government's short-lived "selective employment tax (SET)" designed to tax employment in service sectors while subsidising employment in manufacturing. In 1966, he became professor of economics at the University of Cambridge. In 1974, Kaldor was made a life peer as Baron Kaldor, of Newnham in the City of Cambridge.
  
  wn.com/Nicholas_Kaldor
• Nobuhiro Kiyotaki
  Nobuhiro Kiyotaki (清滝 信宏, Kiyotaki Nobuhiro^?, born June 24, 1955) is a Japanese economist and professor at Princeton University especially known for proposing several models that provide deeper microeconomic foundations for macroeconomics, some of which play a prominent role in New Keynesian macroeconomics.
  He received a B.A. from University of Tokyo in 1978. After receiving his doctorate in economics from Harvard University in 1985, Kiyotaki held faculty positions at the Univ. of Wisconsin–Madison, the Univ. of Minnesota, and the London School of Economics before moving to Princeton.
  He is a fellow of the Econometric Society, was awarded the 1997 Nakahara Prize of the Japan Economics Association and the 1999 Yrjö Jahnsson Award of the European Economic Association, the latter together with John Moore. Thomson Reuters lists Kiyotaki among the 'citation laureates' who are likely future winners of the Nobel Prize in Economics.
  In 1987, together with Olivier Blanchard, Kiyotaki demonstrated the importance of monopolistic competition for the aggregate demand multiplier. Most New Keynesian macroeconomic models now assume monopolistic competition for the reasons outlined by Blanchard and Kiyotaki.
  
  wn.com/Nobuhiro_Kiyotaki
• 
  Nouriel Roubini
  Nouriel Roubini (born March 29, 1959) is an American economist. He anticipated the collapse of the United States housing market and the worldwide recession which started in 2008. He teaches at New York University's Stern School of Business and is the chairman of Roubini Global Economics, an economic consultancy firm.
  The child of Iranian Jews, he grew up in Italy. After receiving a BA in political economics at Bocconi University, Milan and a doctorate in international economics at Harvard University, he became an academic at Yale and a practicing economist at the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the Federal Reserve, World Bank, and Bank of Israel. Much of his early research focused on emerging markets. During the administration of President Bill Clinton, he was a senior economist for the Council of Economic Advisers, later moving to the United States Treasury Department as a senior adviser to Timothy Geithner, who in 2009 became Treasury Secretary.
  Roubini's critical economic views have earned him the nicknames "Dr. Doom" and "permabear" in the media. In 2008, Fortune magazine wrote, "In 2005 Roubini said home prices were riding a speculative wave that would soon sink the economy. Back then the professor was called a Cassandra. Now he's a sage". The New York Times notes that he foresaw "homeowners defaulting on mortgages, trillions of dollars of mortgage-backed securities unraveling worldwide and the global financial system shuddering to a halt". In September 2006, he warned a skeptical IMF that "the United States was likely to face a once-in-a-lifetime housing bust, an oil shock, sharply declining consumer confidence, and, ultimately, a deep recession". Nobel laureate Paul Krugman adds that his once "seemingly outlandish" predictions have been matched "or even exceeded by reality."
  
  wn.com/Nouriel_Roubini
• 
  Obama administration
  The Presidency of Barack Obama began at noon EST on January 20, 2009, when he became the 44th President of the United States. Obama was a United States Senator from Illinois at the time of his victory over Arizona Senator John McCain in the 2008 presidential election. Barack Obama is the first African-American president of the United States, as well as the first born in Hawaii.
  His policy decisions have addressed a global financial crisis and have included changes in tax policies, legislation to reform the United States health care industry, foreign policy initiatives and the phasing out of detention of prisoners at the Guantanamo Bay detention camp in Cuba. He attended the G-20 London summit and later visited U.S. troops in Iraq. On the tour of various European countries following the G-20 summit, he announced in Prague that he intended to negotiate substantial reduction in the world's nuclear arsenals, en route to their eventual extinction. In October 2009, Obama was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for "his extraordinary efforts to strengthen international diplomacy and cooperation between peoples."
  
  wn.com/Obama_administration
• 
  Oliver E. Williamson
  Oliver Eaton Williamson (born September 27, 1932) is an American economist, professor at the University of California, Berkeley and recipient of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences.
  A student of Ronald Coase, Herbert A. Simon and Richard Cyert, he specializes in transaction cost economics. Williamson received his B.S. in management from the MIT Sloan School of Management in 1955, M.B.A. from Stanford University in 1960, and his Ph.D. from Carnegie Mellon University in 1963. From 1965 to 1983 he was a professor at the University of Pennsylvania and from 1983 to 1988, Gordon B. Tweedy Professor of Economics of Law and Organization at Yale University. He has held professorships in business administration, economics, and law at the University of California, Berkeley since 1988 and is currently the Edgar F. Kaiser Professor Emeritus at the Haas School of Business. In 2009 he was awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics for "his analysis of economic governance, especially the boundaries of the firm", sharing it with Elinor Ostrom.
  
  wn.com/Oliver_E._Williamson
• 
  Olivier Blanchard
  Olivier Jean Blanchard (born December 27, 1948, Amiens, France) is currently the chief economist at the International Monetary Fund, a post he has held since September 1, 2008. He is also the Class of 1941 Professor of Economics at MIT, though he is currently on leave. Blanchard is one of the most cited economists in the world, according to IDEAS/RePEc.
  Blanchard earned his Bachelor at Paris Dauphine University, and Ph.D. in Economics in 1977 at MIT. He taught at Harvard University between 1977 and 1983, after which time he returned to MIT as a professor. Between 1998 and 2003 Blanchard served as the Chairman of the Economics Department at MIT. He is also an adviser for the Federal Reserve banks of Boston (since 1995) and New York (since 2004).
  Blanchard has published numerous research papers in the field of macroeconomics, as well as undergraduate and graduate macroeconomics textbooks..
  
  
  
  wn.com/Olivier_Blanchard
• 
  Paul Krugman
  Paul Robin Krugman ( /ˈkruːɡmən/; born February 28, 1953) is an American economist, Professor of Economics and International Affairs at the Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs at Princeton University, Centenary Professor at the London School of Economics, and an op-ed columnist for The New York Times. In 2008, Krugman won the Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences (informally the Nobel Prize in Economics) for his contributions to New Trade Theory and New Economic Geography. According to the Nobel Prize Committee, the prize was given for Krugman's work explaining the patterns of international trade and the geographic concentration of wealth, by examining the impact of economies of scale and of consumer preferences for diverse goods and services.
  Krugman is known in academia for his work on international economics (including trade theory, economic geography, and international finance),liquidity traps and currency crises. He is the 17th most widely cited economist in the world today and is ranked among the most influential academic thinkers in the US.
  
  wn.com/Paul_Krugman
• 
  Paul Samuelson
  Paul Anthony Samuelson (May 15, 1915 – December 13, 2009) was an American economist, and the first American to win the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences. The Swedish Royal Academies stated, when awarding the prize, that he "has done more than any other contemporary economist to raise the level of scientific analysis in economic theory." Economic historian Randall E. Parker calls him the "Father of Modern Economics", and The New York Times considered him to be the "foremost academic economist of the 20th century."
  He was author of the largest-selling economics textbook of all time: Economics: An Introductory Analysis, first published in 1948. It was the second American textbook to explain the principles of Keynesian economics and how to think about economics, and the first one to be successful, and is now in its 19th edition, having sold nearly 4 million copies in 40 languages. James Poterba, former head of MIT's Department of Economics, noted that by his book, Samuelson "leaves an immense legacy, as a researcher and a teacher, as one of the giants on whose shoulders every contemporary economist stands." In 1996, when he was awarded the National Medal of Science, considered America's top science honor, President Bill Clinton commended Samuelson for his "fundamental contributions to economic science" for over 60 years.
  
  wn.com/Paul_Samuelson
• 
  Ralph Nader
  Ralph Nader ( /ˈneɪdər/; born February 27, 1934) is an American political activist, as well as an author, lecturer, and attorney. Areas of particular concern to Nader include consumer protection, humanitarianism, environmentalism, and democratic government.
  Nader came to prominence in 1965 with the publication of his book Unsafe at Any Speed, a critique of the safety record of American automobile manufacturers in general, and most famously the Chevrolet Corvair. In 1999, an NYU panel of journalists ranked Unsafe at Any Speed 38th among the top 100 pieces of journalism of the 20th century.
  Nader is a six-time candidate for President of the United States, having run as a write-in candidate in the 1992 New Hampshire Democratic primary, as the Green Party nominee in 1996 and 2000, and as an independent candidate in 2004 and 2008. Some people claim that Nader acted as a spoiler in the 2000 U.S. presidential election, while others, including Nader, dispute this claim.
  Nader was born in Winsted, Connecticut. His parents, Nathra and Rose (née Bouziane) Nader, were immigrants from Lebanon and members of the Maronite Church. His family's native language is Arabic, and he has spoken it along with English since childhood. His sister, Laura Nader, is an anthropologist. His father worked in a textile mill and later owned a bakery and restaurant where he talked politics with his customers.
  
  wn.com/Ralph_Nader
• 
  Randi Rhodes
  Randi Rhodes (born Randi Bueten; January 28, 1959) is an American progressive talk radio personality, formerly featured on Air America Radio and Nova M Radio and now on Premiere Radio Networks. Her eponymous program, The Randi Rhodes Show, airs live Monday through Friday from 3 pm to 6 pm Eastern Time.
  Rhodes was born in Brooklyn, New York and grew up in a Jewish family in both Brooklyn and the Queens borough of New York City. Her father was a mechanical engineer and World War II veteran, and her mother was a dress shop worker; they divorced by the time Rhodes was 15. Rhodes has described her adolescence as mischievous and cites it as why she enlisted in the United States Air Force. Her married name is Randi Robertson; Rhodes is a stage name chosen to honor Ozzy Osbourne's guitar player Randy Rhoads, whom Rhodes describes as "a consummate professional ... but he always practiced. I mean, he practiced eight hours a day. He lived to be the best."
  Rhodes enlisted in the United States Air Force and worked stateside at McGuire Air Force Base in New Jersey as an aircraft mechanic, achieving the rank of Airman First Class. She served two years in the Air Force and one year in the reserves. Rhodes went through basic training at Lackland Air Force Base in San Antonio, Texas. From there she went to Sheppard Air Force Base in Wichita Falls, Texas and was being trained as a flight engineer. First she became an aircraft mechanic. After she transferred to what would be her permanent station in New Jersey she decided to leave the active-duty Air Force through the Palace Chase program and was honorably discharged after three years service (two active duty and one reserve) at the age of 21. In the 1980 presidential election, Rhodes voted for Republican candidate Ronald Reagan, explaining: "I was young and stupid and sick of the gas lines," but never voted Republican again.
  
  wn.com/Randi_Rhodes
• Richard Koo
  Richard C. Koo (Japanese: リチャード・クー, IPA: [ɽit͡ɕaːdu͍ ku͍ː]; Chinese: 辜朝明; pinyin: Gū Cháomíng; born 1954) is a Taiwanese economist residing in Japan specializing in balance sheet recessions. He is Chief Economist at the Nomura Research Institute.
  Saying Koo's 2011 "causes, cure, and politics" publication "has gone viral on the Web", Landon Thomas in the New York Times featured Koo's analysis in late 2011. Thomas was discussing the divergence between the way the U.S. and British governments addressed their banking crises in the 2008-9 financial crisis and the way Europe was beginning to do in late 2011.
  
  
  
  wn.com/Richard_Koo
• 
  Robert Aumann
  Robert John Aumann (Hebrew name: ישראל אומן - Yisrael Aumann, born June 8, 1930) is an Israeli-American mathematician and a member of the United States National Academy of Sciences. He is a professor at the Center for the Study of Rationality in the Hebrew University of Jerusalem in Israel. He also holds a visiting position at Stony Brook University and is one of the founding members of the Center for Game Theory in Economics at Stony Brook.
  Aumann received the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics in 2005 for his work on conflict and cooperation through game-theory analysis. He shared the prize with Thomas Schelling.
  Aumann was born in Frankfurt am Main, Germany, and fled to the United States with his family in 1938, two weeks before the Kristallnacht pogrom. He attended the Rabbi Jacob Joseph School, a yeshiva high school in New York City. He graduated from the City College of New York in 1950 with a B.Sc. in Mathematics. He received his M.Sc. in 1952, and his Ph.D. in Mathematics in 1955, both from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. His doctoral dissertation, Asphericity of Alternating Linkages, concerned knot theory. His advisor was George Whitehead, Jr.
  
  wn.com/Robert_Aumann
• Robert Barro
  Robert Joseph Barro (born September 28, 1944) is an American classical macroeconomist and the Paul M. Warburg Professor of Economics at Harvard University. The Research Papers in Economics project ranked him as the 4th most influential economist in the world as of August 2011 based on his academic contributions. Barro is considered one of the founders of new classical macroeconomics, alongside Robert Lucas, Jr. and Thomas J. Sargent. He is currently a senior fellow at Stanford University's Hoover Institution.
  Barro graduated with a B.S. in physics from the California Institute of Technology in 1965, where he learned under Richard Feynman, but realized he "wouldn't be close to the top in those fields". He turned to economics and earned a Ph.D. from Harvard University in 1970. He first reached wide notice with a 1974 paper entitled "Are Government Bonds Net Wealth?", a paper which argued that, under certain assumptions, present borrowing would be matched by increased bequest to future generations in order to pay future taxes expected to pay the debt on the government bonds. This paper was direct response to the Blinder-Solow results, which had implied that the long term implications of government borrowing would be compensated for by the wealth effect. This paper is among the most cited in macro-economics, and its implications of his Ricardian Equivalence are still being debated in the present.^{[citation needed]}
  
  wn.com/Robert_Barro
• 
  Robert F. Engle
  Robert Fry Engle III (born November 10, 1942) is an American economist and the winner of the 2003 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, sharing the award with Clive Granger, "for methods of analyzing economic time series with time-varying volatility (ARCH)".
  Engle was born in Syracuse, New York and went on to graduate from Williams College with a B.S. in physics. He earned an M.S. in physics and a Ph.D. in economics, both from Cornell University in 1966 and 1969 respectively. After completing his Ph.D., Engle became Professor of Economics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology from 1969 to 1977. He joined the faculty of the University of California, San Diego (UCSD) in 1975, wherefrom he retired in 2003. He now holds positions of Professor Emeritus and Research Professor at UCSD. He currently teaches at New York University, Stern School of Business where he is the Michael Armellino professor in Management of Financial Services. At New York University, Engle teaches for the Master of Science in Risk Management Program for Executives, which is offered in partnership with the Amsterdam Institute of Finance.
  
  wn.com/Robert_F._Engle
• 
  Robert J. Shiller
  Robert James "Bob" Shiller (born Detroit, Michigan, March 29, 1946) is an American economist, academic, and best-selling author. He currently serves as the Arthur M. Okun Professor of Economics at Yale University and is a Fellow at the Yale International Center for Finance, Yale School of Management. Shiller has been a research associate of the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) since 1980, was Vice President of the American Economic Association in 2005, and President of the Eastern Economic Association for 2006-2007. He is also the co-founder and chief economist of the investment management firm MacroMarkets LLC.
  Shiller is ranked among the 100 most influential economists of the world.
  Shiller received his B.A. from the University of Michigan in 1967, S.M. from MIT in 1968, and his Ph.D. from MIT in 1972. He has taught at Yale since 1982 and previously held faculty positions at the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania and the University of Minnesota, also giving frequent lectures at the London School of Economics. He has written on economic topics that range from behavioral finance to real estate to risk management, and has been co-organizer of NBER workshops on behavioral finance with Richard Thaler since 1991. His book Macro Markets won TIAA-CREF's first annual Paul A. Samuelson Award. He currently publishes a syndicated column.
  
  wn.com/Robert_J._Shiller
• 
  Robert Mundell
  Robert Mundell, CC (born October 24, 1932) is a Nobel Prize-winning Canadian economist. Currently, Mundell is a professor of economics at Columbia University and the Chinese University of Hong Kong.
  He received the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics in 1999 for his pioneering work in monetary dynamics and optimum currency areas. Mundell laid the groundwork for the introduction of the euro through this work and helped to start the movement known as supply-side economics. Mundell is also known for the Mundell–Fleming model and Mundell–Tobin effect.
  Mundell was born in Kingston, Ontario, Canada and is a graduate of the University of British Columbia in Vancouver. He earned his MA at the University of Washington in Seattle. After studying at the University of British Colombia and at The London School of Economics in 1956, He then attended the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), where he obtained his PhD in Economics in 1956. In 2006 Mundell earned a Doctor of Laws degree from the University of Waterloo in Canada. He was Professor of Economics and Editor of the Journal of Political Economy at the University of Chicago from 1965 to 1972, Chairman of the Department of Economics at the University of Waterloo 1972 to 1974 and since 1974 he was Professor of Economics at Columbia University. He also held the post of Repap Professor of Economics at McGill University.
  
  wn.com/Robert_Mundell
• 
  Robert Skidelsky
  Robert Jacob Alexander, Baron Skidelsky FBA (born 25 April 1939 in Harbin, China), is a British economic historian of Russian origin and the author of an award-winning major three-volume biography of John Maynard Keynes. He read history at Jesus College, Oxford. He is Emeritus Professor of Political Economy at the University of Warwick, England.
  Skidelsky's parents, Boris Skidelsky and Galia Sapelkin, were British subjects of Russian ancestry, Jewish on his father's side and Christian on his mother's. His father worked for the family firm, L. S. Skidelsky, which leased the Mulin coalmine from the Chinese government. When war broke out between Britain and Japan in December 1941, he and his parents were interned first in Manchuria then Japan, and finally released in exchange for Japanese internees in England. Then he went back to China with his parents in 1947, living for a little over a year in Tientsin (now Tianjin). They left for Hong Kong just before the Communists took the city.
  From 1953 to 1958, he was a boarder at Brighton College. He went on to read history at Jesus College, Oxford. From 1961 to 1969, he was successively research student, senior student, and research fellow at Nuffield College, Oxford. In 1967, he published his first book, Politicians and the Slump, based on his D.Phil dissertation. The book explores the ways in which British politicians handled the Great Depression.
  
  wn.com/Robert_Skidelsky
• 
  Robert Solow
  Robert Merton Solow (born August 23, 1924) is an American economist particularly known for his work on the theory of economic growth that culminated in the exogenous growth model named after him. He was awarded the John Bates Clark Medal (in 1961) and the 1987 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences.
  Robert Solow was born in Brooklyn, New York in a Jewish family on August 23, 1924, the oldest of three children. He was well educated in the neighborhood public schools of New York City and excelled academically early in life. In September 1940, Solow went to Harvard College with a scholarship at the age of 16. At Harvard, his first studies were in sociology and anthropology as well as elementary economics.
  By the end of 1942, Solow left the university and joined the U.S. Army. He served briefly in North Africa and Sicily, and later served in Italy during World War II until he was discharged in August 1945.
  He returned to Harvard in 1945, and studied under Wassily Leontief. As his research assistant he produced the first set of capital-coefficients for the input-output model. Then he became interested in statistics and probability models. From 1949–50, he spent a fellowship year at Columbia University to study statistics more intensively. During that year he was also working on his Ph.D. thesis, an exploratory attempt to model changes in the size distribution of wage income using interacting Markov processes for employment-unemployment and wage rates.
  
  wn.com/Robert_Solow
• Robert Vishny
  Robert Ward Vishny is an American economist and is the Myron S. Scholes Distinguished Service Professor of Finance at the University of Chicago Booth School of Business. He was the Eric J. Gleacher Distinguished Service Professor of Finance at the University of Chicago Booth School of Business.
  He received his A.B. with highest distinction (economics, mathematics, and philosophy) from the University of Michigan in 1981 and Ph.D. (Economics) from Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1985.
  He is one of the prominent representatives of the school of behavioral finance. His research activities include: market for corporate control; corporate governance around the world; privatization and the role of government in the economy; behavior of institutional investors; behavior of stock prices; the economics of corruption and rent-seeking behavior. His research papers (many of them written jointly with Andrei Shleifer, Rafael LaPorta and Josef Lakonishok) are among the most often cited research works in the field of economic sciences in recent years.
  
  wn.com/Robert_Vishny
• 
  Robert Zoellick
  Robert Bruce Zoellick (/ˈzɛlɪk/; German: [ˈtsœlɪk]; born July 25, 1953) is the eleventh president of the World Bank, a position he has held since July 1, 2007. He was previously a managing director of Goldman Sachs, United States Deputy Secretary of State (resigning on July 7, 2006) and U.S. Trade Representative, from February 7, 2001 until February 22, 2005.
  President George W. Bush nominated Zoellick on May 30, 2007 to replace Paul Wolfowitz as President of the World Bank. On June 25, 2007, Zoellick was approved by the World Bank's executive board.
  Zoellick was born in Naperville, Illinois, the son of Gladys and William T. Zoellick. His family is of German origin and he was raised Lutheran. He graduated in 1971 from Naperville Central High School, graduated Phi Beta Kappa in 1975 from Swarthmore College as a history major, and received his J.D. from Harvard Law School and a Master of Public Policy degree from Harvard University's John F. Kennedy School of Government in 1981.
  Upon graduation from Harvard Law School Zoellick served as a law clerk for Judge Patricia Wald on the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit.
  
  wn.com/Robert_Zoellick
• 
  Robin Wells Krugman
  Robin Wells (born 1959) is an American economist. After obtaining her PhD in economics from the University of California, Berkeley, she obtained a post-doctoral fellowship at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. She has taught or done research at the University of Michigan, the University of Southampton, Stanford University, MIT, and Princeton University. She is the co-author of several economics books with her husband, economist Paul Krugman, and currently teaches Forrest Yoga in Princeton, New Jersey. She has published articles in economics journals, and blogged for The Huffington Post and The Chicago Tribune.
  
  
  
  wn.com/Robin_Wells_Krugman
• 
  Roger Myerson
  Roger Bruce Myerson (born March 29, 1951) is an American economist and Nobel laureate recognized with Leonid Hurwicz and Eric Maskin for "having laid the foundations of mechanism design theory." A professor at the University of Chicago, he has made contributions as an economist, as an applied mathematician, and as a political scientist.
  Roger Myerson was born on March 29, 1951 in Boston to a Jewish family. He attended Harvard University, where he received his A.B., summa cum laude, and S.M. in applied mathematics in 1973. He completed his Ph.D. in applied mathematics from Harvard University in 1976. His doctorate thesis was A Theory of Cooperative Games.
  From 1976 to 2001, Myerson was a professor of economics at Northwestern University's Kellogg School of Management, where he conducted much of his Nobel-winning research. From 1978 to 1979, he was Visiting Researcher at Bielefeld University. He was Visiting Professor of Economics at the University of Chicago from 1985–86 and from 2000–01. He became Professor of Economics at Chicago in 2001. Currently, he is the Glen A. Lloyd Distinguished Service Professor of Economics at the University of Chicago.
  
  wn.com/Roger_Myerson
• 
  Ronald Reagan
  Ronald Wilson Reagan ( /ˈrɒnəld ˈwɪlsən ˈreɪɡən/; February 6, 1911 – June 5, 2004) was the 40th President of the United States, serving from 1981 to 1989. Prior to that, he was the 33rd Governor of California from 1967 to 1975 and a radio, film and television actor.
  Born in Tampico, Illinois and raised in Dixon, Reagan was educated at Eureka College, earning a Bachelor of Arts degree in economics and sociology. After his graduation, Reagan moved first to Iowa to work as a radio broadcaster and then in to Los Angeles in 1937 where he began a career as an actor, first in films and later television. Some of his most notable films include Knute Rockne, All American, Kings Row, and Bedtime for Bonzo. Reagan served as president of the Screen Actors Guild, and later as a spokesman for General Electric (GE); his start in politics occurred during his work for GE. Originally a member of the Democratic Party, his positions began shifting rightward in the late 1950s, and he switched to the Republican Party in 1962. After delivering a rousing speech in support of Barry Goldwater's presidential candidacy in 1964, he was persuaded to seek the California governorship, winning two years later and again in 1970. He was defeated in his run for the Republican presidential nomination in 1968 as well as 1976, but won both the nomination and general election in 1980, defeating incumbent Jimmy Carter.
  
  wn.com/Ronald_Reagan
• 
  Rudy Giuliani
  Rudolph William Louis "Rudy" Giuliani ( /ˈruːdi ˌdʒuːliˈɑːni/; born May 28, 1944) is an American lawyer, businessman, and politician from New York. He served as Mayor of New York City from 1994 to 2001.
  A Democrat and Independent in the 1970s, and a Republican since the 1980s, Giuliani served in the United States Attorney's Office, for the Southern District of New York, eventually becoming U.S. Attorney. He prosecuted a number of high-profile cases, including ones against organized crime and Wall Street financiers.
  Giuliani served two terms as Mayor of New York City, having run on the Republican and Liberal lines. He was credited with initiating improvements and with a reduction in crime pressing the city's quality of life initiatives. He ran for the United States Senate in 2000 but withdrew due to being diagnosed with prostate cancer and revelations about his personal life. Giuliani gained international attention for his leadership during and after the September 11, 2001 attacks on the World Trade Center. For those actions, he received an honorary knighthood from Queen Elizabeth II in 2002.
  
  wn.com/Rudy_Giuliani
• 
  Rush Limbaugh
  Rush Hudson Limbaugh III ( /ˈlɪmbɔː/; born January 12, 1951) is an American radio talk show host and political commentator. Since he was 16 Limbaugh has worked a series of disc jockey jobs. His talk show began in 1984 at Sacramento radio station KFBK, featuring his ongoing format of political commentary and listener calls. In 1988 Limbaugh began broadcasting his show nationally from radio station WABC in New York, New York. He currently lives in West Palm Beach, Florida, from where he broadcasts the The Rush Limbaugh Show, the highest-rated talk-radio program in the United States.
  In the 1990s Limbaugh's books The Way Things Ought to Be (1992) and See, I Told You So (1993) made The New York Times Best Seller list. Limbaugh frequently criticizes, in his books and on his show, what he regards as liberal policies and politicians, as well as what he perceives as a pervasive liberal bias in major U.S. media.
  Rush Hudson Limbaugh III was born in Cape Girardeau, Missouri, the son of Mildred Carolyn "Millie" (née Armstrong) and Rush Hudson Limbaugh, Jr. His father was a lawyer and a U.S. fighter pilot who served in the China Burma India Theater of World War II. His mother was a native of Searcy, Arkansas. The name "Rush" was originally chosen for his grandfather to honor the maiden name of family member Edna Rush.
  
  wn.com/Rush_Limbaugh
• Sanford J. Grossman
  Sanford "Sandy" Jay Grossman (born July 21, 1953) is an American economist and hedge fund manager specializing in quantitative finance. Dr. Grossman’s research has spanned the analysis of information in securities markets, corporate structure, property rights, and optimal dynamic risk management. He has published widely in leading economic and business journals, including American Economic Review, Journal of Econometrics, Econometrica, and Journal of Finance. His research in macroeconomics, finance, and risk management has earned numerous awards. Dr. Grossman is currently Chairman and CEO of QFS Asset Management, an affiliate of which he founded in 1988.
  Sanford Grossman earned his A.B. in 1973, his A.M. in 1974 and Ph.D. in 1975, all in economics from the University of Chicago. Since receiving his doctorate, he has held academic appointments at Stanford University, the University of Chicago, Princeton University (as the John L. Weinberg Professor of Economics, 1985–89), and at the University of Pennsylvania’s Wharton School of Business. At Wharton, Dr. Grossman held the position of Steinberg Trustee Professor of Finance from 1989 to 1999 (a title now held in Emeritus) and also served as the Director of the Wharton Center for Quantitative Finance (1994–1999).
  
  wn.com/Sanford_J._Grossman
• 
  Stanley Fischer
  Stanley "Stan" Fischer (Hebrew: סטנלי פישר‎; born 1943) is an American-Israeli economist and the current Governor of the Bank of Israel. He previously served as Chief Economist at the World Bank.
  Born in Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia) on 15 October 1943, he obtained his B.Sc. and M.Sc. at the London School of Economics from 1962–1966 and his Ph.D. at MIT in 1969, all in economics.
  He was a professor at the MIT Sloan School of Management from 1977 to 1988, where he authored three popular economics textbooks, Macroeconomics (with Rüdiger Dornbusch and Richard Startz), Lectures on Macroeconomics (with Olivier Blanchard), and the introductory Economics, with David Begg and Rüdiger Dornbusch. He was also Ben Bernanke's and Greg Mankiw's Ph.D. thesis advisor.
  From January 1988 to August 1990 he was Vice President, Development Economics and Chief Economist at the World Bank. He then became the First Deputy Managing Director of the International Monetary Fund (IMF), from September 1994 until the end of August 2001. By the end of 2001, Fischer had joined the influential Washington-based financial advisory body, the Group of Thirty. After leaving the IMF, he served as Vice Chairman of Citigroup, President of Citigroup International, and Head of the Public Sector Client Group. Fischer worked at Citigroup from February, 2002 to April, 2005. He became Governor of the Bank of Israel on May 1, 2005, replacing David Klein, who ended his term on January 16, 2005. Fischer became an Israeli citizen, the aforementioned action being a prerequisite to this appointment. He has been involved in the past with the Bank of Israel, having served as an American government adviser to Israel's economic stabilization program in 1985. On May 2, 2010, Fischer was sworn in for a second term.
  
  wn.com/Stanley_Fischer
• Stephen Salant
  Stephen Salant is an economist who has done extensive research in applied microeconomics (mostly in the fields of natural resources and industrial organization). His 1975 model of speculative attacks in the gold market (with Dale Henderson) was adapted by Paul Krugman and others to explain speculative attacks in foreign exchange markets. Hundreds of journal articles and books on financial speculative attacks followed.
  In a series of six articles, Salant has continued to focus instead on real speculative attacks. These may be divided into two categories: (1) speculative attacks induced by government policies such as total allowable catch quotas in fisheries, H1-B immigration quotas, commodity price ceilings, and most recently the proposed price-collars on tradable emissions permits; and (2) speculative attacks that are naturally occurring rather than induced by government policy such as the precipitous depletions of storable common properties (e.g. “oil rushes”).
  In industrial organization, he has contributed to the literatures on horizontal mergers, price discrimination, durable goods monopoly, and cartels.
  
  wn.com/Stephen_Salant
• Steve Keen
  Steve Keen is a professor in economics and finance at the University of Western Sydney. He classes himself as a post-Keynesian, criticizing both modern neoclassical economics and Marxian economics as inconsistent, unscientific and empirically unsupported. The major influences on Keen's thinking about economics include John Maynard Keynes, Hyman Minsky, Piero Sraffa, Joseph Alois Schumpeter, and François Quesnay. His recent work mostly concentrates on mathematical modeling and simulation of financial instability. He is a Fellow at the Centre for Policy Development.
  Most of Steve Keen's recent work focuses on modeling Hyman Minsky's financial instability hypothesis and Irving Fisher's debt deflation. The hypothesis predicts that an overly large debt to GDP ratio can cause deflation and depression. Here, the falling of the price level results in a continually rising real quantity of outstanding debt. Moreover, the continued deleveraging of outstanding debts increases the rate of deflation. Thus, debt and deflation act on and react to one another, resulting in a debt-deflation spiral. The outcome is a depression. Steve Keen argues that the current global economic crisis is the result of too much debt.
  
  wn.com/Steve_Keen
• Steven Levitt
  Steven David "Steve" Levitt (born May 29, 1967) is an American economist known for his work in the field of crime, in particular on the link between legalized abortion and crime rates. Winner of the 2004 John Bates Clark Medal, he is currently the William B. Ogden Distinguished Service Professor of Economics at the University of Chicago, director of the Becker Center on Chicago Price Theory at the University of Chicago Booth School of Business. He was co-editor of the Journal of Political Economy published by the University of Chicago Press until December 2007. He co-authored the best-selling book Freakonomics (2005) and its sequel Superfreakonomics (2009). He is a grand-nephew of Robert L. May, the lyricist of Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer. In 2009, Levitt co-founded The Greatest Good, a business and philanthropy consulting company. He was chosen as one of Time magazine's "100 People Who Shape Our World" in 2006.
  Levitt was born in 1967 and attended St. Paul Academy and Summit School, graduated from Harvard University in 1989 with his B.A. in economics summa cum laude, and received his Ph.D. in economics from MIT in 1994. He is currently the William B. Ogden Distinguished Service Professor and the director of The Becker Center on Price Theory at the University of Chicago. In 2004 he won the John Bates Clark Medal, awarded every two years by the American Economic Association to the most promising U.S. economist under the age of 40. In April 2005 Levitt published his first book, Freakonomics (coauthored with Stephen J. Dubner), which became a New York Times bestseller. Levitt and Dubner also started a blog (www.freakonomics.com). Levitt is an honorary professor at McGill University.
  
  wn.com/Steven_Levitt
• Susan Athey
  Susan Carleton Athey (born November 29, 1970) is an American economist. She is currently Professor of Economics at Harvard University and the first female winner of the John Bates Clark Medal.
  Susan Athey was born in Boston, Massachusetts and grew up in Rockville, Maryland.
  She attended Duke University from the age of 16. As an undergraduate at Duke, she completed three majors, in Economics, Mathematics, and Computer Science. She got her start in economics research as a sophomore, working on problems related to auctions with Professor Robert Marshall. She was involved in a number of activities at Duke. She served as treasurer of Chi Omega sorority and as president of the field hockey club.
  She graduated with a Ph.D. from the Stanford Graduate School of Business at the age of 24. Her thesis was supervised by Professors Paul Milgrom and Donald John Roberts.
  Athey's first position was as an Assistant, Associate Professor and Castle Krob Career Development Chair at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology for six years before returning to Stanford's Department of Economics as Professor holding the Holbrook Working Chair for another five years.
  
  wn.com/Susan_Athey
• 
  Thomas J. Sargent
  Thomas John "Tom" Sargent (born July 19, 1943) is an American economist, specializing in the fields of macroeconomics, monetary economics and time series econometrics. As of 2011, he ranks seventeenth among the most cited economists in the world. He was awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 2011 together with Christopher A. Sims "for their empirical research on cause and effect in the macroeconomy".
  Sargent earned his B.A. from the University of California, Berkeley in 1964, being the University Medalist as Most Distinguished Scholar in Class of 1964, and his Ph.D. from Harvard in 1968. He held teaching positions at the University of Pennsylvania (1970–1971), University of Minnesota (1971–1987), University of Chicago (1991–1998), Stanford University (1998–2002) and Princeton University (2009), and is currently the Berkley Professor of Economics and Business at New York University (since 2002). He is a Fellow of the Econometric Society since 1976. In 1983, Sargent was elected to the National Academy of Sciences and also the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. He has been a senior fellow of the Hoover Institution at Stanford University since 1987, and a member of the Advisory Board of the Penn Institute for Economic Research at the University of Pennsylvania.
  
  wn.com/Thomas_J._Sargent
• 
  Thomas Schelling
  Thomas Crombie Schelling (born 14 April 1921) is an American economist and professor of foreign affairs, national security, nuclear strategy, and arms control at the School of Public Policy at University of Maryland, College Park. He is also co-faculty at the New England Complex Systems Institute. He was awarded the 2005 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences (shared with Robert Aumann) for "having enhanced our understanding of conflict and cooperation through game-theory analysis."
  Schelling was born to John M. Schelling and Zelda M. Ayres in Oakland, California. Schelling graduated from San Diego High. He received his bachelor's degree in economics from the University of California, Berkeley in 1944. He received his Ph.D. in economics from Harvard University in 1951.
  He served with the Marshall Plan in Europe, the White House, and the Executive Office of the President from 1948 to 1953.^{[non-primary source needed]} He wrote most of his dissertation on national income behavior working at night while in Europe. He left government to join the economics faculty at Yale University, and in 1958 he was appointed Professor of Economics at Harvard. In 1969 he joined the Kennedy School at Harvard University.^{[non-primary source needed]}
  
  wn.com/Thomas_Schelling
• 
  Trygve Haavelmo
  Trygve Magnus Haavelmo (13 December 1911 – 28 July 1999), born in Skedsmo, Norway, was an influential economist with main research interests centered on the fields of econometrics and economics theory. During World War II he worked with Nortraship in the Statistical Department in New York City. He received his Ph.D. in 1946 for his work on The Probability Approach in Econometrics.
  He was a Professor of economics and statistics at the University of Oslo between 1948–79 and was the trade department head of division from 1947–48. Haavelmo acquires a prominent position in modern economics through his logical critique of a series of custom conceptions in mathematical analysis.
  In 1989, Haavelmo was awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics "for his clarification of the probability theory foundations of econometrics and his analyses of simultaneous economic structures."
  
  wn.com/Trygve_Haavelmo
• Victoria Chick
  Victoria Chick (born 1936) is a Post Keynesian economist who is best known for her contributions to the understanding of Keynes's General Theory and to the establishment of Post Keynesian economics in the UK and elsewhere.
  Victoria Chick graduated with a Bachelor's and Master's from the University of California at Berkeley, writing a thesis on Canada's experience in the 1950s with flexible exchange rates. As a research student she was taught by Hyman Minsky (among others), although her interest in Keynes and his General Theory developed much later. After further study at the London School of Economics, in 1963 she secured a post at University College London where she remained for the rest of her career, being appointed to a Chair in 1993. At UCL her interests shifted from international economics to monetary theory and macroeconomics. Her first major book, The Theory of Monetary Policy (1973), was a critical evaluation of both the Keynesian and monetarist approaches to macroeconomics that were dominant of the time. In 1971 she was present at Joan Robinson's Ely Lecture to the American Economic Association, titled The Second Crisis in Economics, and at the meeting called by Joan Robinson and Paul Davidson which gave conscious expression to what became the Post Keynesian school of thought.
  
  wn.com/Victoria_Chick
• William Baumol
  William Jack Baumol (born February 26, 1922) is an American economist. He is a professor of economics at New York University and is also affiliated with Princeton University. Baumol has written extensively about labor market and other economic factors that affect the economy. He also made valuable contributions to the history of economic thought. He is among the most influential economists in the world according to IDEAS/RePEc. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1971.
  Among his better-known contributions are the theory of contestable markets, the Baumol-Tobin model of transactions demand for money, Baumol's cost disease, which discusses the rising costs associated with service industries, and Pigou taxes. His research on environmental economics recognized the fundamental role of non-convexities in causing market failures.
  In 2003, Baumol received the Global Award for Entrepreneurship Research "[f]or his persistent effort to give the entrepreneur a key role in mainstream economic theory, for his theoretical and empirical studies of the nature of entrepreneurship, and for his analysis of the importance of institutions and incentives for the allocation of entrepreneurship."
  
  wn.com/William_Baumol
• Zvi Griliches
  Hirsh Zvi Griliches (12 September 1930 – 4 November 1999) was an economist at Harvard University. He was born in Kaunas, Lithuania in an assimilated Jewish family that spoke Russian at home. During World War II he was sent to the Dachau concentration camp. In 1947 he emigrated to Palestine, where he served in the pre-state Israeli army, learned Hebrew, passed high school equivalence exam, and studied for a year at Hebrew University. He then moved to the United States, where he earned a B.S. in Agricultural Economics from the University of California, Berkeley, and then a Ph.D. in Economics at the University of Chicago.
  The works by Zvi Griliches mostly concerned the economics of technological change, including empirical studies of diffusion of innovations and the role of R & D, patents, and education.
  In his classic 1957 Ph.D. dissertation, Hybrid Corn: An Exploration in the Economics of Technological Change, published as an article in the October 1957 issue of Econometrica, Griliches demonstrated that the penetration of corn seeds followed the logistic curve. It was found later through multiple examples by Edwin Mansfield and other researchers that this is a general rule for technological change / diffusion of innovations. The dissertation was one of the first scientific works that treated the development of new technology as an economic phenomenon. Previously, economists had treated it as exogenous.
  
  wn.com/Zvi_Griliches