An expressive orange-ware clay vessel in the Toltec style, from the American Museum of Natural History collection.

The Toltec culture is an archaeological Mesoamerican culture that dominated a state centered in Tula, Hidalgo, in the early post-classic period of Mesoamerican chronology (ca 800-1000 CE). The later Aztec culture saw the Toltecs as their intellectual and cultural predecessors and described Toltec culture emanating from Tollan (Nahuatl for Tula) as the epitome of civilization, indeed in the Nahuatl language the word "Toltec" came to take on the meaning "artisan". The Aztec oral and pictographic tradition also described the history of the Toltec empire giving lists of rulers and their exploits. Among modern scholars it is a matter of debate whether the Aztec narratives of Toltec history should be given credence as descriptions of actual historical events. While all scholars acknowledge that there is a large mythological part of the narrative some maintain that by using a critical comparative method some level of historicity can be salvaged from the sources, whereas others maintain that continued analysis of the narratives as sources of actual history is futile and hinders access to actual knowledge of the culture of Tula, Hidalgo. Other controversy relating to the Toltecs include how best to understand reasons behind the perceived similarities in architecture and iconography between the archaeological site of Tula and the Maya site of Chichén Itzá - as of yet no consensus has emerged about the degree or direction of influence between the two sites.

Archaeology[link]

Toltec pyramid at Tula, Hidalgo

Some archaeologists such as Richard Diehl, argue for the existence of a Toltec archaeological horizon characterized by certain stylistic traits associated with Tula, Hidalgo and extending to other cultures and polities in Mesoamerica. Traits associated with this horizon are: The Mixteca-Puebla style of iconography, Tohil plumbate ceramic ware and Silho or X-Fine Orange Ware ceramics.^[1] The presence of stylistic traits associated with Tula in Chichén Itzá is also taken as evidence for a Toltec horizon. Especially the nature of interaction between Tula and Chichén Itzá has been controversial with Scholars arguing for either military conquest of Chichén Itzá by Toltecs, Chichén Itzá establishing Tula as a colony or only loose connections between the two. The existence of any meaning of the Mixteca-Puebla art style has also been questioned.^[2]

A contrary viewpoint is argued in a 2003 study by Michael E. Smith and Lisa Montiel who compare the archaeological record related to Tula Hidalgo to those of the polities centered in Teotihuacan and Tenochtitlan. They conclude that relative to the influence exerted in Mesoamerica by Teotihuacan and Tenochtitlan, Tula's influence on other cultures was negligible and was probably not deserving of being defined as an empire. While Tula does have the urban complexity expected of an imperial capital its influence and dominance was not very far reaching. Evidence for Tula's participance in extensive trade networks has been uncovered, for example the remains of a large obsidian workshop.^[3]

History of research[link]

A map of the layout of the archaeological site of Tula, Hidalgo

Stucco relief at Tula, Hidalgo depicting Coyotes, Jaguars and Eagles feasting on human hearts.

Carved relief of a Jaguar at Tula, Hidalgo

Depiction of an anthropomorphic bird-snake deity, probably Quetzalcoatl at the Temple of Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli at Tula, Hidalgo

View of the Columns of the Burned Palace at Tula Hidalgo, the second Ballcourt is in the background

The debate about the nature of the Toltec culture goes back to the late 19th century. Mesoamericanist scholars such as Veitia, Manuel Orozco y Berra, Charles Etienne Brasseur de Bourbourg, Francisco Clavigero all read the Aztec chronicles and believed them to be realistic historic descriptions of pan-Mesoamerican empire based at Tula, Hidalgo. This historicist view was first challenged by Daniel Garrison Brinton who argued that the "Toltecs" as described in the Aztec sources were merely one of several Nahuatl speaking citystates in the postclassic period, and not a particularly influential one at that. He attributed the Aztec view of the Toltecs to the "tendency of the human mind to glorify the good old days", and the confounding of the place of Tollan with the myth of the struggle between Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca.^[4] Désiré Charnay, the first archaeologist to work at Tula, Hidalgo, defended the historicist views based on his impression of the Toltec capital, and was the first to note similarities in architectural styles between Tula and Chichén Itza. This led him to posit the theory that Chichén Itzá had been violently taken over by a Toltec military force under the leadership of Kukulcan.^[5][6] Following Charnay the term Toltec has since been associated with the influx of certain Central Mexican cultural traits into the Mayan sphere of dominance that took place in the late classic and early Postclassic periods; the Postclassic Mayan civilizations of Chichén Itzá, Mayapán and the Guatemalan highlands have been referred to as "Toltecized" or "Mexicanized" Mayas.

The historicist school of thought persisted well in to the 20th century, represented in the works of scholars such as David Carrasco, Miguel León Portilla, Nigel Davies and H. B. Nicholson which all held the Toltecs to have been an actual ethnic group. This school of thought connected the "Toltecs" to the archaeological site of Tula, which was taken to be the Tollan of Aztec myth.^[7] This tradition assumes that much of central Mexico was dominated by a "Toltec empire" between the 10th and 12th century CE. The Aztecs referred to several Mexican citystates as Tollan, "Place of Reeds", such as "Tollan Cholollan". Historian Enrique Florescano has argued that the "original" Tollan was probably Teotihuacán, and that the Mayan sources refer to Chichén Itzá when talking about the mythical place Zuyua (Tollan).

Many historicists such as H. B. Nicholson (2001 (1957)) and Nigel Davies (1977) were fully aware that the Aztec chronicles were a mixture of mythical and historical accounts, this led them to try to separate the two by applying a comparative approach to the varying Aztec narratives. For example they seek to discern between the deity Quetzalcoatl and a Toltec ruler often referred to as Topiltzin Ce Acatl Quetzalcoatl.^[7]

Toltecs as myth[link]

In recent decades the historicist position has fallen out of favor for a more critical and interpretive approach to the historicity of the Aztec mythical accounts based on the original approach of Brinton. This approach applies a different understanding of the word Toltec to the interpretation of the Aztec sources, interpreting it as largely a mythical and philosophical construct by either the Aztecs or Mesoamericans generally that served to symbolize the might and sophistication of several different civilizations during the Mesoamerican Postclassic period.

Scholars such as Michel Graulich (2002) and Susan D. Gillespie (1989) maintain that the difficulties in salvaging actual historic data from the Aztec accounts of Toltec history are too great to overcome. For example, there is not one supposed Toltec ruler identified with Quetzalcoatl, but two: the first ruler and founder of the Toltec dynasty, and the last ruler, who saw the end of the Toltec glory and was forced into humiliation and exile. The first is described as a valiant triumphant warrior, but the last as a feeble and self-doubting old man. This causes Graulich and Gillespie to suggest that the general Aztec cyclical view of time, where events repeated themselves at the end and beginning of cycles or eras was being inscribed into the historical record by the Aztecs, making it futile to attempt to distinguish between a historical Topiltzin Ce Acatl and a Quetzalcoatl deity. Graulich argues that the Toltec era is best considered the fourth of the Five Aztec mythical "Suns" or ages, the one immediately preceding the fifth sun of the Aztec people, presided over by Quetzalcoatl. This causes Graulich to consider that the only possibly historical data in the Aztec chronicles are the names of some rulers and possibly some of the conquests ascribed to them.

Further more among the Nahuan peoples the word "Tolteca" was synonymous with artist, artisan or wise man, and "toltecayotl" "Toltecness" meant art, culture and civilization and urbanism—and was seen as the opposite of "Chichimecayotl" "Chichimecness", which symbolized the savage, nomadic state of peoples who had not yet become urbanized. This interpretation argues that any large urban center in Mesoamerica could be referred to as "Tollan" and its inhabitants as Toltecs—and that it was common practice among ruling lineages in Postclassic Mesoamerica to strengthen claims to power by claiming Toltec ancestry. Mesoamerican migration accounts often state that Tollan was ruled by Quetzalcoatl (or Kukulkan in Yucatec and Q'uq'umatz in K'iche'), a godlike mythical figure who was later sent into exile from Tollan and went on to found a new city elsewhere in Mesoamerica. Claims of Toltec ancestry and a ruling dynasty founded by Quetzalcoatl have been made by such diverse civilizations as the Aztec, the Quiché and the Itza' Mayas.

While the skeptical school of thought does not deny that cultural traits of a seemingly central Mexican origin have diffused into a larger area of Mesoamerica, it tends to ascribe this to the dominance of Teotihuacán in the Classic period and the general diffusion of cultural traits within the region. Recent scholarship, then, does not see Tula, Hidalgo as the capital of the Toltecs of the Aztec accounts, but rather takes "Toltec" to mean simply an inhabitant of Tula during its apogee. Separating the term "Toltec" from those of the Aztec accounts, it attempts to find archaeological clues to the ethnicity, history and social organization of the inhabitants of Tula.

Notes[link]

References[link]

External links[link]

• Media related to Toltec at Wikimedia Commons

Miguel I
King Dom Miguel I around age 28, c.1830
King of Portugal and the Algarves
Reign	26 February 1828 – 6 May 1834
Predecessor	Maria II
Successor	Maria II
Duke of Braganza (Miguelist)
Tenure	6 May 1834 – 14 November 1866
Successor	Miguel (II)
Spouse	Princess Adelaide of Löwenstein-Wertheim-Rosenberg
more... Issue
Infanta Maria das Neves Infante Miguel (II), Duke of Braganza (Miguelist) Infanta Maria Theresa Infanta Maria Josepha Infanta Adelgundes, Duchess of Guimarães Infanta Maria Anne Infanta Maria Antonia
Full name
Miguel Maria do Patrocínio João Carlos Francisco de Assis Xavier de Paula Pedro de Alcântara António Rafael Gabriel Joaquim José Gonzaga Evaristo
House	House of Braganza
Father	João VI of Portugal
Mother	Charlotte of Spain
Born	26 October 1802 Queluz National Palace, Lisbon, Kingdom of Portugal
Died	14 November 1866 Bronnbach (Grand Duchy of Baden), Baden-Württemberg, Germany
Burial	Royal Pantheon of the Braganza Dynasty
Religion	Roman Catholicism

Dom Miguel I (English: Michael I; 26 October 1802, Lisbon – 14 November 1866, Bronnbach, Grand Duchy of Baden), was the King of Portugal between 1828 and 1834, the seventh child and third son of King João VI (John VI) and his queen, Carlota Joaquina of Spain.

Following his exile as a result of his actions in the Abrilada, Miguel returned to Portugal as regent to his niece Queen Maria II of Portugal, and potential royal consort. As regent, he claimed the Portuguese throne in his own right, since according to the so-called Fundamental Laws of the Kingdom his older brother Pedro IV and therefore the latter's daughter had lost their rights from the moment that Peter had made war on Portugal and become the sovereign of a foreign state (Brazilian Empire). This led to a difficult political situation, during which many people were killed, imprisoned, persecuted or sent into exile, and which culminated in the Portuguese Liberal Wars between authoritarian absolutists and progressive constitutionalists. In the end Miguel was forced from the throne and lived the last 32 years of his life in exile.

Biography[link]

Miguel Maria do Patrocínio João Carlos Francisco de Assis Xavier de Paula Pedro de Alcântara António Rafael Gabriel Joaquim José Gonzaga Evaristo,^[1][2][3] the second son, of King João VI and Carlota Joaquina, was born in the Queluz Royal Palace, Lisbon. Some sources have suggested that Miguel I could be the illegitimate son from an adulterous affair between his mother, Queen Charlotte, and one of her alleged lovers. Apparently sources close to King João VI confirmed as much by asserting that he had not had sexual relations with his wife for two and a half years prior to Miguel's birth^[4] (a period when his parents carried out a conjugal war, during which they were involved in permanent conspiracies, and only encountered each other in rare official circumstances).

But despite the gossip, Miguel was always considered to be a son of the king, by the king, by his mother, by the rest of the family, by the court, and by the church. The "illegitimate child theories" may have had their origins in the writings of pro-liberal propagandists or royalists who wanted to denigrate the queen and undermine the claims of Miguel and of his descendants to the Portuguese throne.

What is clear, is that Miguel was the queen's favourite child. After the death of her firstborn, it was Miguel who received most of her attention, rather than Pedro, who was closer to his father,^[5][6]

In 1807, at the age of 5, Miguel accompanied the Portuguese Royal Family on their transfer to Brazil in order to escape from the first Napoleonic invasion of Portugal;^[6] he returned in 1821 with João VI and his mother, while his brother Peter remained behind as governor of Brazil.

From dawn to dusk, Miguel was a mischievous child, sometimes seen in the miniature uniform of a general.^[7] At sixteen he was seen galloping around Mata-Carvalos, knocking off the hats of passers-by with his riding crop. He spent most of his time with a rowdy band of half-caste or Indian farm-hands.^[8] In general, Miguel was spoiled by the queen and her royal household; and clearly influenced by the base tendencies of others. The Duke of Palmela described him as:

"a good man when among good men, and when among the bad worse than they."^[9]

Revolt[link]

Miguel I around age 21, c.1823

Miguel was an avowed conservative and admirer of Prince Klemens Wenzel von Metternich, who had referred to the liberal revolutions in the 1820s as unrealistic and without any historical roots:

"A people who can neither read nor write, whose last word is the dagger — fine material for constitutional principles!...The English constitution is the work of centuries....There is no universal recipe for constitutions."^[10]

Miguel was 20 years old when he first challenged the liberal institutions established after the 1820 revolution, which may have been part of a wider strategy by the queen.^[11] He was at the head of the counter-revolution of 1823, known as the Vilafrancada, which erupted on May 27, 1823 in Vila Franca de Xira.^[12] Early in the day, Miguel joined the 23rd Infantry Regiment, commanded by Brigadier Ferreira Sampaio (later Viscount of Santa Mónica) in Vila Franca, where he declared his support for an absolutist monarchy. He immediately called on General Pampluna (later Marquis of Subserra) to join him and his cause. The general, not a fan of the liberal constitution, obeyed his summons and within five days he controlled the insurrectionary forces.^[13] The prince, supported by the queen, went so far as to demand the abdication of the king, who, faithful to his earlier oath, wanted to maintain the 1822 Constitution, despite the growing support for absolutist forces in Vila Franca.^[14]

Miguel and the queen^[15] were interested in overthrowing the parliamentary system and, inspired by the return of the absolutist monarchy in Spain (where the Holy Alliance and French Army had intervened to destroy the liberal forces there) they exploited factionalism and plotted with outside reactionaries to overthrow the liberal Cortes. But General Pampluna was loyal to the king, and made it perfectly clear that he would do nothing to defy the monarch, and advised the prince to obey his father's summons. The king himself marched on Vila Franca where he received the submission of the troops and his son. But he also took advantage of the situation to abolish the 1822 Constitution and dismiss the Cortes. Many liberals went into exile. Although Miguel returned to Lisbon in triumph, the king was able to maintain complete control of power and did not succumb to the ultra-reactionary forces that supported his abdication.

After the events of the Vilafrancada, Miguel was made Count of Samora Correia and appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Army (Generalissimo).^{[citation needed]} But the queen could not tolerate the king's continuing benevolence towards liberals and moderates, nor that he continued to be influenced by and to support ministers such as Palmela and Pamplona, who were more moderate in their outlook.

The mysterious death of the Marquis de Loulé in Salvaterra on February 28, 1824, in which it was suspected that Miguel or his friends were involved, was a symptom of the instability of the period. Prince Miguel was always influenced by his mother; and two months later, on April 30, 1824, as Commander-in-Chief of the Army he gathered his troops and ordered them to arrest ministers and other important people under pretext that a masonic conspiracy to assassinate the king existed, and placed his father in protective custody and incommunicado at Bemposta, where Miguel could "defend and secure his life". The Abrilada, as this was to be known, worried many of the foreign powers. The foreign diplomatic corp (and in particular Marshal Beresford), realizing that the king was a prisoner of his son, traveled to Bemposta and was able to ferry the king away and on board a British warship, the Windsor Castle. On board, the king summoned his son, whom he dismissed as Commander-and-Chief of the Army, and immediately exiling him^[15] to Vienna, where he remained for over three years.

Exile and return[link]

Miguel I around age 21, c.1823

While in Vienna, he was a guest and friend of the Prince Metternich. Meanwhile, on March 10, 1826, his father, King João VI, died and his brother Peter, the heir-apparent to the throne, became king as Peter IV. Peter, however, was committed to continuing as Emperor of Brazil and therefore abdicated the crown of Portugal in favor of his daughter, Infanta Maria da Gloria. Since the young sovereign was not yet of age, he instituted a regency, under his sister, Princess Isabella Maria. Peter had already attempted to coerce Miguel to Brazil (1822) away from their mother without any success. Following the death of their father, Peter once again attempted to mend fences within the family and ensure Maria da Gloria's right to the throne by offering Miguel the regency of Portugal (when he became 25) under a new liberal Constitutional Charter that would re-establish a constitutional monarchy. Under this arrangement, Queen Maria II and Miguel would be married when she came of age; until then Miguel would be her regent in Portugal. The new Constitutional Charter gave the crown moderating authority between the legislative, executive and judiciary, and introduced a 100-member Chamber of Peers (which included aristocrats and bishops and archbishops), a royal veto and indirect elections.^[12][16] Miguel accepted the proposal from his brother, swore to uphold the Constitutional Charter and, since the young Queen was only nine years old, waited until she would reach the age of marriage.

The regency under Isabella Maria was extremely unstable; discord reigned in the government,^[17] there were divisions within the municipal councils, rivalries between ministers^[12] and at one point, after the resignation of General Saldanha, a revolt in Lisbon. With Princess Isabella Maria dangerously ill,^[18] Peter resolved to entrust his brother Miguel with the kingdom, which Miguel was only too eager to accept.^[19] A decree was promulgated on July 3, 1827 that granted Miguel his new role, and he departed from Vienna for Lisbon.

On the trip back to Lisbon he stopped in England, arriving on December 30, 1827. He was met by the Duke of Clarence, the Admiral of the English Navy, and by other upper members of the English Court who had gathered at the dock to meet him. Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, then leading an unpopular Tory government, hoped that they could mold Miguel into accepting the constitutional framework that Peter IV had devised, and used this visit to facilitate the transition.^[20] After lunching at the Hospital Governor's home, he traveled to London with his entourage in regal carriages and, escorted by cavalry officers, to the Palace of Westminster where he was met by a throng of people. While in London he stayed at the palace of Lord Dudley, on Arlington Street where he entertained his new friends; he was received by the ministers, ambassadors and municipal officials of King George IV, and was generally feted by English nobility, attending concerts and pheasant hunts, and visiting public works (such as the Tamisa tunnel which was then under construction and, ironically, collapsed after his visit). On New Year's Eve he visited the King at Windsor Castle and was honored with a magnificent banquet. Later at Rutland House, Miguel received members of the Portuguese diaspora living in England, who presented him with a commemorative medallion. Throughout his visit he was generally well-received.

Regent[link]

Miguel I at age 26, 1828

On January 13, 1828, Miguel departed London; after spending some time at Stratfield Saye, the country home of the Duke of Wellington, he travelled to Plymouth en-route to Lisbon. Due to bad weather, he was only able to transfer to the Portuguese frigate Pérola on February 9, which arrived in England accompanied by two British ships.^[21] On January 22, the Gazeta de Lisboa (English: Lisbon Gazette) published an open letter from the Ministério da Justiça (English: Ministry of Justice) which permitted any general demonstrations of jubilation (unless otherwise prohibited by law). The prince's ship arrived in Lisbon on February 22 and was met by cannon salvos from ships along the Tagus River and from the hilltops, beginning at two in the afternoon. The river was filled with ships when the Pérola arrived.

Although it was expected that the new regent would disembark at the Praça do Comércio, where a stage had been constructed, Miguel preferred to disembark in Belém. It is believed that Miguel's mother had sent a boatman to pick up the prince and with a message to see her upon arriving in Lisbon, in order to tell her where his loyalties lay.^[22] On shore the local population acclaimed their regent with cheers, while bells rang from some church towers and cheerful hymns were sung in the streets. There was a triumphal march to the Ajuda Palace, along streets adorned with silk banners, while the ladies of the city threw flowers. Everywhere there was a multitude of citizenry yelling "Viva o Senhor D. Miguel I nosso rei absoluto" (English:  Long live Sir D. Miguel our Absolute King), while some interjecting cries of "death to D. Pedro" and "death to the liberal constitution".^[23]

But Miguel's role was clearly delineated by his first night in Lisbon: he would govern as regent in the name of the rightful sovereign of Portugal, Queen Maria II. On her reaching marriageable age, Miguel would be her consort. Furthermore, Miguel was obliged to govern in conformity with Peter's Constitutional Charter, something he accepted as a condition of the regency (even if he did not agree with its principles and favoured an absolute monarchy instead).^[24]

On February 26, in the main hall of the Ajuda Palace in the presence of both Chambers of the Cortes, the Royal Court and the diplomatic corp, as well as some of the Prince's colleagues from Brazil (carefully orchestrated by the Queen Dowager), the investiture began. At one o'clock Miguel, along with his sister, Infanta Isabella Maria, entered the chamber to formally hand over the Regency. After the spectacle of both of them in the same chair, the princess delivered the transitional oath and then left gracefully. Miguel was presented with the written oath to defend the Constitutional Charter along with a Bible, which caused him "...confusion and [he] seemed unable or unwilling to read it."^[25] It is also unclear whether he actually swore the oath, since there was no distinct enunciation of the words; nor did any one actually see him kiss the missal (since the Duke of Cadaval obscured the prince during this part of the ceremony).^[25] Lord Carnarvon, in Lisbon at the time of the ceremony, wrote of the conclusion of the scene:

"During the whole proceeding...his countenance was overcast, and he had the constrained manner of a most unwilling actor in an embarrassing part. I read the approaching fate of the Constitution in his sullen expression, in the imperfect manner in which the oath was administered, and in the strange and general appearance of hurry and concealment."^[26]

On March 1 some citizens of Lisbon gathered at the palace to acclaim D. Miguel "Absolute King", infuriating many of the liberal politicians and residents. Invested in his new title of regent, he presented his Ministers of State in the evening: Nuno III Álvares Pereira de Melo (Duke of Cadaval), José António de Oliveira Leite de Barros (later Count of Basto), Furtado do Rio de Mendonça (7th Viscount of Barbacena & 2nd Count of Barbacena), José Luis de Sousa Botelho Mourão e Vasconcelos (Count of Vila Real) and the Count of Lousã. Within a week numerous moderate army officers had been dismissed and the military governors of the provinces replaced, as the Prince and Queen Dowager "cleaned house" of their old enemies and liberalist sympathizers.^[27]

King[link]

Miguel I around age 28, c.1830

On March 13, 1828 Miguel dissolved the Cortes without calling new elections, as stipulated in the Constitutional Charter. Some municipal councils, many nobles and clergy,^[28] and several important citizens requested that the regent revoke the Constitutional Charter and reign as king.^[29] Blood was first spilled by the liberals, when delegates from the University of Coimbra (who ostensibly traveled to Lisbon to present their compliments to Miguel) were murdered on March 18 by hot-headed Coimbran students.^[26] On April 25, the senate (of the university), issued a proclamation in which they requested that Miguel assume the throne. This only fueled the divisions between liberals and absolutists. Because of the independence of Brazil, Miguel's supporters considered Miguel to be the legitimate heir to the crown of Portugal.^[30] If, to liberals, the name of Miguel was despised, to the legitimists (the absolutists) it was venerated. But Miguel's reign was immediately marked by cruel, almost tyrannical, governance which some attribute to him personally; however some blame the injustices on his subordinates, while others attribute them to the malevolence of Queen Charlotte.

On May 3, 1828, the very nobles who had been nominated by Peter to the new Chamber of Peers met in the Palace of the Duke of Lafões, and invited Miguel to convoke a new cortes consisting of the Three Estates with a view to deciding the legitimate succession to the throne.^[31] Such a cortes met in June at Ajuda, where the Bishop of Viseu proposed that Miguel should assume the crown since "...the hand of the Almighty led Your Majesty from the banks of the Danube to the shore of the Tagus to save his people...". On July 7 D. Miguel was acclaimed as absolute ruler, and on July 15 the Three Estate Cortes closed.

Shortly afterwards the military garrison in Oporto revolted, formed a provisional governmental junta, and marched on Coimbra to defend the liberal cause. But the general in command of these troops was indecisive, and Miguel was able to raise his own troops, create a battalion of volunteers and blockade Oporto. In Lagos a similar revolt was attempted, but immediately quashed when the liberal General Saraiva was shot by the Miguelist General Póvoas. On this occasion, João Carlos Saldanha (later Duke of Saldanha) and Pedro de Sousa Holstein (later 1st Duke of Palmela), who had arrived from England on board the British ship Belfast in order to lead constitutional forces, quickly re-embarked, judging the liberal cause lost. The liberal army escaped to deplorable conditions in Galicia where they awaited the next move. In the former regency's court there were few strong supporters of a constitutional monarchy; Princess Isabella Maria was supported by weak-willed ministers or incompetents and was personally too timid to stand up to Miguel.^[32] The liberal elite and their supporters escaped into exile. All of Portugal recognized the sovereignty of the monarch, except the islands of Madeira and Terceira; Madeira was easily subjugated, but Terceira remained faithful to the liberal cause.

The excess zeal of his supporters to prosecute the liberals would blacken the reputation of Miguel's regime.^[20] During the liberal insurrection on March 6, 1829, in Cais do Sodré, Brigadier Moreira, his officers and their supporters were all bayoneted. On May 7, the members of the rebel garrison of Oporto who had revolted were also executed. In some cases, the local population contributed to these horrors and reprisals, as in Vila Franca da Xira where they assassinated 70 people believed to have liberal sympathies. Although these actions were disapproved of by many of Miguel's ministers, the Count of Basto was not one of them. Even the Viscount of Queluz, a medic and intimate friend of the Miguel, was exiled to Alfeite for joining the chorus of those who challenged the reprisal killings. But the Queen Mother continued to support the attacks on liberals, and motivated these actions in order to strengthen the monarchy. Even after she died on 7 April 1830, many atrocities continued to be committed in the name of Miguel, some against foreign nationals who intervened in the politics of Portugal.

While Spain, The Holy See and the United States recognized Miguel as king, in England and France there was little public support for the regime.^[33] The imprudence that the Miguelist government showed in harassing English and French foreign nationals provoked them to protest. Eventually Admiral Albin Roussin, was ordered by Louis Philippe I (who, like England, could not obtain any diplomatic satisfaction), to take action; he sailed up the Tagus, captured eight Portuguese ships and forcibly imposed a treaty (July 14, 1831). But, Miguelist reprisals on liberals continued; most sentences were carried out within 24 hours. The 4th Infantry, in Lisbon, registered 29 executions on August 22 and 23, 1831, alone.

Liberal Wars[link]

A period cartoon, showing the conflict between the Two Brothers, as children, with representations of the major States of Europe as grown parents intervening in the quarrel

Only the island of Terceira in the Azores remained loyal to Queen Maria; the constitutional government continued to function there in exile. At first João Carlos Saldanha was unable to reach the island, owing to the hostility of an English cruiser, but the Count of Vila Flor (later Duke of Terceira) was more successful; he arrived on the island, rebuilt the defences and quickly beat back Miguel's forces (on August 11, 1829) as they were attempting to invade the island. By 1831 the liberals had taken over all the islands of the Azores.

Peter, after abdicating the imperial crown of Brazil, placed himself at the head of the Liberal Army (1831) and from the Azores launched an invasion of northern Portugal, landing at Mindelo, near Oporto which he quickly occupied. But Miguel's army was formidable, composed of the best troops, with dedicated volunteers and enthusiastic militiamen (although not, perhaps, the best senior officers). They easily encircled the city and lay siege to it. As the defense of Oporto persisted, Miguel resolved to visit his troops in April 1833. But in the meantime Lisbon fell into the hands of the Duke of Terceira, who had left Oporto earlier in the Liberal fleet commanded by Charles John Napier, disembarked in the Algarve and marched across the Alentejo to defeat the Miguelist General Teles Jordão (seizing the city on July 24). Napier, after defeating a Miguelist fleet off Cape St. Vincent, joined the Duke of Terceira in the north, taking control of the Tagus.

Miguel was assisted by the French General Bourmont, who, after the fall of Charles X of France came with many of his legitimist officers to the aid of the king of Portugal (that is, Miguel). He was later replaced by the Scottish General Ranald MacDonnell who withdrew the Miguelist army besieging Lisbond to the almost impregnable heights of Santarém, where Miguel established his base of operations. The battles continued in earnest. In Alcácer the Miguelist forces captured some ground but this was quickly lost to General Saldanha in Pernes and Almoster. The latter action (February 18, 1834) was the most violent and bloody of the civil war. In the end, politics sealed Miguel's fate: his alliance with Carlos of Spain alienated the sympathies of Ferdinand VII of Spain, who recognized Maria's claim to the Portuguese throne, and concluded a quadruple alliance with the queen and Peter as well as with the governments of France and England.

The Spanish General Rodil entered into Portugal while pursuing D. Carlos and his small force and at the same time the Duke of Terceira won the Battle of Asseiceira (16 May 1834) making D. Miguel's position critical. Miguel escaped Santarém and moved south-east in the direction of Elvas. While Miguel made for Évora, his generals voted in a council of war to suspend hostilities and sue for peace. Miguel accepted the decision.^[34]

After a three-year civil war, Miguel I was forced to abdicate at the Concession of Evoramonte (26 May 1834). While Carlos was transported to England (he later secretly returned to Spain), Miguel embarked on 1 June 1834 on a British warship from Sines bound for Genoa; he lived in exile first in Italy, then in England, and finally in Germany. He never returned to Portugal.^[34]

Exile[link]

Miguel I of Portugal with his wife Princess Adelaide of Löwenstein-Wertheim-Rosenberg and their two eldest children: Maria das Neves and Miguel

In December 1834 the Portuguese Cortes banished Miguel and all his descendants from Portugal upon pain of immediate death. The Constitution of 1838 (article 98) categorically excluded the collateral Miguelist line from the throne (although with the return to the Constitutional Charter in 1842, this ceased to have force). The 1834 law remained in effect until repealed in May 1950. During his exile, he was known as Duke of Braganza, as well as Marquis of Vila Viçosa, Count of Arraiolos, Count of Barcelos, Count of Neiva and Count of Ourém.

On 15 January 1837 the Spanish Cortes, then in midst of the First Carlist War (1833–39), excluded Miguel from the Spanish succession, on the grounds that he was in rebellion along with his maternal uncle Carlos, the first Carlist pretender of Spain. Miguel's eldest sister Teresa, Princess of Beira, and his nephews (three sons of late Infanta Maria Francisca of Portugal, and Sebastian, son of Teresa, Princess of Beira) were also excluded.

Miguel lived the rest of his life in exile and, removed from Portuguese politics, his character altered radically; in his later years he was a portly heavily-bearded patriarch and lacked the cowboy persona of his early life. He refused to accede to the terms of the Concession of Evoramonte and thereby forfeited his generous pension from the Portuguese government. He lived for a time as a destitute refugee in Rome, in apartments provided by Pope Gregory XVI, who also gave him a small monthly allowance. In 1851, after spending several years in England, he moved to the Grand Duchy of Baden in southern Germany and married Princess Adelaide of Löwenstein-Wertheim-Rosenberg. They settled in the former Cistercian monastery of Bronnbach, and raised seven children. His widow succeeded in securing advantageous marriages for all their daughters. Like Queen Victoria, Miguel would become known as the "grandfather of Europe", but this was only after his death.

Miguel died while hunting at Bronnbach, Grand Duchy of Baden on 14 November 1866. He was buried in his wife's family's vault in the Franciscan monastery of Engelberg at Grossheubach, Bavaria. In 1967 his body and that of his wife (then resting in Ryde on the Isle of Wight in England) were transferred to the Braganza pantheon in the old Monastery of São Vicente de Fora in Lisbon.

Titles[link]

In addition to his hereditary titles, over the course of his career Miguel received many awards and honors, including:

• Grand Prior in the Order of Saint John of Jerusalem;
• Knight in the military orders of the Order of Christ, Order of Santiago, Order of São Bento de Avis and Order of the Tower and Sword;
• Grand Cross in the Order of the Immaculate Conception of Vila Viçosa;
• Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece;
• Grand Cross in the Order of Saint Stephen from Hungary;
• the Order of the Southern Cross from Brazil;
• the Order of Charles III from Spain;
• the Order of Saint Ferdinand and of Merit from Two Sicilies;
• the Order of the Holy Spirit, Order of Saint Louis, and Order of Saint Michael from France;
• the Order of the Thistle of the United Kingdom.

Posthumously, or during his reign, D. Miguel was known by various epithets:

• O Tradicionalista (English: The Traditionalist)
• O Usurpador (English: The Usurper)
• O Absolutista (English: The Absolutionist)
• O Sacrificado (English: The Sacrificed)
• O Rei Absoluto (English: The Absolute King)

Marriages and descendants[link]

In 1851, at the age of 48, he married Princess Adelaide of Löwenstein-Wertheim-Rosenberg, by whom he had a son and six daughters.

Illegitimate offspring[link]

• Maria Assunção Ribeiro do Carmo e Bragança (Rome, c. March 1831 – Minas Gerais, Brazil, 18 November 1910) was an illegitimate daughter from a relationship with a Lady of the Portuguese nobility living in Rome, Antónia Francisca Ribeiro do Carmo. She was recognized as his child in 1839, thereby being semi-legitimized. According to public records, she died in Minas Gerais in 1910, without any confirmed heirs or offspring
• Maria de Jesus de Bragança e Bourbon (Santarém, 1834 – ?) was an illegitimate daughter from a relationship with a woman from the Portuguese peasantry living in Santarém at the time when Miguel was also there at the end of the civil war. She was never acknowledged. She married Dom Tomás José Fletcher de Melo Homem (Moita, 23 February 1836 – Lisbon, 3 October 1905), and had female issue now extinct at the generation of her two grandsons

Ancestors[link]

References[link]

Notes

Sources

• Duchess of Abrantes (1838) (in French). Souvenirs d'une ambassade et d'un séjour en Espagne et en Portugal de 1808 a 1811, 1838 (2nd ed.). Brussels, Belgium: Societé Belge de Libraire, Etc./Hauman, Cattoir et Comp.. http://books.google.ca/books?id=BVkuAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Souvenirs+d%27une+ambassade+et+d%27un+s%C3%A9jour+en+Espagne+et+en+Portugal+de+1808&source=bl&ots=AHXHymIuPp&sig=vhKz2ipf7LBNtiXXC3IPFyee414&hl=en&ei=PyqPTN3tGouRjAfZlLGPDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false. 
• Birmingham, David (1993). A Concise History of Portugal (2nd ed.). Cambridge, England: University of Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-83004-4. http://books.google.ca/books?id=8MQlBP0IrHgC&pg=PA117&dq=miguel+of+portugal&hl=en&ei=NyKPTMiPKMKBswa1xZmEDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=miguel%20of%20portugal&f=false. 
• Cheke, Marcus (1969) [1947]. Carlota Joaquina, Queen of Portugal. London, England: Sidgewick & Jackson. http://books.google.ca/books?id=cPrxpypP7XYC&pg=PA203&dq=exile+miguel+portugal&hl=en&ei=ATKVTJvAC9DeOIWw7KMK&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCYQ6AEwADgK#v=onepage&q=miguel&f=false. 
• Domingues, Mário (1972) (in Portugues). Junot em Portugal [Junot in Portugal]. Lisbon, Portugal: Romano Torres. 
• Edmundo, Luiz (1939) (in Portuguese). A Corte de D. João no Rio de Janeiro [The Court of D. João VI in Rio de Janeiro]. Rio de Janeiro: Imprensa Nacional. 
• Fernandes, Paulo Jorge; Menses, Filipe Ribeiro de; Baioâ, Manuel (Summer 2003). "The Political History of Nineteenth Century Portugal". e-Journal of Portuguese History (e-JPH). 1. Providence, Rhode Island: Brown University. http://www.brown.edu/Departments/Portuguese_Brazilian_Studies/ejph/html/issue1/pdf/fernandes.pdf. 
• Gandria, João Nogueira (1834) (in Portuguese). Dialogo de hum corcunda, com hum liberal, sobre o protesto de D. Miguel. Porto, Portugal: Imprensa de Gandria & Filhos. 
• Luz Soriano, Simão José da (1884) (in Portuguese). História da Guerra Civil e do Estabelecimento do Governo Parlamentar em Portugal. Lisbon, Portugal: Imprensa Nacional. 
• Luz Soriano, Simão José da (2010) [1866] (in Portuguese). Historia de El'Rei D. João VI (1866) [History of the King D. João VI (1866)]. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 1-160-90554-1. 
• Macaulay, Neill (1986). Dom Pedro: The Struggle for Liberty in Brazil and Portugal, 1798–1834. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press. ISBN 0-8223-0681-6. http://books.google.ca/books?id=__0KrEZGkmUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Dom+Pedro&hl=en&ei=ivWmTKe3B8_Hswaj6cyYDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false. 
• Pereira, Sara Marques (1999) (in Portuguese). D. Carlota e os 'Espelhos de Clio': Actuação política e figurações histográficas [D. Carlota and the 'Mirros of Clio': Politicos and Histrography]. Lisbon, Portugal: Livros Horizonte. 
• Rocha, António Silva Lopes (1829). Unjust Proclomation of His Serene Highness The Infante Don Miguel as King of Portugal or Analysis and Juridical Refutation of the Act Passed by the Denominated Three States of the Kingdom of Portugal on the 11th of July, 1828; Dedicated to the Most High and Powerful, Dona Maria II. Queen Regnant of Portugal. London, England: R. Greenlaw. http://books.google.ca/books?id=cPQNAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=dom+miguel+portugal&hl=en&ei=g8WRTKiJNsvAswbUsvD4CQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=dom%20miguel&f=false. 
• "Reaction of D. Miguel; The Civil Wars, 1826–1834". History of Portugal: pamphlet collection. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 412–421. http://books.google.ca/books?id=fHI3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA419&dq=D.+Miguel+liberal+wars+portugal&hl=en&ei=4W2UTJnQNM_Aswask51b&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false. 
• Russell, William (1842). The History of Modern Europe: of the Roman Empire; and a View of the Progress of Society, from the Peace of Paris in 1763, In a Series of Letters from a Nobleman to His Son. 4. London, England: Longman, Brown & Co.. http://books.google.ca/books?id=bl1HAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR28&dq=miguel+of+portugal&hl=en&ei=NyKPTMiPKMKBswa1xZmEDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6&ved=0CEMQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=miguel%20of%20portugal&f=false. 
• Serrão, Joaquim Veríssimo (1977). História de Portugal: O terceiro liberalismo (1851–1890). Lisbon, Portugal: Editorial Verbo. 
• Silva, Francisco Ribeiro da (2044). Estudios em homenagem a Luís António de Oliveira Ramos. Porto, Portugal: Universidade do Porto. 
• Wilcken, Patrick (Spring 2005). "A Colony of a Colony: The Portuguese Royal Court in Brazil". Common Knowledge. 11. 
• Wilcken, Patrick (2005). O Império à Deriva [Empire Adrift: The Portuguese Court in Rio de Janeiro]. Oporto, Portugal: Civilização Editora. ISBN 972-26-2252-8. 

External links[link]

• Diccionario Histórico (English:  Historical Dictionary) – (Portuguese) website on the life of Miguel

v t e Monarchs of Portugal Portuguese House of Burgundy Afonso I Sancho I Afonso II Sancho II Afonso III Dinis I Afonso IV Pedro I Fernando I House of Aviz João I Duarte I Afonso V João II House of Aviz-Beja Manuel I João III Sebastião I Henrique I Portuguese House of Habsburg Filipe I Filipe II Filipe III House of Braganza João IV Afonso VI Pedro II João V José I Maria I with Pedro III João VI Pedro IV Maria II Miguel I Maria II with Fernando II House of Braganza-Coburg Pedro V Luís I Carlos I Manuel II

v t e Dukes of Braganza Feudal Dukes Afonso I Fernando I Fernando II Jaime I Teodósio I João I Teodósio II João IV of Portugal Heir to the Throne Teodósio Afonso VI João V José I Maria I José João VI Pedro I Miguel I Maria II Pedro V Carlos I Luís Filipe Claimant to the Throne Miguel Duarte Nuno Duarte Pio

v t e Pretenders to the Kingdom of Portugal Burdundian Line Beatrice of Portugal (1383-1420) John I of Castile (1383-1390) Aviz-Bejan Line Manuel, Crown Prince of Portugal (1595-1638) Miguelist Line Miguel II of Braganza (Duke of Braganza) (1866-1920) Duarte I of Braganza (Duke of Braganza) (1920-1976) Duarte II of Braganza (Duke of Braganza) (1976-present) Deposed Monarchs António I of Portugal (1580-1595) Miguel I of Portugal (1834-1866) Manuel II of Portugal (1910-1932)