Dugong[1] Temporal range: Early Eocene–Recent PreЄ Є O S D C P T J K Pg N
Conservation status
Vulnerable (IUCN 3.1)[2]
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Mammalia
Order:	Sirenia
Family:	Dugongidae Gray, 1821
Subfamily:	Dugonginae Simpson, 1932
Genus:	Dugong Lacépède, 1799
Species:	D. dugon
Binomial name
Dugong dugon (Müller, 1776)
Dugong range

The dugong (Dugong dugon) is a large marine mammal which, together with the manatees, is one of four living species of the order Sirenia. It is the only living representative of the once-diverse family Dugongidae; its closest modern relative, Steller's sea cow (Hydrodamalis gigas), was hunted to extinction in the 18th century. It is also the only sirenian in its range, which spans the waters of at least 37 countries throughout the Indo-Pacific, though the majority of dugongs live in the northern waters of Australia between Shark Bay and Moreton Bay. The dugong is the only strictly marine herbivorous mammal, as all species of manatee use fresh water to some degree.

Like all modern sirenians, the dugong has a fusiform body with no dorsal fin or hind limbs, instead possessing paddle-like forelimbs used to manoeuvre. It is easily distinguished from the manatees by its fluked, dolphin-like tail, but also possesses a unique skull and teeth. The dugong is heavily dependent on seagrasses for subsistence and is thus restricted to the coastal habitats where they grow, with the largest dugong concentrations typically occurring in wide, shallow, protected areas such as bays, mangrove channels and the lee sides of large inshore islands. Its snout is sharply downturned, an adaptation for grazing and uprooting benthic seagrasses.

The dugong has been hunted for thousands of years for its meat and oil. Traditional hunting has great cultural significance throughout its range. The dugong's current distribution is reduced and disjunct, and many populations are close to extinction. The IUCN lists the dugong as a species vulnerable to extinction, while the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species limits or bans the trade of derived products. Despite being legally protected in many countries, the main causes of population decline remain anthropogenic and include hunting, habitat degradation, and fishing-related fatalities. With its long lifespan of 70 years or more, and slow rate of reproduction, the dugong is especially vulnerable to extinction.

Etymology and taxonomy[link]

The word "dugong" derives from the Tagalog term dugong which was in turn adopted from the Malay duyung, both meaning "lady of the sea".^[3] Other common local names include "sea cow", "sea pig" and "sea camel".^[4]

Dugong dugon is the only extant species of the Dugongidae family, and one of only four extant species of the Sirenia order, the others forming the manatee family.^[5] It was first classified by Müller in 1776 as Trichechus dugon,^[6] a member of the manatee genus previously defined by Linnaeus.^[7] It was later assigned as the type species of Dugong by Lacépède^[8] and further classified within its own family by Gray^[9] and subfamily by Simpson.^[10]

Dugongs and other sirenians are not closely related to other marine mammals, being more related to elephants.^[11] Dugongs and elephants share a monophyletic group with hyraxes and the aardvark, one of the earliest offshoots of eutherians. The fossil record shows sirenians appearing in the Eocene, where they most likely lived in the Tethys Ocean. The two extant families of sirenians are thought to have diverged in the mid-Eocene, after which the dugongs and their closest relative, the Steller's sea cow, split off from a common ancestor in the Miocene. The Steller's sea cow became extinct in the 18th century. No fossils exist of other members of the Dugongidae.^[12]

Molecular studies have been made on dugong populations using mitochondrial DNA. The results have suggested that the population of Southeast Asia is distinct from the others. Australia has two distinct maternal lineages, one of which also contains the dugongs from Africa and Arabia. Limited genetic mixing has taken place between those in Southeast Asia and those in Australia, mostly around Timor.^[5] One of the lineages stretches all the way from Moreton Bay to Western Australia, while the other only stretches from Moreton Bay to the Northern Territory.^[11] However, there is not yet sufficient genetic data to make clear boundaries between distinct groups.^[5]

Anatomy and morphology[link]

The dugong's body is large with a cylindrical shape that tapers at both ends. It has thick, smooth skin that is a pale cream colour at birth, but darkens dorsally and laterally to brownish-to-dark-grey with age. The colour of a dugong can change due to the growth of algae on the skin.^[13] The body is sparsely covered in short hair, a common feature among sirenians which may allow for tactile interpretation of their environment.^[14] These hairs are most developed around the mouth, which has a large horseshoe shaped upper lip forming a highly mobile muzzle.^[12] This muscular upper lip aids the dugong in foraging.^[13]

Bones in the forelimb can fuse variously with age.

The dugong's tail flukes^[15] and flippers^[11] are similar to those of dolphins. These flukes are raised up and down in long strokes to move the animal forward, and can be twisted to turn. The forelimbs are paddle-like flippers which aid in turning and slowing.^[12] The dugong lacks nails on its flippers, which are only 15% of a dugong's body length.^[12] The tail has deep notches.^[16]

A dugong's brain weighs a maximum of 300 g (11 oz), about 0.1% of the animal's body weight.^[12] With very small eyes,^[17] dugongs have limited vision, but acute hearing within narrow sound thresholds. Their ears, which lack pinna, are located on the sides of their head. The nostrils are located on top of the head and can be closed using valves.^[11] Dugongs have two teats, one located behind each flipper.^[12] There are few differences between sexes; the body structures are almost the same.^[13] A male's testes are not externally located, and the main difference between males and females is the location of the genital aperture in relation to the umbilicus and the anus. The lungs in a dugong are very long, extending almost as far as the kidneys, which are also highly elongated in order to cope with the saltwater environment.^[12] If wounded, a dugong's blood will clot rapidly.^[13]

The skull of a dugong is unique.^[16] The skull is enlarged with sharply downturned premaxilla, which are stronger in males. The spine has between 57 and 60 vertebrae.^[12] Unlike in manatees, the dugong's teeth do not continually grow back via horizontal tooth replacement.^[18] The dugong has two incisors (tusks) which emerge in males during puberty. The female's tusks continue to grow without emerging during puberty, sometimes erupting later in life after reaching the base of the premaxilla.^[12] The number of growth layer groups in a tusk indicates the age of a dugong,^[5] and the cheekteeth move forward with age. The full dental formula of dugongs is Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \tfrac{ 2.0.3.3}{ 3.1.3.3} , meaning they have two incisors, three premolars, and three molars on each side of their upper jaw, and three incisors, one canine, three premolars, and three molars on each side of their lower jaw.^[16] Like other sirenians, the dugong experiences pachyostosis, a condition in which the ribs and other long bones are unusually solid and contain little or no marrow. These heavy bones, which are among the densest in the animal kingdom,^[19] may act as a ballast to help keep sirenians suspended slightly below the water's surface.^[20]

An adult's length rarely exceeds 3 metres (9.8 ft). An individual this long is expected to weigh around 420 kilograms (926 lb). The largest individual recorded was 4.06 metres (13.32 ft) long and weighed 1,016 kilograms (2,240 lb),^[12] and was found off the Saurashtra coast of west India.^[21] Females tend to be larger than males.^[12]

Distribution and habitat[link]

Dugong on the sea floor at Marsa Alam, Egypt

Dugongs are found in warm coastal waters from the western Pacific Ocean to the eastern coast of Africa,^[15] along an estimated 140,000 kilometres (86,992 mi) of coastline^[2] between 26° and 27° degrees to the north and south of the equator. Their historic range is believed to correspond to that of seagrasses from the Potamogetonaceae and Hydrocharitaceae families. The full size of the former range is unknown, although it is believed that the current populations represent the historical limits of the range,^[5] which is highly fractured.^[13] The dugong is the only strictly-marine herbivorous mammal, as all species of manatee utilise fresh water to some degree. Recorded numbers of dugongs are generally believed to be lower than actual numbers, due to a lack of accurate surveys. Despite this, the dugong population is thought to be shrinking,^[5] with a worldwide decline of 20 per cent in the last 90 years. They have disappeared from the waters of Hong Kong, Mauritius, and Taiwan, as well as parts of Cambodia, Japan, the Philippines and Vietnam. Further disappearances are likely.^[11]

Populations of dugongs exist in the water of 37 countries and territories.^[11] In the late 1960s, herds of up to 500 dugongs were observed off the coast of East Africa and nearby islands. However, current populations in this area are extremely small, numbering 50 and below, and it is thought likely they will become extinct. The eastern side of the Red Sea is the home of large populations numbering in the hundreds, and similar populations are thought to exist on the western side. In the 1980s, it was estimated there could be as many as 4,000 dugongs in the Red Sea. The Persian Gulf has the second-largest dugong population in the world, inhabiting most of the southern coast,^[5] and the current population is believed to be around 7,500.^[17]

A highly isolated breeding population exists in the Gulf of Kutch, the only population remaining in western India. It is 1,500 kilometres (932 mi) from the population in the Persian Gulf, and 1,700 kilometres (1,056 mi) from the nearest population in India. Former populations in this area, centred on the Maldives and the Laccadive Islands, are presumed to be extinct. A population exists in the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Strait between India and Sri Lanka, but it is seriously depleted. A small population exists around the Nansei Shoto islands, and a population formerly existed off Taiwan.^[5] An endangered population of 50 or fewer dugongs survives around Okinawa.^[22]

Dugong with attached remora off Lamen Island, Vanuatu.

A small population exists off Southern China, centred around the island of Hainan. The population around the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are known only from a few records, and although the population was large during British rule, it is now believed to be small and scattered. All the islands of the Philippines are believed to have once provided habitat for dugongs, which were common until the 1970s. The Gulf of Thailand also used to have a large population, but they have not recently been sighted in the west of the gulf, and the population in the east is thought to be very small. Dugongs are believed to exist in the Straits of Johor in very small numbers. The waters around Borneo support a small population, with more scattered throughout the Malay archipelago. Populations exists around the Solomon Islands archipelago and New Caledonia, stretching to a westernmost population in Vanuatu. A highly isolated population lives around the islands of Palau.^[5]

Australia is home to the largest population, stretching from Shark Bay in Western Australia to Moreton Bay in Queensland.^[11] The population of Shark Bay is thought to be stable with over 10,000 dugongs. Smaller populations exist up the coast, including one in Ashmore reef. Large numbers of dugongs live to the north of the Northern Territory, with a population of over 20,000 in the gulf of Carpentaria alone. A population of over 25,000 exists in the Torres Strait, although there is significant migration between the strait and the waters of New Guinea.^[5] The Great Barrier Reef provides important feeding areas for the species;^[23] this reef area houses a stable population of around 10,000, although the population concentration has shifted over time. Large bays facing north on the Queensland coast provide significant habitats for dugong, with the southernmost of these being Hervey Bay and Moreton Bay.^[11]

Dugongs are generally found in warm waters around the coast^[15] with large numbers concentrated in wide and shallow protected bays. Large numbers also exist in wide and shallow mangrove channels and around leeward sides of large inshore islands, where seagrass beds are common.^[5] They are usually located at a depth of around 10 m (33 ft),^[13] although in areas where the continental shelf remains shallow dugongs have been known to travel more than 10 kilometres (6 mi) from the shore, descending to as far as 37 metres (121 ft), where deepwater seagrasses such as Halophila spinulosa are found.^[5] Special habitats are used for different activities. It has been observed that shallow waters are used as sites for calving, minimising the risk of predation. Deep waters may provide a thermal refuge from cooler waters closer to the shore during winter.^[5]

Ecology and life history[link]

A mother and calf in shallow water

Dugongs are long lived, and the oldest recorded specimen reached age 73.^[5] They have few natural predators, although animals such as crocodiles, killer whales, and sharks pose a threat to the young,^[11] and a dugong has also been recorded to have died from trauma after being impaled by a sting ray barb. A large number of infections and parasitic diseases affect dugongs. Detected pathogens include helminths, cryptosporidium, different types of bacterial infections, and other unidentified parasites. 30% of dugong deaths in Queensland since 1996 are thought to be because of disease.^[5]

Although they are social animals, they are usually solitary or found in pairs due to the inability of seagrass beds to support large populations.^[13] Gatherings of hundreds of dugongs sometimes happen,^[15] but they last only for a short period of time.^[13] Because they are shy, and do not approach humans, little is known about dugong behaviour.^[13] They can go six minutes without breathing (though about two and a half minutes is more typical),^[24] and have been known to rest on their tail to breathe with their heads above water.^[15] They can dive to a maximum depth of 39 metres (128 ft), although they spend most of their lives no deeper than 10 metres (33 ft). Communication between individuals is through chirps, whistles, barks, and other sounds that echo underwater. Different sounds have been observed with different amplitudes and frequencies, implying different purposes. Visual communication is limited due to poor eyesight, and is mainly used for activities such as lekking for courtship purposes. Mothers and calves are in almost constant physical contact, and calves have been known to reach out and touch their mothers with their flippers for reassurance.^[13]

Dugongs are semi-nomadic, often travelling long distances in search of food, but staying within a certain range their entire life.^[13] Large numbers often move together from one area to another. It is thought that these movements are caused by changes in seagrass availability. Their memory allows them to return to specific points after long travels.^[11] Dugong movements mostly occur within a localised area of seagrass beds, and animals in the same region show individualistic patterns of movement. Daily movement is affected by the tides. In areas where there is a large tidal range, dugongs travel with the tide in order to access shallower feeding areas. In Moreton Bay, dugongs often travel between foraging grounds inside the bay and warmer oceanic waters. At higher latitudes dugongs make seasonal travels to reach warmer water during the winter. Occasionally individual dugongs make long-distance travels over many days, and can travel over deep ocean waters.^[5] One animal was seen as far south as Sydney.^[12] Although they are marine creatures, dugongs have been known to travel up to 2.7 kilometres (1.7 mi) up creeks, and in one case a dugong was caught 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) up a creek near Cooktown.^[11]

Feeding[link]

Dugongs, along with other sirenians, are referred to as "sea cows" because their diet consists mainly of sea-grass. When eating they ingest the whole plant, including the roots,^[11] although when this is impossible they will feed on just the leaves.^[5] A wide variety of seagrass has been found in dugong stomach contents, and evidence exists they will eat algae when seagrass is scarce.^[12] Although almost completely herbivorous,^[13] they will occasionally eat invertebrates such as jellyfish, sea squirts, and shellfish.^[11] Dugongs in Moreton Bay, Australia, are omnivorous, feeding on invertebrates such as polychaetes^[25] or marine algae when the supply of their choice grasses decreases. In other southern areas of both western and eastern Australia, there is evidence that dugongs actively seek out large invertebrates. This does not apply to dugongs in tropical areas, from which faecal evidence indicates that invertebrates are not eaten.^[5]

Most dugongs do not feed from lush areas, but where the seagrass is more sparse. However, additional factors such as protein concentration and regenerative ability also affect the value of a seagrass bed.^[11] The chemical structure and composition of the seagrass is important, and the grass species most often eaten are low in fibre, high in nitrogen, and easily digestible.^[5] In the Great Barrier Reef, dugongs feed on low-fibre high-nitrogen seagrass such as Halophila and Halodule,^[11] so as to maximize nutrient intake instead of bulk eating. Seagrasses of a lower seral are preferred, where the area has not fully vegetated. Only certain seagrass meadows are suitable for dugong consumption, due to the dugong's highly specialised diet. There is evidence that dugongs actively alter seagrass species compositions at local levels. Dugongs may search out deeper seagrass. Feeding trails have been observed as deep as 33 metres (108 ft), and dugongs have been seen feeding as deep as 37 metres (121 ft).^[5] Dugongs are relatively slow moving, swimming at around 10 kilometres per hour (6.2 mph).^[26] When moving along the seabed to feed they walk on their pectoral fins.^[16]

Due to their poor eyesight, dugongs often use smell to locate edible plants. They also have a strong tactile sense, and feel their surroundings with their long sensitive bristles.^[13] They will dig up an entire plant and then shake it to remove the sand before eating it. They have been known to collect a pile of plants in one area before eating them.^[16] The flexible and muscular upper lip is used to dig out the plants. This leaves furrows in the sand in their path.^[13]

Reproduction and parental care[link]

Dugong mother and offspring from East Timor

A dugong reaches sexual maturity between the ages of eight and eighteen, older than in most other mammals.^[27] However, the age when a female first gives birth is disputed, with some studies placing the age between ten and seventeen years, while others place it as early as six years.^[5] There is evidence that male dugongs lose fertility at older ages.^[12] Despite the longevity of the dugong, which may live for 50 years or more, females give birth only a few times during their life, and invest considerable parental care in their young.^[27] The time between births is unclear, with estimates ranging from 2.4 to 7 years.^[5]

Mating behaviour varies between populations located in different areas.^[13] In some populations, males will establish a territory which females in heat will visit.^[5] In these areas a male will try to impress the females while defending the area from other males, a practice known as lekking.^[13] In other areas many males will attempt to mate with the same female,^[5] sometimes inflicting injuries to the female or each other.^[11] During this the female will have copulated with multiple males, who will have fought to mount her from below. This greatly increases the chances of conception.^[13]

Females give birth after a 13–15 month gestation, usually to just one calf.^[27] Birth occurs in very shallow water, with occasions known where the mothers were almost on the shore.^[12] As soon as the young is born the mother pushes it to the surface to take a breath.^[15] Newborns are already 1.2 metres (4 ft) long and weigh around 30 kilograms (66 lb).^[11] Once born, they stay close to their mothers, possibly to make swimming easier.^[12] The calf nurses for 14–18 months, although it begins to eat seagrasses soon after birth.^[5] A calf will only leave its mother once it has matured.^[13]

Importance to humans[link]

A cave painting of a dugong - Tambun Cave, Perak, Malaysia

Dugongs have historically provided easy targets for hunters, who killed them for their meat, oil, skin, and bones. They are often considered as the inspiration for mermaids,^[15] and people around the world developed cultures around dugong hunting. In some areas it remains an animal of great significance,^[12] and a growing ecotourism industry around dugongs has had economic benefit in some countries.^[13]

There is a 5,000-year old wall painting of a dugong, apparently drawn by neolithic peoples, in Tambun Cave of Ipoh city in the state of Perak, Malaysia.^[28] This was discovered by Lieutenant R.L Rawlings in 1959 while on a routine patrol. During the Renaissance and the Baroque eras, dugongs were often exhibited in wunderkammers. They were also presented as Fiji mermaids in sideshows.

Dugong meat and oil have traditionally been some of the most valuable foods of Australian aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders. Some aborigines regard dugongs as part of their Aboriginality.^[11] Dugongs have also played a role in legends in Kenya, and the animal is known there as the "Queen of the Sea". Body parts are used as food, medicine, and decorations. In the Gulf states, dugongs served not only as a source of food, but their tusks were used as sword handles. Dugong oil is important to people in India, and its meat is believed to be an aphrodisiac. Dugong ribs were used to make carvings in Japan. In Southern China dugongs were traditionally regarded as a "miraculous fish", and it was bad luck to catch them. However, a wave of immigration beginning at the end of the 1950s resulted in dugongs being hunted for food. In the Philippines dugongs are thought to bring bad luck, and parts of them are used to ward against evil spirits. In areas of Thailand it is believed that the dugong's tears form a powerful love potion, while in parts of Indonesia they are considered reincarnations of women. In Papua New Guinea they are seen as a symbol of strength.^[5]

Dugongs' or sea cows' hides have been thought^[29] to have been used as coverings in the building of the Old Testament portable worship tent known as the Tabernacle.

The Pokémon character Dewgong is very loosely based on the dugong, with fictional adaptations including a horn on its head for breaking through sea ice.^[30]

Conservation[link]

Dugong numbers have decreased in recent times. For a population to remain stable, 95 per cent of adults must survive the span of one year. The estimated percentage of females humans can kill without depleting the population is 1-2%.^[11] This number is reduced in areas where calving is minimal due to food shortages. Even in the best conditions a population is unlikely to increase more than 5% a year, leaving dugongs vulnerable to over-exploitation. The fact that they live in shallow waters puts them under great pressure from human activity. Research on dugongs and the effects of human activity on them has been limited, mostly taking place in Australia. In many countries, dugong numbers have not even been surveyed. As such, trends are uncertain, with more data needed for comprehensive management.^[5] The only data stretching back far enough to mention population trends comes from the urban coast of Queensland, Australia. The last major worldwide study, made in 2002, concluded that the dugong was declining and possibly extinct in a third of its range, with unknown status in another half.^[2]

The IUCN Red List lists the dugong as vulnerable, and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora regulates and in some areas has banned international trade.^[12] Regional cooperation is important due to the widespread distribution of the animal, and in 1998 there was strong support for Southeast Asian cooperation to protect dugongs. Kenya has passed legislation banning the hunting of dugongs and restricting trawling, but the dugong is not yet listed under Kenya's Wildlife Act for endangered species. Mozambique has had legislation to protect dugongs since 1955, but this has not been effectively enforced. Many marine parks have been established on the African coast of the Red Sea, and the Egyptian Gulf of Aqaba is fully protected. The United Arab Emirates has banned all hunting of dugongs within its waters, as has Bahrain. The UAE has additionally banned drift net fishing. India and Sri Lanka ban the hunting and selling of dugongs and their products. Japan has listed dugongs as endangered and has banned intentional kills and harassment. Hunting, catching, and harassment is banned by the People's Republic of China. The first marine mammal to be protected in the Philippines was the dugong, although monitoring this is difficult. Palau has legislated to protect dugongs, although this is not well enforced and poaching persists. The dugong is a national animal of Papua New Guinea, which bans all except traditional hunting. Vanuatu and New Caledonia ban hunting of dugongs. Dugongs are protected throughout Australia, although the rules vary by state; in some areas indigenous hunting is allowed.^[5] Dugongs are listed under the Nature Conservation Act in the Australian state of Queensland as vulnerable. Most currently live in established marine parks, where boats must travel at a restricted speed and mesh net fishing is restricted.^[11]

Human activity[link]

Despite being legally protected in many countries, the main causes of population decline remain anthropogenic and include hunting, habitat degradation, and fishing-related fatalities.^[4] Entanglement in fishing nets has caused many deaths, although there are no precise statistics. Most issues with industrial fishing occur in deeper waters where dugong populations are low, with local fishing being the main risk in shallower waters.^[5] As dugongs cannot stay underwater for a very long period, they are highly prone to deaths due to entanglement.^[17] The use of shark nets has historically caused large numbers of deaths, and they have been eliminated in most areas and replaced with baited hooks.^[11] Hunting has historically been a problem too, although in most areas they are no longer hunted, with the exception of certain indigenous communities. In areas such as northern Australia, hunting remains the greatest impact on the dugong population.^[5]

Vessel strikes have proved a problem for manatees, however the relevance of this to dugongs is unknown.^[5] Increasing boat traffic has increased danger,^[11] especially in shallow waters. Ecotourism has increased in some countries, although effects remain undocumented. It has been seen to cause issues in areas such as Hainan due to environmental degradation.^[5] Modern farming practise and increased land clearing have also had an impact, and much of the coastline of dugong habitats is undergoing industrialisation, with increasing human populations.^[11] Dugongs accumulate heavy metal ions in their tissues throughout their lives, more so than other marine mammals. The effects are unknown. Socio-political needs are an impediment to dugong conservation in many developing countries. The shallow waters are often used as a source of food and income, problems exacerbated by aid used to improve fishing. In many countries, legislation does not exist to protect dugongs, and if it does it is not enforced.^[5]

Oil spills are a danger to dugongs in some areas, as is land reclamation. In Okinawa the small dugong population is threatened by United States military activity. Plans exist to build a military base close to Henoko, and military activity also adds the threats of noise pollution, chemical pollution, soil erosion, and exposure to depleted uranium.^[5] The military base plans have been fought in US courts by some Okinawans, whose concerns include the impact on the local environment and dugong habitats.^[22]

Environmental degradation[link]

If dugongs do not get enough to eat, they may calve later and produce fewer young.^[11] Food shortages can be caused by many factors, such as a loss of habitat, death and decline in quality of seagrass, and a disturbance of feeding caused by human activity. Sewage, detergents, heavy metal, hypersaline water, herbicides, and other waste products all negatively affect seagrass meadows. Human activity such as mining, trawling, dredging, land-reclamation, and boat propeller scarring also cause an increase in sedimentation which smothers seagrass and prevents light from reaching it. This is the most significant negative factor affecting seagrass.^[5]

One of the dugong's preferred species of seagrass, Halophila ovalis, declines rapidly due to lack of light, dying completely after 30 days. Extreme weather such as cyclones and floods can destroy hundreds of square kilometres of seagrass meadows, as well as washing dugongs ashore. The recovery of seagrass meadows and the spread of seagrass into new areas, or areas where it has been destroyed, can take over a decade. Most measures for protection involve restricting activities such as trawling in areas containing seagrass meadows, with little to no action on pollutants originating from land. In some areas water salinity is increased due to wastewater, and it is unknown how much salinity seagrass can withstand.^[5]

Capture and captivity[link]

The Australian state of Queensland has sixteen dugong protection parks, and some preservation zones have been established where even aborigines are not allowed to hunt.^[11] Capturing animals for research has caused only one or two deaths,^[5] however dugongs are expensive to keep in captivity due to the long time mothers and calves spend together, and the inability to grow the seagrass that dugongs eat in an aquarium.^[11] Only one orphaned calf has ever been successfully kept in captivity.^[13]

Worldwide, only five dugongs are held in captivity. A female (Serena) lives at Toba Aquarium in Toba, Mie, Japan, although she is from the Philippines.^[5] A male named Junichi also lived there until it died on 10 February 2011.^[31] Another, named Gracie, is at Underwater World, Singapore, due to her mother being killed when she was a calf.^[32] A third resides in Sea World Indonesia,^[33] after having been rescued from a fisherman's net and treated.^[34] The last two, Pig, a 10-year-old male, and Wuru, a 4-year-old female, are kept at Sydney Aquarium, where they have resided since they were juveniles.^[35]

References[link]

Notes

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Dugong

• Arkive (Dugong dugon)
• Roberto Sozzani The Dugong
• Sirenian International
• Dugong in Myanmar
• Dugong Conservation Project, India
• Stern action against two fishermen in Sri Lanka for killing Dugong

Julie Brown
Born	Julie Ann Brown (1954-08-31) August 31, 1954 (age 57) Van Nuys, California, U.S.
Occupation	Actress, comedienne, screen/television writer, singer-songwriter, television director
Years active	1983–present
Spouse	Terrence E. McNally 1983-1989 (divorced) Ken Rathjen 1994-2007 (divorced); 1 son

Julie Ann Brown (born August 31, 1954) is an American actress, comedienne, screen/television writer, singer-songwriter, television director. Brown is perhaps best known for her work in the 1980s, where she often played a quintessential valley girl character. Much of her comedy has revolved around the mocking of famous people (with a strong and frequently revisited focus on Madonna).

Career[link]

Brown began her career in the clubs of Los Angeles where rather than portraying a valley girl herself she told jokes about them. She established herself in the gay community there and often played at gay venues. Brown began experimenting in short films and made several underground movies which often played on the video screens at clubs. One of them, "5 Minutes Miss Brown", was a fictionalized account of her rise to fame.^{[citation needed]}

She began working on television with a guest spot on the sitcom Happy Days. She also appeared in the 1981 cult film Bloody Birthday. After a small role in the Clint Eastwood comedy film Any Which Way You Can, comedian Lily Tomlin saw Brown at a comedy club and gave her first big break, a part in her 1981 film The Incredible Shrinking Woman. Tomlin and Brown eventually became close friends. A string of guest starring appearances in a variety of television shows followed, including: Laverne & Shirley, Buffalo Bill, The Jeffersons and Newhart.

In 1984, she released her first EP, a five-song album called Goddess in Progress. The album, parodies of popular '80s music combined with her valley girl personality, was quickly discovered by the Dr. Demento Show. The songs "'Cause I'm a Blonde" and "The Homecoming Queen's Got a Gun" were given radio airplay across the world. The latter was a spoof on traditional 1950s songs about teen romance, à la "It's My Party", with cheerleaders' heads and pompoms being blown to pieces.

In 1987, Brown released her first full-length album, Trapped in the Body of a White Girl. The album highlighted her comedic talent and valley girl personality. The album's highlights were "I Like 'em Big and Stupid" and the reprised "The Homecoming Queen's Got a Gun". (The album was reissued on CD in 2010 by Collector's Choice Music on its Noble Rot label.) ^[1] Music videos were recorded and received heavy airplay on MTV. In 1989, Brown starred in that cable network's comedy and music-video show Just Say Julie. She played the role of a demanding, controlling, and pessimistic glamour-puss from the valley, making fun of popular music acts while at the same time introducing their music videos.

In 1988 she appeared as "Buffy Denver" on the sitcom Newhart playing a character that was even more self-centered and vain than Stephanie.

Brown's screen career hit its peak in late 1989 with the release of the film Earth Girls Are Easy. Written, produced by, and starring Brown, it was based loosely on a song by the same name from her debut EP. The film also starred Jeff Goldblum and Geena Davis. Brown cast then-unknown comedians Jim Carrey and Damon Wayans. In 1990 Brown had a brief part in the movie The Spirit of '76, as an intellectual stripper.

Brown performing in 2008 at The Public Theater in New York City.

NBC commissioned a half-hour pilot, ultimately unsold and airing Sunday, July 28, 1991, at 7 p.m. Eastern Time, titled The Julie Show. Created by Brown, Charlie Coffey, and director and executive producer David Mirkin, it was a comedy about actress Julie Robbins (Brown), who in this initial story, goes to great lengths to land an interview with teen singer Kiki (played by Kim Walker) in the hopes of getting hired as a tabloid-TV celebrity journalist. Developed under the working title The Julie Brown Show, it also starred Marian Mercer as Julie's mother, June; DeLane Matthews as Debra Deacon, a reporter on the fictional series Inside Scoop; Susan Messing as Julie's roommate Cheryl; and Kevin O'Rourke as Inside Scoop producer Tony Barnow. Brown was also a producer, with John Ziffren, and performed and co-wrote the theme song. Walker, Don Sparks, Robin Angers, and Deborah Driggs were guest performers in this production from Mirkinvision and New World Television.^[2]

Another pilot was filmed for CBS, Julie Brown: The Show, and featured a similar theme, in which Brown was the hostess of a talk show and she would interview actual celebrity guests, interspersed with scripted scenarios. The pilot was aired but the show was not picked up; years later it leaked onto the Internet.

In 1992, Brown starred in her own Fox sketch comedy show, The Edge; two of its regulars, Jennifer Aniston and Wayne Knight, later became sitcom stars, while Tom Kenny went on to voice SpongeBob SquarePants. That same year, she released the Showtime television movie Medusa: Dare to Be Truthful, a satire about Madonna and her backstage documentary, Truth or Dare. (Brown's co-star was Kathy Griffin.)

Brown followed with another satire, Attack of the 5 Ft. 2 Women, which lampooned the violence of ice skater Tonya Harding toward rival Nancy Kerrigan, as well as that of widely publicized castrator Lorena Bobbitt.^{[citation needed]}

She has continued to make television guest appearances and contributed voices to various cartoons, including Animaniacs, Aladdin, and as the original voice of Zatanna in the Batman: The Animated Series cartoon. Prior to this she also guest starred on a Tiny Toons Adventures episode as Julie Bruin, a cartoon bear version of herself, in which she guest starred in her own segment Just Say Julie Bruin, a reference to her music video show. The Just Say Julie Bruin cartoon also was a music video show and in her segment Elmer Fudd guest starred as Fuddonna, parody of Madonna and a reference to Julie Brown herself regularly mocking her.

Brown appeared as Coach Millie Stoeger in the film Clueless, reprising that role on ABC's 1996-1999 spin-off TV series, for which she was also a writer, producer and director. In 1998, Julie appeared in the parody movie Plump Fiction. In 2000, Brown created the series Strip Mall for the Comedy Central network; it ran two seasons.

Since 2004, Brown has been a commentator on E! network specials, including 101 Reasons the '90s Ruled, 101 Most Starlicious Makeovers, 101 Most Awesome Moments in Entertainment, and 50 Most Outrageous TV Moments.

In 2005, Brown purchased the rights to her Trapped album back from the record label and reissued it herself.^{[citation needed]} She also self-released a single, "I Want to Be Gay". In late 2007, she also purchased the rights to her 1984 E.P. "Goddess in Progress" and re-released it as a full-length record with compiled unreleased tracks recorded during that era.^{[citation needed]} Brown began touring in late 2007 with her one-woman show Smell the Glamour.^{[citation needed]}

In 2008, she co-wrote and appeared in the Disney Channel original movie Camp Rock, which starred The Jonas Brothers and Demi Lovato. She also joined the cast of her current television series, Paradise Falls, that same year.

In late 2008 Brown began releasing one-track digital singles, starting with "The Ex-Beauty Queen's Got a Gun" 1; it was a rewrite of "Homecoming Queen" with lyrics about Sarah Palin. This was first aired in September, 2008 on The Stephanie Miller Show. This was followed by several parodies of popular songs.

In the 2010-2011 television season, Brown began a recurring role as Paula Norwood, a neighbor and friend of the Heck family, on the ABC comedy The Middle.

Personal life[link]

Brown was born in Van Nuys, California, the daughter of Celia Jane (née McCann) and Leonard Francis Brown. She attended a Catholic elementary school as a child, and later Van Nuys High School and Los Angeles Valley College.

In 1983, Brown married writer and actor Terrence E. McNally, a frequent collaborator. They co-produced her first single, "I Like 'em Big and Stupid". They divorced after six years. In 1994, Brown married Ken Resnick (co-creator of Get A Life), and together they have one son. In an article which appeared in the San Francisco Bay Times on October 18, 2007, she was quoted as saying that she recently divorced for the second time.^{[citation needed]}

Discography[link]

• Goddess in Progress (1984)
• Trapped in the Body of a White Girl (1987)
• Smell the Glamour (2010)

Singles[link]

• "I Like 'em Big and Stupid" (w. b-side "The Homecoming Queen's Got a Gun")
• "Trapped in the Body of a White Girl"
• "Girl Fight Tonight!"
• "I Want to Be Gay" (sometimes titled "I Wanna be Gay")
• "The Ex-Beauty Queen's Got a Gun"
• "The Art of Being Fabulous"
• "Another Drunk Chick" (a parody of the Ke$ha song "Tik Tok")
• "Big Clown Pants" (a parody of the Lady Gaga song "Bad Romance")

Cultural references[link]

Brown is mentioned in the 2004 song "Again and Again," which was written by Bruce McDaniel and recorded by the rock trio Nine Men's Morris.

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Julie Brown

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• Julie Brown at the Internet Movie Database
• Julie Brown at AllRovi
• Official website
• Julie Brown's YouTube channel

Wilson Phillips
Wilson Phillips at Cerritos Arts Center, Artesia, California, August 2011
Background information
Origin	Los Angeles, California, U.S.
Genres	Pop rock, Adult contemporary
Years active	1989–1993 2004–present
Labels	SBK Columbia Sony
Website	www.wilsonphillipsmusic.com
Members
Chynna Phillips Carnie Wilson Wendy Wilson

Wilson Phillips is an American vocal group consisting of Carnie Wilson, Wendy Wilson, and Chynna Phillips.

Their 1990 self-titled debut album sold over 10 million copies worldwide and scored three number one singles on the Billboard Hot 100, making the trio the best-selling female group at the time. In 1990, the group won the Billboard Music Award for Hot 100 Single of the Year for "Hold On," and in addition was nominated for four Grammy Awards and two American Music Awards.^[1]

Early life[link]

The Wilson sisters and Phillips grew up together in Southern California in the 1970s and 1980s. The three shared a love of music and songwriting, and developed their own style of vocal harmonies. In 1989, the trio signed with SBK Records.

The group is also known for being the offspring of prominent musicians; the Wilsons are the daughters of Brian Wilson of The Beach Boys, while Phillips's parents are John Phillips and Michelle Phillips of The Mamas & the Papas.

Chart success[link]

Wilson Phillips released their debut album, Wilson Phillips, in 1990. Their debut single, "Hold On," hit #1 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart on June 9, 1990, bumping Madonna's "Vogue" off the top spot. The single was also #1 on the US Billboard Adult Contemporary and became a worldwide hit, peaking at #2 in Australia, #6 in the UK, #7 in Ireland, #10 in Sweden, and at #15 in the Netherlands, Germany, and Switzerland. The single also won Wilson Phillips the Billboard Music Award for Hot 100 Single of the Year for 1990.

The second and fourth singles from the album also became number-one singles on the Billboard Hot 100: "Release Me" (2 weeks) and "You're in Love" (1 week). The singles "Impulsive" and "The Dream Is Still Alive", peaked at #4 and #12, respectively, on the Hot 100.^[2]

In 1991, they contributed a cover of "Daniel" to the tribute album Two Rooms: Celebrating the Songs of Elton John & Bernie Taupin. While not released as a single, peaked at #7 in the US Adult Contemporary chart due to strong radio airplay.

In 1992, Wilson Phillips also made history as Billboard declared their debut album the best selling album of all time by an all female group, peaking at #2 on the Billboard 200 album chart, and selling over 5 million copies in the US and over 10 million copies worldwide, which also made Wilson Phillips, at the time, the best selling female group of all time for a single album, breaking the previous record set by The Supremes.

Chynna Phillips and her mother Michelle Phillips of the Mamas and Papas are the only mother/daughter combination to perform on separate songs that reached number one on the Billboard Charts. The Judds, Naomi and Wynnona, did it together on songs but never on separate songs.^[3]

In June 1992, Wilson Phillips released their second album, Shadows and Light. The album was deeply personal and adopted a more serious tone, with tracks exploring issues such as child abuse ("Where Are You") and their estrangement from their fathers ("Flesh and Blood", "All the Way From New York"). The first single, "You Won't See Me Cry" peaked at #20 in the US and #18 in the UK, the first time they had a higher-ranking single in the UK than in the US. The album peaked at #4 on the Billboard 200 and was certified platinum in the US, and double platinum in Canada.

Shortly after the release of Shadows and Light, Chynna Phillips announced plans for a solo career, and the group decided to disband.

Hiatus (1993–2003)[link]

During the next decade, the group went separate ways. In 1993, Wendy and Carnie Wilson released the Christmas holiday themed album, Hey Santa!, a collection of classic holiday themes with an original song (the title track). In 1995, Chynna Phillips released a solo album, Naked and Sacred. The same year, Carnie went on to host her own short-lived syndicated television talk show entitled, Carnie!.^[4] In 1997, Carnie and Wendy, along with their father, Brian Wilson released The Wilsons and the single, "Monday Without You."^[5]

A Greatest Hits album was released in 2000, although the group did not officially reunite for the release. On March 29, 2001, they reunited to perform the Beach Boys' song "You're So Good to Me" at a tribute show to Brian Wilson held at New York's Radio City Music Hall. Chynna Phillips dedicated the performance to her own father John Phillips who had died a few days earlier.

Reunion in 2004[link]

Wilson Phillips reunited in 2004 to release California, an album of cover songs. A single, "Go Your Own Way," a song originally recorded by Fleetwood Mac, peaked at #13 on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart. The album debuted at #35 on the Billboard Top 200 Albums chart with 31,000 copies sold in its first week of release.

In New Zealand, the album was a surprise hit, reaching the top 10 and amassing gold sales after "Go Your Own Way" topped the country's adult contemporary radio chart for several weeks.^[6]

2008 to present[link]

In November 2008, Wilson Phillips reunited on stage for two shows in California. The shows were not publicized heavily, but were very well received by the audiences. Songs from a new album to be released in 2010^{[dated info]} were performed. These 90-minute shows were the longest the group have ever performed, and featured tracks from throughout their career, as well as some covers of Beach Boys and ABBA classics.

On May 5, 2010, the trio performed to an audience of 350 people at the 79th General Meeting of the National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors in San Antonio, Texas.

On August 21, 2010, Wilson Phillips announced their new Christmas album, Christmas in Harmony, which was released on October 12, 2010. The album yielded a single, "I Wish It Could Be Christmas Everyday," a cover of the popular seasonal tune that first was a hit in 1973 for English glam-rock band Wizzard. As of April 12, 2012 this album had sold 71,286 copies in the US according to SoundScan.

The band appeared in a cameo and performed "Hold On" in the 2011 film Bridesmaids.

Bandmember Chynna Phillips was a contestant on Season 13 of ABC's Dancing With the Stars, and explained that "Hold On" was written by her and bandmates Carnie and Wendy Wilson about her recovery from drug and alcohol addiction. Phillips was eliminated after week 4.^[7]

On March 20, 2012, the group appeared on QVC to promote their 2012 release Dedicated, a new studio album made up of covers of songs by both The Beach Boys and The Mamas and the Papas. QVC took advance orders for the album. On April 3, 2012, the group released Dedicated, which debuted at #29 on the Billboard Albums chart with 16,283 copies sold in its first week of release. On April 7, they appeared on the CBS This Morning|Saturday with Rebecca Jarvis & Jeff Glor to perform some music from the album.

They completed their own reality show, Wilson Phillips: Still Holding On, which appeared on TV Guide Network in April 2012.^[8]

Discography[link]

Studio albums[link]

Compilation albums[link]

Singles[link]

Other charted songs[link]

Awards and nominations[link]

References[link]

External links[link]

• Official website

The Edge
Background information
Birth name	David Howell Evans
Born	(1961-08-08) 8 August 1961 (age 50) Barking, Essex, England, United Kingdom
Origin	County Dublin, Ireland
Genres	Rock, post-punk, alternative rock
Occupations	Musician, songwriter, activist
Instruments	Guitar, vocals, keyboards, piano, bass guitar
Years active	1976–present
Labels	Island, Mercury
Associated acts	U2, Passengers
Website	www.u2.com
Notable instruments
Gibson Explorer Fender Stratocaster Gibson Les Paul Fender Telecaster Gretsch Country Gentleman Gretsch White Falcon Rickenbacker 330/12

David Howell Evans (born 8 August 1961), more widely known by his stage name The Edge (or just Edge),^[1] is a musician best known as the guitarist, backing vocalist, and keyboardist of the Irish rock band U2. A member of the group since its inception, he has recorded 12 studio albums with the band and has released one solo record. As a guitarist, The Edge has crafted a minimalistic and textural style of playing. His use of a rhythmic delay effect yields a distinctive ambient, chiming sound that has become a signature of U2's music.

The Edge was born in England to a Welsh family, but was raised in Ireland after moving there as an infant. In 1976, at Mount Temple Comprehensive School, he formed U2 with his fellow students and his older brother Dik. Inspired by the ethos of punk rock and its basic arrangements, the group began to write its own material. They eventually became one of the most popular acts in popular music, with successful albums such as 1987's The Joshua Tree and 1991's Achtung Baby. Over the years, The Edge has experimented with various guitar effects and introduced influences from several genres of music into his own style, including American roots music, industrial music, and alternative rock. With U2, The Edge has also played keyboards, co-produced their 1993 record Zooropa, and occasionally contributed lyrics. The Edge met his second and current wife, Morleigh Steinberg, through her collaborations with the band.

As a member of U2 and as an individual, The Edge has campaigned for human rights and philanthropic causes. He co-founded Music Rising, a charity to support musicians affected by Hurricane Katrina. He has collaborated with U2 bandmate Bono on several projects, including songs for Roy Orbison and Tina Turner, and the soundtracks to the musical Spider-Man: Turn Off the Dark and the Royal Shakespeare Company's London stage adaptation of A Clockwork Orange. In 2011, Rolling Stone magazine placed him at number 38 on its list of "The 100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time".

Personal life[link]

The Edge at a U2 concert in Anaheim (2005)

David Howell Evans was born at the Barking Maternity Hospital,^[2] Essex, England to Welsh parents Garvin and Gwenda Evans.^[1] When he was one, his family moved to County Dublin, Ireland where he attended St Andrew's National School. He received piano and guitar lessons and often performed with his brother Dik Evans before they both answered an advertisement posted by Larry Mullen, Jr. at their school, Mount Temple Comprehensive School, seeking musicians to form a band.^[3] The band accepted both of them. This band went through several incarnations before emerging as U2 in March 1978 (Dik Evans left the band just before the name change).^[3] U2 began performing in various venues in Ireland and eventually began developing a following. Their debut album, Boy, was released in 1980.

In 1981, leading up to the October tour, Evans came very close to leaving U2 for religious reasons, but he decided to stay.^[3] During this period, he became involved with a group called Shalom Tigers, in which bandmates Bono and Larry Mullen Jr. were also involved.^[4] Shortly after deciding to remain with the band, he wrote a piece of music that later became "Sunday Bloody Sunday".^[3] The Edge married his high school girlfriend Aislinn O'Sullivan on 12 July 1983.^[5] The couple had three daughters together: Hollie in 1984, Arran in 1985 and Blue Angel in 1989.^[4] The couple separated in 1990, but were unable to get officially divorced because of Irish laws regarding marriage annulment; divorce was legalised in 1995 and the couple were legally divorced in 1996.^[4]

In 1993, The Edge began dating Morleigh Steinberg, a professional dancer and choreographer employed by the band as a belly dancer during the Zoo TV Tour. They had a daughter, Sian (born 1997), and a son, Levi (born 25 October 1999),^[4] before marrying on 22 June 2002.^[4] He appeared in the 2009 music documentary film It Might Get Loud.^[6] The Edge has been criticized for his efforts to build five luxury mansions on a 156 acre plot of land in Malibu, California.^[7] The California Coastal Commission voted 8-4 against the plans, with the project described by the commission's executive director, Peter Douglas, as "In 38 years...one of the three worst projects that I've seen in terms of environmental devastation...It's a contradiction in terms – you can't be serious about being an environmentalist and pick this location."^[7] The Santa Monica Mountains Conservancy agreed to remain neutral on the issue following a $1 million donation from The Edge and a commitment from The Edge to designate 100 acres of the land as open space for public footpaths.^[7]

Music style[link]

Guitar playing[link]

As a guitar player, The Edge has a sound typified by a low-key playing style, a chiming, shimmering sound (thanks in part to the sound of VOX AC-30s) that he achieves with extensive use of delay effects and reverb. The feedback delay is often set to a dotted eighth note (3/16 of a measure), and the feedback gain is adjusted until a note played repeats two or three times.^{[citation needed]}

On 1987's The Joshua Tree, The Edge often contributes just a few simple lead lines given depth and richness by an ever-present delay. For example, the introduction to "Where the Streets Have No Name" is simply a repeated six-note arpeggio, broadened by a modulated delay effect. The Edge has said that he views musical notes as "expensive", in that he prefers to play as few notes as possible. He said in 1982 of his style,

"I like a nice ringing sound on guitar, and most of my chords I find two strings and make them ring the same note, so it's almost like a 12-string sound. So for E I might play a B, E, E and B and make it ring. It works very well with the Gibson Explorer. It's funny because the bass end of the Explorer was so awful that I used to stay away from the low strings, and a lot of the chords I played were very trebly, on the first four, or even three strings. I discovered that through using this one area of the fretboard I was developing a very stylized way of doing something that someone else would play in a normal way."^[9]

Many different influences have shaped The Edge's guitar technique.^{[citation needed]} His first guitar was an old acoustic guitar that his mother bought him at a local flea market for only a few pounds; he was nine at the time. He and his brother Dik Evans both experimented with this instrument.^[9] He said in 1982 of this early experimentation, "I suppose the first link in the chain was a visit to the local jumble sale where I purchased a guitar for a pound. That was my first instrument. It was an acoustic guitar and me and my elder brother Dik both played it, plonking away, all very rudimentary stuff, open chords and all that."^[9] The Edge has stated that many of his guitar parts are based around guitar effects. This is especially true from the Achtung Baby era onwards, although much of the band's 1980s material made heavy use of echos.

Vocals[link]

The Edge in June 2005

The Edge also supplies the backing vocals for U2. U2's 1983 live album and video release, Under a Blood Red Sky and Live at Red Rocks: Under a Blood Red Sky are good reference points for his singing (as are the live DVDs from the Elevation Tour, U2 Go Home: Live from Slane Castle and Elevation 2001: Live from Boston). For example, he sings the chorus to "Sunday Bloody Sunday" (Bono harmonizes on the final 'Sunday'). U2 used this tradeoff technique later in "Bullet the Blue Sky" as well. His backing vocals are sometimes in the form of a repeated cry; examples of songs that use this approach include "Beautiful Day", "New Year's Day" and "Stay (Faraway, So Close!)". Another technique he uses in his backing vocals is the falsetto, in songs such as "Stuck in a Moment You Can't Get Out Of", "Sometimes You Can't Make It on Your Own", "A Man and a Woman", "The Wanderer", live versions of "The Fly", and "Window in the Skies".

The Edge sings the lead vocal on "Van Diemen's Land" and "Numb", the first half of the song "Seconds", dual vocals with Bono in "Discotheque", and the bridge in the song "Miracle Drug".^[4] He also sings the occasional lead vocal in live renditions of other songs (such as "Sunday Bloody Sunday" during the PopMart Tour and "Party Girl" during the Rotterdam Zoo TV show when it was Bono's birthday).^[10] He also plays a solo acoustic version of the song "Love is Blindness" that is featured in the documentary film From the Sky Down.

Other instruments[link]