Grimm's law (also known as the First Germanic Sound Shift or the Rask's-Grimm's rule), named for Jacob Grimm, is a set of statements describing the inherited Proto-Indo-European (PIE) stops as they developed in Proto-Germanic (PGmc, the common ancestor of the Germanic branch of the Indo-European family) in the 1st millennium BC. It establishes a set of regular correspondences between early Germanic stops and fricatives and the stop consonants of certain other centum Indo-European languages (Grimm used mostly Latin and Greek for illustration). As it is presently formulated, Grimm's Law consists of three parts, which must be thought of as three consecutive phases in the sense of a chain shift:^[1]

1. Proto-Indo-European voiceless stops change into voiceless fricatives.
2. Proto-Indo-European voiced stops become voiceless stops.
3. Proto-Indo-European voiced aspirated stops become voiced fricatives; ultimately, in most Germanic languages these voiced fricatives become voiced stops.

The chain shift can be abstractly represented as:

bʰ → b → p → ɸ

dʰ → d → t → θ

gʰ → g → k → x

gʷʰ → gʷ → kʷ → xʷ

Here each sound moves one position to the right to take on its new sound value.

The voiced aspirated stops may have first become voiced fricatives before hardening to the voiced unaspirated stops "b", "d", and "g" under certain conditions; however, some linguists dispute this. See Proto-Germanic phonology.

Grimm's law was the first non-trivial systematic sound change to be discovered in linguistics; its formulation was a turning point in the development of linguistics, enabling the introduction of a rigorous methodology to historical linguistic research. The correspondences between Latin p and Germanic f was first noted by Friedrich von Schlegel in 1806. In 1818 Rasmus Christian Rask elaborated the set of correspondences to include other Indo-European languages such as Sanskrit and Greek, and the full range of conconants involved. In 1822 Jacob Grimm, the elder of the Brothers Grimm, in his book Deutsche Grammatik, formulated the law as a general rule (and extended to include standard German).

In detail[link]

Further changes following Grimm's Law, as well as sound changes in other Indo-European languages, can sometimes obscure its effects. The most illustrative examples are used here.

• Note: Proto-Germanic *gʷ from Proto-Indo-European *gʷʰ has undergone further changes of various sorts. After *n it was preserved as *gʷ, but later changed to *g in West Germanic. Following vowels, it seems to have become *w, presumably through a fricative stage *ɣʷ. Word-initially, the most plausible reflex is a labiovelar stop *gʷ at first, but the further development is unclear. In that position, it became either *w, *g or *b during late Proto-Germanic. The regular reflex before *u would likely have been *g, due to loss of the labial element before a labial vowel. Perhaps the usual reflex was *b (as suggested by the connection of bid < *bidjana- and Old Irish guidid), but *w appears in certain cases (possibly through dissimilation when another labial consonant followed?), such as in warm and wife (provided that the proposed explanations are correct). Apparently, Proto-Germanic *hʷ voiced by Verner's law fell together with this sound and developed identically, compare the words for 'she-wolf': from Middle High German wülbe and Old Norse ylgr, one can reconstruct PGmc nom. sg. *wulbīz, gen. sg. *wulgjōz, from earlier *wulgʷīz, *wulgʷjōz.^[2]

This is strikingly regular. Each phase involves one single change which applies equally to the labials (p, b, bʰ, f) and their equivalent dentals (t, d, dʰ, þ), velars (k, g, gʰ, h) and rounded velars (kʷ, gʷ, gʷʰ, hʷ). The first phase left the phoneme repertoire of the language without voiceless stops, the second phase filled this gap but created a new one, and so on until the chain had run its course.

Exceptions[link]

There are three main systematic exceptions.

1. The voiceless stops did not become fricatives if they were preceded by *s (itself a fricative).

Note:

• Some linguists dispute the origin of the word "scold", but Julius Pokorny among others proposed *skwetlo as the assumed root.
• Dutch has *k → *h (ch) even after *s, though this is a separate development.

2. The voiceless stop *t did not become a fricative if preceded by another stop, but the preceding stop was generally devoiced and then fricativised.

Combined with the previous exception it is therefore most convenient to say that in a series of two obstruents, the second does not become a fricative but the first does. This is sometimes treated separately under the heading Germanic spirant law:

• Note: Icelandic nótt comes from Proto-Germanic *naht-, with the /ht/ regularly becoming /tt/, which was originally pronounced [tː] before pre-aspirating. Thus, the [h] of the modern Icelandic form is not a direct descendant of ancient /h/.^[3] The same ancestry holds for the /tt/ of Icelandic átta as well.^[4]

3. The most recalcitrant set of apparent exceptions to Grimm's Law, which defied linguists for a few decades, eventually received explanation from the Danish linguist Karl Verner (see the article on Verner's law for details). (This is not necessarily an actual exception: the traditional dating of Verner's Law occurring after Grimm's would mean that the consonants affected did undergo Grimm's Law, and were only changed later.)

Correspondences to PIE[link]

The Germanic "sound laws", combined with regular changes reconstructed for other Indo-European languages, allow one to define the expected sound correspondences between different branches of the family. For example, Germanic (word-initial) *b- corresponds regularly to Latin *f-, Greek pʰ-, Sanskrit bʰ-, Slavic, Baltic or Celtic b-, etc., while Germanic *f- corresponds to Latin, Greek, Sanskrit, Slavic and Baltic p- and to zero (no initial consonant) in Celtic. The former set goes back to PIE *bʰ- (faithfully reflected in Sanskrit and modified in various ways elsewhere), and the latter set to PIE *p- (shifted in Germanic, lost in Celtic, but preserved in the other groups mentioned here).

See also[link]

• High German consonant shift
• Glottalic theory
• The Tuscan gorgia, a similar evolution differentiating the Tuscan dialects from Standard Italian.
• The Uralic Hungarian language was also affected by a similar process, leading to a high frequency of f and h, and can be compared to Finnish, which did not change this way.
• Armenian, another Indo-European language, has experienced a similar evolution.

References[link]

Wilhelm (left) and Jacob Grimm (right) in an 1855 painting by Elisabeth Jerichau-Baumann

The Brothers Grimm (German: Brüder Grimm or Die Gebrüder Grimm), Jakob Grimm (January 4, 1785 – September 20, 1863) and Wilhelm Grimm (February 24, 1786 – December 16, 1859), were German academics, linguists, cultural researchers, and authors who together collected folklore. They are among the most well-known storytellers of European folk tales, and their work popularized such stories as "Cinderella", "The Frog Prince" (Der Froschkönig), "Hansel and Gretel" (Hänsel und Gretel), "Rapunzel", "Rumpelstiltskin" (Rumpelstilzchen), and "Snow White" (Schneewittchen). Their first collection of folk tales, Children's and Household Tales (Kinder- und Hausmärchen), was published in 1812.

The brothers spent their formative years first in the German town of Hanau and then in Steinau. Their father's death in 1796, about a decade into their lives, caused great poverty for the family and affected the brothers for many years. They attended the University of Marburg where historian and jurist Friedrich von Savigny spurred their interest in philology and Germanic studies—a field in which they are now considered pioneers—and at the same time developed a curiosity for folklore, which grew into a life-long dedication to collecting German folk tales.

The rise of romanticism in the 19th century revived interest in traditional folk stories, which to the Grimm brothers represented a pure form of national literature and culture. With the goal of researching a scholarly treatise on folk tales, the brothers established a methodology for collecting and recording folk stories that became the basis for folklore studies. Between 1812 and 1857 their first collection was revised and published many times, and grew from 86 stories to more than 200. In addition to writing and modifying folk tales, the brothers wrote collections of well-respected German and Scandinavian mythologies and in 1808 wrote a definitive German dictionary (Deutsches Wörterbuch) that remained incomplete in their lifetime.

The popularity of the Grimms' collected folk tales endured well beyond their lifetimes. The tales are available in more than 100 translations and have been adapted to popular Disney films such as Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, Sleeping Beauty, and Cinderella. In the mid-20th century the tales were used as propaganda by the Third Reich; later in the 20th century psychologists such as Bruno Bettelheim reaffirmed the value of the work, in spite of the cruelty and violence in the original versions of some of the tales that were sanitized.

Biography[link]

Early life[link]

Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm lived in this house in Steinau from 1791 to 1796.

Jacob Ludwig Carl Grimm, born on 4 January 1785, was about 14 months older than his brother Wilhelm Carl Grimm (b. 24 February 1786). Both were born in Hanau, Germany, to Philipp Wilhelm Grimm, a jurist, and Dorothea Grimm, née Zimmer, daughter of a Kassel city councilman.^[1] They were the second- and third-eldest surviving siblings in a family of nine children, two of whom died in infancy.^[2][3][4] The family moved to the town of Steinau in the country in 1791, where Philip was employed as district magistrate (Amtmann). Residing in a large home, the family were prominent members of the community. Biographer Jack Zipes writes that the brothers were happy and "clearly fond of country life".^[1] The children were first taught at home by private tutors, and they also received strict instruction as Calvinists that developed in both a life-long religious faith. They later attended local schools.^[1]

Philipp Grimm's unexpected death of pneumonia in 1796 created severe and sudden financial hardship for the family. Forced to relinquish the servants and the house, Dorothea depended on financial support from her father and sister, who was then first lady-in-waiting at the court of Prince Frederick Charles of Hesse. As eldest living son, at age 11, Jacob quickly assumed adult responsibilities (shared with Wilhelm) for the next two years, adhering to the advice of their grandfather who continually exhorted them to be industrious.^[1]

In 1798, the brothers left the country and their family, moving to Kassel to attend the prestigious Friedrichsgymnasium, arranged and paid for by their aunt. Lacking a male provider (their grandfather died that year), they relied greatly on each other and became exceptionally close. Although the two brothers differed in temperament—Jacob was introspective and Wilhelm outgoing (although he often suffered from ill-health)—they shared a strong work ethic and excelled in their studies. In Kassel they became acutely aware of their inferior social status relative to "high-born" students who received more attention. Each brother graduated at the head of his class: Jacob in 1803 and Wilhelm (who missed a year of school due to scarlet fever) in 1804.^[1][5]

Kassel[link]

Upon graduation from the Friedrichsgymnasium the brothers attended the University of Marburg. At the small university, they became painfully aware that students of lower social status were not treated equally, but they believed that diligence and hard work would improve their circumstances. Their low social status at first disqualified them from admission, and they were required to request dispensation to study law. Students of higher social classes also had the benefit of receiving stipends, but the brothers were not eligible to receive tuition aid. They were unable to join in student activities and take part in university social life because of their severe poverty. They instead pursued their studies with extra vigor.^[5]

Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm in an 1843 drawing by their younger brother Ludwig Emil Grimm

Inspired by their law professor, Friedrich von Savigny, who awakened in them an interest in history and philology the brothers turned to studying medieval German literature.^[6] They shared with Savigny the wish to see the 200 principalities of Germany become united in a single state. Through Savigny and his circle of friends—German romantics such as Clemens Brentano and Ludwig Achim von Arnim—the Grimms were introduced to the ideas of Johann Gottfried Herder, who felt that German literature should return to what he defined as Volkspoesie (natural poetry) as opposed to Kunstpoesie (artistic poetry).^[7] In Marburg, the brothers dedicated themselves with great enthusiasm to their studies, about which Wilhelm wrote in his autobiography, "the ardor with which we studied Old German helped us overcome the spiritual depression of those days."^[8]

Jacob, who was still financially responsible for his mother, brother, and younger siblings, accepted a post in Paris as research assistant to von Savigny in 1805. On his return to Marburg he was forced to abandon his studies to support the family, whose poverty was so extreme that food was often scarce. He took a job with the Hessian War Commission. In a letter written to his aunt at this time, Wilhelm wrote of their circumstances, "We five people eat only three portions and only once a day".^[6]

In 1808, Jacob was appointed court librarian to the King of Westphalia, and went on to become librarian in Kassel, where Wilhelm later joined him.^[2] Upon the death of their mother in 1808, Jacob became fully responsible for his younger siblings. He arranged and paid for his brother Ludwig's studies at art school, and for an extended visit to Halle by Wilhelm, who required treatment for his heart and respiratory illness.^[1] At Brentano's request, the brothers began to collect folk tales around this time. Zipes writes that "the Grimms were unable to devote all their energies to their research and did not have a clear idea about the significance of collecting folk tales in this initial phase."^[1]

During their employment as librarians—which paid little but afforded them ample time for research—the brothers had a productive period of scholarship, publishing a number of books between 1812 and 1830.^[9] In 1812, they published their first volume of 86 folk tales, Kinder- und Hausmärchen, followed quickly by two volumes of German legends and a volume of early literary history.^[2] They went on to publish works about Danish and Irish folk tales and Norse mythology, while continuing to edit the German folk tale collection. These works became so widely recognized that the brothers received honorary doctorates from universities in Marburg, Berlin and Breslau.^[9]

Göttingen[link]

In 1825, Wilhelm married Henriette Dorothea (Dortchen) Wild, a long-time family friend and one of a group who supplied the brothers with stories. Jacob, who never married, would continue to live in the household with Wilhelm and Dortchen.^[10] The brothers were greatly disappointed at being overlooked in the appointment of a chief librarian in Kassel,^[9] and in 1830 they moved the household to Göttingen, where they were hired at the University of Göttingen—Jacob as professor and head librarian and Wilhelm as professor.^[2]

Jacob Grimm lecturing (illustration by Ludwig Emil Grimm, c. 1830)

During the next seven years the brothers continued to research, write and publish. Jacob published the well-regarded German Mythology (Deutsche Mythologie) in 1835; Wilhelm continued to edit and prepare for publication the third edition of Kinder- und Hausmärchen. They established the field of German studies at the university, becoming well-respected in the newly created discipline.^[10] In 1837, however, they lost their university posts after joining in protest with the Göttingen Seven. The 1830s were a period of political upheaval and peasant revolt, resulting in the movement for democratic reform known as Young Germany. Although not directly aligned with the Young Germans, the brothers and five of their colleagues reacted against the demands of King Ernest Augustus I, who in 1837 dissolved the parliament of Hannover and demanded oaths of allegiance from civil servants—including professors at the University of Göttingen. For refusing to sign the oath, the seven professors were dismissed and three were deported from Hannover, including Jacob, who left for Kassel. He was later joined there by Wilhelm, Dortchen and their four children.^[10]

Without income and once more in extreme financial difficulty, the brothers began work in 1838 on what would become a life-long project: the writing of a definitive dictionary. The first volume of their German Dictionary (Deutsches Wörterbuch) was not published until 1854. The brothers again depended on friends and supporters for financial assistance and influence in finding employment.^[10]

Berlin and later years[link]

The graves of the Brothers Grimm in Schöneberg, Berlin (St. Matthäus Kirchhof Cemetery)

In 1840, through the efforts of friends such as Bettina von Armin and von Savigny, who appealed to Frederick William IV of Prussia on behalf of the brothers, they were offered posts at the University of Berlin. In addition to teaching, they received offers from the Academy of Sciences to continue their research. After their household was established in Berlin, they directed their efforts toward the German dictionary and continued to publish. Jacob began his own research on German legal traditions and the history of the German language, published in the late 1840s and early 1850s, while Wilhelm produced new editions of the Hausmärchen and research in medieval literature.^[9]

After the Revolutions of 1848 in the German states, the brothers were elected to the civil parliament. Jacob became a prominent member of the National Assembly at Mainz.^[10] Their political activities were short-lived, however, as their hope for a unified Germany dwindled and their disenchantment grew. At that time Jacob resigned his university position and saw the publication of his The History of the German Language (Geschichte der deutschen Sprache). Wilhelm continued at the university until his retirement in 1852. The brothers then devoted themselves to work on their German Dictionary for the rest of their lives.^[10] Wilhelm died of an infection in Berlin in 1859,^[11] and Jacob, deeply upset at his brother's death, became increasingly reclusive. He continued work on the dictionary until his own death in 1863. Zipes writes of the Grimm brothers' dictionary, and of their very large body of work: "Symbolically the last word was Frucht (fruit)."^[10]

Collaborations[link]

[edit] Children's and Household Tales

Background[link]

In the 19th century, the rise of romanticism combined with Romantic nationalism and trends in valuing popular culture, revived interest in fairy tales, which had otherwise been in decline since the late-17th century when they had seen a period of great popularity in literary salons in Paris.^[12] In Germany, a collection of tales by Johann Karl August Musäus had been published between 1782 and 1787.^[13] The Grimms added to the revival with their folklore collection, which they built on the conviction that a national identity could be found in popular culture and with the common folk (volk). They collected and published tales as a reflection of German cultural identity, but in the first collection they also included the tales of Charles Perrault, published in Paris in 1697, written exclusively for an aristocratic audience. Scholar Lydia Jean explains that to reconcile Perrault's aristocratic audience with the idea that the tales originated with the common people, a myth was that Perrault's work, much of which was original, was an "exact reflection of folklore".^[12]

The Grimms defined "Little Red Riding Hood", shown here in an illustration by Arthur Rackham, as representative of a uniquely German tale although it existed in various versions and regions.^[14]

Directly influenced by Brentano and von Arnim who edited and adapted the folksongs of Des Knaben Wunderhorn (The Boy's Magic Horn or cornucopia),^[15] the brothers began the collection with the purpose of creating a scholarly treatise of traditional stories and to preserving the stories as they had been handed from generation to generation—a practice that was threatened by increased industrialization.^[16]

Maria Tatar, professor of German studies at Harvard University, explains that it is precisely in the handing from generation to generation, and the genesis in the oral tradition, that gives folk tales an important mutability. Versions of tales differ from region to region, "picking up bits and pieces of local culture and lore, drawing a turn of phrase from a song or another story, and fleshing out characters with features taken from the audience witnessing their performance."^[17] However, as Tatar explains, the Grimms appropriated as uniquely German stories such as "Little Red Riding Hood", which had existed in many versions and regions throughout Europe, because they believed that such stories were "distinctly German and both mirrored and shaped national identity."^[14]

Methodology and writing[link]

On Jacob's return to Marburg from Paris in 1806, their friend Brentano sought the brothers' aid in adding to his collection of folk tales, at which time "Jacob and Wilhelm began systematically gathering oral and literary tales and other material related to folklore."^[1] By 1810 they had produced a manuscript collection of several dozen tales, written after inviting storytellers to their home and transcribing what they heard. These tales were heavily modified in transcription and many had roots in previously written sources.^[18] At Brentano's request, they printed and sent to him copies of the 53 tales they collected for inclusion in his third volume of Des Knaben Wunderhorn.^[2] Brentano either ignored or forgot about the tales, leaving the copies in a church in Alsace where they were found in 1920. Known as the Ölenberg manuscript, it is the earliest extant version of the Grimms' collection and has become a valuable source to scholars studying the evolution of the Grimms' collection from the time of its inception. The manuscript was published in 1927 and again in 1975.^[19]

Stories such as "Sleeping Beauty", shown here in a Walter Crane illustration, had been previously published and were rewritten by the Brothers Grimm.^[12]

Although the brothers gained a reputation for collecting tales from peasants, many tales came from middle-class or aristocratic acquaintances. Wilhelm's wife Dortchen Wild and her family, with their nursery maid, told the brothers some of the more well-known tales, such as “Hansel and Gretel” and “Sleeping Beauty”.^[20] Wilhelm collected a number of tales after forming a friendship with August von Haxthausen, whom he visited in 1811 in Westphalia where he heard stories from von Haxthausen's circle of friends.^[21] Several of the storytellers were of Huguenot ancestry, telling tales of French origin such as those told to the Grimms by Marie Hassenpflug, an educated woman of French Huguenot ancestry,^[18] and it is probable that these informants were familiar with Perrault’s Histoires ou contes du temps passé (Stories from Past Times).^[12] Other tales were collected from the wife of a middle-class tailor, Dorothea Viehmann, also of French descent. Despite her middle-class background, in the first English translation she was characterized as a peasant and given the name Gammer Gretel.^[16]

According to scholars such as Ruth Bottigheimer and Maria Tatar some of the tales probably originated in written form during the medieval period with writers such as Straparola and Boccaccio, but were modified in the 17th century, and again rewritten by the Grimms. Moreover, Tatar writes that the brothers' goal of preserving and shaping the tales as something uniquely German at a time of French occupation was a form of "intellectual resistance", and in so doing they established a methodology for collecting and preserving folklore that set the model to be followed later by writers throughout Europe during periods of occupation.^[16]

From 1807 onward the brothers added to the collection. Jacob established the framework that was maintained through many iterations. By 1815 until his death, Wilhelm assumed sole responsibility for editing and rewriting the tales. Zipes explains that the process of editing included re-composing the tales in a stylistically similar manner, adding dialogue, removing pieces "that might detract from a rustic tone", improving the plots and incorporating "psychological motifs".^[21] Over the years, Wilhelm worked extensively on the prose, expanded and added detail to the stories to the point that many grew to be twice the length as in the earliest published editions.^[22] In the later editions Wilhelm polished the language to make it more enticing to a bourgeoise audience, eliminated sexual elements, and added Christian elements. After 1819 he began writing for children (children were not initially considered the primary audience), adding entirely new tales or adding new elements that were often strongly didactic to existing tales.^[21]

Some changes were made in light of unfavorable reviews, particularly from those who objected that not all the tales were suitable for children because of scenes of violence and sexuality.^[23] He worked to modify plots for of the many stories: for example, "Rapunzel" in the first edition of Kinder- und Hausmärchen clearly shows the relationship between the prince and the girl in the tower as sexual, which he edited out in subsequent editions.^[22] Tatar writes that morals were added (in the second edition a king's regret was added to the scene in which his wife is burned at the stake), and often the characters in the tale were amended to appear more German: "every fairy (Fee), prince (Prinz) and princess (Prinzessin) (all words of French origin) was transformed into a more Teutonic-sounding enchantress (Zauberin) or wise woman (weise Frau), king's son (Königssohn), king's daughter (Königstochter)."^[24]

Themes and analysis[link]

The collection consisted of legends, novellas, and folk stories, the vast majority of which did not originate as tales meant for children. At the advice of von Armin, who was deeply concerned by the content of tales—such as those that showed children being eaten—the brothers added cautionary advice to the introduction of 'Kinder- und Hausmärchen in which they suggested parental guidance was necessary to steer children toward age-appropriate stories in the volume. Despite von Armin's unease, none of the tales were eliminated from the collection, in the brothers' belief that all the tales were of value and reflected inherent cultural qualities. Furthermore, the stories were didactic in nature at a time when discipline relied on fear, according to scholar Linda Dégh, who explains that tales such as "Little Red Riding Hood" and "Hansel and Gretel" were written to be "warning tales" for children.^[25]

Hansel and Gretel, illustrated by Arthur Rackham, was a "warning tale" for children.^[25]

The stories in Kinder- und Hausmärchen include scenes of violence that have since been sanitized. For example the Grimms' version of "Snow White" ends with the stepmother dancing at Snow White's wedding wearing a pair of red-hot iron shoes that kill her; another story has a servant being pushed into a barrel "studded with sharp nails" and then rolled down the street.^[11] The Grimms' version of "The Frog Prince" describes the princess throwing the frog against a wall instead of kissing him. Some of extent the cruelty and violence may have been a reflection of medieval culture from which the tales originated, such as scenes of witches burning, as described "The Six Swans".^[11]

Tales with a spinning motif are broadly represented in the collection. In her essay "Tale Spinners: Submerged Voices in Grimms' Fairy Tales", children's literature scholar Bottigheimer explains that these stories reflect the degree to which spinning was crucial in the life of women in the 19th century and earlier. Spinning, and particularly the spinning of flax, was commonly performed in the home by women. Although many stories begin by describing the occupation of a main character, as in "There once was a miller", as an occupation spinning is never mentioned, probably because the brothers did not consider it an occupation. Instead, spinning was a communal activity, frequently performed in a Spinnstube (spinning room), a place where women most likely kept the oral traditions alive by telling stories while engaged in tedious work.^[26] In the stories, a woman's personality is often reflected by her attitude toward spinning: a wise woman might be a spinster, and Bottigheimer explains the spindle was the symbol of a "diligent, well-ordered womanhood."^[27] In some stories, such as "Rumpelstiltskin", spinning is associated with a threat; in others spinning might be avoided by a character who is either too lazy or not accustomed to spinning because of her high social status.^[26]

The tales were also criticized for being insufficiently German, which not only influenced the tales the brothers included, but their use of language. Scholars such as Heinz Rölleke however say the stories are an accurate depiction of German culture, showing "rustic simplicity [and] sexual modesty".^[11] German culture is deeply rooted in the forest (wald), a dark dangerous place to be avoided, most particularly the old forests with large oak trees, and yet a place to which Little Red Riding Hood's mother sent her daughter to deliver food to grandmother's house.^[11]

"Rumpelstiltskin", shown here in an illustrated border by Walter Crane, is an example of a "spinning tale".

Some critics such as Alistair Hauke, use Jungian analysis to say that the deaths of the brothers' father and grandfather are the reason for the Grimms' tendency to idealize and excuse fathers, as well as the predominance of female villains in the tales such as the wicked stepmothers, such as the evil stepmother and stepsisters in "Cinderella", but this disregards the fact that they were collectors, not authors of the tales.^[28] Another possible influence can be found in the selection of stories such as "The Twelve Brothers", which mirrors the brothers' family structure of one girl and several brothers overcoming opposition.^[29] Zipes believes that a number of the stories show autobiographical elements and that the brothers may have used their work as a "quest" to replace the family life they lost when their father died. The collection includes 41 tales about siblings, which Zipes believes are representative of Jacob and Wilhelm. Many of the sibling stories follow a simple plot in which the characters lose a home, work industriously at a specific task, and in the end find a new home.^[30]

Editions[link]

Between 1812 and 1864 Kinder- und Hausmärchen was published 17 times: seven of the "Large edition" (Große Ausgabe) and ten of the "Small edition" (Kleine Ausgabe). The Large editions contained all the tales collected to date, extensive annotations and scholarly notes written by the brothers; the Small editions had only 50 tales and were intended for children. Emil Grimm, Jacob and Wilhelm's younger brother, illustrated the Small editions adding Christian symbolism to the drawings, such as depicting Cinderella's mother as an angel and adding a bible to the bedside table of Little Red Riding Hood's grandmother.^[9]

Frontispiece and title-page, illustrated by Ludwig Emil Grimm of the 1819 edition of Kinder- und Hausmärchen

The first volume was published in 1812 with 86 folktales,^[20] and a second volume with 70 additional tales was published late in 1814 (dated 1815 on the title page); together the two volumes and their 156 tales are considered the first of the Large (annotated) editions.^[31][32] A second expanded edition with 170 tales was published in 1819, followed in 1822 by a volume of scholarly commentary and annotations.^[2][23] Five more Large editions were published in 1837, 1840, 1843, 1850 and 1857. The seventh and final edition of 1857 contained 211 tales—200 numbered folk tales and the rest were legends.^[2][23][32]

In Germany Kinder- und Hausmärchen was also released in a "popular poster-sized Bilderbogen (broadsides)"^[32] format and in single story formats for the more popular tales such as "Hansel and Gretel". Pirated editions became common; the stories were often added to collections by other authors as the tales became a focus of interest for children's book illustrators,^[32] with well-known artists such as Arthur Rackham, Walter Crane and Edmund Dulac illustrating the tales; a popular edition that sold well, released in the mid-19th century, included elaborate etchings by George Cruikshank.^[33] At the deaths of the brothers, the copyright went to Hermann Grimm (Wilhelm's son) who continued the practice of printing the volumes in expensive and complete editions, however after 1893 when copyright lapsed the stories began to be published in many formats and editions.^[32] In the 21st century, Kinder- und Hausmärchen, commonly called Grimms' Fairy Tales in English, is a universally recognized text. Jacob and Wilhelm's collection of stories has been translated to over 160 languages with 120 different editions of the text are available for sale in the US alone.^[11]

Philology[link]

Deutsche Sagen, (German Legends) included stories such as "The Pied Piper of Hamelin", shown here in an illustration by Kate Greenaway.

During their studies at the University of Marburg the brothers came to the realization culture was tied to language, and they regarded the purest expression of culture to be found in the grammar of a language. For this reason they began to distance themselves from the practices of Brentano and the other romanticists who frequently changed the original oral style of folk tales to fit a literary style that the brothers considered artificial; they believed that the style of the people (the volk) represented a natural and divinely inspired poetry (naturpoesie) as opposed to the kunstpoesie (art poetry) which they thought of as artificially constructed.^[34][35] As literary historians and scholars they delved into the origins of stories and attempted to retrieve them from the oral tradition without loss of the original traits of oral language.^[34]

The brothers strongly believed the dream of national unity and independence relied on a full knowledge of the cultural past that was reflected in folklore.^[35] They worked to discover and crystallize a kind of Germanness in the stories they collected because they believed that folklore contained kernels of ancient mythologies and beliefs, crucial to understanding the essence of German culture,^[16] and by examining culture form a philological point-of-view they sought to establish connections between German law, culture, and local beliefs.^[34]

Frontispiece of 1854 edition of German Dictionary (Deutsches Wörterbuch)

The Grimms considered the tales to have origins in traditional Germanic folklore, which they thought had been "contaminated" by later literary tradition.^[16] In the shift from the oral tradition to the printed book, tales were translated from regional dialects to Standard German (Hochdeutsch or High German),^[36] however, over the course of the many modifications and revisions, the Grimms sought to reintroduce regionalisms, dialects and low German to the tales—to re-introduce the language of the original form of the oral tale.^[37]

As early as 1812, they published a version of the Lay of Hildebrand, a 9th-century German heroic song, along with Die beiden ältesten deutschen Gedichte aus dem achten Jahrhundert: Das Lied von Hildebrand und Hadubrand und das Weißenbrunner Gebet, (The Two Oldest German Poems of the Eight Century: The Song of Hildebrand and Hadubrand and the Wessobrunn Prayer), the earliest known German heroic song.^[38]

Between 1816 and 1818 the brothers published a two-volume work titled Deutsche Sagen, (German Legends) consisting of 585 German legends.^[31] Jacob undertook most of the work of collecting and editing the legends that he organized according to region and historical (ancient) legends,^[39] and which were about real people or events.^[38] Meant to be a scholarly work, the historical legends were often taken from secondary sources, interpreted, modified and rewritten, resulting works "that were regarded as trademarks".^[39] Although some scholars criticized the Grimm's methodology in collecting and rewriting the legends, conceptually they set an example for legend collections that was to be followed by others throughout Europe. Unlike the collection of folk tales, Deutsche Sagen sold poorly.^[39]

Less well-known, is the brothers' monumental scholarly work on a German dictionary, the Deutsches Wörterbuch, which they began in 1838. Not until 1852 did they begin publishing the dictionary in installments.^[39] The work on the dictionary could not be finished in their lifetime because in it they gave a history and analysis of each word.^[38]

Reception and legacy[link]

Kinder- und Hausmärchen was not an immediate bestseller but its popularity increased with each new edition.^[40] The early editions of the book received lukewarm reviews on the basis that the stories were unappealing, which the brothers responded to with modifications and rewrites in order that the book would have a greater market appeal for children.^[16]

Berlin memorial plaque, Brüder Grimm, Alte Potsdamer Straße 5, Berlin-Tiergarten, Germany

Design of the front of the 1992 1000 Deutsche Mark showing the Brothers Grimm^[41]

By the 1870s the tales had increased greatly in popularity to the point they were added to the teaching curriculum in Prussia and in the 20th century the work has maintained status as being second to the bible as the most popular book in Germany. The popularity of the tales spawned a mini-industry of critics who analyzed the tales based on folkloric content, literary history, socialism and psychological elements and along Freudian and Jungian lines.^[40] Furthermore, the brothers made a science of folklore and generated a model of study that "launched general fieldwork in most European countries".^[42] During the Third Reich the Grimms' stories were used to foster nationalism and the Nazi's decreed Kinder- und Hausmärchen was a book each household should own; later in occupied Germany the book was banned for a period.^[43]

Simultaneously, in the US, the 1937 release of Walt Disney's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs shows the triumph of good over evil, innocence over oppression, according to Zipes: a popular theme that Disney repeated in 1959 during the Cold War with the production of Sleeping Beauty.^[44] The Grimms' tales have provided much of the early foundation on which the Disney empire was built.^[11] In film, the Cinderella motif, the story of a poor girl finding love and success, continues to be repeated in movies such as Pretty Woman, Ever After, Maid in Manhattan, and Ella Enchanted.^[45]

In the 20th century educators debated the value and influence of teaching stories that include brutality and violence, causing some of the more grim details to be sanitized.^[40] Dégh writes that some educators believe children should be shielded from cruelty of any form, that stories with a happy ending are fine to teach whereas those that are darker, particularly the legends, might pose more harm. On the other hand some educators and psychologist believe children easily discern the difference between what is a story and what is not and that the tales continue to have value for children.^[46] The publication of Bruno Bettleheim's 1976 The Uses of Enchantment brought a new wave of interest in the stories as children's literature, with an emphasis on the "therapeutic value for children".^[45] More popular stories such as "Hansel and Gretel" and "Little Red Riding Hood" have become staples of modern childhood presented in coloring books, puppet shows and cartoons. Other stories, however, have been considered too gruesome and have not made a popular transition.^[43]

Regardless of the debate, the Grimms' stories have continued to be resilient and popular around the world,^[46] although a recent study in England appears to suggest that parents consider the stories to be overly violent and inappropriate for young children, writes Libby Copeland for Slate.^[47]

Collaborative works[link]

• Die beiden ältesten deutschen Gedichte aus dem achten Jahrhundert: Das Lied von Hildebrand und Hadubrand und das Weißenbrunner Gebet, (The Two Oldest German Poems of the Eight Century: The Song of Hildebrand and Hadubrand and the Wessobrunn Prayer) – 9th century heroic song, published 1812
• Kinder- und Hausmärchen (Children's and Household Tales) – seven editions, between 1812 and 1857
• Altdeutsche Wälder (Old German Forests) – three volumes between 1813 and 1816)
• Der arme Heinrich von Hartmann von der Aue (Poor Heinrich by Hartmann von der Aue) – 1815
• Lieder der alten Edda (Songs from the Elder Edda) – 1815
• Deutsche Sagen (German Sagas) – published in two parts between 1816 and 1818
• Irische Elfenmärchen – Grimms' translation of Thomas Crofton Croker's Fairy Legends and Traditions of the South of Ireland, 1826
• Deutsches Wörterbuch (German Dictionary) – 32 volumes published between 1852 and 1960.^[38]

Notes[link]

References[link]

Sources[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Brothers Grimm

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Brothers Grimm

Wikisource has original works written by or about: Brothers Grimm

• Brothers Grimm on In Our Time at the BBC. (listen now)
• The Museum of the Brothers Grimm in Kassel, Germany
• Grimms' Fairy Tales at Project Gutenberg
• Grimms' household tales at Project Gutenberg. Translated by Margaret Hunt.