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In the context of furniture, caning is a method of weaving chair seats and other furniture. Caning material is wicker such as cane, or it is derived from the skin of rattan vines native to Indonesia, the Philippines and Malaysia. Some vines reach 500 feet in length. One of the earliest woven chair seats is in the Metropolitan Museum of Art collection. It was owned by Reni-seneb, a scribe of Dynasty 18 (1539 - 1295 BC). A wood chair with ivory inlay, it had a string mesh seat which has been reconstructed. Caning or cane is a term which is incorrectly generically used to describe any woven seat.

Other kinds of woven chair seats include Rush (natural and paper), Danish Cord, Shaker Tape, Binder Cane, Flat Reed and Splint.

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A dining table for two

Furniture is the mass noun for the movable objects intended to support various human activities such as seating and sleeping. Furniture is also used to hold objects at a convenient height for work (as horizontal surfaces above the ground), or to store things.

Furniture can be a product of design and is considered a form of decorative art. In addition to furniture's functional role, it can serve a symbolic or religious purpose. Furniture can be made from many materials, including metal, plastic, and wood. Furniture can be made using a variety of woodworking joints which often reflect the local culture.

History[link]

Furniture in fashion has been a part of the human experience since the development of non-nomadic cultures. Evidence of furniture survives from the Neolithic Period and later in antiquity in the form of paintings, such as the wall Murals discovered at Pompeii; sculpture, and examples have been excavated in Egypt and found in tombs in Ghiordes, in modern day Turkey.

Neolithic period[link]

Skara Brae house Orkney Scotland evidence of home furnishings i.e. a dresser containing shelves.

A range of unique stone furniture has been excavated in Skara Brae, a Neolithic village located in Orkney. The site dates from 3100–2500 BC and due to a shortage of wood in Orkney, the people of Skara Brae were forced to build with stone, a readily available material that could be worked easily and turned into items for use within the household. Each house shows a high degree of sophistication and was equipped with an extensive assortment of stone furniture, ranging from cupboards, dressers and beds to shelves, stone seats, and limpet tanks. The stone dresser was regarded as the most important as it symbolically faces the entrance in each house and is therefore the first item seen when entering, perhaps displaying symbolic objects, including decorative artwork such as several Neolithic Carved Stone Balls also found at the site.

Classical world[link]

Ancient furniture has been excavated from the 8th-century BC Phrygian tumulus, the Midas Mound, in Gordion, Turkey. Pieces found here include tables and inlaid serving stands. There are also surviving works from the 9th-8th-century BC Assyrian palace of Nimrud. The earliest surviving carpet, the Pazyryk Carpet was discovered in a frozen tomb in Siberia and has been dated between the 6th and 3rd century BC. Recovered Ancient Egyptian furniture includes 3rd millennium BC beds discovered at Tarkhan as place for the deceased, a c. 2550 BC gilded bed and to chairs from the tomb of Queen Hetepheres, and many examples (boxes, beds, chairs) from c. 1550 to 1200 BC from Thebes. Ancient Greek furniture design beginning in the 2nd millennium BC, including beds and the klismos chair, is preserved not only by extant works, but by images on Greek vases. The 1738 and 1748 excavations of Herculaneum and Pompeii revealed Roman furniture, preserved in the ashes of the 79 A.D. eruption of Vesuvius, to the eighteenth century.

Early modern Europe[link]

Florentine cassone from the 15th century

The furniture of the Middle Ages was usually heavy, oak, and ornamented with carved designs. Along with the other arts, the Italian Renaissance of the fourteenth and fifteenth century marked a rebirth in design, often inspired by the Greco-Roman tradition. A similar explosion of design, and renaissance of culture in general, occurred in Northern Europe, starting in the fifteenth century. The seventeenth century, in both Southern and Northern Europe, was characterized by opulent, often gilded Baroque designs that frequently incorporated a profusion of vegetal and scrolling ornament. Starting in the eighteenth century, furniture designs began to develop more rapidly. Although there were some styles that belonged primarily to one nation, such as Palladianism in Great Britain or Louis Quinze in French furniture, others, such as the Rococo and Neoclassicism were perpetuated throughout Western Europe.

19th century[link]

The nineteenth century is usually defined by concurrent revival styles, including Gothic, Neoclassicism, Rococo, and the EastHaven Movement. The design reforms of the late century introduced the Aesthetic movement and the Arts and Crafts movement. Art Nouveau was influenced by both of these movements.

Early North American[link]

This design was in many ways rooted in necessity and emphasizes both form and materials. Early American chairs and tables are often constructed with turned spindles and chair backs often constructed with steaming to bend the wood. Wood choices tend to be deciduous hardwoods with a particular emphasis on the wood of edible or fruit bearing trees such as Cherry or Walnut.

Modernism[link]

Red and Blue Chair (1917), designed by Gerrit Rietveld

The first three-quarters of the twentieth century are often seen as the march towards Modernism. Art Deco, De Stijl, Bauhaus, Wiener Werkstätte, and Vienna Secession designers all worked to some degree within the Modernist idiom. Born from the Bauhaus and Art Deco/Streamline styles came the post WWII "Mid-Century Modern" style using materials developed during the war including lamenated plywood, plastics and fiberglass. Prime examples include furniture designed by George Nelson Associates, Charles and Ray Eames, Paul McCobb, Florence Knoll, Harry Bertoia, Eero Saarinen, Harvey Probber, Vladamir Kagan and Danish modern designers including Finn Juhl and Arne Jacobsen. Postmodern design, intersecting the Pop art movement, gained steam in the 1960s and 70s, promoted in the 80s by groups such as the Italy-based Memphis movement. Transitional furniture is intended to fill a place between Traditional and Modern tastes.

Stainless Steel Table with FSC Teca Wood - Brazil Ecodesign

Ecodesign[link]

Great efforts from individuals, governments, and companies has led to the manufacturing of products with higher sustainability known as Ecodesign. This new line of furniture is based on environmentally friendly design. Its use and popularity are increasing each year.^{[citation needed]}

Contemporary[link]

One unique outgrowth of post-modern furniture design is Live edge, heralding a return to natural shapes and textures within the home.^[1]

Asian history[link]

Sendai-dansu for kimono, zelkova wood, note the elaborate ironwork, handles on side for transportation, and lockable compartment

Asian furniture has a quite distinct history. The traditions out of India, China, Pakistan, Indonesia (Bali and Java) and Japan are some of the best known, but places such as Korea, Mongolia, and the countries of South East Asia have unique facets of their own.

The use of uncarved wood and bamboo and the use of heavy lacquers are well known Chinese styles. It is worth noting that China has an incredibly rich and diverse history, and architecture, religion, furniture and culture in general can vary incredibly from one dynasty to the next.

Traditional Japanese furniture is well known for its minimalist style, extensive use of wood, high-quality craftsmanship and reliance on wood grain instead of painting or thick lacquer. Japanese chests are known as Tansu, known for elaborate decorative iron work, and are some of the most sought-after of Japanese antiques. The antiques available generally date back to the Tokugawa era and Meiji era.

Types of furniture[link]

Types of wood to make furniture[link]

All different type of woods have unique signature marks, that can help in easy identification of the type. There are hardwoods and softwoods. Both are used in furniture manufacturing, and each have their own specific uses^[2]

References[link]

External links[link]

Design portal

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Furniture

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Furniture

• Images of furniture design available from the Visual Arts Data Service (VADS) - including images from the Frederick Parker Chair Collection, Design Council Archives, and the Design Council Slide Collection.
• Dictionary of the History of Furniture
• History of Furniture Timeline From Maltwood Art Museum and Gallery, University of Victoria
• Illustrated History Of Furniture
• Home Economics Archive: Tradition, Research, History (HEARTH)
  An e-book collection of over 1,000 books on home economics spanning 1850 to 1950, created by Cornell University's Mann Library. Includes several hundred works on furniture and interior design in this period, itemized in a specific bibliography.

Artist Lucy Telles and large basket, in Yosemite National Park,1933.

A woman weaves a basket in Cameroon

Woven bamboo basket for sale in K. R. Market, Bangalore, India

For the prehistoric Basketmaker culture, see Basketmaker culture.

Basket weaving (also basketry, basket making, or basketmaking) is the process of weaving unspun vegetable fibres into a basket or other similar form. People and artists who weave baskets are called basketmakers and basket weavers.

Basketry is made from a variety of fibrous or pliable materials•anything that will bend and form a shape. Examples include pine straw, stems, animal hair, hide, grasses, thread, and wood.

The indigenous peoples and the native and aboriginal tribes are renowned for their basket-weaving techniques. These baskets may then be traded for goods but may also be used for religious ceremonies.

Basketry types[link]

Basketry can be classified into four types: Catherine Erdly ^[1]

"Coiled" basketry

using grasses and rushes

"Plaiting" basketry

using materials that are wide and ribbon-like, such as palms, yucca or New Zealand flax

"Twining" basketry

using materials from roots and tree bark. Twining actually refers to a weaving technique where two or more flexible weaving elements ("weavers") cross each other as they weave through the stiffer radial spokes.

"Wicker" and "Splint" basketry

using reed, cane, willow, oak, and ash

plain weave

Materials used in basketry[link]

Weaving with rattan core (also known as reed) is one of the more popular techniques being practiced because it is easily available.^[1] It is pliable and when woven correctly, it is very sturdy. Also, while traditional materials like oak, hickory, and willow might be hard to come by, reed is plentiful and can be cut into any size or shape that might be needed for a pattern. This includes flat reed, which is used for most square baskets; oval reed which is used for many round baskets; and round reed which is used to twine; another advantage is that reed can also be dyed easily to look like oak or hickory. The type of baskets that reed is used for are most often referred to as "wicker" baskets, though another popular type of weaving known as "twining" is also a technique used in most wicker baskets.

The basket weaving process[link]

The parts of a basket are the base, the side walls, and the rim. A basket may also have a lid, handle, or embellishments.

Most baskets begin with a base. The base can either be woven with reed or wooden. A wooden base can come in many shapes to make a wide variety of shapes of baskets. The 'static' pieces of the work are laid down first. In a round basket they are referred to as 'spokes'; in other shapes they are called 'stakes' or 'staves'. Then the 'weavers' are used to fill in the sides of a basket.

A wide variety of patterns can be made by changing the size, colour, or by placement of a certain style of weave. To achieve a multi-coloured effect, aboriginal artists first dye the twine and then weave the twines together in elaborate fashions.

History[link]

While basket weaving is one of the widest spread crafts in the history of any human civilization, it is hard to say just how old the craft is because natural materials like wood, grass, and animal remains decay naturally and constantly. So without proper preservation, much of the history of basket making has been lost and is simply speculated upon.

The oldest known baskets have been carbon dated to between 10,000 and 12,000 years old, earlier than any established dates for archeological finds of pottery, and were discovered in Faiyum in upper Egypt.^[1] Other baskets have been discovered in the Middle East that are up to 7,000 years old. However, baskets seldom survive, as they are made from perishable materials. The most common evidence of a knowledge of basketry is an imprint of the weave on fragments of clay pots, formed by packing clay on the walls of the basket and firing.

During the Industrial Revolution, baskets were used in factories, and for packing and deliveries. Wicker furniture became fashionable in Victorian society.

During the World Wars, thousands of baskets were used for transporting messenger pigeons. There were also observational balloon baskets, baskets for shell cases and airborne pannier baskets used for dropping supplies of ammunition and food to the troops.^[2]

The technique of weaving has been passed along, re-discovered, and expanded upon throughout the years, and is still being expanded upon today. Baskets were at one time used simply for storage and transportation of goods. Today, functional baskets are still in use, but many are made for more decorative purposes. Patterns and "how to" books are now available to learn the craft.

Natural vine basketry[link]

Handmade kudzu basket by Matt Tommey

Because vines have always been readily accessible and plentiful for weavers, it has been a common choice for basketry purposes. The runners are preferable than the vine's stems because they tend to be straighter. Pliable materials like kudzu vine to more rigid, woody vines like bittersweet, grapevine, honeysuckle, wisteria and smokevine are good basket weaving materials. Although many vines are not uniform in shape and size, they can be manipulated and prepared in a way that makes them easily used in traditional and contemporary basketry. Most vines can be split and dried to store until use. Once vines are ready to be used, they can be soaked or boiled to increase pliability. Grapevine in particular should always be boiled because of its propensity to attract mites.

Native American basketry[link]

A Seri basket of thehaat hanóohcö style,
Sonora, Mexico

Native Americans traditionally make their baskets from the materials available locally.

Arctic and Subarctic[link]

Arctic and Subarctic tribes use sea grasses for basketry. At the dawn of the 20th century, Inupiaq men began weaving baskets from baleen, a substance derived from whale jaws, and incorporate walrus ivory and whale bone in basketry.

Northeastern[link]

In New England they weave baskets from Swamp Ash. The wood is peeled off a felled log in strips, following the growth rings of the tree. Maine and Great Lakes tribes use black ash splints. They also weave baskets from Sweet grass, as do Canadian tribes. Birchbark is used throughout the Subarctic, by a wide range of tribes from Dene, to Ojibwa to Mi'kmaq. Birchbark baskets are often embellished with dyed porcupine quills. Some of the more notable styles are Nantucket Baskets and Williamsburg Baskets. Nantucket Baskets are large and bulky^{[citation needed]} while Williamsburg Baskets can be any size, so long as the two sides of the basket bow out slightly and get larger as it is woven up.

• Kelly Church (Grand Traverse Band of Ottawa and Chippewa Indians)

Southeastern[link]

Southeastern tribes, such as the Atakapa, Cherokee, Choctaw, and Chitimacha, traditionally use split river cane for basketry. A particularly difficult technique for which these tribes are known is double-weave or double-wall basketry, in which each basketry is formed by an interior and exterior wall seamlessly woven together. Doubleweave, although rare, is still practiced today, for instance by Mike Dart (Cherokee Nation).^[3]

• Mike Dart ([[Cherokee.

Northwestern[link]

Northwestern tribes use spruce root, cedar bark, and swampgrass. Ceremonial basketry hats are particularly valued by Northeast tribes and are worn today at potlatches. Traditionally women wove basketry hats and men painted designs on them. Delores Churchill is Haida from Alaska who began weaving in a time when Haida basketry was in decline, but she and others have ensured it will continue by teaching the next generation.

• Delores Churchill (Haida)
• Boeda Strand -(Snohomish)

A basket made by Californian Lucy Telles, now in the Smithsonian National Museum of the American Indian

Californian and Great Basin[link]

Indigenous peoples of California and Great Basin are known for their basketry skills. Coiled baskets are particularly common, woven from sumac, yucca, willow, and basket rush. The works by Californian basketmakers include many pieces in museums.

• Elsie Allen (Pomo people)
• Carrie Bethel (Mono Lake Paiute)
• Loren Bommelyn (Tolowa)
• Nellie Charlie (Mono Lake Paiute/Kucadikadi)
• Louisa Keyser "Dat So La Lee" (Washoe people)
• L. Frank (Tongva-Acagchemem)
• Mabel McKay (Pomo people)
• Essie Pinola Parrish (Kashaya-Pomo)
• Lucy Telles (Mono Lake Paiute - Kucadikadi)

Southwestern[link]

• Annie Antone (Tohono O'odham}
• Terrol Dew Johnson (Tohono O'odham)

Traditional Tohono O'odhan basketmaking, 1916

Punjabi Basketmakers, c. 1905

Mexico[link]

In northwestern Mexico, the Seri people continue to "sew" baskets using splints of the limberbush plant, Jatropha cuneata.

Wicker[link]

The type of baskets that reed is used for are most often referred to as "wicker" baskets, though another popular type of weaving known as "twining" is also a technique used in most wicker baskets.

Popular styles of wicker baskets are vast, but some of the more notable styles in the United States are Nantucket Baskets and Williamsburg Baskets. Nantucket Baskets are large and bulky^{[citation needed]} while Williamsburg Baskets can be any size, so long as the two sides of the basket bow out slightly and get larger as it is weaved up.

See also[link]

• Native American basket weavers
• Ontario Handweavers & Spinners
• Pecos Classification
• Putcher
• Sebucan
• Underwater basket weaving
• Willow Man
• Withy

References[link]

Further reading[link]

Basketry products, Bulgaria.

• Blanchard, M. M. (1928) The Basketry Book. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons
• Bobart, H. H. (1936) Basket work Through the Ages. London: Oxford University Press
• Okey, Thomas (1930) A Basketful of Memories: an autobiographical sketch. London: J. M. Dent
• Okey, Thomas (1912) An Introduction to the Art of Basket-making. (Pitman's Handwork Series.)London: Pitman
• Wright, Dorothy (1959) Baskets and Basketry. London: B. T. Batsford

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: basket making

Wikisource has the text of a 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article about basket weaving.

• California Indian Basketweavers Association . website
• The National Basketry Organization
• The Book of English Trades, and Library of the Useful Arts, page 17-22 Google Books
• Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico V. 1/4, page 132-135 Google Books
• Spons' Workshop: Basket hand-making