Containment was a United States policy using military, economic, and diplomatic strategies to stall the spread of communism, enhance America’s security and influence abroad, and prevent a "domino effect". A component of the Cold War, this policy was a response to a series of moves by the Soviet Union to enlarge communist influence in Eastern Europe, China, Korea, and Vietnam. It represented a middle-ground position between détente and rollback. The basis of the doctrine was articulated in a 1946 cable by U.S. diplomat George F. Kennan. As a description of U.S. foreign policy, the word originated in a report Kennan submitted to Defense Secretary James Forrestal in 1947, a report that was later dominated as a magazine article. It is a translation of the French ''cordon sanitaire,'' used to describe Western policy toward the Soviet Union in the 1920s.

The word containment is associated most strongly with the policies of U.S. President Harry Truman (1945–53), including the establishment of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a mutual defense pact. Although President Dwight Eisenhower (1953–61) toyed with the rival doctrine of rollback, he refused to intervene in the Hungarian Uprising of 1956. President Lyndon Johnson (1963–69) was firmly committed to containment, forcing him to fight a war he did not want in Vietnam. President Richard Nixon (1969–74), working with his top advisor Henry Kissinger, rejected containment in favor of friendly relations with the Soviet Union and China; this détente, or relaxation of tensions, involved expanded trade and cultural contacts. President Jimmy Carter (1976–81) emphasized human rights rather than anti-communism, but dropped détente and returned to containment when the Soviets invaded Afghanistan in 1979. President Ronald Reagan (1981–89), denouncing the Soviet state as an "evil empire", escalated the Cold War and promoted rollback in Nicaragua and Afghanistan. Central programs begun under containment, including NATO and nuclear deterrence, remained in effect even after the end of the Cold War in 1989 and the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991.

History

Background

Following the 1917 communist revolution in Russia, there were calls by Western leaders to isolate the Bolshevik government, which seemed intent on promoting worldwide revolution. In March 1919, French Premier Georges Clemenceau called for a ''cordon sanitaire'', or ring of non-communist states, to isolate the Soviet Union. Translating this phrase, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson called for a "quarantine." Both phrases analogize communism to a contagious disease. Nonetheless, during World War II, the U.S. and the Soviet Union found themselves allied in opposition to the Axis powers.

Origin (1944-1947)

Key State Department personnel grew increasingly frustrated with and suspicious of the Soviets as the war drew to a close. Averell Harriman, U.S. ambassador in Moscow, once a "confirmed optimist" regarding U.S.-Soviet relations, was disillusioned by what he saw as the Soviet betrayal of the 1944 Warsaw Uprising as well as by violations of the February 1945 Yalta Agreement concerning Poland. Harriman would later have significant influence in forming Truman's views on the Soviet Union.

In February 1946, the U.S. State Department asked George F. Kennan, then at the U.S. Embassy in Moscow, why the Russians opposed the creation of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. He responded with a wide-ranging analysis of Russian policy now called the ''Long Telegram'' :

According to Kennan:

The Soviets perceived themselves to be in a state of perpetual war with capitalism;

The Soviets would use controllable Marxists in the capitalist world as allies;

Soviet aggression was not aligned with the views of the Russian people or with economic reality, but with historic Russian xenophobia and paranoia;

The Soviet government's structure prevented objective or accurate pictures of internal and external reality.

Kennan's cable was hailed in the State Department "the appreciation of the situation that had long been needed." Kennan himself attributed the enthusiastic reception to timing: "Six months earlier the message would probably have been received in the State Department with raised eyebrows and lips pursed in disapproval. Six months later, it would probably have sounded redundant." Clark Clifford and George Elsey produced a report elaborating on the ''Long Telegram'' and proposing concrete policy recommendations based on its analysis. This report, which recommended "restraining and confining" Soviet influence, was presented to Truman in September 1946.

In January 1947, Kennan submitted a report entitled "The Sources of Soviet Conduct" to Defense Secretary Forrestal. The use of the word "containment" originates from this report: "In these circumstances it is clear that the main element of any United States policy toward the Soviet Union must be that of long-term, patient but firm and vigilant containment of Russian expansive tendencies." Forrestal gave permission for the report to be published in the journal ''Foreign Affairs'' under the pseudonym "X." Biographers Townsend Hoopes and Douglas Brinkley have dubbed Forrestal "godfather of containment" largely on account of his work in distributing Kennan's writing.

Harry Truman (1945-53)

In March 1947, President Truman, a Democrat, asked the Republican controlled Congress to appropriate $400 million in aid to the Greek and Turkish governments, then fighting Communist subversion. Truman pledged to, "support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures." This pledge became known as the Truman Doctrine. Portraying the issue as a mighty clash between "totalitarian regimes" and "free peoples," the speech marks the onset of the Cold War and the adoption of containment as official U.S. policy. Congress appropriated the money.

Truman's motives on this occasion have been the subject of considerable scholarship and several schools of interpretation. In the orthodox explanation of Herbert Feis, a series of aggressive Soviet actions in 1945-47 in Poland, Iran, Turkey and elsewhere awakened the American public to this new danger to freedom and Truman responded. In the revisionist view of William Appleman Williams, Truman's speech was an expression of longstanding American expansionism. In the realpolitik view of Lynn Davis, Truman was a naive idealist who unnecessarily provoked the Soviets by couching disputes in ideological terms like democracy and freedom.

According to psychological analysis by Deborah Larson, Truman felt a need to prove his decisiveness and feared that aides would make unfavorable comparisons between him and his predecessor, Franklin Roosevelt. "I am here to make decisions, and whether they prove right or wrong I am going to take them," he once said. The drama surrounding the announcement of the Truman Doctrine catered to president's self-image of a strong and decisive leader, but his real decision-making process was more complex and gradual. The timing of the speech was not a response to any Soviet action, but rather to the fact that the Republican Party had just gained control of Congress. Truman was little involved in drafting the speech and did not himself adopt the hard-line attitude implied by the Truman Doctrine until several months later.

Truman followed up his speech with a series of measures to contain Soviet influence in Europe, including the Marshall Plan, or European Recovery Program, and NATO, a military alliance between the U.S. and Western European nations created in 1949. Because containment required detailed information about Communist moves, the government relied increasingly on the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). Established by the National Security Act of 1947, CIA conducted espionage in foreign lands, some of it visible, more of it secret. Truman approved a classified statement of containment policy called NSC 20/4 in November 1948, the first comprehensive statement of security policy ever created by the United States. The Soviet Union first nuclear test in 1949 prompted the National Security Council to formulate a revised security doctrine. Completed in April 1950, it became known as NSC 68. It concluded that a massive military buildup was necessary to the deal with the Soviet threat. According to the report, drafted by Paul Nitze and others:

Korea

The U.S. entered the Korean War to defend South Korea from a communist invasion, that is, following containment doctrine. However, the success of the Inchon landing inspired the U.S. and the United Nations to adopt a Rollback strategy and overthrow the Communist North Korean regime, thus allowing nationwide elections under U.N. auspices. General Douglas MacArthur then advanced across the 38th parallel into North Korea. The Chinese then sent in large armies and defeated the U.N. forces, pushing them below the 38th parallel. Truman blamed MacArthur's focus on victory and adopted a "limited war" policy. His focus shifted to negotiating a settlement, which was finally reached in 1953. For his part, MacArthur denounced Truman's "No-win policy."

Dulles

Many Republicans, including John Foster Dulles, concluded that Truman had been too timid. In 1952, Dulles called for rollback and the eventual "liberation" of eastern Europe. Dulles was named secretary of state by incoming President Dwight Eisenhower, but Eisenhower's decision not to intervene during the Hungarian Uprising of 1956 made containment a bipartisan doctrine. President Eisenhower relied on clandestine CIA actions to undermine hostile governments and used economic and military foreign aid to strengthen governments supporting the American position in the Cold War.

Vietnam

Senator Barry Goldwater, the Republican candidate for president in 1964, challenged containment and asked, "Why not victory?" President Johnson, the Democratic nominee, answered that rollback risked nuclear war. Johnson explained containment doctrine by quoting the Bible: "Hitherto shalt thou come, but not further." Goldwater lost to Johnson in the general election by a wide margin. Johnson adhered closely to containment during the Vietnam War. Rejecting proposals by General William Westmoreland that U.S. ground forces advance into Laos and cut communist supply lines, Johnson gathered a group of elder statesmen called The Wise Men. This group included Kennan, Acheson and other former Truman advisors. Rallies in support of the troops were discouraged for fear that a patriotic response would lead to demands for victory and rollback. Military responsibility was divided among three generals so that no powerful theater commander could emerge to challenge Johnson as MacArthur had challenged Truman.

Nixon, who replaced Johnson in 1969, referred to his foreign policy as détente, or a relaxation of tension. Although it continued to aim at restraining the Soviet Union, it was based on political realism, or thinking in terms of national interest, as opposed to crusades against communism or for democracy. Emphasis was placed on talks with the Soviet Union concerning nuclear weapons called the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks. Nixon reduced U.S. military presence in Vietnam to the minimum required to contain communist advances, a policy called Vietnamization. As the war continued, it grew less popular. A Democratic Congress forced Nixon, a Republican, to abandon this policy in 1973 by enacting the Case-Church Amendment. This law ended U.S. military involvement in Vietnam and led to a communist takeover of South Vietnam and Cambodia.

President Jimmy Carter (1976–81) came to office committed to a foreign policy that emphasized human rights. But in response to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, containment was again made a priority. The wording of the Carter Doctrine (1980) intentionally echoes that of the Truman Doctrine.

Ronald Reagan (1981-89)

Following the communist victory in Vietnam, Democrats began to view further communist advance as inevitable while Republicans returned to rollback doctrine. Ronald Reagan, a long-time advocate of rollback, was elected U.S. president in 1980. Reagan took a more aggressive approach to dealings with the USSR, believing that détente was misguided and peaceful coexistence was tantamount to surrender. When the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in 1979, American policy makers worried that the Soviets were making a run for control of the Persian Gulf. Throughout the 1980s, under a policy that came to be known as the Reagan Doctrine, the United States provided technical and economic assistance to the Afghan guerrillas fighting against the Soviet army. By sending military aid to anti-communist insurgents in Afghanistan, Angola, Cambodia, and Nicaragua, he confronted existing communist governments and went beyond the limits of containment doctrine. He deployed the Pershing II missile in Europe and promoted research on a Strategic Defense Initiative, which critics called "Star Wars", to shoot down missiles fired at the United States. Reagan's aim was to defeat the Soviets through an expensive arms buildup the Soviets could not match. However, Reagan continued to follow containment doctrine in several key areas. He pursued a comprehensive nuclear disarmament initiative called START I and policy toward Europe continued to emphasize a NATO-based defensive approach.

The end of the Cold War in 1989 marked the official end of U.S. containment policy, though it kept its bases in the areas around Russia, such as ones in Iceland, Germany, and Turkey.

See also

China containment policy

Criticism of American foreign policy

Détente

Foreign policy of the United States

Marshall Plan

Rollback

Notes and references

Further reading

Cooke, Sarah-Jane. "History, historians and the Naming of Foreign Policy: A Postmodern Reflection on American Strategic thinking during the Truman Administration," ''Intelligence and National Security,'' Autumn 2001, Vol. 16 Issue 3, pp 146–63

Hopkins, Michael F. "Continuing Debate And New Approaches In Cold War History," ''Historical Journal'' (2007), 50: 913-934 doi: 10.1017/S0018246X07006437

Kennan, George F., ''American Diplomacy'', The University of Chicago Press. 1984. ISBN 0-226-43147-9

Wright, Steven. ''The United States and Persian Gulf Security: The Foundations of the War on Terror'', Ithaca Press, 2007 ISBN 978-0-86372-321-6

Gaddis, John Lewis, ''Strategies of Containment: A Critical Appraisal of American National Security Policy During the Cold War''. 2004. ISBN 978-0-19-517447-2

Category:Cold War Category:Soviet Union – United States relations

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Coordinates	34°03′″N118°15′″N
name	M. Ward
background	solo_singer
birth name	Matthew Stephen Ward
born	October 04, 1973
origin	Newbury Park, California, U.S.
instrument	Vocals, Keyboards, Piano, Guitar, Bass, Harmonica
genre	Indie folk, Alt-Country
occupation	Singer-songwriter, Producer
years active	1999–present
label	Merge, 4AD, Matador, Future Farmer, Arts & Crafts México
associated acts	She & Him, Monsters of Folk, Bright Eyes
website	www.mwardmusic.com
notable instruments	}}

Matthew Stephen Ward, known by his stage name M. Ward, is a singer-songwriter and guitarist who rose to prominence in the Portland, Oregon music scene. In addition to his solo work he is known as a member of She & Him and Monsters of Folk.

Career

Ward's solo debut, ''Duet for Guitars #2,'' was released by Howe Gelb on his Ow Om record label. Ward's 2001 album, ''End of Amnesia,'' was put out by Future Farmer Records. A collection of live recordings, ''Live Music & The Voice of Strangers,'' was a self-released disc that was sold at his shows in 2001. His subsequent albums have been released on Merge Records.

He has guested on recordings by Cat Power, Neko Case, Beth Orton (with whom he co-wrote the title track to her album ''Comfort of Strangers''), The Court & Spark, Bright Eyes (with whom he toured on the 2004 Vote for Change tour with R.E.M. and Bruce Springsteen), Jenny Lewis (whose debut solo album ''Rabbit Fur Coat'' he co-produced), and My Morning Jacket.

In 2004, Ward played guitar for Bright Eyes on a taping of ''The Late Late Show with Craig Kilborn''. During the performance, Bright Eyes' singer Conor Oberst yelled out "M. Ward for President!" This prompted ''Newsweek'' to run an article on Ward and his next album ''Transistor Radio.'' Also in 2004, Ward had his song Transfiguration #1 featured in Chris Malloy's surf documentary "A Brokedown Melody."

In 2005, Ward was – along with Burtch, Lytle and Fairchild from Grandaddy, Scout Niblett, Marie Frank or Jeremy Gara – involved in Howe Gelb's project called Arizona Amp and Alternator, which had officially no band members but a lot of involved musicians (M. Ward voice can be recognized on track Aaaa(3)).

In 2006, he contributed a song to, and helped produce the John Fahey tribute album ''I Am the Resurrection''. He also appears on Norah Jones' album ''Not Too Late'', performing backing vocals and guitar on "Sinkin' Soon", and toured as the opener and a member of her "Handsome Band" for the album in the spring of 2007. Also his cover of David Bowie's song "Let's Dance" is featured on the soundtrack of the 2007 New Zealand film ''Eagle vs Shark''. Ward was previously a member of the band Rodriguez with Kyle Field of Little Wings. Their album ''Swing Like a Metronome'' was released in 2000 and produced by Jason Lytle of Grandaddy.

In 2006, he released ''Post-War,'' which was described by ''Vanity Fair'' in its August 2006 issue as thematic on the question "How will America heal once this craziness in Iraq is over?" Ward said in that article that he looked to the post-war music of the late 1940s and 1950s. "I had the naive, simplistic idea that producers and writers and artists of the time helped in a minuscule way to change the mind-set of America." The album was released on Merge Records and features cameo performances by Howe Gelb, Jim James and Neko Case.

From the music blog It's Hard to Find a Friend: "According to the ''Omaha City Weekly'': ...Also with recording plans for the winter is Conor Oberst. Beginning in the new year, Oberst is slated to begin recording two new albums — one a solo record in Mexico (the album is self titled "Conor Oberst") with Jake Bellows playing a role and another with a new band being formed with M. Ward".

In 2006, Ward recorded a duet with actress Zooey Deschanel, a collaboration which resulted in the formation of the band She & Him. The duo's album ''Volume One'' — which Ward produced — was released on Merge Records on March 18, 2008. Ward and Deschanel performed (along with Yo La Tengo) on ''Late Night with Conan O'Brien'' on April 22, 2008. Returning from She & Him duties, M. Ward has released his sixth solo studio album, ''Hold Time'', on February 17, 2009. Ward has said that he doesn't enjoy playing shows very much: "In general I like it. I don't like being away from home that much. So it's O.K. It's a part of the job." He has also taken steps recently to restrict fans' use of cameras—even point-and-shoots—during his live shows.

Both Ward and Deschanel also agreed to be judges for the 9th annual Independent Music Awards. In doing so, She & Him are using their growing influence to assist upcoming independent musicians' careers. Ward's music has influenced subsequent singer-songwriters such as Jesse Marchant of JBM.

Monsters of Folk, the project Ward and Oberst began, finally released their self-titled debut album in September 2009. The band also includes Jim James of My Morning Jacket (credited as Yim Yames) and Mike Mogis from Bright Eyes.

Influences

Ward says that "Amazing Grace" is probably his favorite song. His favorite piece of musical equipment is the TASCAM 4-Track Recorder, which he uses to start every song he writes. Ward is sponsored by Gibson Guitars, his main guitar being the Johnny A. model. Regarding the types of music he grew up listening to, Ward said: "My dad turned me on to Johnny Cash. He was always into gospel and country. My mom listened to classical music."

Discography

Albums

''Duet for Guitars #2'' (1999)

''End of Amnesia'' (2001)

''Live Music & The Voice of Strangers'' (2001)

''Transfiguration of Vincent'' (2003)

''Transistor Radio'' (2005)

''Post-War'' (2006) (#146 U.S.) ''Hold Time'' (2009) (#31 U.S.)

EPs

''Scene from #12 (I Ain't Sleeping)'' (2000)

''To Go Home'' (2007)

Arizona Amp and Alternator

''Arizona Amp and Alternator'' (2005)

She & Him

''Volume One'' (2008) (#71 U.S.)

''Volume Two'' (2010) (#6 U.S.)

Monsters of Folk

''Monsters of Folk'' (2009) (#15 U.S.)

Tired Pony

''The Place We Ran From'' (2010)

''TBA'' (2011)

Compilation tracks

"John King's Watercolor Bicycle" on ''Acuarela Songs 1'' (2001, Acuarela)

"Fearless" on ''Merge Records Presents: Survive and Advance Vol. 3'' (2003, Merge)

"Story of an Artist" (Daniel Johnston) on ''The Late Great Daniel Johnston: Discovered Covered'' (2004, Gammon)

"One More Goodbye" on ''Old Enough 2 Know Better: 15 Years of Merge Records'' (2004, Merge)

"Let My Love Open the Door" (Pete Townshend) on ''Sweetheart 2005: Love Songs (2005, Hear)

"Green River" (Creedence Clearwater Revival) on ''Green River: Benefit For Mercy Corps'' (2005, Merge)

"Bean Vine Blues #2" (John Fahey) on ''I Am the Resurrection: A Tribute to John Fahey'' (2006, Vanguard)

"What Is a Soul?" on ''Big Change: Songs for FINCA'' (2007, IODA)

"Let's Dance" on ''Sounds Eclectic: The Covers Project'' (2007, Hear)

"Crooked Lines" on ''The Hottest State (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack)'' (2007, Sony/ATV)

Other appearances

The Band of Blacky Ranchette – ''Still Lookin' Good to Me'' (2003, Thrill Jockey)

My Morning Jacket – ''Z'' - ''Into The Woods'' (2005, ATO)

Jenny Lewis & The Watson Twins – ''Rabbit Fur Coat'' (2006, Team Love)

Bright Eyes – ''Four Winds'' (2007, Saddle Creek)

Bright Eyes – ''Cassadaga'' (2007, Saddle Creek)

Jenny Lewis – ''Acid Tongue'' (2008, Reprise)

Jolie Holland – ''The Living and the Dead'' (2008, Anti Records)

Alain Bashung - ''Bleu Pétrole'' (2008, Barclay Records)

''Eli Stone'' – season one, episode two

''The Go-Getter''

''Por Vida: A Tribute to the Songs of Alejandro Escovedo''

''The Late Great Daniel Johnston: Discovered Covered (2004, Gammon Records)

References

External links

M. Ward's homepage

M. Ward official Myspace page

M. Ward official Facebook page

Future Farmer infopage

Matador Records infopage

Merge Records infopage

Review of "Post War" on Subculture Magazine

Lazy-i Interview: July 2003

Trouser Press entry

Prefixmag.com Interview: October 2006

M. Ward Concerts & Interviews at NPR Music

Guitars Played By M. Ward at Fretbase

Phrequency.com Photos/Review: February 2009

M. Ward article March 2009

AV Club interview

In Music We Trust interview

Vanity Fair article

Monsters of Folk Myspace page

Category:American male singers Category:American singer-songwriters Category:American folk singers Category:Musicians from Portland, Oregon Category:People from Ventura County, California Category:4AD artists Category:1973 births Category:Living people Category:Arts & Crafts (record label) artists

de:M. Ward es:M. Ward fr:M. Ward nl:M. Ward no:M. Ward pt:M. Ward sv:M. Ward