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![John Mayer - Where The Light Is - Belief [HQ]](http://web.archive.org./web/20121110214648im_/http://i.ytimg.com/vi/dZHnVvy_Hxg/default.jpg "John Mayer and his full band performing 'Belief'. An extract from John Mayer's Official DVD")
![John Mayer - Belief (Live in LA) [High Def!]](http://web.archive.org./web/20121110214648im_/http://i.ytimg.com/vi/QiFh26fwdSI/default.jpg "From the live album and concert film")
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A. J. Ayer
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Alan Ross Anderson
Alan Ross Anderson (1925 – 1973) was an American logician and professor of philosophy at Yale University and the University of Pittsburgh.
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Alan Turing
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Albert Einstein
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Alexander Bain
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Alfred Tarski
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Alonzo Church
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Alvin Plantinga
Alvin Carl Plantinga (born 1932) is an American analytic philosopher, formerly the John A. O'Brien Professor of Philosophy at the University of Notre Dame. He is known for his work in philosophy of religion, epistemology, metaphysics, and Christian apologetics. Plantinga is a Christian and known for applying the methods of analytic philosophy to defend orthodox Christian beliefs. Notably, he has argued that some people can know that God exists as a basic belief, requiring no argument, similar to how people usually claim to know that other minds exist. He has also argued that there is no logical inconsistency between the existence of evil and the existence of an all-powerful, all-knowing, wholly good God.
http://wn.com/Alvin_Plantinga -
Andrew Gelman
Andrew Gelman is an American statistician, professor of statistics and political science, and director of the Applied Statistics Center at Columbia University. He earned an S.B. in mathematics and in physics from MIT in 1986 and a Ph.D. in statistics from Harvard in 1990 under the supervision of Donald Rubin.
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Aristotle
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Augustus De Morgan
Augustus De Morgan (27 June 1806 – 18 March 1871) was a British mathematician and logician. He formulated De Morgan's laws and introduced the term mathematical induction, making its idea rigorous. The crater De Morgan on the Moon is named after him.
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Averroes
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Avicenna
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Bertrand Russell
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Chrysippus
Chrysippus of Soli (Ancient Greek: , ; c. 279–c. 206 BC) was a Greek Stoic philosopher. He was a native of Soli, Cilicia, but moved to Athens as a young man, where he became a pupil of Cleanthes in the Stoic school. When Cleanthes died, around 230 BC, Chrysippus became the third head of the school. A prolific writer, Chrysippus expanded the fundamental doctrines of Zeno of Citium, the founder of the school, which earned him the title of Second Founder of Stoicism.
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Daniel Dennett
Daniel Clement Dennett (born March 28, 1942 in Boston) is an American philosopher and cognitive scientist whose research centers on the philosophy of mind, philosophy of science and philosophy of biology, particularly as those fields relate to evolutionary biology and cognitive science. He graduated from Harvard with a B.A in philosophy, then after completing his D.Phil at the University of Oxford. He is currently the co-director of the Center for Cognitive Studies, the Austin B. Fletcher Professor of Philosophy, and a University Professor at Tufts University. Dennett is a noted atheist and secularist, a member of the Secular Coalition for America advisory board, as well as a prominent advocate of the Brights movement.
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David Hilbert
David Hilbert (; January 23, 1862 –
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David Hume
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Duns Scotus
Blessed John (Johannes) Duns Scotus, O.F.M. (c. 1265 – 8 November 1308) was one of the more important theologians and philosophers of the High Middle Ages. He was nicknamed Doctor Subtilis for his penetrating and subtle manner of thought.
http://wn.com/Duns_Scotus -
Edmund Gettier
Edmund L. Gettier III (born 1927 in Baltimore, Maryland) is an American philosopher and Professor Emeritus at the University of Massachusetts at Amherst; he may owe his reputation to a single three-page paper published in 1963 called "Is Justified True Belief Knowledge?"
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Ernst Schröder
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G. E. Moore
:"G.E. Moore" redirects here. For the cofounder of Intel, see Gordon Moore.
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G.E. Berrios
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Georg Cantor
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George Berkeley
George Berkeley ( ) (12 March 1685 14 January 1753), also known as Bishop Berkeley (Bishop of Cloyne), was an Irish philosopher whose primary achievement was the advancement of a theory he called "immaterialism" (later referred to as "subjective idealism" by others). This theory contends that individuals can only know directly sensations and ideas of objects, not abstractions such as "matter". The theory also contends that ideas are dependent upon being perceived by minds for their very existence, a belief that became immortalized in the dictum, "esse est percipi" ("to be is to be perceived"). He published his chief philosophical work A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge in 1710.
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George Boole
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George Boolos
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Gerhard Gentzen
Gerhard Karl Erich Gentzen (November 24, 1909, Greifswald, Germany – August 4, 1945, Prague, Czechoslovakia) was a German mathematician and logician. He had his major contributions in the foundation of mathematics, proof theory, especially on natural deduction and sequent calculus. He died in 1945 after the Second World War, because he was deprived of food after being arrested in Prague.
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Giuseppe Peano
Giuseppe Peano (; 27 August 1858 – 20 April 1932) was an Italian mathematician, whose work was of exceptional philosophical value. The author of over 200 books and papers, he was a founder of mathematical logic and set theory, to which he contributed much notation. The standard axiomatization of the natural numbers is named in his honor. As part of this axiomatization effort, he made key contributions to the modern rigorous and systematic treatment of the method of mathematical induction. He spent most of his career teaching mathematics at the University of Turin.
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Gottlob Frege
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Haskell Curry
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Hilary Putnam
Hilary Whitehall Putnam (born July 31, 1926) is an American philosopher who has been a central figure in analytic philosophy since the 1960s, especially in philosophy of mind, philosophy of language, and philosophy of science. He is known for his willingness to apply an equal degree of scrutiny to his own philosophical positions as to those of others, subjecting each position to rigorous analysis until he exposes its flaws. As a result, he has acquired a reputation for frequently changing his own position. Putnam is currently Cogan University Professor Emeritus at Harvard University.
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Immanuel Kant
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Jerry Fodor
Jerry Alan Fodor (born 1935) is an American philosopher and cognitive scientist. He holds the position of State of New Jersey Professor of Philosophy at Rutgers University and is the author of many works in the fields of philosophy of mind and cognitive science, in which he has laid the groundwork for the modularity of mind and the language of thought hypotheses, among other ideas. He is known for his provocative and sometimes polemical style of argumentation.
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John Locke
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Jon Barwise
__NOTOC__
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Kurt Gödel
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Laurence BonJour
Laurence BonJour (born 1943) is an American philosopher and Professor of Philosophy at the University of Washington.
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Leopold Löwenheim
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Lewis Carroll
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Ludwig Wittgenstein
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Mazdak
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Nelson Goodman
Henry Nelson Goodman (7 August 1906, Somerville, Massachusetts – 25 November 1998, Needham, Massachusetts) was an American philosopher, known for his work on counterfactuals, mereology, the problem of induction, irrealism and aesthetics.
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P. F. Strawson
Sir Peter Frederick Strawson FBA (23 November 1919 – 13 February 2006) was an English philosopher. He was the Waynflete Professor of Metaphysical Philosophy at the University of Oxford (Magdalen College) from 1968 to 1987. Before that he was appointed as a college lecturer at University College, Oxford in 1947 and became a tutorial fellow the following year until 1968. On his retirement in 1987, he returned to the college and continued working there until shortly before his death.
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Patricia Churchland
Patricia Smith Churchland (born July 16, 1943 in Oliver, British Columbia, Canada) is a Canadian-American philosopher working at the University of California, San Diego (UCSD) since 1984. She is currently a professor at the UCSD Philosophy Department, an adjunct professor at the Salk Institute for Biological Studies, and an associate of the Computational Neuroscience Laboratory (Sejnowski Lab) at the Salk Institute. She won a MacArthur prize in 1991. Educated at the University of British Columbia, the University of Pittsburgh, and the University of Oxford (B.Phil.). She taught philosophy at the University of Manitoba from 1969 to 1984 and is the wife of philosopher Paul Churchland.
http://wn.com/Patricia_Churchland -
Paul Bernays
http://wn.com/Paul_Bernays -
Paul Churchland
Paul Churchland is a philosopher noted for his studies in neurophilosophy and the philosophy of mind. He is currently a Professor at the University of California, San Diego, where he holds the Valtz Chair of Philosophy. Churchland holds a joint appointment with the Cognitive Science Faculty and the Institute for Neural Computation. He earned his Ph.D. from the University of Pittsburgh in 1969 under the direction of Wilfrid Sellars. Churchland is the husband of philosopher Patricia Churchland. He is also the father of two children, Mark and Anne Churchland, both of whom are neuroscientists.
http://wn.com/Paul_Churchland -
Paul Grice
Herbert Paul Grice (March 13, 1913, Birmingham, England – August 28, 1988, Berkeley, California), usually publishing under the name H. P. Grice, H. Paul Grice, or Paul Grice, was a British-educated philosopher of language, who spent the final two decades of his career in the United States.
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Peter Geach
Peter Thomas Geach (; born March 29, 1916) is a British philosopher. His areas of interest are the history of philosophy, philosophical logic, and the theory of identity.
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Plato
:For other uses, see Plato (disambiguation) and Platon (disambiguation).
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Raymond Smullyan
Raymond Merrill Smullyan (born May 25, 1919) is an American mathematician, concert pianist, logician, Taoist philosopher, and magician.
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René Descartes
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Robert Audi
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Robert Nozick
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Romanian philosophy
Romanian philosophy is a name covering either a) the philosophy done in Romania or by Romanians, or b) an ethnic philosophy, which expresses at a high level the fundamental features of the Romanian spirituality, or which elevates to a philosophical level the Weltanschauung of the Romanian people, as deposited in language and folklore, traditions, architecture and other linguistic and cultural artifacts.
http://wn.com/Romanian_philosophy -
Rudolf Carnap
Rudolf Carnap (May 18, 1891 – September 14, 1970) was an influential German-born philosopher who was active in Europe before 1935 and in the United States thereafter. He was a leading member of the Vienna Circle and a prominent advocate of logical positivism.
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Russian philosophy
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Saul Kripke
Saul Aaron Kripke (born November 13, 1940) is an American philosopher and logician. He is a professor emeritus at Princeton and teaches as a Distinguished Professor of Philosophy at CUNY Graduate Center. Since the 1960s Kripke has been a central figure in a number of fields related to mathematical logic, philosophy of language, philosophy of mathematics, metaphysics, epistemology, and set theory. Much of his work remains unpublished or exists only as tape-recordings and privately circulated manuscripts (see "Unpublished Manuscripts and Online Lectures" below). Kripke was the recipient of the 2001 Schock Prize in Logic and Philosophy. A recent poll conducted among philosophers ranked Kripke among the top ten most important philosophers of the past 200 years.
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Stephen Cole Kleene
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Stephen Stich
Stephen Stich (born May 9, 1943) is a professor of Philosophy at Rutgers University. He is also currently an Honorary Professor of the department of Philosophy at the University of Sheffield. Stich's main philosophical interests are in the philosophy of mind, cognitive science, epistemology, and moral psychology. He is arguably best known for his contributions to philosophy of mind. His 1983 book, "From Folk Psychology to Cognitive Science: The Case Against Belief", received much attention as he argued for a form of eliminative materialism about the mind. However, he has since modified his position, especially in his 1996 book Deconstructing the Mind.
http://wn.com/Stephen_Stich -
Søren Kierkegaard
http://wn.com/Søren_Kierkegaard -
Thoralf Skolem
http://wn.com/Thoralf_Skolem -
William James
:This article is about the American psychologist and philosopher. For other people named William James see William James (disambiguation)
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William of Ockham
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John Mayer - Belief
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:10
- Updated: 10 Nov 2012
John Mayer - Belief - From Channel 4's "Live From Abbey Road" programme broadcast in March 2007.
http://wn.com/John_Mayer_Belief
John Mayer - Where The Light Is - Belief [HQ]
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:15
- Updated: 09 Nov 2012
John Mayer and his full band performing 'Belief'. An extract from John Mayer's Official DVD "Where The Light Is". Good Watchin' and Listenin' Buy it NOW!!! =]
http://wn.com/John_Mayer_Where_The_Light_Is_Belief_HQ_
Gavin DeGraw - Belief lyrics
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:11
- Updated: 10 Nov 2012
Lyrics - Belief, makes things real. Makes things feel, feel alright. Belief, makes things true. Things like you, you and I. Tonight, you arrested my mind. When you came to my defense. With a knife in the shape of your mouth, in the form of your body, with the wrath of a god. Oh, you stood by me, Belief Builds from scratch. Doesn't have to relax, it doesn't need space. Long live the queen and I'll be the king. In the collar of grace. Oh, tonight, you arrested my mind. When you came to my defense. With a knife in the shape of your mouth, in the form of your body, with the wrath of a god. Oh, you stood by me, belief. I'm gonna yell it from the rooftops. I'll wear a sign on my chest. That's the least I can do, it's the least I can do. Tonight, you arrested my mind. When you came to my defense. With a knife, in the shape of your mouth, in the form of your body, with the wrath of a god. Oh, you stood by me. And I'll stand by my belief.
http://wn.com/Gavin_DeGraw_Belief_lyrics
John Mayer - Belief (HQ)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:59
- Updated: 10 Nov 2012
i love this john mayer song! ^^ hes so awesome. (C) All Rights Reserved For The Artist And Producing Company of This song. I DO NOT OWN ANY OF THE CONTENT IN THIS VIDEO.
http://wn.com/John_Mayer_Belief_HQ
John Mayer - Belief *HD*
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:53
- Updated: 10 Nov 2012
John Mayer and his band performing "Belief" off of his live DVD "Where The Light Is"
http://wn.com/John_Mayer_Belief_*HD*
John Mayer - Belief (Live in LA) [High Def!]
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:03
- Updated: 10 Nov 2012
From the live album and concert film "Where the light is". Live in Los Angeles at the Nokia Theatre on December 8 2007. Enjoy :)
http://wn.com/John_Mayer_Belief_Live_in_LA_High_Def!_
OSHO: Anybody Who Gives You a Belief System is Your Enemy.
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:38
- Updated: 08 Nov 2012
OSHO International Foundation - www.osho.com Do you understand the difference between invention and discovery? A discovery is about truth, an invention is manufactured by you. It is man-manufactured fiction. This video is available for translation as part of the OSHO TALKS Video Translation Project. Join the project as a translator at www.oshotalks.info -- http
http://wn.com/OSHO_Anybody_Who_Gives_You_a_Belief_System_is_Your_Enemy
CFI-NYC | Michael Shermer: The Believing Brain
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 79:37
- Updated: 08 Nov 2012
On June 9, 2011, the Center for Inquiry-New York City and NYC Skeptics hosted noted skeptic and bestselling author Michael Shermer for a talk about his new book, "The Believing Brain: From Ghosts and Gods to Politics and Conspiracies—How We Construct Beliefs and Reinforce Them as Truths." The event was held at the Auditorium on Broadway. This is the full video, including both the talk and question-and-answer session. Correction: Michael Shermer is not executive director of NYC Skeptics, but of the Skeptics Society. Our apologies. For more: www.centerforinquiry.net/nyc www.nycskeptics.org
http://wn.com/CFI-NYC_|_Michael_Shermer_The_Believing_Brain
The Power Of Belief - Anthony Robbins
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:35
- Updated: 08 Nov 2012
Link. ANTHONY ROBBINS UNLIMITED POWER www.youtube.com NLP LAUGH YOUR FEARS AWAY Link www.youtube.com
http://wn.com/The_Power_Of_Belief_Anthony_Robbins
1. Gavin DeGraw - Belief
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:03
- Updated: 09 Nov 2012
Lyrics: Belief, makes things real. Makes things feel, feel alright. Belief, makes things true. Things like you, you and I. Tonight, you arrested my mind. When you came to my defense. With a knife in the shape of your mouth, in the form of your body, with the wrath of a god. Oh, you stood by me, Belief Builds from scratch. Doesn't have to relax, it doesn't need space. Long live the queen and I'll be the king. In the collar of grace. Oh, tonight, you arrested my mind. When you came to my defense. With a knife in the shape of your mouth, in the form of your body, with the wrath of a god. Oh, you stood by me, belief. I'm gonna yell it from the rooftops. I'll wear a sign on my chest. That's the least I can do, it's the least I can do. Tonight, you arrested my mind. When you came to my defense. With a knife, in the shape of your mouth, in the form of your body, with the wrath of a god. Oh, you stood by me. And I'll stand by my belief.
http://wn.com/1_Gavin_DeGraw_Belief
Beliefs
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- Duration: 7:07
- Updated: 01 Nov 2012
Your beliefs create your reality because they stem from your thoughts which have more power than most people realize. The source is Barbara Marciniak's book, Path of Empowerment.
http://wn.com/Beliefs
99 What is a Belief & Changing Memories
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:37
- Updated: 08 Nov 2012
www.fastereft.com 'Knowing what a belief is and how it works will make it easier for you to heal. Do we want to change the memories?
http://wn.com/99_What_is_a_Belief_Changing_Memories
Belief in belief - Daniel Dennett (part1)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:05
- Updated: 02 Nov 2012
Daniel Dennett professor of philosophy at Tufts University explains why religion receives so much undeserved respect by people that don't necessarily believe in God but believe in belief in God. The full lecture Daniel Dennett held at the AAI 07 conference can be seen here: www.youtube.com
http://wn.com/Belief_in_belief_Daniel_Dennett_part1
How to Change Your Beliefs
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- Duration: 7:45
- Updated: 10 Nov 2012
www.cytguides.com - George learns his first lesson about self improvement.
http://wn.com/How_to_Change_Your_Beliefs
Belief By Gavin Degraw
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- Duration: 3:01
- Updated: 07 Nov 2012
great video made to the song
http://wn.com/Belief_By_Gavin_Degraw
John Mayer - Belief » HD 720p » Where The Light is Live in LA (2008)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:59
- Updated: 03 Oct 2012
John Mayer and his full band performing 'Belief'.
http://wn.com/John_Mayer_Belief_»_HD_720p_»_Where_The_Light_is_Live_in_LA_2008
John Mayer - Where The Light Is - "Belief"
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:09
- Updated: 05 Nov 2012
Where the Light Is (From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia) _______________________________________________________________________ Where the Light Is: John Mayer Live in Los Angeles, commonly referred to as Where the Light Is, is a live album and concert film by American blues-rock musician John Mayer. Released on July 1, 2008, the album documents Mayer's performance at the Nokia Theatre at LA Live in Los Angeles, California on December 8, 2007, during the promotional tour for his 2006 third studio album Continuum. The concert in question, which was for the Annual John Mayer Holiday Charity Revue, featured three separate performances: the first an acoustic set by Mayer alone, the second with the John Mayer Trio, and the third with Mayer's regular touring band. The title of the album is taken from a line in the song "Gravity", which was released as the second single from Continuum on January 31, 2007. Where the Light Is was released in a number of formats, including, for the audio album, Compact Disc, LP album and digital download; and, for the video album, DVD and Blu-ray Disc; as well as a 2CD+DVD set. His famous live acoustic cover of "Free Fallin'," originally by Tom Petty, from this album was released as a single and met with wide critical acclaim. The songs "No Such Thing" and "Bigger Than My Body" were played on the evening but did not make it to the DVD release for unknown reasons.
http://wn.com/John_Mayer_Where_The_Light_Is_Belief
Hebe 的超高音SHE belief 现场版
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- Duration: 4:20
- Updated: 10 Nov 2012
add me as friends or subscribe my acc for more hebe's n she latest video
http://wn.com/Hebe_的超高音SHE_belief_现场版
You Are Rich - Money Beyond Belief - EFT with Brad Yates
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:01
- Updated: 08 Nov 2012
Okay... so I finally did a video on financial abundance...! You are rich... you are a multi-billionaire... it just may be that most of it is in circulation at present... :) Obviously, there's only just so much I can fit into a YouTube video, but I'm confident that this will prove an effective affirmation video for shifting your mindset from lack to prosperity. For more intensive work on clearing money blocks, please check out the program I did with Dr. Joe Vitale of "The Secret": www.MoneyBeyondBelief.com Ifyou'd like to get instant access to well over 100 hours of Life-Enhancing, Laughter-Inducing, Fear-Smashing, Abundance-Attracting, Joy-Inspiring audio for only $1, including lots more material on clearing blocks to money as well as limiting beliefs about sales, go here www.MagnificentTappers.com So... about this idea of talking about money being overly materialistic... I only bring this up because it was one of the complaints many people made about "The Secret." If you find yourself concerned that talking about money or wanting it seems somehow wrong, that may well mean you've got some limiting beliefs that are blocking your ability to allow abundance. Everything is energy... money is made up of the same energy as any of the other things you enjoy in abundance... such as leaves on trees, or oxygen. Abundance is here to be enjoyed. And, enjoyed without guilt. Remember, you can't be poor enough to end anyone else's suffering. Now, it is true that sometimes people put too ...
http://wn.com/You_Are_Rich_Money_Beyond_Belief_EFT_with_Brad_Yates
John Mayer NY, Beacon Theatre - 10. Belief
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:17
- Updated: 06 Nov 2012
Seven-time Grammy Award winning musician John Mayer performs at the Beacon Theatre (Tuesday, November 17 at 9pm) in celebration of his new album Battle Studies.
http://wn.com/John_Mayer_NY,_Beacon_Theatre_10_Belief
The "False Belief" Test: Theory of Mind
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:54
- Updated: 10 Nov 2012
http://wn.com/The_False_Belief_Test_Theory_of_Mind
belief
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:00
- Updated: 24 Oct 2012
kaitlyn conley dancing
http://wn.com/belief
Photo: AP / Moises Castillo
08 Nov 2012
By Sonia Perez-Diaz and Romina Ruiz-Goiriena Associated Press Comments People chat with a police officer while standing in the rubble caused after a magnitude 7.4 earthquake struck Wednesday in San...
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In recent months, communal violence in Burma's Rakhine state has left about 140 people dead and forced more than 100,000 from their homes. With Buddhist and Muslim communities effectively...
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DOHA, Qatar -- Syriaâs biggest political opposition bloc Friday elected a Christian, George Sabra, as president, a move Sabra said showed that the Muslim-majority nation will not allow its national...
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Newstrack India
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Police say seven elderly Chinese women have been targeted so far, that they know of. (CBC) Vancouver police have issued a warning about a scam targeting Chinese seniors whose cultural and superstitious beliefs are being used against them. Const. Brian...(size: 1.7Kb)
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San Francisco Chronicle
Terry L. Newbegin shares spiritual journey in new book, ‘Unlocking the Consciousness of Your Soul’ Johnson City, TN (PRWEB) November 10, 2012 “Without realizing it, your soul has been hiding from you for many lifetimes,” author Terry L. Newbegin explains. “By choosing to open up your heart and put...(size: 2.8Kb)
Irish Times
MICHAEL WALKER SOCCER ANGLES:��Perceived recent failings are already piling the pressure on two managers ���The two most powerful warriors are patience and time,��� said Tolstoy. ���Patience is not passive; on the contrary, it is active; it is concentrated strength,��� said someone else. This...(size: 6.6Kb)
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The Times of India
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The Examiner
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This article is about the general concept. For other uses, see Belief (disambiguation).
| Certainty series |
|---|
| Agnosticism Belief Certainty Doubt Determinism Epistemology Estimation Fallibilism Fatalism Justification Nihilism Probability Skepticism Solipsism Truth Uncertainty |
Belief is the psychological state in which an individual holds a proposition or premise to be true.[1]
Contents |
Belief, knowledge and epistemology[link]
The terms belief and knowledge are used differently in philosophy.
Epistemology is the philosophical study of knowledge and belief. The primary problem in epistemology is to understand exactly what is needed in order for us to have true knowledge. In a notion derived from Plato's dialogue Theaetetus, philosophy has traditionally defined knowledge as "justified true belief". The relationship between belief and knowledge is that a belief is knowledge if the belief is true, and if the believer has a justification (reasonable and necessarily plausible assertions/evidence/guidance) for believing it is true.
A false belief is not considered to be knowledge, even if it is sincere. A sincere believer in the flat earth theory does not know that the Earth is flat. Later epistemologists, for instance Gettier (1963)[2] and Goldman (1967),[3] have questioned the "justified true belief" definition.
Belief as a psychological theory[link]
Mainstream psychology and related disciplines have traditionally treated belief as if it were the simplest form of mental representation and therefore one of the building blocks of conscious thought. Philosophers have tended to be more abstract in their analysis, and much of the work examining the viability of the belief concept stems from philosophical analysis.
The concept of belief presumes a subject (the believer) and an object of belief (the proposition). So, like other propositional attitudes, belief implies the existence of mental states and intentionality, both of which are hotly debated topics in the philosophy of mind, whose foundations and relation to brain states are still controversial.
Beliefs are sometimes divided into core beliefs (that are actively thought about) and dispositional beliefs (that may be ascribed to someone who has not thought about the issue). For example, if asked "do you believe tigers wear pink pajamas?" a person might answer that they do not, despite the fact they may never have thought about this situation before.[4]
That a belief is a mental state has been seen by some as contentious. While some[citation needed] have argued that beliefs are represented in the mind as sentence-like constructs, others[citation needed] have gone as far as arguing that there is no consistent or coherent mental representation that underlies our common use of the belief concept and that it is therefore obsolete and should be rejected.
This has important implications for understanding the neuropsychology and neuroscience of belief. If the concept of belief is incoherent, then any attempt to find the underlying neural processes that support it will fail.
Philosopher Lynne Rudder Baker has outlined four main contemporary approaches to belief in her controversial book Saving Belief:[5]
- Our common-sense understanding of belief is correct - Sometimes called the "mental sentence theory", in this conception, beliefs exist as coherent entities and the way we talk about them in everyday life is a valid basis for scientific endeavour. Jerry Fodor is one of the principal defenders of this point of view.
- Our common-sense understanding of belief may not be entirely correct, but it is close enough to make some useful predictions - This view argues that we will eventually reject the idea of belief as we use it now, but that there may be a correlation between what we take to be a belief when someone says "I believe that snow is white" and how a future theory of psychology will explain this behaviour. Most notably, philosopher Stephen Stich has argued for this particular understanding of belief.
- Our common-sense understanding of belief is entirely wrong and will be completely superseded by a radically different theory that will have no use for the concept of belief as we know it - Known as eliminativism, this view, (most notably proposed by Paul and Patricia Churchland), argues that the concept of belief is like obsolete theories of times past such as the four humours theory of medicine, or the phlogiston theory of combustion. In these cases science hasn't provided us with a more detailed account of these theories, but completely rejected them as valid scientific concepts to be replaced by entirely different accounts. The Churchlands argue that our common-sense concept of belief is similar in that as we discover more about neuroscience and the brain, the inevitable conclusion will be to reject the belief hypothesis in its entirety.
- Our common-sense understanding of belief is entirely wrong; however, treating people, animals, and even computers as if they had beliefs is often a successful strategy - The major proponents of this view, Daniel Dennett and Lynne Rudder Baker, are both eliminativists in that they believe that beliefs are not a scientifically valid concept, but they don't go as far as rejecting the concept of belief as a predictive device. Dennett gives the example of playing a computer at chess. While few people would agree that the computer held beliefs, treating the computer as if it did (e.g. that the computer believes that taking the opposition's queen will give it a considerable advantage) is likely to be a successful and predictive strategy. In this understanding of belief, named by Dennett the intentional stance, belief-based explanations of mind and behaviour are at a different level of explanation and are not reducible to those based on fundamental neuroscience, although both may be explanatory at their own level.
How beliefs are formed[link]
Psychologists study belief formation and the relationship between beliefs and actions. Beliefs form in a variety of ways:
- We tend to internalise the beliefs of the people around us during childhood. Albert Einstein is often quoted as having said that "Common sense is the collection of prejudices acquired by age eighteen." Political beliefs depend most strongly on the political beliefs most common in the community where we live.[6] Most individuals believe the religion they were taught in childhood.[7]
- People may adopt the beliefs of a charismatic leader, even if those beliefs fly in the face of all previous beliefs, and produce actions that are clearly not in their own self-interest.[8] Is belief voluntary? Rational individuals need to reconcile their direct reality with any said belief; therefore, if belief is not present or possible, it reflects the fact that contradictions were necessarily overcome using cognitive dissonance.
- The primary thrust of the advertising industry is that repetition forms beliefs, as do associations of beliefs with images of sex, love, and other strong positive emotions.[9][unreliable source?]
- Physical trauma, especially to the head, can radically alter a person's beliefs.[10]
However, even educated people, well aware of the process by which beliefs form, still strongly cling to their beliefs, and act on those beliefs even against their own self-interest. In Anna Rowley's Leadership Theory, she states "You want your beliefs to change. It's proof that you are keeping your eyes open, living fully, and welcoming everything that the world and people around you can teach you." This means that peoples' beliefs should evolve as they gain new experiences.[11]
Belief-in[link]
To "believe in" someone or something is a distinct concept from "believe-that". There are two types of belief-in:[12]
- Commendatory - an expression of confidence in a person or entity, as in, "I believe in his abililty to do the job".
- Existential claim - to claim belief in the existence of an entity or phenomenon with the implied need to justify its claim to existence. It is often used when the entity is not real, or its existence is in doubt. "He believes in witches and ghosts" or "many children believe in fairies" are typical examples.[13]
Delusional beliefs[link]
Delusions are defined as beliefs in psychiatric diagnostic criteria[citation needed] (for example in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders). Psychiatrist and historian G.E. Berrios has challenged the view that delusions are genuine beliefs and instead labels them as "empty speech acts", where affected persons are motivated to express false or bizarre belief statements due to an underlying psychological disturbance. However, the majority of mental health professionals and researchers treat delusions as if they were genuine beliefs.
In Lewis Carroll's Through the Looking-Glass the White Queen says, "Why, sometimes I've believed as many as six impossible things before breakfast." This is often quoted in mockery of the common ability of people to entertain beliefs contrary to fact.
Notes[link]
- ^ Schwitzgebel, Eric (2006), "Belief", in Zalta, Edward, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford, CA: The Metaphysics Research Lab, http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/belief/, retrieved 2008-09-19
- ^ Gettier, EL 1963, 'Is justified true belief knowledge?', Analysis, vol. 23, no. 6, pp. 121-123
- ^ Goldman, AI 1967, 'A causal theory of knowing', The Journal of Philosophy, vol. 64, no. 12, pp. 357-372
- ^ Bell, V., Halligan, P.W. & Ellis, H.D. (2006) A Cognitive Neuroscience of Belief. In Peter W. Halligan & Mansel Aylward (eds.) The Power of Belief: Psychological Influence on Illness, Disability, and Medicine. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-853010-2
- ^ Lynne Rudder Baker, Saving Belief, Princeton University Press, 1989, ISBN 978-0-691-02050-1
- ^ Andrew Gelman, David Park, Boris Shor, Joseph Bafumi, Jeronimo Cortina, Red State, Blue State, Rich State, Poor State: Why Americans Vote the Way They Do, Princeton University Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0-691-13927-2
- ^ Michael Argyle, The Psychology of Religious Behaviour, Belief and Experience, Routledge, 1997, ISBN 978-0-415-12331-0, p.25 "Religion, in most cultures, is ascribed, not chosen."
- ^ Eric Hoffer, The True Believer, Harper Perennial Modern Classics, 2002, ISBN 978-0-06-050591-2
- ^ Jane Kilbourne, Mary Pipher, Can't Buy My Love: How Advertising Changes the Way We Think and Feel, Free Press, 2000, ISBN 978-0-684-86600-0
- ^ Babette Rothschild, The Body Remembers: The Psychophysiology of Trauma and Trauma Treatment, W. W. Norton & Company, 2000, ISBN 978-0-393-70327-6
- ^ Rowley, Anna. Leadership Therapy: Inside the Mind of Microsoft. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007. Pg 69 ISBN 1-4039-8403-4
- ^ MacIntosh, J. J. 1994. "Belief-in Revisited: A Reply to Williams". Religious Studies, 30, no. 4: 487-503. doi:10.1017/S0034412500023131
- ^ Macintosh, Jack. "Belief-in", The Oxford Companion to Philosophy, p. 86. ISBN 978-0-19-926479-7
See also[link]
 |
Book: Epistemology |
| Wikipedia books are collections of articles that can be downloaded or ordered in print. | |
- Charm
- Cognitive dissonance
- Collective belief
- Culture-specific syndrome
- Doxastic logic
- Evil eye
- Frankenstein
- Expectation (epistemic)
- Faith
- Folk psychology
- Gettier problem
- Idea
- Life stance
- Moore's paradox
- Nocebo
- Observer-expectancy effect
- Opinion
- Placebo
- Propositional attitude
- Propositional knowledge
- Psychosomatic illness
- Self-deception
- Spell (paranormal)
- Spirituality
- Subject-expectancy effect
- Sugar pill
- Suggestibility
- Suggestion
- Subjective validation
- Thomas theorem
- Truth
- Ultimate importance
- Unintended consequence
- Value (personal and cultural)
External links[link]
 |
Look up belief in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. |
- Belief entry by Eric Schwitzgebel in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
- William Kingdon Clifford. Ethics of Belief Classic essay that belief by its nature is not ethical, with counterpoint by "The Will to Believe" of William James
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This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belief
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This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
