Pontus

Wednesday, 07 November 2012

Panagia Sumela, The Holy Mother of Pontus

Rome Total War Online Battle 1446: Pontus vs Rome

Pontus Alv New Full Part - His Shoe is out !!!

Converse Skateboarding: Pontus Alv & Jerome Campbell in Beirut

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Acropolis of Athens
The Acropolis of Athens or Citadel of Athens is the best known acropolis (Gr. akros, akron, edge, extremity + polis, city, pl. acropoleis) in the world. Although there are many other acropoleis in Greece, the significance of the Acropolis of Athens is such that it is commonly known as The Acropolis without qualification. The Acropolis was formally proclaimed as the pre-eminent monument on the European Cultural Heritage list of monuments on 26 March 2007. The Acropolis is a flat-topped rock that rises above sea level in the city of Athens, with a surface area of about 3 hectares. It was also known as Cecropia, after the legendary serpent-man, Cecrops, the first Athenian king.
http://wn.com/Acropolis_of_Athens
Aegean Sea
The Aegean Sea (, Egeo Pelagos ; ) is an elongated embayment of the Mediterranean Sea located between the southern Balkan and Anatolian peninsulas, i.e., between the mainlands of Greece and Turkey respectively. In the north, it is connected to the Marmara Sea and Black Sea by the Dardanelles and Bosporus. The Aegean Islands are within the sea and some bound it on its southern periphery, including Crete and Rhodes. The Aegean Region consists of nine provinces in southwestern Turkey, in part bordering on the Aegean sea.
http://wn.com/Aegean_Sea
Alexandria
http://wn.com/Alexandria
Amasya
http://wn.com/Amasya
Anatolia
Anatolia (, from Greek '; also Asia Minor, from , ') is a geographic and historical term denoting the westernmost protrusion of Asia, comprising the majority of the Republic of Turkey. The region is bounded by the Black Sea to the north, Georgia to the northeast, the Armenian Highland to the east, Mesopotamia to the southeast, the Mediterranean Sea to the south and the Aegean Sea to the west. Anatolia has been home to many civilizations throughout history, such as the Hittites, Phrygians, Lydians, Persians, Greeks, Assyrians, Armenians, Romans, Byzantines, Anatolian Seljuks and Ottomans. As a result, Anatolia is one of the archeologically richest areas in the world.
http://wn.com/Anatolia
Antioch
http://wn.com/Antioch
Areopagus
:This article concerns the place where a classical judicial body met. It is also the term for the judicial body which met there. For the 16th century literary movement, see Areopagus (poetry). For the regional government during the Greek War of Independence, see Areopagus of Eastern Continental Greece. For the modern Greek Supreme Court, see Court of Cassation (Greece).
http://wn.com/Areopagus
Asia Minor
http://wn.com/Asia_Minor
Attalid dynasty
The Attalid dynasty was a Hellenistic dynasty that ruled the city of Pergamon after the death of Lysimachus, a general of Alexander the Great. The Attalid kingdom was the rump state left after the collapse of the Lysimachian Empire. One of Lysimachus' officers, Philetaerus, took control of the city in 282 BC. The later Attalids were descended from his father, and they expanded the city into a kingdom. Attalus I proclaimed himself King in the 230s BC, following his victories over the Galatians. The Attalids ruled Pergamon until Attalus III bequeathed the kingdom to the Roman Republic in 133 BC to avoid a likely succession crisis.
http://wn.com/Attalid_dynasty
Cappadocia
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http://wn.com/Cappadocia
Caucasus
The Caucasus or Caucas (also referred to as Caucasia, , , , (''K'avk'asia''), , , , , , , ) is a geopolitical region at the border of Europe and Asia. It is home to the Caucasus Mountains, including Europe's highest mountain (Mount Elbrus).
http://wn.com/Caucasus
Classical Athens
The city of Athens during the classical period of Ancient Greece (508-322 BC) was a notable polis (city-state) of Attica, Greece, leading the Delian League in the Peloponnesian War against Sparta and the Peloponnesian League. Athenian democracy was established in 508 BC under Cleisthenes following the tyranny of Hippias. This system remained remarkably stable, and with a few brief interruptions remained in place for 180 years, until 322 BC (aftermath of Lamian War) . The peak of Athenian hegemony was achieved in the 440s to 430s BC, known as the Age of Pericles.
http://wn.com/Classical_Athens
Corsica
Corsica (, ; ; ) is an island in the Mediterranean Sea. It is located west of Italy, southeast of the French mainland, and north of the island of Sardinia.
http://wn.com/Corsica
Crete
http://wn.com/Crete
Cyprus
http://wn.com/Cyprus
Dardanelles
The Dardanelles (, ), formerly known as the Hellespont
http://wn.com/Dardanelles
Ephesus
http://wn.com/Ephesus
Fatsa
Fatsa is a town and a large district of Ordu Province in the central Black Sea region of Turkey.
http://wn.com/Fatsa
Georgia (country)
http://wn.com/Georgia_(country)
Heraclea Pontica
http://wn.com/Heraclea_Pontica
Ionian Sea
The Ionian Sea is an arm of the Mediterranean Sea, south of the Adriatic Sea. It is bounded by southern Italy including Calabria, Sicily and the Salento peninsula to the west, and by southwestern Albania, including Saranda and Himara, and a large number of Greek islands, including Corfu, Zante, Kephalonia, Ithaka, and Lefkas to the east. The islands are collectively referred to as the Ionian Islands, and other islands include the Strophades, Sphagia, Schiza, Sapientza and Kythira. The sea is one of the most seismic areas in the world.
http://wn.com/Ionian_Sea
Kaçkar Mountains
http://wn.com/Kaçkar_Mountains
Miletus
http://wn.com/Miletus
Neocaesarea
http://wn.com/Neocaesarea
Parthenon
The Parthenon (Ancient Greek: ) is a temple in the Athenian Acropolis, Greece, dedicated to the Greek goddess Athena, whom the people of Athens considered their protector. Its construction began in 447 BCE and was completed in 438 BCE, although decorations of the Parthenon continued until 431 BCE. It is the most important surviving building of Classical Greece, generally considered to be the culmination of the development of the Doric order. Its decorative sculptures are considered some of the high points of Greek art. The Parthenon is regarded as an enduring symbol of Ancient Greece and of Athenian democracy and one of the world's greatest cultural monuments. The Greek Ministry of Culture is currently carrying out a programme of selective restoration and reconstruction to ensure the stability of the partially ruined structure.
http://wn.com/Parthenon
Peloponnese
http://wn.com/Peloponnese
Pergamon
http://wn.com/Pergamon
Persian Empire
http://wn.com/Persian_Empire
Pontic Mountains
The Pontic Mountains form a mountain range in Northern Turkey, also known as the Parhar mountains in the local Turkish and Pontic Greek languages. The term "Parhar" originates from the Hittite word meaning "high" or "summit".
http://wn.com/Pontic_Mountains
Republic of Pontus
The Republic of Pontus was a proposed Pontian Greek state in the north-eastern part of modern Turkey from 1917 to 1922. The Republic of Pontus was never officially proclaimed, but a central government of an embryonic state existed, though not occupying all the claimed areas. The Pontian Greeks rebelled against the Ottoman Empire during the First World War, under the leadership of Chrysanthus, Metropolitan of Trebizond. In 1917 Greece and the Entente powers considered the creation of a Hellenic autonomous state in Pontus, most likely as part of a Ponto-Armenian Federation. In 1919 on the fringes of the Paris Peace Conference Chrysanthos proposed the establishment of a fully independent Republic of Pontus, but neither Greece nor the other delegations supported it.
http://wn.com/Republic_of_Pontus
Roman Armenia
From the end of the 1st century BC onwards, Armenia was, in part or whole, subject to the Roman Empire and its successor, the East Roman or Byzantine Empire. Emperor Trajan created even a short-lived Province of Armenia between 114 and 117 AD.
http://wn.com/Roman_Armenia
Sebasteia
http://wn.com/Sebasteia
Sinop, Turkey
http://wn.com/Sinop_Turkey
Sparta
http://wn.com/Sparta
Temple of Hephaestus
http://wn.com/Temple_of_Hephaestus
Temple of Zeus
The Temple of Zeus at Olympia, was an ancient Greek temple in Olympia, Greece, dedicated to the chief of the gods, Zeus. It was the very model of the fully-developed classical Greek temple of the Doric order. The temple, built between 472 and 456 BC, stood in the most famous sanctuary of Greece, which had been dedicated to local and Pan-Hellenic deities and had probably been established towards the end of the Mycenaean period. The Altis, the enclosure with its sacred grove, open-air altars and the tumulus of Pelops, was first formed during the tenth and ninth centuries BCE, when the cult of Zeus was joined the already establish cult here of Hera.
http://wn.com/Temple_of_Zeus
Thermopylae
http://wn.com/Thermopylae
Trabzon
:For the Ottoman Province of Trabzon, see Vilayet of Trabzon.
http://wn.com/Trabzon
Troy
http://wn.com/Troy
Turkey
Turkey (), known officially as the Republic of Turkey (), is a Eurasian country that stretches across the Anatolian peninsula in western Asia and Thrace in the Balkan region of southeastern Europe. Turkey is one of the six independent Turkic states. Turkey is bordered by eight countries: Bulgaria to the northwest; Greece to the west; Georgia to the northeast; Armenia, Azerbaijan (the exclave of Nakhchivan) and Iran to the east; and Iraq and Syria to the southeast. The Mediterranean Sea and Cyprus are to the south; the Aegean Sea to the west; and the Black Sea is to the north. The Sea of Marmara, the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles (which together form the Turkish Straits) demarcate the boundary between Eastern Thrace and Anatolia; they also separate Europe and Asia.
http://wn.com/Turkey
Yeşil River
http://wn.com/Yeşil_River
Zeus
http://wn.com/Zeus
Zile
Zile, also known as Zela, is a city and a district of Tokat Province, Turkey. Zile lies to the south of Amasya and the west of Tokat in north-central Turkey. The city has a long history, including being the site of the Battle of Zela, which prompted the phrase "Veni, vidi, vici." Today the city is a center for agricultural marketing and tourism.
http://wn.com/Zile

Aeschylus
http://wn.com/Aeschylus
Aesop
http://wn.com/Aesop
Alcaeus of Mytilene
http://wn.com/Alcaeus_of_Mytilene
Alcibiades
http://wn.com/Alcibiades
Alexander the Great
http://wn.com/Alexander_the_Great
Alexios I Komnenos
Alexios I Komnenos, Latinized as Alexius I Comnenus (lang-el|, 1056 – 15 August 1118 -- note that some sources list his date of birth as 1048), was Byzantine emperor from 1081 to 1118, and the founder of the Komnenian dynasty. Inheriting a collapsing empire and faced with constant warfare during his reign against both the Seljuk Turks in Asia Minor and the Normans in the western Balkans, Alexios was able to halt the Byzantine decline and begin the military, financial, and territorial recovery known as the "Komnenian restoration". His appeals to Western Europe for help against the Turks were also the catalyst that triggered the Crusades.
http://wn.com/Alexios_I_Komnenos
Anaxagoras
Anaxagoras (, "lord of the assembly"; c. 500 BC – 428 BC) was a Pre-Socratic Greek philosopher. Born in Clazomenae in Asia Minor, Anaxagoras was the first philosopher to bring philosophy from Ionia to Athens. He attempted to give a scientific account of eclipses, meteors, rainbows, and the sun, which he described as a fiery mass larger than the Peloponnese. He was accused of contravening the established religion and was forced to flee to Lampsacus.
http://wn.com/Anaxagoras
Anaximander
http://wn.com/Anaximander
Antisthenes
Antisthenes (; c. 445-c. 365 BCE) was a Greek philosopher and a pupil of Socrates. Antisthenes first learned rhetoric under Gorgias before becoming an ardent disciple of Socrates. He adopted and developed the ethical side of Socrates' teachings, advocating an ascetic life lived in accordance with virtue. Later writers regarded him as the founder of Cynic philosophy.
http://wn.com/Antisthenes
Archilochus
:For the hummingbird genus, see ''Archilochus.
http://wn.com/Archilochus
Archimedes
http://wn.com/Archimedes
Aristophanes
http://wn.com/Aristophanes
Aristotle
http://wn.com/Aristotle
Aspasia
Aspasia (ca. 470 BC–ca. 400 BC, Greek: ) was a Milesian woman who was famous for her involvement with the Athenian statesman Pericles. Very little is known about the details of her life. She spent most of her adult life in Athens, and she may have influenced Pericles and Athenian politics. She is mentioned in the writings of Plato, Aristophanes, Xenophon, and other authors of the day.
http://wn.com/Aspasia
Bacchylides
Bacchylides () (5th century BC) was an Ancient Greek lyric poet. Later Greeks included him in the canonical list of nine lyric poets which included his uncle Simonides. The elegance and polished style of his lyrics have been a commonplace of Bacchylidean scholarship since at least Longinus (De Sublimitate 33,5). Some scholars however have associated these qualities with superficial charm. He has often been compared unfavourably with his contemporary, Pindar, as "a kind of Boccherini to Pindar's Haydn", yet the differences in their styles doesn't allow for easy comparison and "to blame Bacchylides for not being Pindar is as childish a judgement as to condemn...Marvel for missing the grandeur of Milton." His career coincided with the ascendency of dramatic styles of poetry, as embodied in the works of Aeschylus or Sophocles, and he is in fact one of the last poets of major significance within the more ancient tradition of purely lyric poetry. The most notable features of his lyrics are their clarity in expression and simplicity of thought, making them an ideal introduction to the study of Greek lyric poetry in general and to Pindar's verse in particular.
http://wn.com/Bacchylides
Caria
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http://wn.com/Caria
Chalybes
http://wn.com/Chalybes
Colchis
http://wn.com/Colchis
Constantine I
http://wn.com/Constantine_I
Democritus
http://wn.com/Democritus
Demosthenes
http://wn.com/Demosthenes
Diocletian
http://wn.com/Diocletian
Diogenes of Sinope
Diogenes of Sinope ( Diogenes ho Sinopeus), was a Greek philosopher and one of the founders of Cynic philosophy. Also known as Diogenes the Cynic, he was born in Sinope (modern-day Sinop, Turkey) in 412 or 404 BCE
http://wn.com/Diogenes_of_Sinope
Empedocles
http://wn.com/Empedocles
Epaminondas
Epaminondas (Greek: ) (ca. 410 BC – 362 BC) or Epameinondas was a Theban general and statesman of the 4th century BC who transformed the Ancient Greek city-state of Thebes, leading it out of Spartan subjugation into a preeminent position in Greek politics. In the process he broke Spartan military power with his victory at Leuctra and liberated the Messenian helots, a group of Peloponnesian Greeks who had been enslaved under Spartan rule for some 230 years, having been defeated in the Messenian War ending in 600 BC. Epaminondas reshaped the political map of Greece, fragmented old alliances, created new ones, and supervised the construction of entire cities. He was militarily influential as well, inventing and implementing several major battlefield tactics.
http://wn.com/Epaminondas
Epicurus
http://wn.com/Epicurus
Euclid
http://wn.com/Euclid
Euripides
http://wn.com/Euripides
Eusebius of Caesarea
http://wn.com/Eusebius_of_Caesarea
Evagrius Ponticus
Evagrius Ponticus (lang-el|), or Evagrius the Solitary (345-399 A.D.) was a Christian monk and ascetic. One of the rising stars in the late fourth century church, he was well-known as a keen thinker, a polished speaker, and a gifted writer. Throughout his ministry, he was a trusted friend to several influential contemporary church leaders, including Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nazianzus, Gregory of Nyssa, Nectarius of Constantinople, Macarius of Egypt, John Cassian, and Theophilus of Alexandria.
http://wn.com/Evagrius_Ponticus
Galatia
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http://wn.com/Galatia
Germania Inferior
Germania Inferior was a Roman province located on the left bank of the Rhine, in today's Luxembourg, southern Netherlands, parts of Belgium, and North Rhine-Westphalia left of the Rhine.
http://wn.com/Germania_Inferior
Germania Superior
http://wn.com/Germania_Superior
Gorgias
Gorgias (, ca. 485-c.380 BCE) "the Nihilist", Greek sophist, pre-socratic philosopher and rhetorician, was a native of Leontini in Sicily. Along with Protagoras, he forms the first generation of Sophists. Several doxographers report that he was a pupil of Empedocles, although he would only have been a few years younger. "Like other Sophists he was an itinerant, practicing in various cities and giving public exhibitions of his skill at the great pan-Hellenic centers of Olympia and Delphi, and charged fees for his instruction and performances. A special feature of his displays was to invite miscellaneous questions from the audience and give impromptu replies."
http://wn.com/Gorgias
Great Seljuq Empire
The Great Seljuq Empire () was a medieval Turko-Persian Sunni Muslim empire, originating from the Qynyq branch of Oghuz Turks. The Seljuq Empire controlled a vast area stretching from the Hindu Kush to eastern Anatolia and from Central Asia to the Persian Gulf. From their homelands near the Aral sea, the Seljuqs advanced first into Khorasan and then into mainland Persia before eventually conquering eastern Anatolia.
http://wn.com/Great_Seljuq_Empire
Greeks
Ethnic group
http://wn.com/Greeks
Hemshin peoples
http://wn.com/Hemshin_peoples
Heraclitus
Heraclitus of Ephesus (Ancient Greek: — ; c. 535–c. 475 BCE) was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher, a native of the Greek city Ephesus, Ionia, on the coast of Asia Minor. He was of distinguished parentage. Little is known about his early life and education, but he regarded himself as self-taught and a pioneer of wisdom. From the lonely life he led, and still more from the riddling nature of his philosophy and his contempt for humankind in general, he was called "The Obscure," and the "Weeping Philosopher."
http://wn.com/Heraclitus
Herodotus
http://wn.com/Herodotus
Hesiod
http://wn.com/Hesiod
Hipparchus
http://wn.com/Hipparchus
Hippocrates
http://wn.com/Hippocrates
Hipponax
Hipponax of Ephesus was an Ancient Greek iambic poet.
http://wn.com/Hipponax
Homer
http://wn.com/Homer
Humphrey Bogart
http://wn.com/Humphrey_Bogart
Hypatia
http://wn.com/Hypatia
Ibycus
Ibycus (Ancient Greek: ) (6th century BC), was an Ancient Greek lyric poet. He was included in the canonical list of nine lyric poets by the scholars of Hellenistic Alexandria. The extant fragments of his work contain the earliest-known example of the triadic choral lyric and epinician poetry.
http://wn.com/Ibycus
Justinian
http://wn.com/Justinian
Laz people
http://wn.com/Laz_people
Leonidas I
http://wn.com/Leonidas_I
Leucippus
http://wn.com/Leucippus
Lycurgus of Sparta
http://wn.com/Lycurgus_of_Sparta
Lydia
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http://wn.com/Lydia
Lysander
http://wn.com/Lysander
Milo of Croton
http://wn.com/Milo_of_Croton
Mithradates Eupator
http://wn.com/Mithradates_Eupator
Mithridates VI
http://wn.com/Mithridates_VI
Nero
http://wn.com/Nero
Ottoman Empire
http://wn.com/Ottoman_Empire
Parmenides
Parmenides of Elea (Greek: ; fl. early 5th century BCE) was an ancient Greek philosopher born in Elea, a Greek city on the southern coast of Italy. He was the founder of the Eleatic school of philosophy. The single known work of Parmenides is a poem which has survived only in fragmentary form. In this poem, Parmenides describes two views of reality. In The Way of Truth (a part of the poem), he explains how reality is one, change is impossible, and existence is timeless, uniform, and unchanging. In The Way of Opinion, he explains the world of appearances, which is false and deceitful. These thoughts strongly influenced Plato, and through him, the whole of Western philosophy.
http://wn.com/Parmenides
Pausanias (general)
http://wn.com/Pausanias_(general)
Pericles
http://wn.com/Pericles
Persian people
Ethnic group|group = Persian Speakers
http://wn.com/Persian_people
Philip II of Macedon
http://wn.com/Philip_II_of_Macedon
Picenum
Picenum () was a region of ancient Italy. The name is an exonym assigned by the Romans, who conquered and incorporated it into the Roman Republic. Picenum was the birthplace of such notables as Pompey the Great and his father Pompeius Strabo. It was situated in what is now Marche. The Piceni or Picentes were the native population of Picenum, but they were not of uniform ethnicity. They maintained a religious centre in Cupra Marittima, in honor of the goddess Cupra.
http://wn.com/Picenum
Pindar
http://wn.com/Pindar
Plato
:For other uses, see Plato (disambiguation) and Platon (disambiguation).
http://wn.com/Plato
Plutarch
http://wn.com/Plutarch
Polybius
http://wn.com/Polybius
Pompey
http://wn.com/Pompey
Pontic Greeks
The Pontian Greeks (also called Pontic Greeks, Pontians or Greeks of Pontus; or , ) are an ethnic group consisting of Greeks from the shores of the Black Sea (or Pontos in Greek, also see:Pontus). They traditionally speak Pontic, a distinct form of the Greek language which, due to the remoteness of Pontus, has had a process of linguistic evolution different from that of the rest of the Greek world.
http://wn.com/Pontic_Greeks
Protagoras
Protagoras (Greek: ) (ca. 490– 420 BC) was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher and is numbered as one of the sophists by Plato. In his dialogue Protagoras, Plato credits him with having invented the role of the professional sophist or teacher of virtue. He is also believed to have created a major controversy during ancient times through his statement that man is the measure of all things. This idea was very revolutionary for the time and contrasting to other philosophical doctrines that claimed the universe was based on something objective, outside the human influence.
http://wn.com/Protagoras
Ptolemy
http://wn.com/Ptolemy
Pyrrhus of Epirus
Pyrrhus or Pyrrhos (, Pyrros; 319-272 BC) was a Greek general of the Hellenistic era. He was king of the Greek tribe of Molossians, of the royal Aeacid house (from ca. 297 BC), and later he became King of Epirus (306-302, 297-272 BC) and Macedon (288-284, 273-272 BC). He was one of the strongest opponents of early Rome. Some of his battles, though successful, cost him heavy losses, from which the term "Pyrrhic victory" was coined. He is the subject of one of Plutarch's Parallel Lives.
http://wn.com/Pyrrhus_of_Epirus
Pythagoras
Pythagoras of Samos (, O Pythagoras o Samios, "Pythagoras the Samian", or simply ; c. 570-c. 495 BC) was an Ionian Greek philosopher and founder of the religious movement called Pythagoreanism. Most of our information about Pythagoras was written down centuries after he lived, thus very little reliable information is known about him. He was born on the island of Samos, and may have travelled widely in his youth, visiting Egypt and other places seeking knowledge. Around 530 BC, he moved to Croton, a Greek colony in southern Italy, and there set up a religious sect. His followers pursued the religious rites and practices developed by Pythagoras, and studied his philosophical theories. The society took an active role in the politics of Croton, but this eventually led to their downfall. The Pythagorean meeting-places were burned, and Pythagoras was forced to flee the city. He is said to have ended his days in Metapontum.
http://wn.com/Pythagoras
Quaestura exercitus
http://wn.com/Quaestura_exercitus
Ramsay MacMullen
Ramsay MacMullen (born 1928 in New York City) is an Emeritus Professor of history at Yale University, where he taught from 1967 to his retirement in 1993 as Dunham Professor of History and Classics. His scholarly interests are in the social history of Rome and the replacement of paganism by Christianity.
http://wn.com/Ramsay_MacMullen
Sappho
Sappho ( in English; Attic Greek ' , Aeolic Greek ' ) was an Ancient Greek poet, born on the island of Lesbos. Later Greeks included her in the list of nine lyric poets. Her birth was sometime between 630 and 612 BC, and it is said that she died around 570 BC, but little is known for certain about her life. The bulk of her poetry, which was well-known and greatly admired throughout antiquity, has been lost, but her immense reputation has endured through surviving fragments.
http://wn.com/Sappho
Simonides of Ceos
http://wn.com/Simonides_of_Ceos
Socrates
http://wn.com/Socrates
Solon
Solon (ancient Greek: , c. 638 BC–558 BC) was an Athenian statesman, lawmaker, and poet. He is remembered particularly for his efforts to legislate against political, economic and moral decline in archaic Athens. His reforms failed in the short term yet he is often credited with having laid the foundations for Athenian democracy.
http://wn.com/Solon
Sophocles
http://wn.com/Sophocles
Stesichorus
Stesichorus (Ancient Greek: , circa 640 - 555 BC) was the first great poet of the Greek West. He is best known for telling epic stories in lyric metres but he is also famous for some ancient traditions about his life, such as his opposition to the tyrant Phalaris, and the blindness he is said to have incurred and cured by composing verses first insulting and then flattering to Helen of Troy. He was ranked among the nine lyric poets esteemed by the scholars of Hellenistic Alexandria and yet his work attracted relatively little interest among ancient commentators, which in turn left a disproportionate number of gaps in the modern record as one scholar observed in 1967: "Time has dealt more harshly with Stesichorus than with any other major lyric poet." Recent discoveries, recorded on Egyptian papyrus (notably and controversially, the Lille papyrus, in 1974), have enhanced modern understanding of his work, confirming his role as a link between Homer's epic narrative and the lyric narrative of poets like Pindar.
http://wn.com/Stesichorus
Strabo
http://wn.com/Strabo
Thales of Miletus
http://wn.com/Thales_of_Miletus
Themistocles
Themistocles (Greek: ; "Glory of the Law"); c. 524–459 BC, was an Athenian politician and general. He was one of a new breed of politicians who rose to prominence in the early years of the Athenian democracy, along with his great rival Aristides. As a politician, Themistocles was a populist, having the support of lower class Athenians, and generally being at odds with the Athenian nobility. Elected archon in 493 BC, he took steps to increase the naval power of Athens, which would be a recurring theme in his political career. During the first Persian invasion of Greece, he fought at the Battle of Marathon, and was possibly one of the 10 Athenian strategoi (generals) in that battle.
http://wn.com/Themistocles
Thucydides
http://wn.com/Thucydides
Timocreon
Timocreon, of Ialysus in Rhodes, was a Greek lyric poet who flourished about 480 BC.
http://wn.com/Timocreon
World War I
World War I was a military conflict centered on Europe that began in the summer of 1914. The fighting ended in late 1918. This conflict involved all of the world's great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances: the Allies (centred around the Triple Entente) and the Central Powers. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilized in one of the largest wars in history. More than 9 million combatants were killed, due largely to great technological advances in firepower without corresponding ones in mobility. It was the second deadliest conflict in history.
http://wn.com/World_War_I
Xenophon
http://wn.com/Xenophon
Zeno of Citium
http://wn.com/Zeno_of_Citium

Serra - pontic dance (rare)

Video was taken at Athens (Κallithea) at the 60's. All dancers were born at the Pontos/Kar...

published: 21 Sep 2007

author: Daiadon

Panagia Sumela, The Holy Mother of Pontus

An imaginary peregrination to Panagia Sumela, the well known monastery of Pontus....

published: 21 Aug 2008

author: efxeinostrikala

Rome Total War Online Battle 1446: Pontus vs Rome

Please watch in "High Quality." I command a special request army for Pontus. (don't ask me...

published: 02 Mar 2009

author: PrinceofMacedon

Pontus J. Back - My Love Song TV7

My Love Song performed by Pontus J. Back, Mikko Rintanen, Isabella Ström and Petra Pagels ...

published: 28 Jun 2010

author: JILDWI

Good bye Emerica.m4v

A film made for my previous shoe sponsor. Good bye Emerica....

published: 20 Feb 2012

author: MrKLEZO

Pontus Alv The strongest of the strange

Pontus Alv - The strongest of the strange...

published: 04 Jul 2012

author: ator300

Pontus Alv New Full Part - His Shoe is out !!!

Short video about Swedish skateboarder Pontus Alv and his DIY concrete skate spots. His Em...

published: 11 Aug 2009

author: jeanfeil

Pontus's part from " In Search of the Miraculous"

buy here: insearchofthemiraculous.se...

published: 04 Nov 2010

author: SLAPskateboardmag

Converse Skateboarding: Pontus Alv & Jerome Campbell in Beirut

European skate ambassadors Pontus Alv and Jerome Campbell taking on Beirut in Lebanon. Che...

published: 27 Aug 2012

author: converse

ΠΟΝΤΟΣ PONTUS!

Αφιερωμένο στον Ένδοξο Ελληνισμό του Πόντου!...

published: 26 Jun 2009

author: notishellas

Pontus Alv - Spektra

Sanity is a curse. From the Carhartt's Spektra video. Circa 2008. Full video - vimeo.com...

published: 14 Mar 2010

author: thatniggaderm

Pontus Alv

People call him PA. I don't know why......

published: 06 Apr 2010

author: DJnedKnowledge422

Pontus Alv -Arcade Skateboard's "Gumbo" (1999)

Pontus's part in Arcade skateboards "Gumbo" video (1999)...

published: 13 Sep 2009

author: backsmithfakie

Pontos (The Movie)

Full 10 minute short film called Pontos. Directed by Peter Stefanidis, Starring Lee Mason,...

published: 09 Oct 2009

author: MithridatesFilms

Mag+

This conceptual video is a corporate collaborative research project initiated by Bonnier R...

published: 16 Dec 2009

author: Bonnier

Nature - Time 4 timelapse

The final product of almost half a year of shooting. I made this movie as a school assignm...

published: 25 Mar 2012

author: Pontus Rudolfson

Mag+ (video prototype footage only)

This conceptual video is a corporate collaborative research project initiated by Bonnier R...

published: 16 Dec 2009

author: Bonnier

Cocksox® CX01 Carnivore Underwear

Get some for yourself here! www.cocksox.com/accessories/underwear_brief_leopard CocksoxTV...

published: 27 Sep 2011

author: Cocksox

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Photo: AP / Mark Lennihan

A man waiting to vote at Public School 370 angrily points at a New York City police officer, left, as tempers flare, Tuesday, Nov. 6, 2012 in the Coney Island section of the Brooklyn borough of New York.

Obama, Romney leave voters facing stark choice

The Leaf Chronicle

06 Nov 2012

WASHINGTON (AP) President Barack Obama and Republican challenger Mitt Romney left Americans to vote Tuesday with a stark choice between their fundamentally different visions for the countrys future...

Chat

Photo: US Navy / Mass Communication Specialist 1st Class Todd A. Schaffer

File - The Royal Navy submarine HMS Astute arrives at Naval Station Norfolk, 28 November, 2011. Astute is the first in a new class of British nuclear submarines that sets the standard for the Royal Navy in terms of weapons load, communication facilities and stealth.

UK nuclear deterrent plan triggers divisions

Al Jazeera

06 Nov 2012

- At an unknown location somewhere deep beneath the world's oceans, a British submarine sits primed to launch up to 40 nuclear warheads with a collective destructive power almost 300 times greater...

Chat

Photo: AP / Narciso Contreras

In this Sunday, Nov. 04, 2012 photo, a rebel fighter claims for victory after he fires a shoulder-fired missile toward a building where Syrian troops loyal to President Bashar Assad are hiding while they attempt to gain terrain against the rebels during heavy clashes in the Jedida district of Aleppo, Syria.

Syria could turn into a new Somalia - UN's Brahimi

BBC News

06 Nov 2012

The UN and Arab League envoy to Syria, Lakhdar Brahimi, has said he fears the country could "turn into a new Somalia" unless the crisis does not end soon. In an interview with the newspaper...

Chat

Photo: AP

Police surround the bodies of striking miners after opening fire on a crowd at the Lonmin Platinum Mine near Rustenburg, South Africa, Thursday, Aug. 16, 2012.

Marikana: a cover-up for all to see

The Guardian

06 Nov 2012

The inquiry into the miners' deaths is showing how police doctored evidence and revealing a force that believes itself to be above South African law...

Chat

Photo: WN / Ahmed Deeb

A mural depicting the late Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat (R) in Gaza City as French prosecutors in Paris opened up an official inquiry into Yasser Arafat's death in Gaza City on August 28, 2012. Palestinian president Mahmud Abbas welcomed a decision by French prosecutors to open a murder inquiry into claims the Arafat may have been poisoned.

Arafat's remains to be exhumed on Nov. 26, examined for deadly radioactive isotope

Star Tribune

05 Nov 2012

RAMALLAH, West Bank - A Western diplomat says the exhumation of late Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat's remains will take place Nov. 26....

Chat

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Artist of the Week: Sky Ferreira 05 Nov 2012

Vogue For the last three years, 20-year-old singer Sky Ferreira has been a ubiquitous part of the New York downtown party scene. Also a budding model and actress, she’s mainly known for her swarms of celebrity friends and early Madonna–meets–nineties Courtney...(size: 3.9Kb)

Over 60 Arrested After Moscow Derby 04 Nov 2012

Novosti More than 60 people have been arrested after CSKA Moscow defeated...(size: 0.4Kb)

CSKA Beat Defiant Nine-Man Lokomotiv 04 Nov 2012

Novosti MOSCOW, November 4 (R-Sport) - A stoppage-time winner from Pontus Wernbloom gave CSKA Moscow a 2-1 win over battling nine-man Lokomotiv Moscow on Sunday. The result means Russian Premier League leaders CSKA are sure of remaining top of the league, even if third-placed Anzhi...(size: 1.8Kb)

First Position, and Others, in Miami 04 Nov 2012

The New York Times ON the Thursday before Labor Day weekend Lourdes Lopez received a call from Miami City Ballet. In the spring she had been named to succeed the outgoing artistic director Edward Villella. His departure was controversial — an unhappy board, heartbroken dancers, financial problems. Instead of...(size: 10.6Kb)

Dance Listings for Nov. 2-8 01 Nov 2012

The New York Times Dance Breaking news about the arts, coverage of live events, critical reviews, multimedia and more. Go to Arts Beat » A sortable calendar of noteworthy cultural events in the New York region, selected by Times critics. Go to Event Listings » Full reviews of recent dance performances:...(size: 13.1Kb)

Honda on target in win over Grozny 29 Oct 2012

Japan Times MOSCOW — Keisuke Honda showed he is hitting top form ahead of the upcoming World Cup qualifier, the Japan...(size: 0.8Kb)

CSKA win at Grozny to go top in Russia 28 Oct 2012

The Times of India MOSCOW: Three-time Russian champions CSKA Moscow battled from a goal down to win 2-1 at Terek Grozny on Sunday to go top of the Russian league. Big spenders Anzhi Makhachkala, who led going into the weekend, failed to extend their six-match winning streak, suffering a 2-1 defeat at the hands of...(size: 2.5Kb)

Wernbloom Heads Winner as CSKA Beat Terek 28 Oct 2012

Novosti A late diving header from Swedish midfielder Pontus Wernbloom gave CSKA Moscow a win at Terek Grozny and the lead in the...(size: 0.8Kb)

Sweden: Despite world class innovation and investments in R&D;, challenges remain 22 Oct 2012

Gulf News Stockholm: Braving the October chill, Magnus Bergman cycles 10km to his office in Stockholm’s high-end commercial district of Stureplan. Internet expert Bergman and his colleague telecom entrepreneur Pandelis Eliopoulos run a tiny VOIP start-up and dream of turning it into a profitable mobile...(size: 25.4Kb)

Maggots in the Pasta: Europe Screens Tainted Chinese Food 21 Oct 2012

The New York Times By MARK MCDONALD HONG KONG — Cypriot inspectors found arsenic in the frozen calamari. The Italians discovered maggots in the pasta. There were glass chips in the pumpkin seeds bound for Denmark, and Spanish regulators blocked a shipment of frozen duck meat because of forged papers. It has been...(size: 6.0Kb)

Sweden issues alert over dyed pork sold as beef 17 Oct 2012

BBC News Sweden's National Food Agency has issued a warning after as much as 20 tonnes of meat labelled as beef turn out to be coloured pork. An investigator at the agency, Pontus Elvingson, told the BBC that tests were still being done to identify the dye. The Swedish firm Heat AB imported the meat...(size: 2.1Kb)

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This article is about the geographic location. For the Greek god, see Pontus (mythology).

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2011)

Pontus (Πόντος)
Ancient Region of Anatolia
Traditional rural Pontic house
Location	North-eastern Anatolia
Ethnic Groups	Pontic Greeks, Laz, Hemşin, Chepni, Turks
Historical capitals	Amasya, Neocaesarea, Sinope, Trabzon
Notable rulers	Mithradates Eupator
The modern definition of the Pontus: the area claimed for the "Republic of Pontus" after World War I, based on the extent of the six local Greek Orthodox bishoprics.

Pontus^{[pronunciation?]} or Pontos (Greek: Πόντος, "sea"^[1]) is a historical Greek designation for a region on the southern coast of the Black Sea, located in modern-day northeastern Turkey. The name was applied to the coastal region in antiquity by the Greeks who colonized the area, and derived from the Greek name of the Black Sea: Πόντος Εύξεινος Pontos Euxeinos ("Hospitable Sea"^[2]), or simply Pontos. Having originally no specific name, the region east of the river Halys was spoken of as the country εν Πόντοι en Pontôi, "on the [Euxeinos] Pontos", and hence acquired the name of Pontus, which is first found in Xenophon's Anabasis. The extent of the region varied through the ages, but generally it extended from the borders of Colchis (modern Georgia) until well into Paphlagonia in the west, with varying amounts of hinterland. Several states and provinces bearing the name of Pontus or variants thereof were established in the region in Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine times.

1 Geography
2 History
3 Famous Pontians
4 See also
5 Notes and references
- 5.1 Sources
- 5.2 Footnotes
6 External links

Geography [link]

The north-eastern Black Sea region of Turkey, historically known as Pontus, has a steep, rocky coast with rivers that cascade through the gorges of the coastal ranges. A few larger rivers, those cutting back through the Pontic Mountains (Doğu Karadeniz Dağları), have tributaries that flow in broad, elevated basins. Access inland from the coast is limited to a few narrow valleys because mountain ridges, with elevations of 1,525 to 1,800 m in the west and 3,000 to 4,000 m in the east in Kaçkar Mountains, form an almost unbroken wall separating the coast from the interior. The higher slopes facing southwest tend to be densely wet. Because of these natural conditions, the Black Sea coast historically has been isolated from the Anatolian interior proper.

Pontus was a mountainous country—wild and barren in the east, where the great chains approach the Euxine; but in the west watered by the great rivers Halys and Iris, and their tributaries, the valleys of which, [p. 1301] as well as the land along the coast, are extremely fertile. The eastern part was rich in minerals, and contained the celebrated iron mines of the Chalybes.

The area is known for its fertility. Cherries were supposed to have been brought from Pontus to Europe in 72 BC.^[3]

History [link]

According to some researchers,the original inhabitants of Pontus were called generically Leucosyri,^[4] even though Leucosyri were the people living in Cilicia and Cappadocia. So Leucosyri are probably what the Greeks called the Persians who lived in Anatolia (Asia Minor). Various Colchian tribes were also inhabitants of Pontus. By the end of the Ancient ages, these groups started to become hellenised into the Pontic Greek society. The first travels of Greek merchants and adventurers to the Pontian region occurred probably from around 1000 BC, whereas their settlements would become steady and solidified cities only by the 8th and 7th centuries BC as archaeological findings document. This fits in well with a foundation date of 731 BC as reported by Eusebius of Caesarea for Sinope, perhaps the most ancient of the Greek Colonies in what was later to be called Pontus. The epical narratives related to the travels of Jason and the 50 heroes to Colchis, the tales of Heracles' navigating the Black Sea and Odysseus' wanderings into the land of the Cimmerians as well as the myth of Zeus constraining Prometheus to the Caucasus mountains as a punishment for his outwitting the Gods can be seen as reflections of the early contacts of Greek navigators with the broader region.

Kingdom of Pontus [link]

Main article: Kingdom of Pontus

Map showing the Middle East in 89 BC, with the Kingdom of Pontus, under Mithridates VI the Great, in green.

The term did come to apply to a separate state after the establishment of the Kingdom of Pontus, beyond the Halys River (today Kızılırmak River). The Persian dynasty which was to found this kingdom had during the fourth century BC ruled the Greek city of Cius (or Kios) in Mysia, with its first known member being Ariobarzanes I of Cius and the last ruler based in the city being Mithridates II of Cius. Mithridates II's son, also called Mithridates, would become Mithridates I Ktistes of Pontus ("Ktistes", Κτίστης meaning "The Founder", Constructor in greek).

During the troubled period following the death of Alexander the Great, Mithridates Ktistes was for a time in the service of Antigonus, one of Alexander's successors, and successfully maneuvering in this unsettled time managed, shortly after 302 BC, to create the Kingdom of Pontus which would be ruled by his descendants mostly bearing the same name, until 64 BC. Thus, this Persian dynasty managed to survive and prosper in the Hellenistic world while the main Persian Empire had fallen.

As the greater part of this kingdom lay within the immense region of Cappadocia, which in early ages extended from the borders of Cilicia to the Euxine (Black Sea), the kingdom as a whole was at first called "Cappadocia towards the Pontus", but afterwards simply "Pontus," the name Cappadocia being henceforth restricted to the southern half of the region previously included under that title.

This kingdom reached its greatest height under Mithridates VI or Mithridates Eupator, commonly called the Great, who for many years carried on war with the Romans. Under him, the realm of Pontus included not only Pontic Cappadocia but also the seaboard from the Bithynian frontier to Colchis, part of inland Paphlagonia, and Lesser Armenia.

Roman province [link]

Main article: Bithynia et Pontus

The Roman client kingdom of Pontus (in union with Colchis), ca. 50 AD.

Mentioned three times in the New Testament, inhabitants of Pontus were some of the very first converts to Christianity. Acts 2:9 mentions them present during the Day of Pentecost. Acts 18:2 mentions a Jewish couple from Pontus that had converted to Christianity. And 1 Peter 1:1, Peter the Apostle addresses the Pontians in his letter as the "elect" and "chosen ones".

With the subjection of this kingdom by Pompey in 64 BC, in which little changed in the structuring of life, neither for the oligarchies that controlled the cities nor for the common people in city or hinterland, the meaning of the name Pontus underwent a change. Part of the kingdom was now annexed to the Roman Empire, being united with Bithynia in a double province called Pontus and Bithynia: this part included only the seaboard between Heraclea (today Ereğli) and Amisus (Samsun), the ora Pontica.

Hereafter the simple name Pontus without qualification was regularly employed to denote the half of this dual province, especially by Romans and people speaking from the Roman point of view; it is so used almost always in the New Testament. The eastern half of the old kingdom was administered as a client kingdom together with Colchis. Its last king was Polemon II.

In AD 62, the country was constituted by Nero a Roman province. It was divided into the three districts: Pontus Galaticus in the west, bordering on Galatia; Pontus Polemoniacus in the centre, so called from its capital Polemonium; and Pontus Cappadocicus in the east, bordering on Cappadocia (Armenia Minor).

The Diocese of Pontus and its provinces in ca. 400 AD.

With the reorganization of the provincial system under Diocletian (about AD 295), the Pontic districts were divided up between four provinces of the Dioecesis Pontica:

Paphlagonia, to which was attached most of the old province Pontus
Diospontus, renamed Helenopontus by Constantine the Great after his mother, containing the rest of the province Pontus and the adjoining district, eight cities in all (including Sinope, Amisus and Zela) with Amasea as capital
Pontus Polemoniacus, containing Comana, Argyroupolis, Polemonium, Cerasus and Trapezus with Neocaesarea as capital
Armenia Minor, five cities, with Sebasteia as capital.

Emperor Justinian further reorganized the system in 536:

Pontus Polemoniacus was dissolved, with the western part (Polemonium and Neocaesarea) going to Helenopontus, Comana going to the new province of Armenia II, and the rest (Trapezus and Cerasus) joining the new province of Armenia I Magna
Helenopontus gained Polemonium and Neocaesarea, and lost Zela to Armenia II. The provincial governor was renamed to moderator.
Paphlagonia absorbed Honorias and was put under a praetor.

This rearrangement gave place in turn to the Byzantine system of military districts (themes) in the late 7th century.

Pontus under the Byzantines [link]

Under the Byzantine Empire, the Pontus came under the Armeniac Theme, with the westernmost parts (Paphlagonia) belonging to the Bucellarian Theme. Progressively, these large early themes were divided into smaller ones, so that by the late 10th century, the Pontus was divided into the themes of Chaldia and Koloneia. After the 8th century, the area experienced a period of prosperity, which was brought to an end only by the Seljuk conquest of Asia Minor in the 1070s and 1080s. Restored to the Byzantine Empire by Alexios I Komnenos, the area was governed by effectively semi-autonomous rulers, like the Gabras family of Trebizond.

Following the fall of Constantinople to the Fourth Crusade in 1204, the Pontus was set up as an independent successor state, the Empire of Trebizond, under the Komnenos dynasty. Through a combination of geographic remoteness and adroit diplomacy, the Empire managed to survive, until it was conquered by the Ottomans in 1461.

Pontus under the Ottomans [link]

Source	Turks	Greeks	Armenians	Total
Distribution of Nationalities in Trebizond Vilayet^[5]
Official Ottoman Statistics, 1910	1,047,889 72.56%	351,104 24.31%	45,094 3.12%	1,444,087
Ecumenical Patriarchate Statistics, 1912	957,866 70.33%	353,533 25.96%	50,624 3.72%	1,362,026

Christian population in 1896

Under the subsequent Ottoman rule which began with the fall of Trebizond, particularly starting from the 17th century, some of the region's Pontic Greeks became Muslim through the Devşirme system. But at the same time some valley's inhabited by Greeks converted by own will, most notably those in the Of-valley; and large communities (around 25% of the population) of Christian Pontic Greeks remained throughout the area (including Trabezon and Kars in northeastern Turkey/the Russian Caucasus) until the 1920s, and in parts of Georgia and Armenia until the 1990s, preserving their own customs and dialect of Greek.

A remarkable change during the last period of the Ottoman empire is the creation of "the Republic of Pontus" and the "Ponto-Armenian Federation" that did not take place as it was aimed to be and had as a result the genocide of at least 353,000 Pontian Greeks at the same time that the Armenian genocide took place. The number is based at facts from the relatives of murdered persons, Red Cross, French, and American reports from that period.

The Greek Genocide 1914-23

Present [link]

Main article: Black Sea Region

The Black Sea Region (Turkish: Karadeniz Bölgesi) is one of Turkey's seven census-defined geographical regions.

Turkey Black Sea Region

Famous Pontians [link]

Strabo, a Greek historian, geographer, and philosopher.
Evagrius Ponticus, a Greek theologian/monk of the 4th century
Chrysanthos Theodoridis Singer
A.I. Bezzerides, an American novelist and screenwriter. Famous for writing Humphrey Bogart movies, and co-creator of the TV series The Big Valley. Born in Samsun.
Mike Lazaridis,CEO of Research in Motion and creator of BlackBerry phones.

Notes and references [link]

This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

Sources [link]

Bryer, Anthony A. M. (1980), The Empire of Trebizond and the Pontos, London: Variorum Reprints, ISBN 0-86078-062-7
Ramsay MacMullen, 2000. Romanization in the Time of Augustus (Yale University Press)

Footnotes [link]

^ πόντος, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus
^ Εὔξεινος, William J. Slater, Lexicon to Pindar, on Perseus
^ "Pontus". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913.
^ Meyer, Geschichte d. Königr. Pontos (Leipzig,1879)
^ Pentzopoulos, Dimitri (2002). The Balkan exchange of minorities and its impact on Greece. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. pp. 29–30. ISBN 978-1-85065-702-6. http://books.google.gr/books?id=PDc-WW6YhqEC&pg=PA28&dq=%22northern+epirus%22%2Bflorence#v=onepage&q=%22northern%20epirus%22%2Bflorence&f=false.

External links [link]

v t e Historical regions of Anatolia

Aeolis Bithynia Cappadocia Caria Cilicia Doris Galatia Ionia Lycaonia Lycia Lydia Mysia Pamphylia Paphlagonia Phrygia Pisidia Pontus Troad

v t e Provinces of the Roman Empire at its greatest extent (117 AD)

Achaea Aegyptus Africa Alpes Cottiae Alpes Maritimae Alpes Poeninae Arabia Petraea Armenia Asia Assyria Bithynia et Pontus Britannia Cappadocia Cilicia Corsica et Sardinia Creta et Cyrenaica Cyprus Dacia Dalmatia Epirus Galatia Gallia Aquitania Gallia Belgica Gallia Lugdunensis Gallia Narbonensis Germania Inferior Germania Superior Hispania Baetica Hispania Tarraconensis Italia Iudaea Lusitania Lycia et Pamphylia Macedonia Mauretania Caesariensis Mauretania Tingitana Mesopotamia Moesia Inferior Moesia Superior Noricum Pannonia Inferior Pannonia Superior Raetia Sicilia Syria Thracia

v t e Late Roman Provinces (4th–7th centuries)

History	Provincial administration reformed and dioceses established by Diocletian, c. 293. Permanent praetorian prefectures established after the death of Constantine I. Empire permanently partitioned after 395. Exarchates of Ravenna and Africa established after 584. After massive territorial losses in the 7th century, the remaining provinces were superseded by the theme system in c. 640–660, although in Asia Minor and parts of Greece they survived under the latter until the early 9th century.

Western Empire (395–476)

Praetorian Prefecture of Gaul	Diocese of Gaul: Alpes Poeninae et Graiae • Belgica I • Belgica II • Germania I • Germania II • Lugdunensis I • Lugdunensis II • Lugdunensis III • Lugdunensis IV • Maxima Sequanorum Diocese of Vienne (later Septem Provinciae): Alpes Maritimae • Aquitanica I • Aquitanica II • Narbonensis I • Narbonensis II • Novempopulania • Viennensis Diocese of Spain: Baetica • Balearica • Carthaginensis • Gallaecia • Lusitania • Mauretania Tingitana • Tarraconensis Diocese of Britain: Britannia I • Britannia II • Flavia Caesariensis • Maxima Caesariensis • Valentia (369)

Praetorian Prefecture of Italy	Diocese of Suburbicarian Italy: Apulia et Calabria • Bruttia et Lucania • Campania • Corsica • Picenum Suburbicarium • Samnium • Sardinia • Sicilia • Tuscia et Umbria • Valeria Diocese of Annonarian Italy: Alpes Cottiae • Flaminia et Picenum Annonarium • Liguria et Aemilia • Raetia I • Raetia II • Venetia et Istria Diocese of Africa^†: Africa proconsularis (Zeugitana) • Byzacena • Mauretania Caesariensis • Mauretania Sitifensis • Numidia Cirtensis • Numidia Militiana • Tripolitania Diocese of Pannonia (later of Illyricum): Dalmatia • Noricum mediterraneum • Noricum ripense • Pannonia I • Pannonia II • Savia • Valeria ripensis

Eastern Empire (395–ca. 640)

Praetorian Prefecture of Illyricum	Diocese of Dacia: Dacia Mediterranea • Dacia Ripensis • Dardania • Moesia I • Praevalitana Diocese of Macedonia: Achaea • Creta • Epirus nova • Epirus vetus • Macedonia I • Macedonia II Salutaris • Thessalia

Praetorian Prefecture of the East	Diocese of Thrace: Europa • Haemimontus • Moesia II^§ • Rhodope • Scythia^§ • Thracia Diocese of Asia: Asia • Caria^§ • Hellespontus • Insulae^§ • Lycaonia (370) • Lycia • Lydia • Pamphylia • Pisidia • Phrygia Pacatiana • Phrygia Salutaria Diocese of Pontus*: Armenia I • Armenia II* • Armenia Maior* • Armenian Satrapies* • Armenia III (536) • Armenia IV (536) • Bithynia • Cappadocia I* • Cappadocia II* • Galatia I* • Galatia II Salutaris* • Helenopontus* • Honorias* • Paphlagonia* • Pontus Polemoniacus* Diocese of the East: Arabia • Cilicia I • Cilicia II • Cyprus^§ • Euphratensis • Isauria • Mesopotamia • Osroene • Palaestina I • Palaestina II • Palaestina III Salutaris • Phoenice • Phoenice Libanensis • Syria I • Syria II Salutaris • Theodorias (528) Diocese of Egypt: Aegyptus I • Aegyptus II • Arcadia • Augustamnica I • Augustamnica II • Libya Superior • Libya Inferior • Thebais Superior • Thebais Inferior

Other territories	Taurica • Quaestura exercitus (536) • Spania (552)

* affected (boundaries modified/abolished/renamed) by Justinian I's administrative reorganization in 534–536 ^† re-established after reconquest by the Eastern Empire in 534, as the separate prefecture of Africa ^§ joined together into the Quaestura exercitus in 536

Politics

Life

Philosophers	Anaxagoras Anaximander Anaximenes Antisthenes Aristotle Democritus Diogenes of Sinope Epicurus Empedocles Heraclitus Hypatia Leucippus Gorgias Parmenides Plato Protagoras Pythagoras Socrates Thales Zeno

Authors	Aeschylus Aesop Alcaeus Archilochus Aristophanes Bacchylides Euripides Herodotus Hesiod Hipponax Homer Ibycus Lucian Menander Mimnermus Pindar Plutarch Polybius Sappho Simonides Sophocles Stesichorus Thucydides Theognis Timocreon Tyrtaeus Xenophon

Others	Alexander the Great Alcibiades Archimedes Aspasia Demosthenes Epaminondas Euclid Hipparchus Hippocrates Leonidas Lycurgus Lysander Milo of Croton Miltiades Pausanias Pericles Philip of Macedon Ptolemy Pyrrhus Solon Themistocles

Groups	Playwrights Poets Philosophers Tyrants Mythological figures

Cultures	Ancient Greek tribes Greeks Thracian Greeks Ancient Macedonians

Proto-Greek
Mycenaean
Homeric
Dialects
- Aeolic
- Arcadocypriot
- Attic
- Doric
- Ionic
- Locrian
- Macedonian
- Pamphylian
Koine

Writing

Lists

http://wn.com/Pontus

http://it.wn.com/Ponto

http://cs.wn.com/Pontus

http://id.wn.com/Pontus

http://es.wn.com/Ponto

http://ru.wn.com/Понт

http://nl.wn.com/Pontus (gebied)

http://pt.wn.com/Ponto (província romana)

http://pl.wn.com/Pont

http://fr.wn.com/Pont (région)

http://de.wn.com/Pontus

This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontus

This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.

For the Hindu goddess, see Saraswati.

Sri Sarada Devi সারদা দেবী
Sarada Devi
Born	(1853-12-22)December 22, 1853 Jayrambati, West Bengal, India
Died	20 July 1920(1920-07-20) (aged 66) Udbodhan office, Calcutta.
Birth name	Saradamani Mukhopadhyaya
Guru	Ramakrishna
Quotation	"I am the mother of the wicked, as I am the mother of the virtuous. Never fear. Whenever you are in distress, just say to yourself 'I have a mother.'"^[1]

Sarada Devi (Bengali: সারদা দেবী; Sharodā Debi (help·info)) (22 December 1853 – 20 July 1920), born Saradamani Mukhopadhyaya (Bengali: সারদামণি মুখোপাধ্যায়), was the wife and spiritual counterpart of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, a nineteenth century mystic of Bengal. Sarada Devi is also reverentially addressed as the Holy Mother (Sri Maa or শ্রীমা) by the followers of the Ramakrishna monastic order. Sarada Devi played an important role in the growth of the Ramakrishna Movement.

Sarada Devi was born in Jayrambati. At the age of five she was betrothed to Ramakrishna, whom she joined at Dakshineswar when she was in her late teens. According to her traditional biographers, both lived lives of unbroken continence, showing the ideals of a householder and of the monastic ways of life. After Ramakrishna's death, Sarada Devi stayed most of the time either at Jayrambati or at the Udbodhan office, Calcutta. The disciples of Ramakrishna regarded her as their own mother, and after their guru's death looked to her for advice and encouragement. The followers of the Ramakrishna movement regard Sarada Devi as an incarnation of the Divine Mother.

1 Biography
2 Teachings and quotes
3 Impact and legacy
4 Notes
5 References
6 Further reading
7 External links

Biography [link]

Birth and parentage [link]

Sarada Devi's house at Jayrambati (centre) where she lived for the majority of her life

Saradamani Devi was born of Brahmin parents as the eldest daughter on December 22, 1853, in the quiet village of Jayrambati in present day West Bengal, India.^[2] Her parents, Ramchandra Mukhopadhyaya and Syamasundari Devi, were poor and pious. Her father Ramchandra earned his living as a farmer and through the performance of priestly duties. According to traditional accounts, Ramachandra and Syamasundari had visions and supernatural events foretelling the birth of a divine being as their daughter.^[2]^[3]

Sarada lived the simple life of an Indian village girl. As a child Sarada—then known as Saradamani—was fascinated by traditional Hindu folklore and narratives. As in the case of most girls of rural upbringing, she did not receive any formal education but learned to serve others as she helped her mother run a large household and looked after her younger brothers.^[4]^[5] During the terrible famine of 1864, Sarada worked ceaselessly as her family served food to hungry people.^[6] She was interested in the clay models of goddesses Kali and Lakshmi, which she worshiped regularly. She is said to have started meditating from her childhood and traditional accounts recount her mystic visions and experiences.^[2] According to Sarada Devi, she used to see a bevy of eight girls of her age coming from an unknown place and escorting her in her chores during her childhood.^[5]

Betrothal [link]

Ramakrishna—then known as Gadadhar Chattopadhaya and a priest of the Dakshineswar Kali Temple since 1855—was practicing spiritual austerities. His mother and brother thought that a marriage would be a good steadying effect on him, by diverting his attention away from spiritual austerities and visions.^[7] It is reported that Ramakrishna himself indicated Saradamani as the bride.^[8] In May 1859, Sarada was betrothed to Ramakrishna. Sarada was 5 years old and Ramakrishna was 23; the age difference was typical for 19th century rural Bengal.^[9]^[10]

After the betrothal, Sarada was left to the care of her parents and Ramakrishna returned to Dakshineswar.^[8] Sarada next met Ramakrishna when she was fourteen years old, and she spent three months with him at Kamarpukur. There, Ramakrishna imparted Sarada instructions on meditation, spiritual life.^[11] Ramakrishna's frequent samadhi (ecstasy) and unorthodox ways of worship led some onlookers to doubt his mental stability, while others regarded him as a great saint.^[12] Sarada joined Ramakrishna at Dakshineswar in 1872 on her own accord when she was eighteen, after hearing these rumors about his mental health. She found Ramakrishna to be a kind and caring person.^[10]

At Dakshineswar Kali Temple [link]

The south side of the nahabat (music tower), where Sarada Devi lived in a small room on the ground floor.

Sarada Devi's tiny room on the ground floor of the nahabat, now a shrine

At Dakshineswar, Sarada Devi stayed in a tiny room in the nahabat (music tower).^[13] She stayed at Dakshineswar until 1885, except for short periods when she visited Jayrambati.^[14] By this time Ramakrishna had already embraced the monastic life of a sannyasin; as a result, the marriage was never consummated.^[10]^[15] As a priest, Ramakrishna performed the ritual ceremony—the Shodashi Puja where Sarada Devi was made to sit in the seat of goddess Kali, and worshiped as the divine mother.^[16]^[17] According to Saradananda a direct disciple of Ramakrishna, Ramakrishna married to show the world an ideal of a sexless marriage.^[18] Ramakrishna regarded Sarada as the incarnation of Divine Mother,^[19] addressing her as Sree Maa (Holy Mother) and it was by this name that she was known to Ramakrishna's disciples.^[20]

Sarada Devi's days began at 3 am. After finishing her ablutions in the Ganges, she would practice japa and meditation until daybreak.^[21] Ramakrishna taught her the sacred mantras, and instructed her how to initiate people and guide them in spiritual life.^[22] Sarada Devi is regarded as Ramakrishna's first disciple.^[23] Except for her hours of meditation, most of her time was spent in cooking for Ramakrishna and the growing number of his devotees. While Sarada Devi remained completely in the background, her unassuming, warm personality attracted some female devotees to become her lifelong companions.^[24]

During Ramakrishna's last days, during which he suffered from throat cancer, Sarada Devi played an important role in nursing him and preparing suitable food for him and his disciples. It is reported that after Ramakrishna's death in August 1886, when Sarada Devi tried to remove her bracelets as the customs dictated for a widow, she had a vision of Ramakrishna in which he said, "I have not passed away, I have gone from one room to another."^[25] According to her, whenever she thought of dressing like a widow, she had a vision of Ramakrishna asking her not to do so.^[26] After Ramakrishna's death, Sarada Devi continued to play an important role in the nascent religious movement.^[20] She remained the spiritual guide of the movement for the next 34 years.^[27]

Pilgrimage [link]

After Ramakrishna's death, Sarada Devi began her pilgrimage through North India, accompanied by a party of women disciples including Lakshmi Didi, Gopal Ma, and Ramakrishna's householder and monastic disciples. The party visited the Vishwanath Temple of god Shiva at Banaras and the city of Ayodhya, which is associated with life of god Rama. Later, she visited Vrindavan which is associated with god Krishna. According to traditional accounts, at Vrindavan, she experienced nirvikalpa samadhi and began her role as guru. She initiated several of the Ramakrishna's disciples including Mahendranath Gupta, Yogen with a mantra.^[28]^[29] According to her traditional biographers and disciples, to call her "Mother" was no mere expression of respect and all those who met her became aware of a maternal quality in her.^[29]

At Calcutta [link]

Sarada Devi worshiping at her Udbodhan residence in Calcutta.

After the pilgrimage, Sarada Devi stayed alone in Kamarpukur, Ramakrishna's native village also where he was born. There, she endured poverty, verging on starvation for a year. In 1888, when the news reached the lay and monastic disciples of Ramakrishna that she needed their care and attention, they invited her to Calcutta and arranged for her stay. Swami Saradananda built a permanent house for Sarada Devi in Calcutta. The house was named the Udbodhan House, after the Bengali monthly magazine conducted by the Ramakrishna Math. It is also called Mayerbati ("Holy Mother's House"), where she spent the longest period of her life outside Jayrambati.^[28]

Sarada Devi went to Calcutta because she had many hardships in Kamarpukur. She had no financial resources and about no one could take care of her. She tried to hide her situation, but it leaked out. When the devotees at Calcutta heard this, they persuaded Sarada Devi to come to Calcutta.^[30]

At Udbodhan House, Sarada Devi was accompanied by other women disciples of Ramakrishna, Golap Ma, Yogin Ma, Lakshmi Didi and Gauri Ma being the best known. An increasing number of people began to flock for guidance, instructions and spiritual initiation.^[31] Other Western women followers of Ramakrishna Order including Sister Nivedita^[32] and Sister Devamata formed close relationship with her.^[33]^[34] According to her biographers, her innate motherliness put visitors at ease. Swami Nikhilananda, her direct disciple writes, "Though she had no children of the flesh, she had many of the spirit."^[35] She regarded all her disciples as her own children.^[36]

Sarada Devi received the highest reverence from the Ramakrishna Order and its devotees. Ramakrishna had bade her continue his mission after his death and wanted his disciples not to make any distinction between himself and her. According to her devotees and traditional biographers, the hospitality of Sarada Devi was unique and was characterized by motherly care and solicitude.^[37] Traditional accounts recount the mystical experiences of her devotees. Some dreamt of her as a goddess in human form though they had never seen her picture before. Others reportedly received their initiation from her in their dream. One such example is of Girish Chandra Ghosh, the father of Bengali drama, who reportedly saw Sarada Devi in a dream when he was nineteen years old and received a mantra. When he met her many years later, to his astonishment she was the same person in the dream.^[38]

Last days [link]

Sarada Devi spent her final years moving back and forth between Jayrambati and Calcutta. In January 1919, Sarada Devi went to Jayrambati and stayed there for over a year. During the last three months of her stay, her health seriously declined. Her strength was greatly impaired and she was brought back to Calcutta on February 27, 1920. For the next five months she continued to suffer. Before her death, she gave the last advice to the grief-stricken devotees, "But I tell you one thing—if you want peace of mind, do not find fault with others. Rather see your own faults. Learn to make the whole world your own. No one is a stranger my child: this whole world is your own!" This is considered as her last message to the world.^[31] She died at 1.30 am on July 20, 1920. Her body was cremated at the Belur Math.^[31]

Teachings and quotes [link]

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Sarada Devi

Sarada Devi did not write any books; her utterances and reminiscences have been recorded by her disciples including Swami Nikhilananda, Swami Tapasyananda.^[39] Though uneducated Sarada Devi's spiritual insight and utterances are highly regarded by scholars like Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, who writes, "We have bits and pieces of her exquisite remarks as testimony."^[10]

Practise meditation, and by and by your mind will be so calm and fixed that you will find it hard to keep away from meditation.^[40]
The mind is everything. It is in the mind alone that one feels pure and impure. A man, first of all, must make his own mind guilty and then alone can he see another man's guilt.^[41]
"I tell you one thing. If you want peace of mind, do not find fault with others. Rather see your own faults. Learn to make the whole world your own. No one is a stranger, my child; the whole world is your own."^[41]
One must have devotion towards one's own guru. Whatever may be the nature of the guru, the disciple gets salvation by dint of his unflinching devotion towards his guru.^[42]

Impact and legacy [link]

Sarada Devi played an important role as the advisory head of a nascent organization that became a monastic order devoted to social work—the Ramakrishna Mission. Gayatri Spivak writes that Sarada Devi "performed her role with tact and wisdom, always remaining in the background."^[10] She also initiated several prominent monks into the Ramakrishna Order. Swami Nikhilananda, who was a freedom fighter and a follower of Mahatma Gandhi,^[43] accepted Sarada Devi as his guru and joined the Ramakrishna Order. He eventually founded the Ramakrishna-Vivekananda Center in New York.^[44] Though uneducated herself, Sarada Devi advocated education for women. She entrusted Devamata with the implementation of her dream—a girl's school on the Ganges, where Eastern and Western pupils could study together.^[34] In 1954, Sri Sarada Math and Ramakrishna Sarada Mission, a monastic order for women was founded in the honor of Sarada Devi.^[45]

Notes [link]

^ Mookerjee, Nanda (1978). Sri Sarada Devi, consort of Sri Ramakrishna. Firma KLM. p. 15.
^ ^a ^b ^c Gahanananda, p. 95
^ "Sri Sarada Devi". Indian Express. Dec 22, 2003. http://www.indianexpress.com/oldstory.php?storyid=37760. Retrieved 2009-04-03.
^ Saradeshananda, Swami. "Introduction". The Mother As I Saw Her. http://www.hinduism.fsnet.co.uk/namoma/life_srima/life_srima_long.htm.
^ ^a ^b Gahanananda, p. 96
^ Pavitrananda (1967). A Short life of the Holy Mother. Advaita Ashrama. p. 3.
^ Jackson, p. 18
^ ^a ^b Gahanananda, p. 97 "Vain is your search in this place and that. Go to Jayrambati, and there in the house of Ramachandra Mukhopadhyaya, you will find her who is marked out for me."
^ Jackson, p. 18 "Such child marriages were still widespread in nineteenth-century India, despite vehement condemnations by both English authorities and Hind reformers. Analogous to the Western betrothal, child marriage committed the partners to one another, with the actual of living together and assuming family responsibilities delayed until puberty."
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Spivak, p. 207
^ Gahanananda, p. 98
^ Muller, Max (1898). "Râmakrishna's Life". Râmakrishna his Life and Sayings. pp. 52–53. http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rls/rls14.htm.
^ Isherwood, Christopher; Robert Adjemian (1987). The Wishing Tree. Vedanta Press. pp. 103. ISBN 978-0-06-250402-9. http://books.google.com/?id=ZBHT0VyS-5MC&pg=PA103.
^ Gahanananda, p. 99
^ Carl T. Jackson, Vedanta for the West, p. 18
^ Rolland, Romain (1929). "The Return to Man". The Life of Ramakrishna. p. 59. ISBN 81-85301-44-1.
^ Jones, Kenneth W. (1989). Socio-religious reform movements in British India. Cambridge University Press. pp. 42. ISBN 0-521-24986-4. "[Ramakrishna] worshipped her as the Divine Mother, transforming their marriage into a spiritual partnership."
^ Lisa Lassell Hallstrom (1999). Mother of Bliss. Oxford University Press. p. 69. ISBN 0-19-511648-8.
^ Prophet, Elizabeth Clare; Annice Booth (2005). Mary Magdalene and the Divine Feminine. Summit University Press. pp. 112. ISBN 1-932890-06-8.
^ ^a ^b Leo Schneiderman (Spring, 1969). "Ramakrishna: Personality and Social Factors in the Growth of a Religious Movement". Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion (London: Blackwell Publishing) 8 (1): 60–71. DOI:10.2307/1385254. JSTOR 1385254.
^ Gahanananda, p. 102
^ Sugirtharajah, Sharada (2003). Imagining Hinduism. Routledge. p. 129. ISBN 0-203-63411-X.
^ Prabhavananda (1979). Spiritual Heritage of India. Vedanta Press. p. 342. ISBN 0-87481-022-1.
^ The Gospel of the Holy Mother, "Introduction"
^ Gahanananda, p. 105
^ Gahanananda, p. 107
^ Hixon, p. xv
^ ^a ^b Gahanananda, pp. 107–108
^ ^a ^b Christopher Isherwood (1964). "The Story Continues". Ramakrishna and his Disciples. p. 314. ISBN 0-87481-037-X.
^ A Short Life of The Holy Mother by Swami Bodhasarananda
^ ^a ^b ^c Gahanananda, p. 115–116
^ Foxe, Barbara (1975). Long journey home. Rider. p. 166. ISBN 0-09-124041-7.
^ Oldmeadow, Harry (2004). Journeys East. World Wisdom, Inc,. pp. 39–40. ISBN 0-941532-57-7.
^ ^a ^b Levinsky, Sara Ann (1984). A Bridge of Dreams. SteinerBooks. p. 140. ISBN 0-89281-063-7.
^ Swami Nikhilananda. "Sarada Devi: The Holy Mother". Living Wisdom. p. 252.
^ Swami Nikhilananda. "Sarada Devi: The Holy Mother". Living Wisdom. p. 255.
^ Gahanananda, p. 113
^ Gahanananda, p. 115
^ Swami Nikhilananda (1984). Gospel of the Holy Mother Sri Sarada Devi. Sri Ramakrishna Math Printing Press. ISBN 978-81-7120-400-7.
^ Gahanananda, p. 118
^ ^a ^b Gahanananda, p. 119
^ Gahanananda, p. 120
^ Campbell, Joseph; Robin Larsen, Stephen Larsen, Antony Van Couvering (2002). Baksheesh and Brahman. New World Library. pp. 326. ISBN 0-06-016889-7.
^ Hixon, p.xiii
^ Laderman, Gary; Luis D. León, Amanda Porterfield (2003). Religion and American Cultures. ABC-CLIO. pp. 121. ISBN 1-57607-238-X.

References [link]

Ghanananda, Swami; John Stewart-Wallace (1979). "Sri Sarada Devi". Women Saints of East and West. Vedanta Press. pp. 94–121. ISBN 978-0-87481-036-3. http://books.google.com/?id=6IhLSGtuW_EC&pg=PA94.
Hixon, Lex (1997). Great Swan: Meetings With Ramakrishna. Burdett, N.Y.: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. ISBN 0-943914-80-9. http://books.google.com/?id=IEISZscMUscC.
Jackson, Carl T. (1994). Vedanta for the West. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-33098-X.
Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty (December 28, 2007). Other Asias. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 1-4051-0207-1.

External links [link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Sarada Devi

Official Website of Sri Sarada Math
saradadevi.info, Gospel of Holy Mother, Teachings.
Sarada maa stotra written by Swami Abhedananda

Persondata
Name	Devi, Sarada
Alternative names
Short description
Date of birth	22 December 1853
Place of birth	Jayrambati, West Bengal, India
Date of death	20 July 1920
Place of death	Udbodhan office, Calcutta.

Ramakrishna

Life

Family	Sarada Devi

Places	Dakshineswar Kali Temple Kamarpukur Jayrambati

Events	Kalpataru Day Ramakrishna's samadhi

Philosophy

Philosophy	Gita Vedanta Kali

Teachings	Teachings of Ramakrishna Sri Sri Ramakrishna Kathamrita The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna Views on Ramakrishna Ramakrishna's influence

Disciples

Monastic disciples	Swami Vivekananda Swami Abhedananda Swami Adbhutananda Swami Akhandananda Swami Premananda Swami Brahmananda Swami Nirmalananda Swami Shivananda Swami Ramakrishnananda Swami Subodhananda Swami Trigunatitananda Swami Vijnanananda

Household disciples	Adhar Sen Balaram Bose Durga charan Nag Girish Chandra Ghosh Keshub Chunder Sen Surendra Nath Mitra Mahendranath Gupta

Memorials

http://wn.com/Sarada_Devi

http://hi.wn.com/शारदा देवी

http://es.wn.com/Sarada Devi

This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarada_Devi

This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.

Revisions and sourced additions are welcome; please only include historical figures.

The following is a list of significant men and women known for being the father, mother, or considered the founders mostly in Western socities in a field, listed by category. In most non-science fields, the title of being the "father" is debatable.

1 Church
2 Games
3 Humanities
4 Military
5 Nations
6 Natural and social sciences
7 Sports
8 Technology
- 8.1 Fields
- 8.2 Inventions
9 Towns, cities and regions
10 Transport
11 See also
12 References

Church [link]

Main article: Church Fathers

Games [link]

Subject	Father/Mother	Reason
Miniature wargaming	H.G. Wells^[1]
The modern video game industry	Nolan Bushnell	Creator of Pong and founder of Atari and Chuck E. Cheese's
Modern video game	Shigeru Miyamoto^[2]	Creator of many successful Nintendo franchises
Role-playing game	Gary Gygax^[3]	Creator of Dungeons & Dragons
Stealth game	Hideo Kojima^[4]	Creator of the Metal Gear stealth-action games
Video game	Thomas T. Goldsmith, Jr.	Inventor of the First video game
Wargaming	Charles S. Roberts^[5]

Humanities [link]

Main article: List of persons considered a founder in a Humanities field

Military [link]

Subject	Father/Mother	Reason
Aerial warfare	Oswald Boelcke^[6]	The first to formalize rules of air fighting, which he presented as the Dicta Boelcke, also credited as being the first pilot to shoot down an aircraft.
Atomic bomb	Robert Oppenheimer^[7] Leó Szilárd^[8] Enrico Fermi^[9]
Blitzkrieg	Heinz Guderian^[10]^[11]
The West's Hydrogen bomb	Edward Teller^[12]
Atomic submarine and "nuclear navy"	Hyman G. Rickover^[13]^[14]^[15]
Fourth Generation Warfare	William S. Lind^{[citation needed]}
French sailing navy	Jean-Baptiste Colbert^[16]	Built on the fleet of France inherited from Cardinal Richelieu.
Naval Special Warfare	Phil H. Bucklew^[17]	US Naval Officer and First Commanding Officer of Navy SEAL Team One
Naval tactical studies	Paul Hoste^[18]	Jesuit Professor of Mathematics at the Royal College of the Marine in Toulon; wrote L'Art des Armées Navales (1697)
Luftwaffe and Luftstreitkräfte	Oswald Boelcke^[19]
The Soviet Union's Hydrogen Bomb	Andrei Sakharov^[20]
United States Airborne	William C. Lee^[21]	First commander of the parachute school at Fort Benning, Georgia.
United States Cavalry	Kazimierz Pułaski^[22]	Brigadier-general and commander of the cavalry of the Continental Army (1770s).
United States Navy	Commodore John Barry^[23] Captain John Paul Jones^[24]

Subject	Father/Mother	Reason
American football	Walter Camp^[25]
American motocross	Edison Dye^[26]	Introduced motorcross to American riders.
American road racing	Cameron Argetsinger^[27]	Introduced the first US auto race that was dedicated to road courses at Watkins Glen.
American soccer	Steve Ross^[28]	Godfather, created the New York Cosmos soccer team and imported a number of well known international footballers to the team in an attempt to bring interest to soccer in the US.
Angling	Izaak Walton^[29]	Author of The Compleat Angler.
Argentine football	Alexander Watson Hutton^[30]
Argentine professional golf	José Jurado^[31]
Argentine winter sports	Otto Meiling^[32]
Association football	Ebenezer Cobb Morley^[33]
Baseball	Henry Chadwick^[34]^[35]^[36]^[37]
Basketball	James Naismith	Left many diaries and interviews that explain how and when he created basketball.
BMX	Scot Breithaupt^[38]
Brazilian football	Charles William Miller^[39]
Camel Lights	Jim Downing	Built a racecar a season before it became the basis of a new lightweight prototype class in 1985.^[40]
Canadian rodeo	O. Raymond Knight^[41]	Coined the rodeo term "stampede" and was world's first rodeo producer, rodeo stock contractor, and rodeo champion in 1902.
Drag racing	Wally Parks^[42]	Founder of the NHRA and organized the first legitimate drag race.
	Don Garlits^[43]	Considered to be one of the innovators of drag racing safety.
	Eddie Hill^[44]	Regarded as the forefather of drag racing.
Drifting	Kunimitsu Takahashi^[45]	Introduced an aggressive high speed cornering technique that became widely used for illicit purposes which eventually became a sport.
East Coast skateboarding	Vinny Raffa (godfather)^[46]
Florida skateboarding	Bruce Walker (godfather)^[47]
Modern football	Ebenezer Cobb Morley^[48]
Freestyle BMX	Bob Haro^[49]^[50]
Freestyle Motocross	Mike Metzger^[51]	Godfather.
Funny Car	Dick Landy^[52]
Ice Hockey	James Creighton (ice hockey)	Captained of one of the two teams that participated in the first indoor hockey game on March 3, 1875 in Montreal.
Import drag racing	Frank Choi^[53]	Hosted one of the first events specifially for import cars in the mid-1990s to keep drivers out of street racing that progressed into a professional category.
Italian football	James Richardson Spensley^[54]	Given due to his association with Genoa CFC and his contribution to the modern day variation of the game in Italy.
Italian football	William Garbutt^[55]	Laying the foundations of skilled coaching in Italian football.
Japanese baseball	Horace Wilson^[56]	Credited for introducing baseball in Japan.
Japanese baseball	Hiroshi Hiraoka^[57]	Credited for establishing the first baseball team.
Jogging	Jim Fixx^[58]	Founding father.
Kart racing	Art Ingels^[59]	Developed the world's first kart (1956).
Lacrosse	William George Beers^[60]^[61]^[62]^[63]	Codified the sport.
Mixed martial arts	Bruce Lee^[64]	Called so by Dana White, president of the Ultimate Fighting Championship. For his experimentation into other styles and invention of Jeet Kune Do.
Modern bodybuilding	Eugen Sandow^[65]
Modern bodybuilding	Harold Zinkin^[66]	Called so by Arnold Schwarzenegger during a press statement on his passing in 2004. Inventor of the modern exercise machines.
Modern boxing	James Figg^[67]
Modern boxing	James J. Corbett^{[citation needed]}
Modern figure skating	Jackson Haines^[68]	"Jackson Haines - The Father of Figure Skating," according to Roy Blakey
Modern football in Japan	Dettmar Cramer^[69]
Modern rodeo	Earl W. Bascom^[70]	Bascom's many equipment innovations pioneered the sport starting in 1916.
Modern sabre fencing	Italo Santelli^[71]
Modern surfing	Duke Kahanamoku^[72]
Rodeo bareback bronc riding	Earl W. Bascom^[70]	Bascom designed and made the first one-hand rigging in 1924.
Rugby union	A. G. Guillemard^[73]
Rugby union	William Webb Ellis^[74]	"Who with a fine disregard for the rules of football as played in his time first took the ball in his arms and ran with it thus originating the distinctive feature of the rugby game".
Scuba diving	Jacques Cousteau^[75]	Developed the aqua-lung jointly with Émile Gagnan; popularized scuba diving as a research diver, writer, and film and television producer and personality.
Skateboarding	Skip Engblom (godfather)^[76]
Skateboarding	Tony Hawk (godfather)^[77]
Snowboarding	Jake Burton Carpenter^[78]
Stock car racing	Bill France, Sr.^[79]^[80]	Foundation of the sanctioning body for stock car racing
Supercross	Mike Goodwin^[81]	Organized the first supercross race.
Televised golf	Frank Chirkinian^[82]^[83]	Personally responsible for much of the production conventions of modern golf broadcasting.

Technology [link]

Fields [link]

Subject	Father/Mother	Reason
Aerodynamics (modern)	Sir George Cayley ^[84]^[85]	Founding father of modern Aerodynamics. The first to identify the four aerodynamic forces of flight—weight, lift, drag, and thrust. Modern airplane design is based on those discoveries.
Architecture	Imhotep^[86]	Built the first pyramid
Astronautics	Konstantin Tsiolkovsky^[87] Robert H. Goddard^[88] Hermann Oberth^[89]
Aviation	Father Francesco Lana-Terzi^[90]	Book: Prodromo alla Arte Maestra (1670). First to describe the geometry and physics of a flying vessel.
British watchmaking	Thomas Tompion^[91]
Clinical trials	James Lind^[92]	Conducted the first controlled clinical trial in the modern era of medicine, an investigation on using citrus food as a treatment for scurvy aboard HMS Salisbury in 1747
Computing	Charles Babbage^[93]	Inventor of the Analytical Engine which was never constructed in his lifetime.
Cybernetics	Norbert Wiener^[94]^[95]
Genetics	Gregor Mendel	Founder of the Genetics^[96]
Modern Bladesmithing	William F. Moran	Founder of the American Bladesmith Society
Modern Kinematics	Ferdinand Freudenstein	Applied digital computation to the kinematic synthesis of mechanisms.^[97]
Modern Knifemaking	Bob Loveless	Founder of the Knifemakers' Guild
Photography	Louis Daguerre^[98] Nicéphore Niépce^[99] William Henry Fox Talbot^[100] Thomas Wedgwood^[101]

Inventions [link]

Subject	Father/Mother	Reason
Air conditioning	Willis Carrier	^[102]
C (programming language)	Dennis Ritchie
Chronograph	George Graham^[91]^[103]	Referred so by Bernard Humbert of the Horology School of Bienne on his 1990 book he Chronograph as Graham was the first to construct a horological mechanism
Compact Disc	Kees Immink^[104]
Compiler	Grace Hopper
Computer	Konrad Zuse^[105]	Invented world's first functional program-controlled computer.
	Alan Turing^[106]^[107]	Was a secret code breaker during WWII and invented the Turing machine (1936).
	John von Neumann^[108]	Became "intrigued" with Turing's universal machine and later emphasised the importance of the stored-program concept for electronic computing (1945), including the possibility of allowing the machine to modify its own program in useful ways while running.
	John V. Atanasoff^[109]	Invented the digital computer in the 1930s
	John W. Mauchly ^[110] J.Presper Eckert^[111]	Invented the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer) in 1946. ENIAC was the first general-purpose electronic computer capable of being reprogrammed to solve a full range of computing problems.
Computer Program	Ada Lovelace^[112]	Recognized by historians as the writer of the world's first computer program which was for the Charles Babbage Analytical Engine, but was never complete within either her or his lifetime.
Ekranoplan	Rostislav Alexeev
Helicopter	Igor Sikorsky ^[113]	Invented the first successful helicopter, upon which further designs were based.
Internet	Vint Cerf^[114]^[115] Bob Kahn^[116] ^[117]	Co-invented Internet protocol (IP) and Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) in 1973, the two original protocols of the Internet protocol suite.^[118]
Instant noodle	Momofuku Ando^[119]	Inventor of the instant noodle, also founder of Nissin Foods to produce and market them.
Japanese television	Kenjiro Takayanagi^[120]^[121]
Jet engine	Frank Whittle^[122]^[123]
Karaoke	Daisuke Inoue^[124]	Inventor of the machine as a means of allowing people to sing without the need of a live back-up.
Laser	Charles Hard Townes
Lightning prediction system	Alexander Stepanovich Popov	The first lightning prediction system, the Lightning detector, was invented in 1894 by Alexander Stepanovich Popov.
Marine chronometer	John Harrison^[125]
Microprocessor	Marcian Hoff^[126] Masatoshi Shima^[127]
Mobile phone	Martin Cooper^[128]	He is the main brainchild of hand-held phone and with the help of Motorola team he developed the first handset in 1973 weighing in at two kilos.
Pentium microprocessor	Vinod Dham^[129]^[130]	The original Pentium (P5) was developed by a team of engineers, including John H. Crawford, chief architect of the original 386,^[131] and Donald Alpert, who managed the architectural team. Dror Avnon managed the design of the FPU.^[132] Dham was general manager of the P5 group.^[133] Some media sources have called him the "father of the Pentium".
Personal computer	Chuck Peddle^[134]	Developed the 6502 microprocessor, the KIM-1 and the Commodore PET
Personal computer	Henry Edward "Ed" Roberts^[135] André Truong Trong Thi^[136]
Programmable logic controller	Dick Morley^{[citation needed]}
Radio	Alexander Stepanovich Popov ^[137] Lee De Forest^[138]^[139]^[140] Guglielmo Marconi^[141] Jagdish Chandra Bose^[142] Nikola Tesla^[143]	The research of these pioneers led to the development of the radio
Radio (Radio broadcasting)	Reginald Fessenden^{[citation needed]} David Sarnoff^{[citation needed]}	Fessenden is credited as the first to broadcast radio signals on Christmas Eve, 1906. Sarnoff proposed a chain of radio stations to Marconi's associates in 1915.
Radio (FM radio)	Edwin H. Armstrong^{[citation needed]}	Obtained the first Federal Communications Commission (FCC) license to operate an FM station in Alpine, New Jersey at approximately 50 megahertz (1939)
Radiotelephony	Reginald Fessenden^[144]^[145]
Search Engine	Alan Emtage^[146]^[147]^[148]	Created Archie, a pre-Web search engine which pioneered many of the techniques used by subsequent search engines
SGML	Charles Goldfarb^[149]
Telephone	Alexander Graham Bell^[150]	See Invention of the telephone
Television	Philo T. Farnsworth^[151] Vladimir Zworykin^[152]^[153] John Logie Baird^[154]^[155]	Co-Inventors of the Electronic Television. Farnsworth invented the Image dissector while Zworykin created the Iconoscope, both fully electronic forms of television. Logie Baird invented the world's first working television system, also the first electronic color television system.
Tokamak	Lev Artsimovich
Tube structure	Fazlur Khan^[156]	Invented the tube structural system and first employed it in his designs for the DeWitt-Chestnut Apartments, John Hancock Center and Sears Tower.
World Wide Web	Tim Berners-Lee^[157]
Visual Basic	Alan Cooper^[158]
XML	Jon Bosak^[159]

Towns, cities and regions [link]

Subject	Father/Mother	Reason
British Columbia	James Douglas^[160]	Fur trader and manager for the North West Company and Hudson's Bay Company, Governor of the Colony of Vancouver Island and first Governor of the Colony of British Columbia.
Lan Kwai Fong	Allan Zeman^[161]	Noted for turning a small square of streets in Central, into a thriving bar and night life districts in Hong Kong.

Transport [link]

Subject	Father/Mother	Reason
20th century American car industry	Henry Ford^[162]	Noted for introducing a simple and affordable car for the ordinary American masses.
American Interstate Highway System	Dwight D. Eisenhower^[163]
High-performance VW industry	Gene Berg^[164]
Hot rod	Ed Winfield^[165]
Import Car Culture	RJ DeVera^[166]	Influential for popularising the import car scene in the mid-1990s.
Kustom Kulture	Von Dutch^[167]
Monster truck	Bob Chandler^[168]	Famed for building Bigfoot, which was the first to be capable of driving over cars and subsequently became one of the most famous monster truck in history
Mountain bike	Gary Fisher^[169]
Rotary engine	Felix Wankel^[170]^[171]
Route 66	Cyrus Avery^[172]
Tailfin	Harley Earl^[173]^[174]^[175]
Traffic safety	William Phelps Eno^[176]
Yellow school bus	Frank W. Cyr^[177]

References [link]

^ The Miniatures Page. The World of Miniatures - An Overview.
^ "Nintendo's Shigeru Miyamoto, 'The Father of Modern Video Games,' Receives The Jim". Reuters. 2009-01-15. http://www.reuters.com/article/pressRelease/idUS218035+15-Jan-2009+PRN20090115.
^ Rausch, Allen (August 15, 2004). "Gary Gygax Interview - Part I". GameSpy. http://pc.gamespy.com/articles/538/538817p1.html. Retrieved 2005-01-03.
^ "Hideo Kojima 'GDC 2009 Keynote' video Part 2 of 4". 1UP.com. March 26, 2009. http://gamevideos.1up.com/video/id/24175. Retrieved 2010-04-01.
^ "Charles S. Roberts: The Founding Father"
^ http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=8194
^ J Robert Oppenheimer
^ Bernstein, Barton J: "Introduction" to The Voice of the Dolphins and Other Stories (expanded edition), by Leo Szilard. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1992, p.5: "Its author, Leo Szilard, now dead nearly three decades, was a Hungarian émigré scientist and one of many putative fathers of the A-bomb."
^ Lichello, R. (1971). Enrico Fermi: Father of the Atomic Bomb. SamHar Press. ISBN 978-0-87157-011-6. http://books.google.com/?id=Xh8eKgAACAAJ&dq=Lichello.
^ Chris Trueman. "Heinz Guderian". http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/heinz_guderian.htm. Retrieved 2009-05-26.
^ Chris Shimp (March 1, 2001). "General Heinz Guderian: The Father of Blitzkrieg". http://history.sandiego.edu/GEN/st/~cshimp/guderian.htm. Retrieved 2009-05-26.
^ "'Father of H-Bomb' Agrees to Rally Scientific Talent." The New York Times, December 31, 1965, p.19. Story opens: "Albany, December 30—Governor Rockefeller will make an intensified attack on air pollution with the help of Dr. Edward Teller, the 'father of the hydrogen bomb.'"
^ Jeffries, John (2001). Justice Lewis F. Powell, Jr. Fordham Univ Press. ISBN 0-8232-2110-5. , p.162: "'Admiral Rickover', said Powell, '"father of the atomic submarine", is a great naval officer... It is not equally clear that he is a careful and thorough student of American education.'"
^ "Submarine Range Called Unlimited; Rickover Says Atomic Craft Can Cruise Under Ice To North Pole and Beyond," The New York Times, December 6, 1957, p.33: "The admiral, who is often called the 'Father of the Atomic Submarine'..."
^ Galantin, I. J. (1997). Submarine Admiral: From Battlewagons to Ballistic Missiles. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-252-06675-8. , p. 217: "Chet Holifield... member of the JCAE... said 'Of all the men I dealt with in public service, at least one will go down in history: Admiral Hyman G. Rickover, the father of the nuclear Navy.'"
^ Warner, Oliver (1973). Great Battle Fleets. Hamlyn. p. 98. ISBN 0-600-33913-0 ISBN 978-0-600-33913-7.
^ Lanning, Col. Michael Lee (October 29, 2002). Blood Warriors: American Military Elites. New York: Ballantine. pp. 368. ISBN 978-0-345-44891-0.
^ Warner, Oliver (1973). Great Battle Fleets. Hamlyn. p. 96. ISBN 0-600-33913-0 ISBN 978-0-600-33913-7.
^ http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/FWWboelcke.htm
^ "Andrei Sakharov: Soviet Physics, Nuclear Weapons, and Human Rights". Center for the History of Physics. American Institute of Physics. http://www.aip.org/history/sakharov/. Retrieved 2007-03-03.
^ "General William C. Lee: Father of the Airborne". Archived from the original on 2008-06-12. http://web.archive.org/web/20080612100930/http://www.screamingeagle.org/WilliamLeeChapter/williamclee.htm. Retrieved 2008-07-12.
^ Yale Richmond (1995). From Da to Yes: understanding the East Europeans. Intercultural Press. p. 72. ISBN 1-877864-30-7, ISBN 978-1-877864-30-8. http://books.google.com/?id=2Y8GNIp42ysC&printsec=frontcover.
^ John Barry Kelly. "Commodore Barry". http://www.ushistory.org/people/commodorebarry.htm. Retrieved 2007-06-16.
^ Hoover Library, "Revolutionary America! Where Did We Go From There? The Continental Navy -- John Paul Jones"
^ http://www.collegefootball.org/famersearch.php?id=88004
^ http://www.motorcyclemuseum.org/halloffame/hofbiopage.asp?id=163
^ http://www.wheels.ca/newsFeatures/article/485678
^ http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/eticket/story?page=cosmos
^ New International Encyclopedia. New York City: Dodd, Mead and Company. 1914. pp. Fathers.
^ "32". International Federation of Football History & Statistics. http://www.iffhs.de/?29dad5a85ad4a91b972b9815e85fdcdc3bfcdc0aec28d6eda0a70c. Retrieved November 9, 2011. "Arnoldo Pencliffe Watson Hutton (20.8.1886-29.7.1951), popularly known as "El Fantástico", was the son of Scotsman Alexander (Alejandro) Watson Hutton, who was a football pioneer and is considered the father of Argentine football."
^ "Pro Shop & Clubhouse". Algodon Wine Estates. InvestProperty Group, LLC. http://www.algodonwineestates.com/en_US/tourism/golf/proshop/_view/lang=en_US. Retrieved November 9, 2011. "Only at our pro shop can you find unique AWE merchandise, as well as memorabilia of the legends who inspire us; José Jurado, "The Father of Argentine Professional Golf", and José Luis Clerc ("Batata"), one of the most important Argentine tennis players in history."
^ Mirodan, Seamus (February 14, 2004). "Nazis' Argentine village hide-out pulls in tourists". The Sunday Telegraph (London). http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/southamerica/argentina/1454352/Nazis-Argentine-village-hide-out-pulls-in-tourists.html. Retrieved November 9, 2011. "Across the road from Priebke's delicatessen is the Club Andino Bariloche, a mountaineering association set up in 1931 by Otto Meiling, the father of Argentine winter sports and a former member of the Hitler Youth."
^ http://www.sportsbooks.net/soccer/history.html
^ "Henry Chadwick, Chad, The Father of Base Ball [sic]"; National Baseball Hall of Fame bio,[1]. Not a player, but a journalist and organizer, the Hall of Fame credits him as "inventor of the box score" and "author of the first rule-book."
^
- 'Spalding's Baseball Guide and Official League Book for 1889, ed. Henry Chadwick at Project Gutenberg: "Henry Chadwick, the veteran journalist, upon whom the honored sobriquet of 'Father of Base Ball[sic]' rests so happily and well, appears in portraiture, and so well preserved in his physical manhood that his sixty-three years rest lightly upon his well timed life."
^ "Matty" at Harvard; The New York Times, February 16, 1909, p. 7: "Charles H. Ebbets, Chairman of the Chadwick Monument Committee, has announced that the contract has been awarded for a suitable monument to be placed on the plot in Greenwood[sic] Cemetery where the remains of the late Henry Chadwick, 'the Father of Baseball,' repose."
^ Collins, Glen (2004): "Ground as Hallowed as Cooperstown," The New York Times, April 1, 2004. (Article on baseball notables interred in the Green-Wood Cemetery in Brooklyn) "Among the nearly 600,000 people buried there are no less than four pioneers who were accorded the title 'Father of Baseball' in the popular press: Henry Chadwick, Duncan Curry, William Tucker and William Wheaton....The memorial for Henry Chadwick bears a 'Father of Base Ball' inscription.... [Duncan] Curry, first president of the Knickerbocker Baseball Club, is immortalized with a monument that proudly dubs him 'Father of Baseball' because he headed the club that scholars say first codified many of the game's rules...."
^ http://citracycling.multiply.com/journal/item/27
^ Hamilton, Aidan (1998). An Entirely Different Game, The British Influence on Brazilian Football. Mainstream Publishing. ISBN 1-84018-041-2.
^ Goudinoff, Connie (1992). Mazda Motorsports: 20 Victorious Years in America. Motorbooks International. p. 96. ISBN 0-87938-582-0.
^ Hicken, J.O. Ed. "Raymond Roundup 1902–1967". Lethbridge, Alberta Canada: The Lethbridge Herald Company, Ltd., 1967. pp. 243, 519.
^ http://www.mshf.com/hof/parks_wally.htm
^ http://www.recordnet.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20091003/A_SPORTS/910030344#STS=g0jw5l2c.1e6j
^ http://www.motorsport.com/news/article.asp?ID=30337&FS=NHRA
^ http://ezinearticles.com/?The-History-of-Drifting&id=875478
^ http://boarding.com/skate/video/totalvid/2/7.html
^ http://www.skaterlegends.com/skaters/bruce_walker.htm
^ http://www.hull.co.uk/websitefiles/Did%20You%20Know.pdf
^ http://www.pinkbike.com/news/article1273.html
^ http://www.23mag.com/com/haro/haro.htm
^ http://www.freestyle-motocross.co.uk/top3-freestyle-motocross-riders
^ http://www.mopar.com/life/legends/dicklandy.html
^ "Frank Choi, the father of import drag racing, has done it again..." http://turbohightechperformance.automotive.com/65970/turp-0311-battle-in-virginia-drag-race/index.html
^ "English Players in Italy". RSSSF.com. http://www.rsssf.com/players/eng-players-in-it.html. Retrieved August 2007.
^ http://www.target.com/William-Garbutt-Father-Italian-Football/dp/1899807829
^ http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/16820/the_social_impact_of_japanese_baseball_pg2_pg2.html?cat=9
^ Klein, Christopher (2006-10-01). "A passion for the Sox in Kyoto's Fenway Park". The Boston Globe. http://www.boston.com/travel/articles/2006/10/01/a_passion_for_the_sox_in_kyotos_fenway_park/?page=2.
^ "Fathers (and mothers) of invention: ultimate victims of their own success". The Independent (London). 2004-02-12. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/fathers-and-mothers-of-invention-ultimate-victims-of-their-own-success-569681.html. Retrieved 2010-05-08.
^ http://www.vintagekarts.com/ingels.htm - vintagekarts.com
^ STX Lacrosse
^ HickokSports.com - History - Lacrosse
^ Lacrosse History. Historical Facts About Lacrosse
^ http://www.schoolnet.ca/aboriginal/handbook/arts_lacrosse.html
^ Wickert, Marc. 2004. Dana White and the future of UFC. kucklepit.com. See Wikiquotes for the text.
^ http://www.musclepowershop.com/2009/04/eugene-sandow-father-of-bodybuilding.html
^ http://gov.ca.gov/press-release/2761/
^ http://www.eastsideboxing.com/news.php?p=4864&more=1
^ Roy Blakey's Icestage Archive, accessed December 15, 2011.
^ http://www.worldsoccer.com/blogs/the-football-professor-a-profile-of-dettmar-cramer
^ ^a ^b Elgin, Fran, et al. Editors. "Mohahve VI, A Collection of Histories", Hesperia, California, USA: Mohahve Historical Society, 2011. pp.77.
^ Santelli bio including several references backing up the statement, including a quote from Dr. William Gaugler December 1997: "I am, in fact, only two generations removed from the 'father of modern sabre' [referring to Santelli]".
^ http://www.surfingmuseum.org/collection/duke/duke.html
^ http://www.basicbloganomics.com/2009/03/first-fa-cup-final-on-march-16-1872.html
^ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:WWEplaque_700.jpg
^ Diving Almanac article.
^ http://www.kontinent.se/slideshow.php?story=70
^ http://www.danshamptons.com/content/hamptonstyle/2008/july_11/11.html
^ http://www.nestle.bg/news.details.asp?lang=1&nid=48&page=1
^ "The Hall dinner and ceremony that also would include induction of William H.G. France, the father of stock car racing" http://books.simonandschuster.com/Wildest-Ride/Joe-Menzer/9780743226257/excerpt_with_id/14145
^ http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1842&dat=19920609&id=KFAeAAAAIBAJ&sjid=YscEAAAAIBAJ&pg=1892,1191270
^ http://www.drivingtoday.com/wcco/features/archive/thompson/index.html
^ Dolch, Craig (March 4, 2011). "Chirkinian's impact on televised golf can't be overstated". PGATOUR.com. http://www.pgatour.com/2011/r/03/04/dolch-column-chirkinian/index.html. Retrieved July 15, 2011. "Bringing sounds to golf is just part of the reason why Chirkinian — who is considered "the father of televised golf" — was elected February 9 into the World Golf Hall of Fame on an emergency vote."
^ Goldstein, Richard (March 5, 2011). "Frank Chirkinian, the Father of Televised Golf, Dies at 84". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/06/sports/golf/06chirkinian.html. Retrieved July 15, 2011. "Frank is universally regarded as the father of golf television,” Jim Nantz, CBS’s longtime lead golf announcer, told the PGA Tour Web site this year. “He invented it. He took a sport that no one knew how to televise and made it interesting. He brought the Masters tournament to life."
^ "Sir George Carley (British Inventor and Scientist)". Britannica. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/100795/Sir-George-Cayley-6th-Baronet. Retrieved 2009-07-26. "English pioneer of aerial navigation and aeronautical engineering and designer of the first successful glider to carry a human being aloft."
^ "The Pioneers: Aviation and Airmodelling". http://www.ctie.monash.edu.au/hargrave/cayley.html. Retrieved 2009-07-26. "Sir George Cayley, is sometimes called the 'Father of Aviation'. A pioneer in his field, he is credited with the first major breakthrough in heavier-than-air flight. He was the first to identify the four aerodynamic forces of flight—weight, lift, drag, and thrust—and their relationship and also the first to build a successful human carrying glider."
^ Albert Gallatin Mackey, The Builder Magazine, December 1922, Volume VIII, Number 12, Part XVI.
^ Tsiolkovskiy
^ Goddard
^ Oberth
^ Woods, Thomas. How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization, p 36. (Washington, DC: Regenery, 2005); ISBN 0-89526-038-7.
^ ^a ^b . http://www.watchtime.com/2010/03/the-man-behind-the-brand-george-graham/.
^ Twyman, Richard (22 September 2004). "A brief history of clinical trials". The Human Genome. Wellcome Trust. http://genome.wellcome.ac.uk/doc_WTD020948.html. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
^ Lee, J.A.N. (1995). International Biographical Dictionary of Computer Pioneers. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn. ISBN 1-884964-47-8.
^ Belzer, Belzer (1977). Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Technology: Volume 7 - Curve Fitting to Early Development.... Marcel Dekker. ISBN 0-262-73009-X. , p. 55: "It is probably not an accident that the 'father of cybernetics,' Norbert Wiener, ..."
^ Wiener, Norbert (1965) [1948]. Cybernetics, Second Edition: or the Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine. MIT Press. ISBN 0-8247-2257-4. (Wiener is credited with coining the term in its common modern usage)
^ Bowler, Peter J. (2003). Evolution: the history of an idea. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-23693-9.
^ http://www.springerlink.com/content/p68g683357756307/fulltext.pdf?page=1 Life and career of Ferdinand Freudenstein
^ Barger, M. Susan; William B. White (2000). The Daguerreotype: Nineteenth-Century Technology and Modern Science. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-6458-5. p. 20, "Louis Jacques Monde Daguerre: The second father of photography is Daguerre..."
^ Barger, M. Susan; William B. White (2000). The Daguerreotype: Nineteenth-Century Technology and Modern Science. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-6458-5. p. 17, "The first father of photography was Nicéphore Niépce...."
^ Ellis, Roger (2001). Who's Who in Victorian Britain. Stackpole Books. ISBN 0-8117-1640-6. , p. 116: cites book title: "A. H. Booth: William Henry Fox Talbot: father of photography, 1965".
^ Booth, Martin (1999). Opium: A History. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-20667-4. p. 30 "Robert Hall, the divine, was addicted [to opium], as was Thomas Wedgwood, the father of photography."
^ The Father of Cool - Willis Haviland Carrier and Air Conditioning
^ http://www.thetimetv.com/news-brawn-announces-new-team-partnership-with-graham-london-859-133
^ Untitled Document
^ Konrad Zuse's versus John von Neumann's Computer Concepts
^ Gray, Paul (1999-03-29). "Alan Turing - Time 100 People of the Century". Time. http://www.time.com/time/time100/scientist/profile/turing.html. Retrieved 2009-06-13. "The fact remains that everyone who taps at a keyboard, opening a spreadsheet or a word-processing program, is working on an incarnation of a Turing machine"
^ 'Father of the computer' honoured - BBC News, Monday, 7 June 2004
^ The Modern History of Computing - Standford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
^ Bruner, Jeffrey. "Atanasoff, father of the computer, dies at 91". Rebuilding the ABC. Ames Laboratory. http://www.scl.ameslab.gov/ABC/Articles/Register6-95.html. Retrieved 2006-07-28.
^ "Inventor Profile: John Mauchly". Invent Now - Hall of Fame. North Canton, OH, USA: National Inventors Hall of Fame. March 29, 2004. http://www.invent.org/hall_of_fame/182.html. Retrieved December 12, 2011.
^ "Inventor Profile: J. Presper Eckert". Invent Now - Hall of Fame. North Canton, OH, USA: National Inventors Hall of Fame. March 29, 2004. http://www.invent.org/hall_of_fame/181.html. Retrieved December 12, 2011.
^ Ada Lovelace
^ Igor Sikorsky is considered to be the "father" of helicopters not because he invented the first. He is called that because he invented the first successful helicopter, upon which further designs were based, an article from inventors.About.com by Mary Bellis
^ Making Televised Emergency Information Accessible from the Gallaudet University website
^ Although it's a title he objects to (see Interview with Vinton Cerf, from a January 2006 article in Government Computer News), Cerf is willing to call himself one of the Internet's fathers, citing Bob Kahn in particularly as being someone with whom he should share that title.
^ Kahn do, No (2007). " Father of internet warns against Net Neutrality", The Register, Thursday 18 January
^ Louis Pouzin
^ "Fascinating facts about the invention of the Internet by Vinton Cerf in 1973". The Great Idea Finder. http://www.ideafinder.com/history/inventions/internet.htm.
^ http://www.wakin-web.com/Wakin/NewsVault/InstantNoodles.html
^ "Kenjiro Takayanagi: The Father of Japanese Television". NHK Science & Technical Research Laboratories. http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution-of-tv-en/p05/. Retrieved 2006-12-09.
^ "Kenjiro Takayanagi, Electrical Engineer, 91 (obituary)". New York Times. 1990-07-25. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C0CE6D61231F936A15754C0A966958260. Retrieved 2006-12-09.
^ "Sculpture to jet engine inventor". BBC News. 2005-10-20. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/coventry_warwickshire/4362374.stm. Retrieved 2010-05-08.
^ Aircraft Engine
^ http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-234142.html
^ . http://wwp.greenwichmeantime.com/clocks-n-watches/watch/watches/harrison/index.htm.
^ http://www.rpi.edu/about/hof/hoff.html
^ "Kosaku Inagaki’s Home Page". Kyoto University. http://inagaki.ist.i.kyoto-u.ac.jp. Retrieved 2010-04-01.
^ "Meet the man who invented the mobile phone". BBC News. 2010-04-23. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/click_online/8639590.stm. Retrieved 2010-05-08.
^ The Technology Trailblazer: Vinod Dham. University of Cincinnati.
^ Priya Ganapati at Techfest 99, IIT Bombay. Rediff.com.
^ p. 54, "Intel Turns 35: Now What?", David L. Margulius, InfoWorld, July 21, 2003, ISSN 0199-6649.
^ p. 21, "Architecture of the Pentium microprocessor", D. Alpert and D. Avnon, IEEE Micro, 13, #3 (June 1993), pp. 11–21, doi:10.1109/40.216745.
^ p. 90, "Inside Intel", Business Week, #3268, June 1, 1992.
^ Commodore History: Chuck Peddle
^ "Microsoft founders lead tributes to 'father of the PC'". BBC News. April 2, 2010. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/8600493.stm. Retrieved April 2, 2010.
^ A Talk with the Father of Computing, Wired Magazine
^ The "The First Electronic Church of America" website poses the question: "Russia's Popov: Did he 'invent' radio?" According to this account, Alexander Popov is the "radio man." Among other things, it notes that Popov reported sending and receiving a wireless signal across a 600 yards distance in 1895. Two years later, it says, he set up a shore station at Kronstadt and equipped the Russian navy cruiser Africa with his wireless communications apparatus to provide ship-to-shore communication., an article by Stan Horzepa wondering who is the father of the radio
^ De Forest, Lee (1950). Father of Radio: The Autobiography of Lee de Forest. Chicago: Wilcox & Follett. (This book sold fewer than a thousand copies and is accordingly rare and expensive today).
^ Dennis, Everette E..; Edward Pease (1994). Radio—The Forgotten Medium. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 1-56593-873-9. , p. 198: "the egotistical Lee De Forest who discovered, however unwittingly, the audion tube that allowed him to proclaim himself 'the father of radio'"
^ Shurkin, Joseph (1996). Engines of the Mind: The Evolution of the Computer from the Mainframes to Microprocessors. W. W. Norton and Company. ISBN 0-393-31471-5. , p. 132: "De Forest, who was not a modest man, called himself the 'Father of Radio,' an epithet whose accuracy is debatable."
^ Guglielmo Marconi - the "father of radio"
^ A. K. Sen (1997). "Sir J.C. Bose and radio science", Microwave Symposium Digest 2 (8-13), pp. 557-560.
^ Ask the average person "Who invented radio?" and the average answer will be "Marconi." Ask the same question on the Internet, and the average answer will not likely be "Marconi." Instead, try one of the following on for size: Nikola Tesla, Alexander Popov, Oliver Lodge, Reginald Fessenden, Heinrich Hertz, Mahlon Loomis, Nathan Stubblefield, James Clerk Maxwell and even Thomas Edison, among others, an article by Stan Horzepa wondering who is the father of the radio
^ McLuhan, Marshall; Barrington Nevitt (1972). Take Today; the Executive as Dropout. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. ISBN 0-15-187830-7. "Fessenden, the Forgotten Father of 'Wireless' Telephony" (section heading)[2]
^ Zuill, William S. (2001): The Forgotten Father of Radio", American Heritage of Science and Technology, 17(1)40–47, as cited in Silverman, Steve (2003). Lindbergh's Artificial Heart: More Fascinating True Stories From Einstein's Refrigerator. Andrews McMeel Publishing. ISBN 0-7407-3340-0. p. 160
^ [3] from the Eweek website
^ [4] History of the Internet
^ [5] History of the Search Engine - What Came Before Google?
^ XML for Newcomers and Managers - Part I
^ Van Meggelen, Jim; Jared Smith, Leif Madsen (2005). Asterisk: The Future of Telephony. O'Reilly. ISBN 0-596-00962-3. , p.190: "Although Alexander Graham Bell is most famously remembered as the father of the telephone, the reality is that during the latter half of the 1800s dozens of minds were at work on the project of carrying voice over telegraph lines."
^ http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/F/htmlF/farnsworthp/farnsworthp.htm
. Society of Television Engineers. URL accessed January 20, 2008. "Isn't it about time that Philo Farnsworth gets some credit???
^ "Zworykin at IEEE Global History Network". http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/Vladimir_Zworykin. Retrieved 2008-03-03. ""the oft-called Father of Television Vladimir Zworykin""
^ "Zworykin at Museum.TV". http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/Z/htmlZ/zworykinvla/zworykinvla.htm. Retrieved 2008-03-03. ""inventor Vladimir Zworykin is often described as "the father of television". ""
^ "John Logie Baird: TV Inventor". http://www.sydenham.org.uk/john_logie_baird.html. Retrieved 2009-07-26. "John Logie Baird invented Television in 1926. His initial TV system was electro-mechanical. He (later) embraced electronic TV and developed the world's first color television system."
^ "The World's First High Definition Color Television System". http://www.bairdtelevision.com/colour.html. Retrieved 2009-07-26.
^ Weingardt, Richard (2005). Engineering Legends. ASCE Publications. p. 75. ISBN 0-7844-0801-7.
^ Three loud cheers for the father of the web, 28 January 2005, Telegraph.co.uk
^ Cooper, Alan, Why I am called "the Father of Visual Basic" "Mitchell Waite called me the "father of Visual Basic" in the foreword to what I believe was the first book ever published for VB, called the Visual Basic How-To (now in its second edition, published by The Waite Group Press). I thought the appellation was an appropriate one, and frequently use the quoted phrase as my one-line biography."
^ XML.com: "XML Father" leaves W3C for OASIS
^ BC Archives: Sir James Douglas
^ http://www.straitstimes.com/Breaking%2BNews/Asia/Story/STIStory_429594.html
^ http://trendsupdates.com/henry-ford-father-of-20th-century-american-industry/
^ Federal Highway Administration [6]. URL accessed July 21, 2006.
^ http://www.vwtrendsweb.com/features/0106vwt_people/index.html
^ http://www.hemmings.com/mus/stories/2008/02/01/hmn_feature17.html
^ http://www.versusmotorsport.com/about_us.php
^ http://www.hotrod.com/eventcoverage/kustom_kulture_tribute/index.html
^ http://mthof.angelfire.com/CLASS2008.html
^ http://www.bvv.cz/i2000/Akce/b-slife.nsf/WWWAllPDocsID/BEXP-7L6PQ9?OpenDocument&LANG=GB&NAV=1&ID=0
^ http://irishcar.com/wankelge.htm
^ http://www.rotorhead.ca/articles/2002/12/22/felix-wankel-bio/
^ Steil, Tim (2000). Route 66. MBI Publishing Company. p. 18. ISBN 0-7603-0747-4. "Avery, though dubbed the 'Father of Route 66' by some, was a political appointee who also left office the next year."
^ http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=X91l3wqJnikC&pg=PA179&lpg=PA179&dq=%22father+of+the+tail+fin%22&source=bl&ots=0R7qHrSvev&sig=NllowJaW5UQa_SJB7MZgZOoVbWA&hl=en&ei=xTYaTZ2WKIa4hAeOj_W3Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22father%20of%20the%20tail%20fin%22&f=false
^ McCosh, Dan (2003-03-07). "DRIVING; Most Cars Are Born As Models of Clay". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2003/03/07/travel/driving-most-cars-are-born-as-models-of-clay.html?src=pm.
^ http://www.retrofuture.com/index.php/2009/01/24/harley-earls-dream-car-the-firebird-iii/
^ Eno Transportation Foundation [7]. URL accessed August 23, 2006.
^ Watson, Rollin J. (2002). The School As a Safe Haven. Bergen Garvey/Greenwood. p. 30. ISBN 0-89789-900-8. http://books.google.com/?id=uNbd6oIXm0MC&pg=PA30&lpg=PA30. "The modern school bus began in a conference in 1939 called by Frank W. Cyr, the 'Father of the Yellow School' bus, who was a professor at Teachers College, Columbia University. At that meeting, Cyr urged the standardization of the school bus. Participants came up with the standard yellow color and some basic construction standards. Cyr had... found that children were riding in all sorts of vehicles—one district, he found, was painting their buses red, white, and blue to instill patriotism."

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