Dietary fiber, dietary fibre, or sometimes roughage or ruffage is the indigestible portion of plant foods having two main components:
- soluble (prebiotic, viscous) fiber that is readily fermented in the colon into gases and physiologically active byproducts, and
- insoluble fiber that is metabolically inert, absorbing water as it moves through the digestive system, easing defecation.[1]
It acts by changing the nature of the contents of the gastrointestinal tract and by changing how other nutrients and chemicals are absorbed.[2] Soluble fiber absorbs water to become a gelatinous, viscous substance and is fermented by bacteria in the digestive tract. Insoluble fiber has bulking action and is not fermented.[3] Lignin, a major dietary insoluble fiber source, may alter the fate and metabolism of soluble fibers.[1]
Chemically, dietary fiber consists of non-starch polysaccharides such as arabinoxylans, cellulose, and many other plant components such as resistant dextrins, inulin, lignin, waxes, chitins, pectins, beta-glucans, and oligosaccharides.[1] A novel position has been adopted by the US Department of Agriculture to include functional fibers as isolated fiber sources that may be included in the diet.[1] The term "fiber" is something of a misnomer, since many types of so-called dietary fiber are not actually fibrous.
Food sources of dietary fiber are often divided according to whether they provide (predominantly) soluble or insoluble fiber. Plant foods contain both types of fiber in varying degrees, according to the plant's characteristics.
Advantages of consuming fiber are the production of healthful compounds during the fermentation of soluble fiber, and insoluble fiber's ability (via its passive hygroscopic properties) to increase bulk, soften stool, and shorten transit time through the intestinal tract.
Disadvantages of a diet high in fiber is the potential for significant intestinal gas production and bloating. Constipation can occur if insufficient fluid is consumed with a high-fiber diet.
Originally, fiber was defined to be the components of plants that resist human digestive enzymes, a definition that includes lignin and polysaccharides. The definition was later changed to also include resistant starches, along with inulin and other oligosaccharides.[3]
Dietary fiber is found in plants. While all plants contain some fiber, plants with high fiber concentrations are generally the most practical source.
Fiber-rich plants can be eaten directly. Or, alternatively, they can be used to make supplements and fiber-rich processed foods.
The Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics (AND), formerly the American Dietetic Association, recommends consuming a variety of fiber-rich foods.
Legumes contain healthful dietary fibers.
Some plants contain significant amounts of soluble and insoluble fiber. For example plums and prunes have a thick skin covering a juicy pulp. The plum's skin is a source of insoluble fiber, whereas soluble fiber is in the pulp.[4]
Soluble fiber is found in varying quantities in all plant foods, including:
- legumes (peas, soybeans, lupins and other beans)
- oats, rye, chia, and barley
- some fruits and fruit juices (including prune juice, plums, berries, bananas, and the insides of apples and pears)
- certain vegetables such as broccoli, carrots, and Jerusalem artichokes
- root tubers and root vegetables such as sweet potatoes and onions (skins of these are sources of insoluble fiber also)
- psyllium seed husk (a mucilage soluble fiber) and flax seeds
- nuts, with almonds being the highest in dietary fiber
Sources of insoluble fiber include:
These are a few example forms of fiber that have been sold as supplements or food additives. These may be marketed to consumers for nutritional purposes, treatment of various gastrointestinal disorders, and for such possible health benefits as lowering cholesterol levels, reducing risk of colon cancer, and losing weight.
Soluble fiber supplements may be beneficial for alleviating symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome, such as diarrhea and/or constipation and abdominal discomfort.[6] Prebiotic soluble fiber products, like those containing inulin or oligosaccharides, may contribute to relief from inflammatory bowel disease,[7] as in Crohn's disease,[8] ulcerative colitis,[9][10] and Clostridium difficile,[11] due in part to the short-chain fatty acids produced with subsequent anti-inflammatory actions upon the bowel.[12][13] Fiber supplements may be effective in an overall dietary plan for managing irritable bowel syndrome by modification of food choices.[14]
Chemically defined as oligosaccharides occurring naturally in most plants, inulins have nutritional value as carbohydrates, or more specifically as fructans, a polymer of the natural plant sugar, fructose. Inulin is typically extracted by manufacturers from enriched plant sources such as chicory roots or Jerusalem artichokes for use in prepared foods.[15] Subtly sweet, it can be used to replace sugar, fat, and flour, is often used to improve the flow and mixing qualities of powdered nutritional supplements, and has significant potential health value as a prebiotic fermentable fiber.[16]
Inulin is advantageous because it contains 25–30% the food energy of sugar or other carbohydrates and 10–15% the food energy of fat. As a prebiotic fermentable fiber, its metabolism by gut flora yields short-chain fatty acids (see below) which increase absorption of calcium,[17] magnesium,[18] and iron,[19] resulting from upregulation of mineral-transporting genes and their membrane transport proteins within the colon wall. Among other potential beneficial effects noted above, inulin promotes an increase in the mass and health of intestinal Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium populations.
Vegetable gum fiber supplements are relatively new to the market. Often sold as a powder, vegetable gum fibers dissolve easily with no aftertaste. In preliminary clinical trials, they have proven effective for the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome.[20] Examples of vegetable gum fibers are guar gum and acacia Senegal gum.
The main action of dietary fiber is to change the nature of the contents of the gastrointestinal tract, and to change how other nutrients and chemicals are absorbed.[1][2] Soluble fiber binds to bile acids in the small intestine, making them less likely to enter the body; this in turn lowers cholesterol levels in the blood.[3] Soluble fiber also attenuates the absorption of sugar, reduces sugar response after eating, normalizes blood lipid levels and, once fermented in the colon, produces short-chain fatty acids as byproducts with wide-ranging physiological activities (discussion below). Insoluble fiber is associated with reduced diabetes risk, but the mechanism by which this occurs is unknown.[21]
Not yet formally proposed as an essential macronutrient, dietary fiber is nevertheless regarded as important for the diet, with regulatory authorities in many developed countries recommending increases in fiber intake.[1][2][22][23]
Dietary fiber has distinct physicochemical properties. Most semi-solid foods, fiber and fat are a combination of gel matrices which are hydrated or collapsed with microstructural elements, globules, solutions or encapsulating walls. Fresh fruit and vegetables are cellular materials.[24][25][26]
- The cells of cooked potatoes and legumes are gels filled with gelatinized starch granules. The cellular structures of fruits and vegetables are foams with a closed cell geometry filled with a gel, surrounded by cell walls which are composites with an amorphous matrix strengthened by complex carbohydrate fibers.
- Particle size and interfacial interactions with adjacent matrices affect the mechanical properties of food composites.
- Food polymers may be soluble in and/or plasticized by water. Water is the most important plasticizer, particularly in biological systems thereby changing mechanical properties.
- The variables include chemical structure, polymer concentration, molecular weight, degree of chain branching, the extent of ionization (for electrolytes), solution pH, ionic strength and temperature.
- Cross-linking of different polymers, protein and polysaccharides, either through chemical covalent bonds or cross-links through molecular entanglement or hydrogen or ionic bond cross-linking.
- Cooking and chewing food alters these physicochemical properties and hence absorption and movement through the stomach and along the intestine [27]
A slowly eaten meal will enter the absorptive phase of the gastrointestinal tract more slowly than a rapidly eaten meal of similar composition. Many of the differences between low and high glycemic foods would disappear if a meal was eaten slowly.[28][29]. The chemical and physico-chemical nature (lipid, protein, carbohydrate) of the meal will also influence the gastric emptying of the food multiphase system. Fatty foods and hypertonic solutions empty slowly. The movement of food, i.e., chyme, along the gastrointestinal tract is typical of flow in a disperse system. As chyme moves along the gastrointestinal tract, polymer flow and diffusion becomes important.[30]
Following a meal the stomach and upper gastrointestinal contents consist of
Micelles are colloid-sized clusters of molecules which form in conditions as those above, similar to the critical micelle concentration of detergents.[32] In the upper gastrointestinal tract, these detergents consist of bile acids and di- and monoacyl glycerols which solubilize triacylglycerols and cholesterol.[33]
Two mechanisms bring nutrients into contact with the epithelium: 1) intestinal contractions create turbulence; and 2) convection currents direct contents from the lumen to the epithelial surface.[34] The multiple physical phases in the intestinal tract slow the rate of absorption compared to that of the suspension solvent alone. 1. Nutrients diffuse through the thin, relatively unstirred layer of fluid adjacent to the epithelium. 2. Immobilizing of nutrients and other chemicals within complex polysaccharide molecules affects their release and subsequent absorption from the small intestine, an effect influential on the glycemic index.[35] 3. Molecules begin to interact as their concentration increases. During absorption, water must be absorbed at a rate commensurate with the absorption of solutes. The transport of actively and passively absorbed nutrients across epithelium is affected by the unstirred water layer covering the microvillus membrane.[36] 4. The presence of mucus or fiber, e.g., pectin or guar, in the unstirred layer may alter the viscosity and solute diffusion coefficient. [37]
Adding viscous polysaccharides to carbohydrate meals can reduce post-prandial blood glucose concentrations. Wheat and maize but not oats modify glucose absorption, the rate being dependent upon the particle size. The reduction in absorption rate with guar gum may be due to the increased resistance by viscous solutions to the convective flows created by intestinal contractions. Dietary fiber interacts with pancreatic and enteric enzymes and their substrates. Human pancreatic enzyme activity is reduced when incubated with most fiber sources. Fiber may affect amylase activity and hence the rate of hydrolysis of starch. The more viscous polysaccharides extend the mouth-to-cecum transit time; guar, tragacanth and pectin being slower than wheat bran.[38]
The colon may be regarded as two organs, 1. the right side a fermenter, [39].The right side of the colon is involved in nutrient salvage so that dietary fibre, resistant starch, fat and protein are utilised by bacteria and the end-products absorbed for use by the body 2. the left side affecting continence.. The presence of bacteria in the colon produces an ‘organ’ of intense, mainly reductive, metabolic activity, whereas the liver is oxidative. The substrates utilised by the caecal have either passed along the entire intestine or are biliary excretion products . The effects of dietary fibre in the colon are on 1. bacterial fermentation of some dietary fibres 2. thereby an increase in bacterial mass 3. an increase in bacterial enzyme activity 4. changes in the water-holding capacity of the fibre residue after fermentation Enlargement of the caecum is a common finding when some dietary fibres are fed and this is now believed to be normal physiological adjustment. Such an increase may be due to a number of factors, prolonged caecal residence of the fibre, increased bacterial mass, or increased bacterial end-products. Some non-absorbed carbohydrates, e.g. pectin, gum arabic, oligosaccharides and resistant starch, are fermented to short-chain fatty acids (chiefly acetic, propionic and n-butyric), and carbon dioxide, hydrogen and methane. The caecal fermentation of 40–50 g of complex polysaccharides will yield 400–500 mmol total short-chain fatty acids, 240–300 mmol acetate, and 80–100 mmol of both propionate and butyrate. Almost all of these short-chain fatty acids will be absorbed from the colon. This means that faecal short-chain fatty acid estimations do not reflect caecal and colonic fermentation, only the efficiency of absorption, the ability of the fibre residue to sequestrate short-chain fatty acids, and the continued fermentation of fibre around the colon, which presumably will continue until the substrate is exhausted. The production of short-chain fatty acids has several possible actions on the gut mucosa. All of the short-chain fatty acids are readily absorbed by the colonic mucosa, but only acetic acid reaches the systemic circulation in appreciable amounts. Butyric acid appears to be used as a fuel by the colonic mucosa as the preferred energy source for colonic cells.
Dietary fibre has been shown to have an effect on cholesterol metabolism. Dietary fibre may act on each phase of ingestion, digestion, absorption and excretion.[40]. There are a number of ways 1. The of energy foods from the diet through bulking effect 2. A slowing of gastric emptying time. 3. A glycaemic index type of action on absorption 4. A slowing of bile acid absorption in the ileum so bile acids escape through to the caecum 5. Altered or increased bile acid metabolism in the caecum 6. Indirectly by absorbed short-chain fatty acids, especially propionic acid, resulting from fibre fermentation affecting the cholesterol metabolism in the liver. 7. Binding of bile acids to fibre or bacteria in the caecum with increased faecal loss from the entero-hepatic circulation. An important action of some fibres is to reduce the reabsorption of bile acids in the ileum and hence the amount and type of bile acid and fats reaching the colon. A reduction in the reabsorption of bile acid from the ileum has several direct effects. 1. Bile acids may be trapped within the lumen of the ileum either because of a high luminal viscosity or because of binding to a dietary fibre. [41] 2. Lignin in fibre adsorbs bile acids, but the unconjugated form of the bile acids are adsorbed more than the conjugated form. In the ileum where bile acids are primarily absorbed the bile acids are predominantly conjugated. 3. The enterohepatic circulation of bile acids may be altered and there is an increased flow of bile acids to the caecum, where they are deconjugated and 7alpha-dehydroxylated. 4. These water-soluble form, bile acids e.g., deoxycholic and lithocholic are adsorbed to dietary fibre and an increased faecal loss of sterols, dependent in part on the amount and type of fibre. 5. A further factor is an increase in the bacterial mass and activity of the ileum as some fibres e.g., pectin are digested by bacteria. The bacterial mass increases and caecal bacterial activity increases. 6. The enteric loss of bile acids results in increased synthesis of bile acids from cholesterol which in turn reduces body cholesterol. The fibres that are most effective in influencing sterol metabolism (e.g. pectin) are fermented in the colon. It is therefore unlikely that the reduction in body cholesterol is due to adsorption to this fermented fibre in the colon. 1. There might be alterations in the end-products of bile acid bacterial metabolism or the release of short chain fatty acids which are absorbed from the colon, return to the liver in the portal vein and modulate either the synthesis of cholesterol or its catabolism to bile acids. 2. The prime mechanism whereby fibre influences cholesterol metabolism is through bacteria binding bile acids in the colon after the initial deconjugation and dehydroxylation. [42] 3. Fermentable fibres e.g., pectin will by virtue of their providing a medium for bacterial growth increase the bacterial mass in the colon. The sequestrated bile acids are then excreted in faeces. 4. Other fibres, e.g., gum arabic, are associated with a significant decrease in serum cholesterol without increasing faecal bile acid excretion.
Faeces consist of plasticine-like material, made up of water, bacteria, lipids, sterols, mucus and fibre.
1. Faeces are 75 % water; bacteria make a large contribution to the dry weight, the residue being unfermented fibre and excreted compounds. 2. Faecal output may vary over a range of between 20 and 280 g over 24 hours. The amount of faeces excreted a day varies for any one individual over a period of time. 3. Of dietary constituents, only dietary fibre increases faecal weight. Water is distributed in the colon in three ways: 1. Free water which can be absorbed from the colon. 2. Water that is incorporated into bacterial mass. 3. Water that is bound by fibre. Faecal weight is dictated by: 1. the holding of water by the residual dietary fibre after fermentation. 2. the bacterial mass. 3. There may also be an added osmotic effect of products of bacterial fermentation on faecal mass. Wheat bran, is minimally fermented and binds water and when added to the diet increases faecal weight in a predictable linear manner and decreases intestinal transit time. The particle size of the fibre is all-important, coarse wheat bran being more effective than fine wheat bran. The greater the water-holding capacity of the bran, the greater the effect on faecal weight. For most healthy individuals, an increase in wet faecal weight, depending on the particle size of the bran, is generally of the order of 3–5 g/g fibre. The fermentation of some fibres results in an increase in the bacterial content and possibly faecal weight. Other fibres, e.g. pectin are fermented and have no effect on stool weight.
Research has shown that fiber may benefit health in several different ways. Lignin and probably related materials that are resistant to enzymatic degradation, diminish the nutritional value of foods.[43]
Color coding of table entries:
- Both Applies to both soluble and insoluble fiber
- Soluble Applies to soluble fiber only
- Insoluble Applies to insoluble fiber only
| Functions |
Benefits[44][45] |
| Increases food volume without increasing caloric content, providing satiety |
May reduce appetite |
| Attracts water and forms a viscous gel during digestion, slowing the emptying of the stomach and intestinal transit, shielding carbohydrates from enzymes, and delaying absorption of glucose[46] |
Lowers variance in blood sugar levels |
| Lowers total and LDL cholesterol |
Reduces risk of cardiovascular disease |
| Regulates blood sugar |
May reduce glucose and insulin levels in diabetic patients and may lower risk of diabetes[47] |
| Speeds the passage of foods through the digestive system |
Facilitates regular defecation |
| Adds bulk to the stool |
Alleviates constipation |
| Balances intestinal pH[48] and stimulates intestinal fermentation production of short-chain fatty acids |
May reduce risk of colorectal cancer[49] |
Fiber does not bind to minerals and vitamins and therefore does not restrict their absorption, but rather evidence exists that fermentable fiber sources improve absorption of minerals, especially calcium.[50][51][52] Some plant foods can reduce the absorption of minerals and vitamins like calcium, zinc, vitamin C, and magnesium, but this is caused by the presence of phytate (which is also thought to have important health benefits), not by fiber.[53]
Although many researchers believe that dietary fiber intake reduces risk of colon cancer, one study conducted by researchers at the Harvard School of Medicine of over 88,000 women did not show a statistically significant relationship between higher fiber consumption and lower rates of colorectal cancer or adenomas.[54] Similarly, a 2010 study of 58,279 men found no relationship between dietary fiber and colorectal cancer. [55]
Current recommendations from the United States National Academy of Sciences, Institute of Medicine, suggest that adults should consume 20–35 grams of dietary fiber per day, but the average American's daily intake of dietary fiber is only 12–18 grams.[53][56]
The ADA recommends a minimum of 20–35 g/day for a healthy adult depending on calorie intake (e.g., a 2000 Cal/8400 kJ diet should include 25 g of fiber per day). The ADA's recommendation for children is that intake should equal age in years plus 5 g/day (e.g., a 4 year old should consume 9 g/day). No guidelines have yet been established for the elderly or very ill. Patients with current constipation, vomiting, and abdominal pain should see a physician. Certain bulking agents are not commonly recommended with the prescription of opioids because the slow transit time mixed with larger stools may lead to severe constipation, pain, or obstruction.
The British Nutrition Foundation has recommended a minimum fiber intake of 18 g/day for healthy adults.[57]
On average, North Americans consume less than 50% of the dietary fiber levels recommended for good health. In the preferred food choices of today's youth, this value may be as low as 20%, a factor considered by experts as contributing to the obesity levels seen in many developed countries.[58][59]
Recognizing the growing scientific evidence for physiological benefits of increased fiber intake, regulatory agencies such as the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) of the United States have given approvals to food products making health claims for fiber.
In clinical trials to date, these fiber sources were shown to significantly reduce blood cholesterol levels, an important factor for general cardiovascular health,[60] and to lower risk of onset for some types of cancer.[61]
Soluble (fermentable) fiber sources gaining FDA approval are:
Other examples of fermentable fiber sources (from plant foods or biotechnology) used in functional foods and supplements include inulin, resistant dextrins, fructans, xanthan gum, cellulose, guar gum, fructooligosaccharides (FOS), and oligo- or polysaccharides.
Consistent intake of fermentable fiber through foods like berries and other fresh fruit, vegetables, whole grains, seeds, and nuts is now known to reduce risk of some of the world’s most prevalent diseases[62][63][64][65]—obesity, diabetes, high blood cholesterol, cardiovascular disease, and numerous gastrointestinal disorders. In this last category are constipation, inflammatory bowel disease, ulcerative colitis, hemorrhoids, Crohn’s disease, diverticulitis, and colon cancer—all disorders of the intestinal tract where fermentable fiber can provide healthful benefits.[62]
Insufficient fiber in the diet can complicate defecation.[66] Low-fiber feces are dehydrated and hardened, making them difficult to evacuate—defining constipation[66] and possibly leading to development of hemorrhoids[66] or anal fissures.
In June 2007, the British Nutrition Foundation issued a statement to define dietary fiber more concisely and list the potential health benefits established to date:[67][68]
‘Dietary fibre’ has been used as a collective term for a complex mixture of substances with different chemical and physical properties which exert different types of physiological effects. The use of certain analytical methods to quantify dietary fiber by nature of its indigestibility results in many other indigestible components being isolated along with the carbohydrate components of dietary fiber. These components include resistant starches and oligosaccharides along with other substances that exist within the plant cell structure and contribute to the material that passes through the digestive tract. Such components are likely to have physiological effects. Yet, some differentiation has to be made between these indigestible plant components and other partially digested material, such as protein, that appears in the large bowel. Thus, it is better to classify fiber as a group of compounds with different physiological characteristics, rather than to be constrained by defining it chemically. Diets naturally high in fiber can be considered to bring about several main physiological consequences:
Therefore, it is not appropriate to state that fiber has a single all encompassing physiological property as these effects are dependent on the type of fiber in the diet. The beneficial effects of high fiber diets are the summation of the effects of the different types of fiber present in the diet and also other components of such diets. Defining fiber physiologically allows recognition of indigestible carbohydrates with structures and physiological properties similar to those of naturally occurring dietary fibers.[68]
Fiber contributes less energy (measured in Calories or kilojoules) than sugars and starches because it cannot be fully absorbed by the body. Sugars and starches provide 4 Calories per gram, and the human body has specific enzymes to break them down into glucose, fructose, and galactose, which can then be absorbed by the body. The human body lacks enzymes to break down fiber. Insoluble fiber does not change inside the body, so the body cannot absorb it and nutritionists say that it contributes 0 Calories per gram. Soluble fiber is partially fermented, with the degree of fermentability varying with the type of fiber, and contributes some energy when broken down and absorbed by the body. Dietitians have not reached a consensus on how much energy is actually absorbed, but some approximate around 2 Calories (8.5 kilojoules) per gram of soluble fiber. Regardless of the type of fiber, the body absorbs fewer than 4 Calories (16.7 kilojoules) per gram of fiber, which can create inconsistencies for actual product nutrition labels. In some countries, fiber is not listed on nutrition labels, and is considered 0 Calories/gram when the food's total Calories are computed. In other countries all fiber must be listed, and is considered 4 Calories per gram when the food's total Calories are computed (because chemically fiber is a type of carbohydrate and other carbohydrates contribute 4 Calories per gram). In the US, soluble fiber must be counted as 4 Calories per gram, but insoluble fiber may be (and usually is) treated as 0 Calories per gram and not mentioned on the label.
The American Association of Cereal Chemists has defined soluble fiber this way: “the edible parts of plants or similar carbohydrates resistant to digestion and absorption in the human small intestine with complete or partial fermentation in the large intestine.”[69] In this definition:
- edible parts of plants
- indicates that some parts of a plant we eat—skin, pulp, seeds, stems, leaves, roots—contain fiber. Both insoluble and soluble sources are in those plant components.
- carbohydrates
- complex carbohydrates, such as long-chained sugars also called starch, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides, are sources of soluble fermentable fiber.
- resistant to digestion and absorption in the human small intestine
- foods providing nutrients are digested by gastric acid and digestive enzymes in the stomach and small intestine where the nutrients are released then absorbed through the intestinal wall for transport via the blood throughout the body. A food resistant to this process is undigested, as insoluble and soluble fibers are. They pass to the large intestine only affected by their absorption of water (insoluble fiber) or dissolution in water (soluble fiber).
- complete or partial fermentation in the large intestine
- the large intestine comprises a segment called the colon within which additional nutrient absorption occurs through the process of fermentation. Fermentation occurs by the action of colonic bacteria on the food mass, producing gases and short-chain fatty acids. It is these short-chain fatty acids—butyric, acetic (ethanoic), propionic, and valeric acids—that scientific evidence is revealing to have significant health properties.[70]
As an example of fermentation, shorter-chain carbohydrates (a type of fiber found in legumes) cannot be digested, but are changed via fermentation in the colon into short-chain fatty acids and gases (which are typically expelled as flatulence).
According to a 2002 journal article,[62] fibers compounds with partial or low fermentability include:
fiber compounds with high fermentability include:
When soluble fiber is fermented, short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) are produced. SCFAs are involved in numerous physiological processes promoting health, including:[70]
SCFAs that are absorbed by the colonic mucosa pass through the colonic wall into the portal circulation (supplying the liver), and the liver transports them into the general circulatory system.
Overall, SCFAs affect major regulatory systems, such as blood glucose and lipid levels, the colonic environment, and intestinal immune functions.[73][74]
The major SCFAs in humans are butyrate, propionate, and acetate, where butyrate is the major energy source for colonocytes, propionate is destined for uptake by the liver, and acetate enters the peripheral circulation to be metabolized by peripheral tissues.
The FDA allows producers of foods containing 1.7g per serving of psyllium husk soluble fiber or 0.75g of oat or barley soluble fiber as beta-glucans to claim that reduced risk of heart disease can result from their regular consumption.[75]
The FDA statement template for making this claim is: Soluble fiber from foods such as [name of soluble fiber source, and, if desired, name of food product], as part of a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol, may reduce the risk of heart disease. A serving of [name of food product] supplies __ grams of the [necessary daily dietary intake for the benefit] soluble fiber from [name of soluble fiber source] necessary per day to have this effect.[75]
Eligible sources of soluble fiber providing beta-glucan include:
- Oat bran
- Rolled oats
- Whole oat flour
- Oatrim
- Whole grain barley and dry milled barley
- Soluble fiber from psyllium husk with purity of no less than 95%
The allowed label may state that diets low in saturated fat and cholesterol and that include soluble fiber from certain of the above foods “may” or “might” reduce the risk of heart disease.
As discussed in FDA regulation 21 CFR 101.81, the daily dietary intake levels of soluble fiber from sources listed above associated with reduced risk of coronary heart disease are:
- 3g or more per day of beta-glucan soluble fiber from either whole oats or barley, or a combination of whole oats and barley
- 7g or more per day of soluble fiber from psyllium seed husk.[76]
Soluble fiber from consuming grains is included in other allowed health claims for lowering risk of some types of cancer and heart disease by consuming fruit and vegetables (21 CFR 101.76, 101.77, and 101.78).[75]
A study of 388,000 adults ages 50 to 71 for nine years found that the highest consumers of fiber were 22% less likely to die over this period.[77] In addition to lowering the risk of death from heart disease, adequate consumption of fiber-containing foods, especially grains, also appeared to reduce the incidence of infectious and respiratory illnesses, and, particularly among males, lowered the risk of cancer-related death.
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![Children in this photograph from a Nigerian orphanage show symptoms of malnutrition, with four illustrating the gray-blond hair symptomatic of kwashiorkor. Diet deficiencies Dietary habits play a significant role in the health and mortality of all humans. Imbalances between the consumed fuels and expended energy results in either starvation or excessive reserves of adipose tissue, known as body fat.[70] Poor intake of various vitamins and minerals can lead to diseases which can have far-reaching](http://web.archive.org./web/20121007063607/http://cdn0.wn.com/pd/28/5a/d8f0c17dc25ce81910ff844016f2_medium.jpg "Children in this photograph from a Nigerian orphanage show symptoms of malnutrition, with four illustrating the gray-blond hair symptomatic of kwashiorkor. Diet deficiencies Dietary habits play a significant role in the health and mortality of all humans. Imbalances between the consumed fuels and expended energy results in either starvation or excessive reserves of adipose tissue, known as body fat.[70] Poor intake of various vitamins and minerals can lead to diseases which can have far-reaching")
![Teff or taf (Eragrostis tef (Zucc.) Trotter), Amharic ጤፍ ṭēff, Tigrinya ጣፍ ṭaff) is an annual grass, a species of lovegrass native to the northern Ethiopian Highlands of Northeast Africa. It has an attractive nutrition profile, being high in dietary fiber and iron and providing protein and calcium.[1] Some people consider it to have a sour taste. It is similar to millet and quinoa in cooking, but the seed is much smaller, and thus cooks using less fuel.](http://web.archive.org./web/20121007063607/http://cdn4.wn.com/pd/f6/7c/11da715bf3926fb4e928cb31b44f_medium.jpg "Teff or taf (Eragrostis tef (Zucc.) Trotter), Amharic ጤፍ ṭēff, Tigrinya ጣፍ ṭaff) is an annual grass, a species of lovegrass native to the northern Ethiopian Highlands of Northeast Africa. It has an attractive nutrition profile, being high in dietary fiber and iron and providing protein and calcium.[1] Some people consider it to have a sour taste. It is similar to millet and quinoa in cooking, but the seed is much smaller, and thus cooks using less fuel.")
