Atlantic bluefin tuna, Thunnus thynnus

Tuna are a group of salt water fish from the family Scombridae, particularly of the genus Thunnus. Tuna are fast swimmers, and some species are capable of speeds of 70 km/h (43 mph). Unlike most fish, which have white flesh, the muscle tissue of tuna ranges from pink to dark red. The red coloration derives from myoglobin, an oxygen-binding molecule, which tuna express in quantities far higher than most other fish. Some larger tuna species, such as bluefin tuna, display some warm-blooded adaptations, and can raise their body temperatures above water temperatures by means of muscular activity. This enables them to survive in cooler waters and to inhabit a wider range of ocean environments than other types of fish.

Species[link]

Altogether, over fifty different species, all belonging to the family Scombridae, are commonly referred to as tuna. The term tuna derives from Latin thunnus / Greek θύννος, thynnos.

True tuna species[link]

True tuna belong to the genus Thunnus, or "tuna". There are eight species in the genus. Until recently, it was thought that there were only seven species, and that Atlantic bluefin tuna and the Pacific bluefin tuna were subspecies of the same species. In 1999 Collette established, on molecular and morphological considerations, that these are separate species.^[1][2]

This article is one of a series on
Commercial fish
Large pelagic
billfish, bonito mackerel, salmon shark, tuna
Forage
anchovy, herring menhaden, sardine shad, sprat
Demersal
cod, eel, flatfish pollock, ray
Mixed
carp

True tuna species
Common name	Scientific name	Maximum length	Common length	Maximum weight	Maximum age	Trophic level	Source	IUCN status
Albacore tuna	Thunnus alalunga (Bonnaterre, 1788)	140 cm	100.0 cm	60.3 kg	9 years	4.31	[3]	Near threatened[4]
Atlantic bluefin tuna	Thunnus thynnus (Linnaeus, 1758)	458 cm	200 cm	684.0 kg	15 years	4.43	[5]	Endangered[6]
Bigeye tuna	Thunnus obesus (Lowe, 1839)	250 cm	180 cm	210.0 kg	11 years	4.49	[7]	Vulnerable[8]
Blackfin tuna	Thunnus atlanticus (Lesson, 1831)	108 cm	72.0 cm	20.6 kg		4.13	[9]	Least concern[10]
Longtail tuna	Thunnus tonggol (Bleeker, 1851)	145 cm	70.0 cm	35.9 kg		4.50	[11]	Data deficient[12]
Southern bluefin tuna	Thunnus maccoyii (Castelnau, 1872)	245 cm	160 cm	260.0 kg	20 years	3.93	[13]	Critically endangered[14]
Pacific bluefin tuna	Thunnus orientalis (Temminck & Schlegel, 1844)	300 cm	200 cm	450.0 kg	15 years	4.21	[15]	Least concern[16]
Yellowfin tuna	Thunnus albacares (Bonnaterre, 1788)	239 cm	150 cm	200.0 kg	9 years	4.34	[17]	Near threatened[18]

Other tuna species[link]

In addition, over forty related species with tuna-like characteristics, all in the family Scombridae, are also commonly referred to as tuna; genetically speaking, however, none are related to tuna of the genus Thunnus. In most cases they are more closely related to the mackerel family. Some prominent examples are:

Other tuna species
Common name	Scientific name	Maximum length	Common length	Maximum weight	Maximum age	Trophic level	Source	IUCN status
Black skipjack tuna	Euthynnus lineatus (Kishinouye, 1920)	84.0 cm	60.0 cm	9.12 kg		3.83	[19]	Least concern[20]
Bullet tuna	Auxis rochei rochei (Risso, 1810)	50.0 cm				4.13	[21]	Least concern[22]
Dogtooth tuna	Gymnosarda unicolor (Rüppell, 1836)	248 cm	190 cm	131.0 kg		4.5	[23]	Least concern[24]
Frigate tuna	Auxis thazard (Lacepede, 1800)	65.0 cm	60.0 cm	1.72 kg	5 years	4.34	[25]	Least concern[26]
Mackerel tuna	Euthynnus affinis (Cantor, 1849)	100.0 cm	60.0 cm	14.0 kg		4.50	[27]	Least concern[28]
Little tunny	Euthynnus alletteratus (Rafinesque, 1810)	50.0 cm				4.13	[29]	Least concern[30]
Skipjack tuna	Katsuwonus pelamis (Linnaeus, 1758)	110 cm	80.0 cm	34.5 kg	12 years	3.75	[31]	Least concern[32]
Slender tuna	Allothunnus fallai (Serventy, 1948)	105 cm	86.0 cm	13.7 kg		3.74	[33]	Least concern[34]

Biology[link]

Bigeye tuna Thunnus obesus showing finlets and keels. Finlets are found between the last dorsal and/or anal fin and the caudal fin. They are rayless and non-retractable.
Drawing by Dr Tony Ayling

Thunnus are able to maintain body temperature above the temperature of ambient seawater. For example, bluefin can maintain a core body temperature of 75–95 °F (24–35 °C), in water as cold as 43 °F (6 °C). However, unlike typical endothermic creatures such as mammals and birds, tuna do not maintain temperature within a relatively narrow range.^[35]

Tuna achieve endothermy by conserving the heat generated through normal metabolism. The rete mirabile ("wonderful net"), the intertwining of veins and arteries in the body's periphery, transfers heat from venous blood to arterial blood via a counter-current exchange system. This reduces surface cooling, maintaining warmer muscles. This supports higher swimming speed with reduced energy expenditure.^[35]

For powerful swimming animals like dolphins and tuna, cavitation may be detrimental, because it limits their maximum swimming speed.^[36] Even if they have the power to swim faster, dolphins may have to restrict their speed because collapsing cavitation bubbles on their tail are too painful. Cavitation also slows tuna, but for a different reason. Unlike dolphins, these fish do not feel the bubbles, because they have bony fins without nerve endings. Nevertheless, they cannot swim faster because the cavitation bubbles create a vapor film around their fins that limits their speed. Lesions have been found on tuna that are consistent with cavitation damage.

Fishing industry[link]

Maximum reported sizes of tuna species

Commercial fishing[link]

Tuna is an important commercial fish. The International Seafood Sustainability Foundation compiled a detailed scientific report on the state of global tuna stocks in 2009, which includes regular updates. According to the report, Tunas are widely but sparsely distributed throughout the oceans of the world, generally in tropical and temperate waters between about 45 degrees north and south of the equator. They are grouped taxonomically in the family Scombridae, which includes about 50 species. The most important of these for commercial and recreational fisheries are yellowfin (Thunnus albacares), bigeye (T. obesus), bluefin (T. thynnus, T. orientalis, and T. macoyii), albacore (T. alalunga), and skipjack (Katsuwonus pelamis).^[37]

The report further states:

Between 1940 and the mid-1960s, the annual world catch of the five principal market species of tunas rose from about 300 thousand tons to about 1 million tons, most of it taken by hook and line. With the development of purse-seine nets, now the predominant gear, catches have risen to more than 4 million tons annually during the last few years. Of these catches, about 68 percent are from the Pacific Ocean, 22 percent from the Indian Ocean, and the remaining 10 percent from the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. Skipjack makes up about 60 percent of the catch, followed by yellowfin (24 percent), bigeye (10 percent), albacore (5 percent), and bluefin the remainder. Purse-seines take about 62 percent of the world production, longline about 14 percent, pole and line about 11 percent, and a variety of other gears the remainder 3.^[37] The Australian government alleged in 2006 that Japan had illegally overfished southern bluefin by taking 12,000 to 20,000 tonnes per year instead of the their agreed 6,000 tonnes; the value of such overfishing would be as much as USD $2 billion.^[38] Such overfishing has severely damaged bluefin stocks.^[39] According to the WWF, "Japan's huge appetite for tuna will take the most sought-after stocks to the brink of commercial extinction unless fisheries agree on more rigid quotas".^[40]

Japan's Fisheries Research Agency counters that Australian and New Zealand tuna fishing companies under-report their total catches of southern bluefin tuna and ignore internationally mandated total allowable catch totals.^[41]

In 2010, a bluefin tuna weighing 232 kilograms (511.47 pounds) was sold at Tokyo's Tsukiji fish market for 16.28 million yen ($US 175,000).^[42]

In early 2011, a new record was set at 32.49 million yen (nearly $400,000) for a bluefin tuna weighing 342 kilograms (754 pounds), during an auction in Tsukiji Market, Tokyo. This equates to 95,000 yen per kilogram.^[43]

In November 2011, another record was set when a fisherman in Massachusetts caught an 881-pound tuna. It was captured inadvertently using a dragnet. Due to the laws and restrictions on tuna fishing in the United States, federal authorities impounded the fish because it was not caught with a rod and reel. Because of the tuna's deteriorated condition, due to the trawl net, the fish sold for just under $5,000 (USD)^[44]

• 

  Tuna being weighed on Greek quay-side

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  Tuna fishing in Hokkaidō, Japan

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  Tuna at a fish market

• 

  Tuna cut in half for processing at the Tsukiji fish market in Tokyo

Fishing methods[link]

External videos
	Tuna pole and line fishing BBC Two

• Andalusian method of Almadraba, uses a maze of nets. In Sicily, the same method is called Tonnara.
• Fish farming (Cage system)^[45]
• Longline fishing
• Purse seines
• Pole and line
• Harpoon gun
• Big game fishing
• Fish aggregating device

Association with whaling[link]

In 2005 Nauru, defending its vote from Australian criticism at that year's meeting of the International Whaling Commission, argued that some whale species have the potential to devastate Nauru's tuna stocks, and that Nauru's food security and economy relies heavily on fishing.^[46] Despite this, Nauru does not permit whaling in its own waters and does not allow other fishing vessels to take or intentionally interact with marine mammals in its Exclusive Economic Zone. In 2010 and 2011 Nauru supported Australian proposals^[47] for a western Pacific-wide ban on tuna purse-seining in the vicinity of marine mammals - a measure which was agreed by the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission at its 8th meeting in March 2012.

Association with dolphins[link]

Dolphins swim beside several tuna species. These include yellowfin tuna in the eastern Pacific Ocean, but not albacore. Tuna schools are believed to associate themselves with dolphins for protection against sharks, which are tuna predators.^[48]

Commercial fishing vessels used to exploit this association by searching for dolphin pods. Vessels would encircle the pod with nets to catch the tuna beneath,^[49] however the nets were prone to entangling dolphins, injuring or killing them. Public outcry and new government regulations, which are now monitored by the NOAA have led to more "dolphin friendly" methods, now generally involving lines rather than nets. However, there are neither universal independent inspection programs nor verification of "dolphin safeness", so these protections are not absolute. According to Consumers Union, the resulting lack of accountability means claims that tuna that is "dolphin safe" should be given little credence.

Fishery practices have changed to be dolphin friendly, which has caused greater bycatch including sharks, turtles and other oceanic fish. Fishermen no longer follow dolphins, but concentrate their fisheries around floating objects such as fish aggregation devices, also known as FADs, which attract large populations of other organisms. Measures taken thus far to satisfy the public demand to protect dolphins can be potentially damaging to other species as well.^[50]

Aquaculture[link]

Increasing quantities of high-grade tuna are reared in net pens and fed bait fish. In Australia, former fishermen raise southern bluefin tuna, Thunnus maccoyii, and another bluefin species.^[45] Farming its close relative, the Atlantic bluefin tuna, Thunnus thynnus, is beginning in the Mediterranean, North America and Japan. Hawaiʻi approved permits for the first U.S. offshore farming of bigeye tuna in water 1,300 feet (400 m) deep in 2009.^[51]

Japan is the biggest tuna consuming nation and is also the leader in tuna farming research.^[52] Japan first successfully farm-hatched and raised bluefin tuna in 1979. In 2002, it succeeded in completing the reproduction cycle and in 2007, completed a third generation.^[53][54][55] The farm breed is known as Kindai tuna. Kindai is the contraction of Kinki University in Japanese (Kinki daigaku).^[56] In 2009, Clean Seas, an Australian company which has been receiving assistance from Kinki University^[57][58][59] managed to breed Southern Bluefin Tuna in captivity and was awarded the second place in World's Best Invention of 2009 by Time magazine.^[60]

As food[link]

Canned[link]

Canned tuna on sale at a supermarket

External videos
	Giant Million Dollar Tuna-Tonno 325Kg YouTube

Canned tuna was first produced in 1903, quickly becoming popular.^[61] Tuna is canned in edible oils, in brine, in water, and in various sauces. In the United States, 52% of canned tuna is used for sandwiches; 22% for salads; and 15% for casseroles and dried, packaged meal mixes.^[62]

In the United States, only Albacore can legally be sold in canned form as "white meat tuna";^[63] in other countries, yellowfin is also acceptable. While in the early 1980s canned tuna in Australia was most likely Southern bluefin, as of 2003^[update] it was usually yellowfin, skipjack, or tongol (labelled "northern bluefin").^[61]

As tunas are often caught far from where they are processed, poor interim conservation can lead to spoilage. Tuna is typically gutted by hand, and later pre-cooked for prescribed times of perhaps 45 minutes to three hours. The fish are then cleaned and filleted, canned, and sealed, with the dark lateral blood meat often separately canned for pet food. The sealed can itself is then heated (called retort cooking) for 2 to 4 hours.^[64] This process kills any bacteria, but retains the histamine that can produce rancid flavors. The international standard sets the maximum histamine level at 200 milligrams per kilogram. An Australian study of 53 varieties of unflavored canned tuna found none to exceed the safe histamine level, although some had "off" flavors.^[61]

Australian standards once required cans of tuna to contain at least 51% tuna, but these regulations were dropped in 2003.^[65][66] The remaining weight is usually oil or water. In the US, the FDA regulates canned tuna (see part c).^[67] In 2008, some tuna cans changed from 6 ounces (170 g) to 5 ounces (140 g) due to "higher tuna costs".^[68]

• 

  Tuna salad
• 

  Tuna steak served in a French bistro
• 

  Tekkadon
• 

  Katsuobushi shavings
• 

  Mojama

Nutrition and health[link]

Canned tuna can be a good source of omega-3 fatty acids. It sometimes contains over 300 milligrams (0.011 oz) per serving.^[69]

Mercury levels[link]

Mercury content in tuna can vary widely. For instance, testing by Rutgers University reportedly found that a can of StarKist had 10 times more mercury than another can of similarly-identified tuna. This has prompted a Rutgers University scientist whose staff conducted the mercury analysis to say, "That's one of the reasons pregnant women have to be really careful ... If you happen to get a couple or three cans in the high range at a critical period when you are pregnant, it would not be good." Among those calling for improved warnings about mercury in tuna is the American Medical Association, which adopted a policy that physicians should help make their patients more aware of the potential risks.^[70]

A study published in 2008 found that mercury distribution in the meat of farmed tuna is inversely related to the lipid content, suggesting that higher lipid concentration within edible tissues of tuna raised in captivity might, other factors remaining equal, have a diluting effect on mercury content.^[71] These findings suggest that choosing to consume a type of tuna that has a relatively higher natural fat content might help reduce the amount of mercury intake, compared to consuming tuna with a low fat content.

The industry-sponsored group Center for Consumer Freedom, which doesn't release the names of its contributors, claims the health risks of methylmercury in tuna might be dampened by the selenium found in tuna,^[72] although the mechanism and effect of this still is largely unknown.^[73]

Due to their high position in the food chain and the subsequent accumulation of heavy metals from their diet, mercury levels can be high in larger species such as bluefin and albacore.^{[citation needed]}

In 2009 a California appeals court upheld a ruling that canned tuna does not need warning labels as the methylmercury is naturally occurring.^[74]

In March 2004, the United States FDA issued guidelines recommending that pregnant women, nursing mothers, and children limit their intake of tuna and other predatory fish.^[75] The Environmental Protection Agency provides guidelines on how much canned tuna it is safe to eat. Roughly speaking, the guidelines recommend one 6 oz. can of light tuna a week for those weighing less than 110 pounds and two cans a week for those who weigh more.^[76]

In 2007 it was reported that some canned light tuna such as yellowfin tuna^[77] is significantly higher in mercury than skipjack, and caused Consumers Union and other activist groups to advise pregnant women to refrain from consuming canned tuna.^[78]

The Eastern little tuna (Euthynnus affinis) has been available for decades as a low-mercury, less expensive canned tuna. However, of the five major species of canned tuna imported by the United States it is the least commercially attractive, primarily due to its dark color and more pronounced 'fishy' flavor. Its use has traditionally been restricted to institutional (non-retail) commerce.

A January 2008 investigation conducted by the New York Times found potentially dangerous levels of mercury in certain varieties of sushi tuna, reporting levels "so high that the Food and Drug Administration could take legal action to remove the fish from the market."^[79]

A book by Jane Hightower, Diagnosis Mercury: Money, Politics and Poison, published in 2008, discusses human exposure to mercury through eating large predatory fish such as large tuna.^[80][81][82]

Management and conservation[link]

Life cycle

There are five main tuna fishery management bodies: the Western Central Pacific Ocean Fisheries Commission, the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission, the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission, the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas and the Commission for the Conservation of Southern Bluefin Tuna.^[83] The five gathered for the first time in Kobe, Japan in January 2007. Environmental organizations made submissions^[84] on risks to fisheries and species. The meeting concluded with an action plan drafted by some 60 countries or areas. Concrete steps include issuing certificates of origin to prevent illegal fishing and greater transparency in the setting of regional fishing quotas. The delegates are scheduled to meet at another joint meeting in January or February 2009 in Europe.^[85]

In 2010, Greenpeace International has added the albacore, bigeye tuna, blackfin tuna, Pacific bluefin tuna, Atlantic bluefin tuna, southern bluefin tuna and the yellowfin tuna to its seafood red list. "The Greenpeace International seafood red list is a list of fish that are commonly sold in supermarkets around the world, and which have a very high risk of being sourced from unsustainable fisheries."^[86][87]

It is widely accepted that bluefin tuna have been severely overfished, with some stocks at risk of collapse.^[88][89] According to the International Seafood Sustainability Foundation (a global, non-profit partnership between the tuna industry, scientists, and the World Wide Fund for Nature), Indian Ocean yellowfin tuna, Pacific Ocean (eastern & western) bigeye tuna, and North Atlantic albacore tuna are all overfished. In April 2009, no stock of skipjack tuna (which makes up roughly 60 percent of all tuna fished worldwide) was considered to be overfished.^[90] However, the BBC documentary, South Pacific, which first aired in May 2009 stated that, should fishing in the Pacific continue at its current rate, populations of all tuna species could collapse within 5 years.^[91] It highlighted huge Japanese and European tuna fishing vessels, sent to the South Pacific international waters after overfishing their own fish stocks to the point of collapse.

A 2010 tuna fishery assessment report released in Jan 2012 by the Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC), supporting this finding, recommending that all tuna fishing should significantly reduce or increase no further and that limits on skipjack fishing be considered.^[92]

See also[link]

• Embodied cognitive science#Bluefin Tuna
• Environmental effects of fishing
• Got Mercury?
• Natal homing#Blue-fin Tuna

References[link]

Further references[link]

• Clover, Charles. 2004. The End of the Line: How Overfishing Is Changing the World and What We Eat. Ebury Press, London. ISBN 0-09-189780-7
• FAO: Species Catalog Vol. 2 Scombrids of the World. FAO Fisheries Synopsis No. 125, Volume 2. FIR/S125 Vol. 2.ISBN 92-5-101381-0
• FAO: Review of the state of world marine fishery resources: Tuna and tuna-like species - Global, 2005 Rome.
• Standard of Identity for Canned Tuna (United States), Code of Federal Regulations: 21 CFR 161.190 - Canned tuna.
• Viñas J and Tudela S (2009) "A validated methodology for genetic identification of tuna species (genus Thunnus)" PLoS One, 4(10): e7606.

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Scombridae

Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on Tuna

• Atuna.com - tuna market gateway
• Nutritional benefits of tuna
• Tuna at Greenpeace
• Tuna at Stanford University Microdocs

News[link]

• The Bluefin Tuna in Peril, Scientific American, June 24, 2008
• How Hot Tuna (and Some Sharks) Stay Warm National Science Foundation, October 27, 2005
• Haberman, Clyde (25 January 2008). "Tuna Fish Stories: The Candidates Spin the Sushi". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/25/nyregion/25nyc.html?ref=nyregion. 

v t e Tuna True tuna Tuna Thunnus Albacore Bigeye tuna Atlantic bluefin tuna Blackfin tuna Longtail tuna Southern bluefin tuna Pacific bluefin tuna Yellowfin tuna Other tuna Scombridae Black skipjack tuna Bullet tuna Dogtooth tuna Frigate tuna Mackerel tuna Leaping bonito Little tunny Skipjack tuna Slender tuna Auxis Fishing and fisheries Almadraba US bluefin tuna industry As food Botargo Chūtoro Katsuobushi Kezuriki Mojama Tekkadon Tuna casserole Tuna fish sandwich Tuna pot Tuna salad Other Dolphin friendly tuna Scombroid food poisoning Tuna Fishing (painting) Tunagate Organisations ICCAT International Seafood Sustainability Foundation#Practices Nauru Agreement Regional Fisheries Management Organisation Predator fish billfish mackerel salmon shark tuna Forage fish anchovy herring menhaden sardine sprat Demersal fish cod flatfish ray

v t e Principal commercial fishery species groups Wild Large pelagic fish Mackerel Salmon Shark Swordfish Tuna albacore bigeye Atlantic bluefin Pacific bluefin southern bluefin skipjack yellowfin Forage fish Anchovy Capelin Herring Ilish Menhaden Sardines Shad Demersal fish Catfish Cod Atlantic Pacific Flatfish flounder halibut plaice sole turbot Haddock Mullet Orange roughy Pollock Smelt-whitings Toothfish Freshwater fish Carp Sturgeon Tilapia Trout Other wild fish Eel Whitebait more... Crustaceans Crab Krill Lobster Shrimp and prawn more... Molluscs Abalone Mussels Octopus Oysters Scallops Squid more... Echinoderms Sea cucumbers Sea urchin more... Farmed Carp bighead common crucian grass silver Catfish Freshwater prawns Mussels Oysters Salmon Atlantic salmon trout coho chinook Scallops Seaweed Shrimp Tilapia Commercial fishing World fish production Fishing topics Fisheries glossary

Duane Charles "Bill" Parcells (born August 22, 1941)^[1] is a former American football head coach, most recently with the Dallas Cowboys from 2003 to 2006. He is known as "The Big Tuna", a nickname about the shape of his physique derived from a team joke during his tenure as linebackers coach of the New England Patriots.^[2]

Parcells won two Super Bowl rings with the New York Giants, defeating the Denver Broncos in Super Bowl XXI and the Buffalo Bills in Super Bowl XXV. He led the New England Patriots to Super Bowl XXXI, but lost to the Green Bay Packers 35-21. He also led the New York Jets to the 1998 AFC Championship Game. He announced his third retirement from football on January 22, 2007 before returning to the sport later that year as the Vice President of Football Operations with the Miami Dolphins. He resigned from his role as the "football czar" with the Dolphins in September 2010, working as a "consultant" with the team until he took a leave of absence in October 2010, and left the team after the season. He is currently an NFL analyst for ESPN.

Early life[link]

Parcells was born in Englewood, New Jersey, on August 22, 1941. He grew up in the nearby town of Hasbrouck Heights,^[3][4][5] His mother, Ida Parcells (née Naclerio), was a housewife while his father, Charles Parcells, was a graduate of Georgetown Law School who had worked for the FBI before becoming a lawyer for Uniroyal Tires. Bill Parcells is of Irish and Italian descent.

Prior to his sophomore year in high school, the Parcells family moved a few miles north to the town of Oradell, where he attended River Dell Regional High School. While he was at River Dell, he was routinely mistaken for another boy named Bill. As he had always disliked his given name of Duane, he decided to adopt Bill as his nickname.^[6][7]

Parcells was a gifted athlete as a youth. He possessed good size (6'2" upon entering River Dell) and natural leadership skills, which enabled him to become a star quarterback, pitcher, and center on his high school's football, baseball, and basketball teams, respectively.^[8] His football coach at River Dell was Tom Cahill, who would later become the head coach at Army. His basketball coach at River Dell was Mickey Corcoran who Parcells considers to be "next to my father ... the most important influence in my life."^[9] Corcoran would serve Parcells as an advisor and confidant throughout his coaching career.^[10]

College years[link]

Upon graduating from high school, Parcells arrived at Colgate University. As a freshman, he was offered a contract by the Philadelphia Phillies. His father disapproved of a career in sports and wanted him to study law, so the younger Parcells declined the offer. He soon transferred to the University of Wichita (now known as Wichita State University), where he played linebacker and earned a physical education degree.^[11] He was good enough to be drafted in the seventh round by the Detroit Lions, but was released by the team before playing a single NFL game.^[12]

Collegiate coaching career[link]

At the conclusion of his playing days, Parcells decided to pursue a career in coaching. He began as an assistant coach at Hastings (1964) before moving on to Wichita State (1965), Army (1966–69), Florida State (1970–72), Vanderbilt (1973–74), and Texas Tech (1975–77). In 1978, he became the head coach at the Air Force Academy for one season.^[13]

While serving as linebackers coach at Army, Parcells was also a part-time assistant basketball coach for Bob Knight during the 1966–67 season, which led to their longtime friendship.^[14][15]

Professional coaching career[link]

New York Giants[link]

In 1979, Parcells accepted an offer to become the defensive coordinator of the New York Giants under head coach Ray Perkins but, before the season started, he resigned and took a job with a land development company in Colorado.^[16]

Feeling dissatisfied with his life away from football, Parcells returned to the sport in 1980 as the linebackers coach of the New England Patriots under Ron Erhardt.^[17]

The following season, Parcells was approached once again by Perkins to join the Giants' staff as an assistant coach, and Parcells accepted the offer. As defensive coordinator and linebackers coach, he was allowed to change the team's 4–3 defense to a 3–4 system.^[18] When Perkins announced on December 15, 1982, that he was leaving the Giants at the end of the season to become head coach and athletic director at the University of Alabama, the Giants announced that Parcells would succeed him as head coach.^[19]

When Parcells took over in 1983, the New York Giants were a team that had posted just one winning season in the previous ten years. In his first year, he made a controversial decision to bench Phil Simms in favor of Scott Brunner. The result was a disastrous 3–12–1 season during which the Giants seriously considered bringing in University of Miami head coach Howard Schnellenberger to replace Parcells.^[20]

After this dismal first season, Parcells made Simms the starter again. The team's record improved to 9–7 and 10–6 over the next two years, and earned them their first back-to-back playoff appearances since 1961–1963. In 1986, he led the Giants to the first of two Super Bowls. In the 1986 season, the Giants compiled a franchise best 14–2 record and the first of three division titles. Parcells, whose stifling 3–4 defense (known as the Big Blue Wrecking Crew) led by Lawrence Taylor, Carl Banks, Harry Carson, and Leonard Marshall, and an offense under the direction of Phil Simms, knocked off the San Francisco 49ers 49–3, and the Washington Redskins 17–0, in the playoffs before routing the Denver Broncos, 39–20, in Super Bowl XXI. Parcells is credited as the first coach to be dunked with Gatorade at the end of a game and at the end of a Super Bowl which led to a Super Bowl Gatorade dunking tradition. While there are some claims that Chicago Bears coach Mike Ditka had been dunked a year earlier,^[21] NFL Films president Steve Sabol has stated that he can find no evidence to support it in any footage he has reviewed and that he believes the tradition started with Parcells and Jim Burt.^[22]

Following the Super Bowl win, Parcells was courted by the Atlanta Falcons to become the Head Coach and General Manager of the franchise. However NFL Commissioner Pete Rozelle would not allow Parcells to break his contract with the Giants and he stayed in New York.^[23]

Parcells led the Giants to a second Super Bowl in 1990. The Giants began the 1990 season 10–0, and finished 13–3, but lost Simms to injury late in the season. Playing with a back-up quarterback in Jeff Hostetler and a 33-year-old veteran running back in Ottis Anderson, the Giants convincingly defeated the Chicago Bears in the divisional playoff, 31–3, and won in dramatic, come-from-behind fashion over San Francisco, 15–13, in the NFC Championship on a last-second 42-yard field goal by Matt Bahr which was set up by a Roger Craig fumble caused by nose tackle Erik Howard. Super Bowl XXV proved equally exciting as the Giants used tough defense, and a ball-control and power-running Erhardt – Perkins style offense to stop the Buffalo Bills, 20–19, whose own last-second 47-yard field goal attempt by Scott Norwood missed wide right. Parcells retired from football after Super Bowl XXV due to health problems. During his tenure, the Giants had secured four division titles (1985, 1986, 1989, 1990), had only two losing seasons (the Giants went 6–9 during the strike year of 1987) and tallied an 8–3 playoff record.

First retirement[link]

Following retirement, Parcells spent time as a football analyst for NBC Sports from 1991–1992, working as a commentator. He also hosted a local sports show in New York with Mike Francesa entitled Around the NFL.

In 1992, Parcells made a handshake agreement to become head coach of the Tampa Bay Buccaneers. At the last minute, Parcells opted not to take the job. Parcells did not feel the situation was right for him at that time. Tampa Bay owner Hugh Culverhouse said, "I feel like I've been jilted at the altar."^[24]

New England Patriots[link]

After a two-year hiatus, Parcells returned to the NFL in 1993 as the head coach for the New England Patriots. Within two years, he coached the team to a 10–6 record and its first playoff game in eight years. In 1996, he guided the Patriots to Super Bowl XXXI but lost to the Green Bay Packers, 35–21, in New Orleans.

Parcells left the Patriots after disagreements with owner Robert Kraft; Parcells felt he did not have enough input in player personnel decisions. Upon his departure, Parcells famously stated: "They want you to cook the dinner; at least they ought to let you shop for some of the groceries. Okay?" This was mainly in reference to an incident in the Patriots' war room during the 1996 Draft where Parcells, who wanted to draft a defensive player with their first-round choice, was vetoed by Kraft, and the Patriots selected Ohio State WR Terry Glenn.

New York Jets[link]

Although Parcells had decided to leave New England, his contract did not allow him to coach anywhere else. The New York Jets sought Parcells as head coach and general manager after a 4–28 record under Rich Kotite. To circumvent Parcells' contractual obligations, the Jets hired Bill Belichick (then the No. 1 assistant to Parcells) as the Jets coach, and then hired Parcells in an "advisory" role. New England threatened legal action against Parcells and the Jets, but NFL Commissioner Paul Tagliabue brokered a deal between the two sides, with New England releasing Parcells from his contract and the Jets giving New England a third and fourth round pick that year, a second round pick the next year and a first round draft choice the year after that.

1997–98[link]

Parcells again orchestrated a remarkable turnaround in his first year with the Jets. In his first season with the Jets, the team barely missed the playoffs with a record of 9–7. In 1998, the Jets went to the playoffs with a 12–4 record, which was good enough for second place in the conference^[25][26] and earned the Jets their third home playoff game since moving to New Jersey in 1984 (their first home playoff game was against the New England Patriots following the 1985 season), but lost to the eventual Super Bowl-champion Denver Broncos in the AFC Championship Game.

1999[link]

In 1999, expectations were high for the Jets to go to the Super Bowl. However, quarterback Vinny Testaverde ruptured his achilles tendon in the Jets home opener and the season went downhill from there. After starting the season 1–6, the Jets won three straight and faced the Indianapolis Colts. Parcells emphasized the importance of not obtaining a "7th loss" but they did lose to the Colts and then to the New York Giants the following week. At 4–8, the Jets were in danger of finishing below .500. The Jets would finish 8–8, but out of the playoffs. In 1999, Bill Parcells retired from football for the second time, vowing that he would not coach again. He remained with the Jets one more year as general manager.

Dallas Cowboys[link]