Title page of Cicero's De officiis. Christopher Froschouer - 1560.

De Officiis (On Duties or On Obligations) is an essay by Marcus Tullius Cicero divided into three books, in which Cicero expounds his conception of the best way to live, behave, and observe moral obligations.

Origin[link]

De Officiis was written in October–November 44 BC, in under four weeks.^[1] This was Cicero's last year alive, and he was 62 years of age. Cicero was at this time still active in politics, trying to stop revolutionary forces from taking control of the Roman Republic. Despite his efforts, the republican system failed to revive even upon the assassination of Caesar, and Cicero was himself assassinated shortly thereafter.

The essay was written in the form of a letter to his son with the same name, who studied philosophy in Athens. Judging from its form, it is nonetheless likely that Cicero wrote with a broader audience in mind. The essay was published posthumously.

De Officiis has been characterized as an attempt to define ideals of public behavior.^[2] It criticizes the recently overthrown dictator Julius Caesar in several places, and his dictatorship as a whole.

Contents[link]

Although Cicero was influenced by the Academic, Peripatetic, and Stoic schools of Greek philosophy, this work shows the influence of the Stoic philosopher Panaetius.^[3] The essay discusses what is honorable (Book I), what is expedient or to one's advantage (Book II), and what to do when the honorable and expedient conflict (Book III). Cicero says they are the same and that they only appear to be in conflict. In Book III, Cicero expresses his own ideas.^[4] Michael Grant tells us that "Cicero himself seems to have regarded this treatise as his spiritual testament and masterpiece." ^[5]

Cicero claims that the absence of political rights corrupts moral virtues. Cicero also speaks of a natural law that is said to govern both humans ^[6] and gods alike.^{[citation needed]}

Cicero urged his son Marcus to follow nature and wisdom, as well as politics, and warned against pleasure and indolence. Cicero's essay relies heavily on anecdotes, much more than his other works, and is written in a more leisurely and less formal style than his other writings, perhaps because he wrote it hastily. Like the satires of Juvenal, Cicero's De Officiis refers frequently to current events of his time.

Legacy[link]

The work's legacy is profound. Although not a Christian work, St. Ambrose in 390 declared it legitimate for the Church to use (along with everything else Cicero, and the equally popular Roman philosopher Seneca, had written). It became the moral authority during the Middle Ages. Of the Church Fathers, Saint Augustine, St. Jerome and even more so St. Thomas Aquinas, are known to have been familiar with it.^[7] Illustrating its importance, some 700 handwritten copies remain extant in libraries around the world dating back to before the invention of the printing press. Only the Latin grammarian Priscian is better attested to with such handwritten copies, with some 900 remaining extant. Following the invention of the printing press, De Officiis was the second book to be printed—second only to the Gutenberg Bible.^[8]

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2010)

In the 16th century, Erasmus developed a pocket version of it, since he thought it so important that one should always be able to keep it at hand.^[9] T. W. Baldwin said that "in Shakespeare's day De Officiis was the pinnacle of moral philosophy".^[10] Sir Thomas Elyot, in his popular Governour (1531), lists three essential texts for bringing up young gentlemen: Plato's Works, Aristotle's Ethics, and De Officiis.^[11]

In the 17th century it was a standard text at British schools (Westminster and Eton) and colleges (Cambridge and Oxford). It was extensively discussed by Grotius and Pufendorf. It influenced Robert Sanderson and John Locke.^[12]

In the 18th century, Voltaire said of De Officiis "No one will ever write anything more wise".^[13] Frederick the Great thought so highly of the book that he asked the scholar Christian Garve to do a new translation of it, even though there had been already two German translations since 1756. Garve's project resulted in 880 additional pages of commentary.

It continues to be one of the most popular of Cicero's works because of its style, and because of its depiction of Roman political life under the Republic.

Quotes[link]

• ..and brave he surely cannot possibly be that counts pain the supreme evil, nor temperate he that holds pleasure to be the supreme good. (No man can be brave who thinks pain the greatest evil; nor temperate, who considers pleasure the highest good) (Latin: fortis vero dolorem summum malum iudicans aut temperans voluptatem summum bonum statuens esse certe nullo modo potest) (I, 5)
• We are not born, we do not live for ourselves alone; our country, our friends, have a share in us. (We are not born for ourselves alone.) (Latin: non nobis solum nati sumus ortusque nostri partem patria vindicat, partem amici) (I, 22)
• Let us remember that justice must be observed even to the lowest. (Latin: Meminerimus autem etiam adversus infimos iustitiam esse servandam) (I, 41)
• Let arms yield to the toga, the laurel defer to praise. (Latin: cedant arma togae concedat laurea laudi) (I, 77)
• It is the function of justice not to do wrong to one's fellow-men; of considerateness, not to wound their feelings; and in this the essence of propriety is best seen. (Justice consists in doing no injury to men; decency in giving them no offense.) (Latin: Iustitiae partes sunt non violare homines, verecundiae non offendere, in quo maxime vis perspicitur decori) (I, 99)
• Is anyone unaware that Fortune plays a major role in both success and failure? (Latin: Magnam vim esse in fortuna in utramque partem, vel secundas ad res vel adversas, quis ignorat?) (II, 19)
• Of evils choose the least. (Latin: Primum minima de malis?) (III, 102)

Resources and further reading[link]

• Why Cicero's De Officiis? By Ben R. Schneider, Jr. Professor Emeritus of English at Lawrence University.
• Atkins, E. M.; Cicero, Marcus Tullius; Griffin, M. T., Cicero: On Duties (Cambridge Texts in the History of Political Thought), Cambridge University Press (February 21, 1991).
• Cicero, Marcus Tullius; Grant, Michael, "Selected Works", Penguin Classics (September 30, 1960).
• Cicero; Walsh, P. G., On Obligations, Oxford University Press (January 18, 2001).
• Nelson, N. E., Cicero's De Officiis in Christian Thought, University of Michigan Studies in Language and Literature 10 (1933).

References[link]

1. ^ Marcus Tullius Cicero and P. G. Walsh. On Obligations. 2001, page ix
2. ^ Marcus Tullius Cicero and P. G. Walsh. On Obligations. 2001, page xxx
3. ^ E.M.Atkins: Cicero: On Duties, p.xix
4. ^ Cicero, Grant: "Selected Works", p.157
5. ^ Cicero, Grant: "Selected Works", p.158
6. ^ E.M.Atkins: Cicero: On Duties, p.xxvi
7. ^ Hannis Taylor, Cicero: A Sketch of His Life and Works, A. C. McCLURG & CO. 1916, pp. 9
8. ^ Grafton, Anthony et.al. "The Classical Tradition", Belknap Press, 2010, ISBN 978-0-674-03572-0 p.142
9. ^ Erasmus' Epistolae 152
10. ^ T.W.Baldwin, "William Shakspere's Small Latine & lesse Greeke", Vol. 2, University of Illinois Press, 1944, p. 590, Available online
11. ^ Sir Thomas Elyot, "The Boke named the Governour", Vol. 1, Kegan Paul, Trench, & Co. 1883 pp. 91-94
12. ^ John Marshall, "John Locke: Resistance, Religion, and Responsibility", Cambridge University Press, 1994, pp. 162, 164, 299
13. ^ Voltaire, Cicero, Philosophical Dictionary Part 2 Orig. Published 1764

External links[link]

• De Officiis in Latin and English at the Perseus Project
• De Officiis - Latin with English translation by Walter Miller (1913) - Loeb Classical Library edition
• De Officiis online in English
• De Officiis online in Latin at The Latin Library

v t e Marcus Tullius Cicero Personal life Political career Writings Works Rhetoric and Politics De Inventione De Oratore De Partitionibus Oratoriae De Optimo Genere Oratorum Brutus De Legibus Philosophical Hortensius (Cicero) De Finibus Tusculanae Quaestiones De Natura Deorum De Divinatione Cato Maior de Senectute Laelius de Amicitia De Officiis Orations Politcal Speeches De Imperio Cn. Pompei In Catilinam I-IV Post Reditum in Senatu Pro Milone Pro Marcello Pro Ligario Philippicae Judicial Speeches Pro Quinctio Pro Roscio Amerino Divinatio in Caecilium In Verrem Pro Tullio Pro Caecina Pro Cluentio Pro Archia Poeta Pro Caelio

Anthony "Tony" de Mello (4 September 1931, Bombay, British India – 2 June 1987, New York City) was a Jesuit priest and psychotherapist who became widely known for his books on spirituality. An internationally acclaimed spiritual guide, writer and public speaker, de Mello hosted many spiritual conferences. See below for the names of these programs which are available on audio CD and film. He traveled to many countries to study and later to teach, most notably Spain and the United States.

The few talks which he allowed to be filmed, such as "A Rediscovery of Life" and "A Way to God for Today," have inspired many viewers and audiences since being released; and have been viewed by hundreds of thousands of TV watchers throughout the United States, Canada, and Central America; in colleges, universities, Newman centers, and communities. De Mello established a prayer center in India. He died suddenly of a heart attack in 1987, at age 56.^[1] His works are readily available and additional writings were published after his death.

Controversy[link]

A review of de Mello's work by the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith prompted the group to release a lengthy comment expressing their theological concerns. While the group showed appreciation for many of de Mello's writings, some positions were found to be 'incompatible with the Catholic faith'.^[2] In an opinion dated June 24, 1998 Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger, who later became Pope Benedict XVI, wrote from the Congregation (and approved by the Pope John Paul II):

"But already in certain passages in [his] early works and to a greater degree in his later publications, one notices a progressive distancing from the essential contents of the Christian faith. ... With the present Notification, in order to protect the good of the Christian faithful, this Congregation declares that the above-mentioned positions are incompatible with the Catholic faith and can cause grave harm." ^[3]

His quite controversial paradigm for Catholic dogma is mainly because many of his ideas were influenced by Thai Buddhist teacher and founder of monasteries Ajahn Chah - who, some^[who?] say, was a kind of teacher to him. Despite the church's condemnation, his works are popular, especially among those interested in Ignatian spirituality.^{[citation needed]}

Some editions of de Mello's books have since been supplemented with the insertion of a caution:

"The books of Father Anthony de Mello were written in a multi-religious context to help the followers of other religions, agnostics and atheists in their spiritual search, and they were not intended by the author as manuals of instruction of the Catholic faithful in Christian doctrine or dogma." ^[4]

Bibliography[link]

Not all the works of Father de Mello were submitted for publication by the author himself; some were published posthumously as collections, or based upon notes or recordings of his conferences.^[5] Below are the most recent list of available publications:

• Wake Up! Spirituality for Today, 90 minutes of talks given before a live audience.
• The Song of the Bird, 1984. ISBN 978-0-385-19615-4
• Sadhana: A Way to God, 1984. ISBN 978-0-385-19614-7
• Wellsprings, 1986. ISBN 978-0-385-19617-8
• One Minute Wisdom, Image, 1988. ISBN 978-0-385-24290-5
• Awareness, Image,1990. ISBN 978-0-385-24937-9
• Taking Flight, 1990. ISBN 978-038-541-3mjml
• The Way to Love, 1992. ISBN 978-0-385-24939-3
• The Heart Of The Enlightened, Image, 1994. ISBN 978-0-517-11474-2
• Awakening, Image, 2003. ISBN 978-0-385-50995-4
• Contact with God, Image, 2003. ISBN 978-0-385-50994-7
• One Minute Nonsense
• The Prayer of the Frog Vol. 1 & Vol. 2. In the English printing, these are titled "Taking Flight" and "The Heart of the Englightened."
• Praying Naked: The Spirituality of Anthony de Mello (by J. Francis Stroud, S.J.), Image

References[link]

External links[link]

• Official de Mello website
• Online de Mello resource including Videos & MP3s
• Summary of his writings
• Notification Concerning the Writings of Fr. Anthony de Mello, SJ
• Tony de Mello, S.J.: A Short Biography, by Bill De Mello (brother)
• Here & Now with Anthony de Mello, a 2001 workshop presentation by Malcolm Nazareth
• Spiritual Stories from Anthony de Mello
• Anthony de Mello quotes
• Rediscovery of Life, a conference by Tony de Mello in 5 parts