The spectrogram of the human voice reveals its rich harmonic content.

The human voice consists of sound made by a human being using the vocal folds for talking, singing, laughing, crying, screaming, etc. Its frequency ranges from about 60 to 7000 Hz. The human voice is specifically that part of human sound production in which the vocal folds (vocal cords) are the primary sound source. Generally speaking, the mechanism for generating the human voice can be subdivided into three parts; the lungs, the vocal folds within the larynx, and the articulators. The lung (the pump) must produce adequate airflow and air pressure to vibrate vocal folds (this air pressure is the fuel of the voice). The vocal folds (vocal cords) are a vibrating valve that chops up the airflow from the lungs into audible pulses that form the laryngeal sound source. The muscles of the larynx adjust the length and tension of the vocal folds to ‘fine tune’ pitch and tone. The articulators (the parts of the vocal tract above the larynx consisting of tongue, palate, cheek, lips, etc.) articulate and filter the sound emanating from the larynx and to some degree can interact with the laryngeal airflow to strengthen it or weaken it as a sound source.

The vocal folds, in combination with the articulators, are capable of producing highly intricate arrays of sound.^[1][2][3] The tone of voice may be modulated to suggest emotions such as anger, surprise, or happiness.^[4][5] Singers use the human voice as an instrument for creating music.^[6]

Voice types and the folds (cords) themselves[link]

A labeled anatomical diagram of the vocal folds or cords.

Adult men and women have different sizes of vocal fold; reflecting the male-female differences in larynx size. Adult male voices are usually lower-pitched and have larger folds. The male vocal folds (which would be measured vertically in the opposite diagram), are between 17 mm and 25 mm in length.^[7] The female vocal folds are between 12.5 mm and 17.5 mm in length.

As seen in the illustration, the folds are located just above the vertebrate trachea (the windpipe, which travels from the lungs). Food and drink do not pass through the cords but instead pass through the esophagus, an unlinked tube. Both tubes are separated by the epiglottis, a "flap" that covers the opening of the trachea while swallowing.

The folds in both sexes are within the larynx. They are attached at the back (side nearest the spinal cord) to the arytenoids cartilages, and at the front (side under the chin) to the thyroid cartilage. They have no outer edge as they blend into the side of the breathing tube (the illustration is out of date and does not show this well) while their inner edges or "margins" are free to vibrate (the hole). They have a three layer construction of an epithelium, vocal ligament, then muscle (vocalis muscle), which can shorten and bulge the folds. They are flat triangular bands and are pearly white in color. Above both sides of the vocal cord is the vestibular fold or false vocal cord, which has a small sac between its two folds (not illustrated).

The difference in vocal folds size between men and women means that they have differently pitched voices. Additionally, genetics also causes variances amongst the same sex, with men and women's singing voices being categorized into types. For example, among men, there are bass, baritone, tenor and countertenor (ranging from E2 to even F6), and among women, contralto, mezzo-soprano and soprano (ranging from F3 to C6). There are additional categories for operatic voices, see voice type. This is not the only source of difference between male and female voice. Men, generally speaking, have a larger vocal tract, which essentially gives the resultant voice a lower-sounding timbre. This is mostly independent of the vocal folds themselves.

Voice modulation in spoken language[link]

Human spoken language makes use of the ability of almost all persons in a given society to dynamically modulate certain parameters of the laryngeal voice source in a consistent manner. The most important communicative, or phonetic, parameters are the voice pitch (determined by the vibratory frequency of the vocal folds) and the degree of separation of the vocal folds, referred to as vocal fold adduction (coming together) or abduction (separating).^[8]

The ability to vary the ab/adduction of the vocal folds quickly has a strong genetic component, since vocal fold adduction has a life-preserving function in keeping food from passing into the lungs, in addition to the covering action of the epiglottis. Consequently, the muscles that control this action are among the fastest in the body.^[8] Children can learn to use this action consistently during speech at an early age, as they learn to speak the difference between utterances such as "apa" (having an abductory-adductory gesture for the p) as "aba" (having no abductory-adductory gesture).^[8] Surprisingly enough, they can learn to do this well before the age of two by listening only to the voices of adults around them who have voices much different from their own, and even though the laryngeal movements causing these phonetic differentiations are deep in the throat and not visible to them.

If an abductory movement or adductory movement is strong enough, the vibrations of the vocal folds will stop (or not start). If the gesture is abductory and is part of a speech sound, the sound will be called Voiceless. However, voiceless speech sounds are sometimes better identified as containing an abductory gesture, even if the gesture was not strong enough to stop the vocal folds from vibrating. This anomalous feature of voiceless speech sounds is better understood if it is realized that it is the change in the spectral qualities of the voice as abduction proceeds that is the primary acoustic attribute that the listener attends to when identifying a voiceless speech sound, and not simply the presence or absence of voice (periodic energy).^[9]

An adductory gesture is also identified by the change in voice spectral energy it produces. Thus, a speech sound having an adductory gesture may be referred to as a "glottal stop" even if the vocal fold vibrations do not entirely stop.^[9] for an example illustrating this, obtained by using the inverse filtering of oral airflow.]

Other aspects of the voice, such as variations in the regularity of vibration, are also used for communication, and are important for the trained voice user to master, but are more rarely used in the formal phonetic code of a spoken language.

Physiology and vocal timbre[link]

The sound of each individual's voice is entirely unique not only because of the actual shape and size of an individual's vocal cords but also due to the size and shape of the rest of that person's body, especially the vocal tract, and the manner in which the speech sounds are habitually formed and articulated. (It is this latter aspect of the sound of the voice that can be mimicked by skilled performers.) Humans have vocal folds that can loosen, tighten, or change their thickness, and over which breath can be transferred at varying pressures. The shape of chest and neck, the position of the tongue, and the tightness of otherwise unrelated muscles can be altered. Any one of these actions results in a change in pitch, volume, timbre, or tone of the sound produced. Sound also resonates within different parts of the body, and an individual's size and bone structure can affect somewhat the sound produced by an individual.

Singers can also learn to project sound in certain ways so that it resonates better within their vocal tract. This is known as vocal resonation. Another major influence on vocal sound and production is the function of the larynx, which people can manipulate in different ways to produce different sounds. These different kinds of laryngeal function are described as different kinds of vocal registers.^[10] The primary method for singers to accomplish this is through the use of the Singer's Formant, which has been shown to be a resonance added to the normal resonances of the vocal tract above the frequency range of most instruments and so enables the singer's voice to carry better over musical accompaniment.^[11][12]

Vocal registration[link]

Vocal registration refers to the system of vocal registers within the human voice. A register in the human voice is a particular series of tones, produced in the same vibratory pattern of the vocal folds, and possessing the same quality. Registers originate in laryngeal functioning. They occur because the vocal folds are capable of producing several different vibratory patterns. Each of these vibratory patterns appears within a particular Vocal range range of pitches and produces certain characteristic sounds.^[13] the term register can be somewhat confusing as it encompasses several aspects of the human voice. The term register can be used to refer to any of the following:^[14]

• A particular part of the vocal range such as the upper, middle, or lower registers.
• A resonance area such as chest voice or head voice.
• A phonatory process.
• A certain vocal timbre.
• A region of the voice that is defined or delimited by vocal breaks.
• A subset of a language used for a particular purpose or in a particular social setting.

In linguistics, a register language is a language that combines tone and vowel phonation into a single phonological system.

Within speech pathology the term vocal register has three constituent elements: a certain vibratory pattern of the vocal folds, a certain series of pitches, and a certain type of sound. Speech pathologists identify four vocal registers based on the physiology of laryngeal function: the vocal fry register, the modal register, and the falsetto register, and the whistle register. This view is also adopted by many vocal pedagogists.^[14]

Vocal resonation[link]

Vocal resonation is the process by which the basic product of phonation is enhanced in timbre and/or intensity by the air-filled cavities through which it passes on its way to the outside air. Various terms related to the resonation process include amplification, enrichment, enlargement, improvement, intensification, and prolongation; although in strictly scientific usage acoustic authorities would question most of them. The main point to be drawn from these terms by a singer or speaker is that the end result of resonation is, or should be, to make a better sound.^[14] There are seven areas that may be listed as possible vocal resonators. In sequence from the lowest within the body to the highest, these areas are the chest, the tracheal tree, the larynx itself, the pharynx, the oral cavity, the nasal cavity, and the sinuses.^[15]

Influences of the human voice[link]

The twelve-tone musical scale, upon which some of the music in the world is based, may have its roots in the sound of the human voice during the course of evolution, according to a study published by the New Scientist. Analysis of recorded speech samples found peaks in acoustic energy that mirrored the distances between notes in the twelve-tone scale.^[16]

Voice disorders[link]

There are many disorders that affect the human voice; these include speech impediments, and growths and lesions on the vocal folds. Talking improperly for long periods of time causes vocal loading, which is stress inflicted on the speech organs. When vocal injury is done, often an ENT specialist may be able to help, but the best treatment is the prevention of injuries through good vocal production.^[17] Voice therapy is generally delivered by a speech-language pathologist.

Vocal Cord Nodules and Polyps[link]

Vocal nodules are caused over time by repeated abuse of the vocal cords which results in soft, swollen spots on each vocal cord. These spots develop into harder, callous-like growths called nodules. The longer the abuse occurs the larger and stiffer the nodules will become. Most polyps are larger than nodules and may be called by other names, such as polypoid degeneration or Reinke's edema. Polyps are caused by a single occurrence and may require surgical removal. Irritation after the removal may then lead to nodules if additional irritation persists. Speech-language therapy teaches the patient how to eliminate the irritations permanently through habit changes and vocal hygiene. Hoarseness or breathiness that lasts for more than two weeks is a common symptom of an underlying voice disorder such as nodes or polyps and should be investigated medically.^[18]

See also[link]

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• Howard, D.M., and Murphy, D.T.M. (2009). [1] Voice science acoustics and recording, San Diego: Plural Press.
• Titze, I. R. (2008). The human instrument. Sci.Am. 298 (1):94–101. [2]
• Thurman, Leon & Welch, ed., Graham (2000), Bodymind & voice: Foundations of voice education (revised ed.), Collegeville, Minnesota: The VoiceCare Network et al., ISBN 0-87414-123-0

External links[link]

Look up voice or vocal in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Voice

Wikibooks has a book on the topic of singing

• Free Voice analyzer and Biometrics displaying software from University College London
• The Head Voice and Other Problems, 1917, by D. A. Clippinger, from Project Gutenberg
• The Voice Foundation's official website
• The Anatomy of Singing
• David Harper, vocal coach: A passion for the voice that never wanes – Opera~Opera article
• Irish Voice festival official website
• How the voice works-- The Voice Works Like a Car
• Voice acoustics: an introduction from the University of New South Wales

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Fang La (died 1121) was a rebel leader who lived during the Song Dynasty. He is also featured as one of the antagonists and nemesis of the 108 Liangshan heroes in Water Margin, one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature.

Biography[link]

Fang La was a native of Shezhou (present-day She County, Anhui). However, some claimed that he was from Qingxi, Muzhou (present-day Chun'an County, Hangzhou). In 1120, Fang La led an uprising against the Song Dynasty in Qixian Village, Shezhou. Others claimed that he started the rebellion in Wannian Village, Chun'an County. Fang La's forces conquered Hangzhou and subsequently took control over parts of present-day Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Anhui and Jiangxi, with a total of 52 counties and six administrative divisions.

In 1121, the imperial court sent general Wang Yuan to lead an army to crush the rebellion. Wang Yuan's subordinate, Han Shizhong, disguised himself and infiltrated Qingxi and captured Fang La. Later, Xin Xingzong, defending general of Zhongzhou, led his army to block the exit route of Qingxi and took control of Qingxi. Fang La and 52 of his subordinates were captured and escorted to the capital city of Kaifeng by Tong Guan. Four months later, Fang La was executed in Kaifeng on a charge of treason.

By 1132-1133 or later the rebellion was linked to Manichaeism. Though not having original connection, in the public and historical conscience it became confused with the Taizhou unrest of April–June 1121, where Manichaeism was widespread.^[1]

In fiction[link]

The classical novel Water Margin presents a semi-fictional account of Fang La and his battle with the Liangshan outlaws. The outlaws are granted amnesty by Emperor Huizong of Song after defeating the imperial army five times. The emperor sends the Liangshan heroes on military campaigns to suppress rebel forces within the empire and defeat the Liao Dynasty in the north. Fang La is one of the rebel leaders based in the Jiangnan region.

Whilst the Liangshan forces suffered hardly any casualties in the campaigns against the Liao Dynasty, Tian Hu and Wang Qing, the campaign against Fang La proved to be calamitous. 59 of the original 108 heroes were killed in action, mostly by Fang's warriors, whose combat skills and abilities rival the best of Liangshan. Unlike the other rebels who do not have good leadership and experience, Fang La has rebelled for a long time and rivals the power of the Liangshan heroes.

Fang La is eventually captured by the Liangshan heroes after an elaborate infiltration scheme involving Chai Jin and Yan Qing. During his escape attempt, he is defeated by Lu Zhishen and escorted back to the capital by imperial troops under the command of Tong Guan. Four months later, Fang La is found guilty of treason and executed by slow slicing in Kaifeng.

Fang La forces[link]

Nobles[link]

• Fang Tianding (方天定) - Fang La's oldest son and crown prince

• Fang Jinzhi (方金芝) - Fang La's daughter and princess. She marries Ke Yin. She commits suicide by hanging herself after the fall of Fang La's palace in the final battle.

• Fang Jie (方傑) - Fang La's nephew

• Ke Yin (柯引) - Fang La's son-in-law. He is actually Chai Jin in undercover.

Premiers, civilian officials, magicians[link]

• Lou Minzhong (婁敏中) - the left premier of Fang La's kingdom. Originally a schoolteacher, Lou Minzhong supported Fang La during his early stages of rebellion and rose through the ranks. He refers Ke Yin (Chai Jin's undercover identity) to Fang La after being pleased with Ke's appearance, wisdom and personality. He kills Liangshan's Ruan Xiaowu after discovering Ruan's undercover identity as a mole attempting to sabotage Fang La's navy. He commits suicide after Fang La's fortress was taken by the Song army in the final battle.

• Zu Shiyuan (祖世遠) - the right premier of Fang La's kingdom. He suggests with Shi Bao and Deng Yuanjue to Fang La to send reinforcements to Muzhou when it is besieged by Liangshan forces, as it is a key barrier to Fang's palace. However Fang La cannot relocate any soldiers and refuses to send his royal palace army to help defend Muzhou. This resulted in the fall of Muzhou and Zu Shiyuan is captured by the Liangshan heroes.

• Bao Daoyi (包道乙) - a Taoist magician serving under Fang La

• Zheng Biao (鄭彪) - Bao Daoyi's student

• Deng Yuanjue (鄧元覺) - Fang La's royal advisor

• Wang Yin (王寅) - Fang La's secretary of military affairs

Generals[link]

• Shi Bao (石寶) and deputies:
  • Wen Kerang (溫克讓)
  • Zhao Yi (趙毅)
  • Leng Gong (冷恭)
  • Wang Ren (王仁)
  • Zhang Daoyuan (張道原)
  • Wu Zhi (吳值)
  • Lian Ming (廉明)
  • Feng Yi (鳳儀)

• Pang Wanchun (龐萬春) and deputies:
  • Lei Jiong (雷炯)
  • Ji Ji (計稷)

• Li Tianrun (厲天閏) and deputies:
  • Zhang Tao (張韜) - slays Liangshan's Dong Ping in an ambush when Dong was distracted by Li Tianrun.
  • Li Tianyou (厲天佑)
  • Zhang Jian (張儉)
  • Yao Yi (姚義)

• Si Xingfang (司行方) and deputies:
  • Xue Dounan (薛斗南)
  • Huang Ai (黃愛)
  • Xu Bai (徐白)
  • Mi Quan (米泉)

• Lü Shinang (吕师囊) and deputies ("12 Deities of Jiangnan"):
  • Shen Gang (沈剛) - from Fuzhou, nicknamed "Heaven Supporting Deity" (擎天神)
  • Pan Wende (潘文得) - from Shezhou, nicknamed "Youyi Deity" (游奕神)
  • Ying Ming (應明) - from Muzhou, nicknamed "Armoured Deity" (遁甲神)
  • Xu Tong (徐統) - from Mingzhou (present-day Ningbo), nicknamed "Liuding Deity" (六丁神)
  • Zhang Jinren (張近仁) - from Yuezhou, nicknamed "Thunderbolt Deity" (霹靂神). He slays Liangshan's Peng Qi by sneaking up behind him when Peng rides to fight Gao Keli to attempt to avenge for his fallen comrade Han Tao.
  • Shen Ze (沈澤) - from Hangzhou, nicknamed "Giant Deity" (巨靈神)
  • Zhao Yi (趙毅) from Huzhou, nicknamed "Great White Deity" (太白神)
  • Gao Keli (高可立) - from Xuanzhou, nicknamed "Taisui Deity" (太歲神). He kills Liangshan's Han Tao with an arrow when Han was dueling with Zhang Jinren.
  • Fan Chou (範疇) - from Changzhou, nicknamed "Diaoke Deity" (吊客神)
  • Zhuo Wanli (卓萬裡) - from Runzhou, nicknamed "Yellow Flagpole Deity" (黃幡神)
  • He Tong (和潼) - from Jiangzhou (present-day Jiangxi), nicknamed "Leopard's Tail Deity" (豹尾神)
  • Shen Bian (沈抃) - from Suzhou, nicknamed "Death Deity" (喪門神)

• Bai Qin (白欽) - one of Fang La's warriors. He fights with Lü Fang at Black Dragon Ridge. Both of them roll down the slope to their deaths after losing their balance at the edge of a cliff.

• Guo Shiguang (郭世廣) - one of Fang La's generals. He fights with Xuan Zan and both of them perish together under Yinma Bridge in Suzhou.

• Chao Zhong (晁中)
• Tang Fengshi (湯逢士)
• Wang Ji (王績)
• Yuan Xing (元興)
• Mao Di (茅迪)
• Cui Yu (崔彧)
• Su Jing (蘇涇)
• Bei Yingkui (貝應夔)

References[link]

External links[link]

• (Chinese) Fang La on Baidu Baike