Hotel Rwanda is a 2004 American drama film directed by Terry George. It was adapted from a screenplay written by both George and Keir Pearson. Based on real life events which took place in Rwanda during the spring of 1994, the film stars Don Cheadle as hotelier Paul Rusesabagina, who attempts to rescue his fellow citizens from the ravages of the Rwandan Genocide. Actors Sophie Okonedo, Joaquin Phoenix, Nick Nolte and Jean Reno also star in principal roles. The film, which has been called an African Schindler's List,^[3] documents Rusesabagina's acts to save the lives of his family and more than a thousand other refugees, by granting them shelter in the besieged Hôtel des Mille Collines. Hotel Rwanda explores genocide, political corruption, and the repercussions of violence.^[4]

The film was a co-production between the motion picture studios of United Artists and Lions Gate Films. It was commercially distributed by United Artists theatrically, and by MGM Home Entertainment for home media. As an independent film, it had an initial limited release in theaters, but was nominated for multiple awards, including Academy Award nominations for Best Actor, Best Supporting Actress, and Best Original Screenplay. The film also won a number of awards including those from the Berlin and Toronto International Film Festivals. On January 11, 2005, the Original Motion Picture Soundtrack was released by the Commotion label. It features songs written by several recording artists including Wyclef Jean and Deborah Cox. The film score was composed by Rupert Gregson-Williams, Andrea Guerra and the Afro Celt Sound System.

Hotel Rwanda premiered in theaters in limited release in the United States on December 22, 2004 and in wide release on February 4, 2005 grossing $23,530,892 in domestic ticket sales. Becoming a moderate financial success, the film received critical praise before its initial screening in cinemas. The widescreen DVD edition of the film featuring the director's audio commentary among others, was released in the United States on April 12, 2005.

Plot[link]

Tensions between the Hutu and Tutsi peoples lead to a war in Rwanda, where corruption and bribes between politicians are routine. Paul Rusesabagina (Don Cheadle), the manager of the Sabena owned Hôtel des Mille Collines, is Hutu, but his wife Tatiana (Sophie Okonedo), is Tutsi. His marriage is a source of friction with Hutu extremists, most prominently Georges Rutaganda (Hakeem Kae-Kazim), a friendly goods supplier to the hotel who is also the local leader of Interahamwe, a brutal anti-Tutsi militia.^[4]

As the political situation in the country worsens, Paul and his family observe neighbors being killed in ethnic violence. Paul carries favor with people of influence, bribing them with money and alcohol, seeking to maintain sufficient influence to keep his family safe. When civil war erupts and a Rwandan Army officer threatens Paul and his neighbors, Paul barely negotiates their safety, and brings everyone to the hotel. More refugees come to the hotel from the overburdened United Nations camp, the Red Cross, and orphanages. Paul must divert the Hutu soldiers, care for the refugees, be a source of strength to his family, and maintain the appearance of a functioning high-class hotel, as the situation becomes more violent.^[4]

The UN Peacekeeping forces, led by Canadian Colonel Oliver (Nick Nolte), are unable to take assertive action against the Interahamwe since they are forbidden to intervene in the genocide. The foreign nationals are evacuated, but the Rwandans are left behind. When the UN forces attempt to evacuate a group of refugees, including Paul's family, they are ambushed and must turn back. In a last-ditch effort to save the refugees, Paul pleads with the Rwandan Army General, Augustin Bizimungu (Fana Mokoena) for assistance. However, when Paul's bribes no longer work, he blackmails the General with threats of being tried as a war criminal. Soon after, the family and the hotel refugees are finally able to leave the besieged hotel in a UN convoy. They travel through retreating masses of refugees and militia to reach safety behind Tutsi rebel lines.^[4]

The film's epilogue displays a series of graphics stating that Rusesabagina saved 1,268 Rwandan refugees at the Hôtel des Mille Collines, and now lives in Belgium with his family. It also notes that Rutaganda and General Bizimungu were tried and convicted by the UN for war crimes in 2002, as almost a million people died by the time the genocide ended in July 1994.^[4]

Cast[link]

Production[link]

Development[link]

Former UNAMIR Force Commander Roméo Dallaire

The film is set in 1994 during the Rwandan Genocide; in which an estimated 800,000 people, mainly Tutsi, were killed by Hutu extremists.^[5] During that year, Rwanda’s population of seven million was composed of two major ethnic groups: Hutu (approximately 85%), and Tutsi (14%). In the early 1990s, Hutu extremists within Rwanda’s political elite blamed the entire Tutsi minority population for the country’s economic and political problems. Tutsi civilians were also accused of supporting a Tutsi-dominated rebel group, the Rwandan Patriotic Front.^[6]

On April 6, 1994, a plane carrying President Habyarimana, a Hutu, was shot down. Following that incident, the genocide began. Hutu extremists belonging to the Interahamwe militia, launched plans to destroy the entire Tutsi civilian population. Tutsi and people suspected of being Tutsi were killed in their homes and as they tried to flee the country. It is estimated that some 200,000 people participated in the perpetration of the Rwandan genocide.^[6]

Hotelier Paul Rusesabagina of the Belgian owned luxury Hôtel des Mille Collines, used his power and influence to personally save both Tutsi and moderate Hutu refugees. Rusesabagina regularly bribed Rwandan Hutu soldiers and kept militias outside the hotel's property during the hundred days of killing.^[7] Following the carnage, Rusesabagina survived along with his wife and three children, as well as most of the refugees he sheltered.^[7] Sharing his thoughts about the lack of international intervention during the crisis, director George commented, "It's simple, ... African lives are not seen as valuable as the lives of Europeans or Americans."^[7] Attempting to share the horrors of the genocide, George sought to bring the story of Rusesabagina portrayed as a humanitarian during the relentless acts of violence.

Filming[link]

Principal filming was shot on location in Kigali, Rwanda and Johannesburg, South Africa.^[4] Paul Rusesabagina was consulted during the writing of the film. Although the character of Colonel Oliver played by Nolte is fictional in nature, the role was inspired by the UN force commander for UNAMIR, Roméo Dallaire.

The producers of the film partnered with the United Nations Foundation to create the International Fund for Rwanda, which supported United Nations Development Programme initiatives assisting Rwandan survivors.^[8] “The goal of the film is not only to engage audiences in this story of genocide but also to inspire them to help redress the terrible devastation,” said director Terry George.^[9]

Soundtrack[link]

The original motion picture soundtrack for Hotel Rwanda, was released by the Commotion label on January 11, 2005. It features songs written by veteran musicians Wyclef Jean and Deborah Cox among others. The soundtrack also features the singing debut of musical artist Dorothee Munyaneza. The music for the film was composed by Rupert Gregson-Williams, Andrea Guerra and the Afro Celt Sound System; while being edited by Michael Connell.^[10]

Marketing[link]

Novel[link]

A paperback novel published by Newmarket Press titled Hotel Rwanda: Bringing the True Story of an African Hero to Film, was released on February 7, 2005. The book dramatizes the events of the Rwandan Genocide in 1994, as depicted in the film. It expands on the ideas of how hotelier Paul Rusesabagina, sheltered and saved more than 1,200 people in the hotel he managed in Kigali.^[11] Rusesabagina's real life experience encouraged director George to produce the film. The book summarizes three years of research, articles that chronicle the historical events, and the ensuing aftermath. A brief history and timeline, the making of the film, and the complete screenplay written by Keir Pearson and Terry George are covered in thorough detail.^[12]

Reception[link]

Critical response[link]

Among mainstream critics in the U.S., the film received almost exclusively positive reviews.^[13] Rotten Tomatoes reported that 90% of 188 sampled critics gave the film a positive review, with an average score of 8.0 out of 10.^[14] At Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average out of 100 to critics' reviews, the film received a score of 79 based on 40 reviews.^[13]

Michael Rechtshaffen, writing in The Hollywood Reporter, said actor "Cheadle impressively carries the entire picture, delivering the kind of note-perfect performance that's absolutely deserving of Oscar consideration."^[15] Roger Ebert in the Chicago Sun-Times called it a "riveting drama" while exclaiming, "The film works not because the screen is filled with meaningless special effects, formless action and vast digital armies, but because Cheadle, Nolte and the filmmakers are interested in how two men choose to function in an impossible situation. Because we sympathize with these men, we are moved by the film."^[16] In the San Francisco Chronicle, Mick LaSalle wrote that the film was a "harrowing experience", and that "it documents for a mass audience what it was like. It's useful, in that it shows how it can happen. It's even hopeful, in that it shows that it's possible — not guaranteed, but possible — for people to maintain their humanity in the face of unhinged barbarism."^[17] Claudia Puig of USA Today, said the film was "one of the year's most moving and powerful films, anchored by a magnificent performance by Don Cheadle." She declared: "Hotel Rwanda emerges as an African version of Schindler's List."^[18] The film however, was not without its detractors. Dave Sterrit of The Christian Science Monitor, felt that although the subject matter was crucially important, he commented that "the movie dilutes its impact with by-the-numbers filmmaking, and Cheadle's one-note performance displays few of his acting gifts."^[19] Left equally unimpressed was Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly. Commenting on the character significance of the U.N. personnel, she said it was "a bad day for narrative, if not for diplomacy, when there is only one 3-D character among the entire U.N. lot, clad in their blue helmets, and that role is rasped by Nick Nolte with moral remorse rather than his more usual hint of dissolution." In her overall summation, she wrote "Hotel Rwanda is a strange history lesson that leaves us more overlectured than properly overwhelmed."^[20] Michael Atkinson of The Village Voice, added to the negativity by saying the film was "told to us secondhand, or glimpsed in distant scuffles" and "Like the majority of movies about the last century of holocausts, Hotel Rwanda is as earnest and tasteful as its creators. To capture the white-hot terror of social calamity, someone a little more lawless and fierce might be called for."^[21]

Writing for The New York Times, Stephen Holden said the film was "a political thriller based on fact that hammers every button on the emotional console."^[22] He commended how the film "offers a devastating picture of media-driven mass murder left unchecked" while also praising "Mr. Cheadle's magnificent, understated portrayal".^[22] James Berardinelli writing for ReelViews, called the film "powerful" and noted that it didn't "pull as many punches as its detractors would have us believe."^[23] Berardinelli also said the film was "brutal and shocking when it needs to be, but it also has great emotional scope and power. We find ourselves enmeshed in Paul's struggle, sharing his despair at the warfare tearing apart his country, his frustration and anger at the U.N.'s inability to act, and, eventually, his hope for a better tomorrow."^[23] Describing some pitfalls, Jeff Vice of the Deseret News said the "decision by the filmmakers to show things from that limited viewpoint — to show how isolated and fearful the characters were of the chaos going on around them — the film feels a little dishonest and diminished. It's never quite as effective as "The Killing Fields" or "Schindler's List" in that the film's overall impact is not as great and it doesn't linger in the memory."^[24] Vice however was quick to admit "Hotel Rwanda does have its share of powerful moments; in particular, a scene in which Paul and another hotel employee unknowingly — due to fog — drive into a mass grave." He also expressed satisfaction with the acting saying, "Cheadle brings a needed intensity to the film; his character's fear and compassion are quite vivid. Nolte is also good in his limited screen time, as is Joaquin Phoenix, who plays a news cameraman."^[24]

Eleanor R. Gillespie of The Atlanta Journal-Constitution, stated that Hotel Rwanda was an "unforgettable film" as well as being "a doubly unforgettable performance by Don Cheadle."^[26] Although mentioning "The parallels with Steven Spielberg's Schindler's List are obvious", she praised individual cinematic elements that made the film unique, such as "the revelation of a dark, bumpy road paved with thousands of corpses. Or in a little girl's heartwrenching plea, 'Please don't let them kill me. I promise I won't be Tutsi anymore'."^[26] She concluded her review with Cheadle's noteworthy performance, saying he gave "one of the best performances (if not the best) of last year — an Oscar-worthy portrait of a man who kept his head clear and his humanity intact in the midst of a man-made hell."^[26] Similarly, David Ansen wrote in Newsweek that "two performances carry the film. Cheadle, in his richest role since "Devil in a Blue Dress", burrows deep inside this complex man, who discovers in himself a strength he never knew he possessed, as he faces the disillusionment of all the "civilized" notions he believes in. As his strong, committed wife, Tatiana, Sophie Okonedo, barely resembling the saucy hooker she played in "Dirty Pretty Things", is a revelation."^[27] However, in the Arizona Daily Star, Phil Villarreal was not moved by the lead acting of Cheadle or Nolte. He thought the characters were "cardboardish" and went further saying the "uplifting moments of rescue seem antiseptic and set up."^[28] Critic Leonard Maltin though, wrote that Hotel Rwanda was a "Powerful film" which he thought avoided being "overly didactic by focusing on one compelling character, believably brought to life by Cheadle."^[29]

Accolades[link]

The film was nominated and won several awards in 2004–05.^[30][31] Various critics included the film on their lists of the top 10 best films of 2004. Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times named it ninth best, Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle named it eighth best, and Desson Thomson of The Washington Post named it tenth best.^[32] The film is also listed by the American Film Institute as one of the 100 most inspirational movies of all time.^[33]

American Film Institute Lists

• AFI's 100 Years...100 Cheers - #90
• AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) - Nominated^[48]

Box office[link]

The film premiered in cinemas on December 22, 2004 in limited release throughout the U.S.. During its limited opening weekend, the film grossed $100,091 in business showing at 7 locations. Its official wide release was screened in theaters on February 4, 2005.^[2] Opening in a distant 14th place, the film earned $2,316,416 showing at 823 cinemas. The film Boogeyman soundily beat its competition during that weekend opening in first place with $19,020,655.^[49] The film's revenue dropped by 11.8% in its second week of release, earning $2,043,249. For that particular weekend, the romantic comedy Hitch unseated Boogeyman to open in first place with $43,142,214 in revenue, while Hotel Rwanda remained in 14th place not challenging a top ten position.^[50] During its final weekend in release, the film opened in 62nd place grossing $23,176 in business.^[51] The film went on to top out domestically at $23,530,892 in total ticket sales through an 18-week theatrical run. Internationally, the film took in an additional $10,351,351 in box office business for a combined worldwide total of $33,882,243.^[2] For 2004 as a whole, the film would cumulatively rank at a box office performance position of 99.^[52]

Home media[link]

Following its cinematic release in theaters, the film was released in VHS video format on April 12, 2005.^[53] The Region 1 Code widescreen edition of the film was also released on DVD in the United States on April 12, 2005. Special features for the DVD include; "A Message for Peace: Making Hotel Rwanda" documentary, "Return to Rwanda" documentary, Selected scenes commentary by Don Cheadle, Audio commentary by director Terry George and real-life subject of the film–Paul Rusesabagina, along with select commentary by musician Wyclef Jean.^[54] A Blu-ray Disc version of the film was released in the US on May the 10th 2011, and is region free. The film is available in other media formats such as Video on demand.^[55]

Seven years after its release in theaters, the film continues to see popularity in the video rental market. According to Netflix, the film still ranks in its top 100 video release chart.^[56]

See also[link]

Film portal

• 2004 in film
• Georges Ruggiu (the radio announcer)

References[link]

Footnotes

Further reading

External links[link]

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Hotel Rwanda

• Official website
• Hotel Rwanda at the Internet Movie Database
• Hotel Rwanda at AllRovi
• Hotel Rwanda at Rotten Tomatoes
• Hotel Rwanda at Metacritic
• Hotel Rwanda at Box Office Mojo

Republic of Rwanda Repubulika y'u Rwanda République du Rwanda
Flag Seal
Motto:  Ubumwe, Umurimo, Gukunda Igihugu "Unity, Work, Patriotism"
Anthem: "Rwanda nziza" "Beautiful Rwanda"
Capital (and largest city)		Kigali 1°56.633′S 30°3.567′E / 1.943883°S 30.05945°E / -1.943883; 30.05945
Official language(s)		Kinyarwanda French English
Ethnic groups		Hutu 84% Tutsi 15% Twa 1%
Demonym		Rwandese, Rwandan
Government		Unitary parliamentary democracy and Presidential republic
-	President	Paul Kagame
-	Prime Minister	Pierre Habumuremyi
Legislature		Parliament
-	Upper house	Senate
-	Lower house	Chamber of Deputies
Independence
-	from Belgium	1 July 1962
Area
-	Total	26,338 km2 (149th) 10,169 sq mi
-	Water (%)	5.3
Population
-	2012 estimate	11,689,696[1] (73rd)
-	2002 census	8,162,715[2]
-	Density	419.8/km2 (29th) 1,087.2/sq mi
GDP (PPP)		2011 estimate
-	Total	$13.684 billion[3]
-	Per capita	$1,340[3]
GDP (nominal)		2011 estimate
-	Total	$6.179 billion[3]
-	Per capita	$605[3]
HDI (2011)		0.429[4] (low) (166th)
Currency		Rwandan franc (RWF)
Time zone		CAT (UTC+2)
-	Summer (DST)	not observed (UTC+2)
Drives on the		right
ISO 3166 code		RW
Internet TLD		.rw
Calling code		250

Rwanda  /ruːˈɑːndə/ or  /ruːˈændə/, officially the Republic of Rwanda (Kinyarwanda: Repubulika y'u Rwanda; French: République du Rwanda), is a country in central and eastern Africa with a population of approximately 11.7 million (2012). Located a few degrees south of the Equator, Rwanda is bordered by Uganda, Tanzania, Burundi and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. All of Rwanda is at high elevation, with a geography dominated by mountains in the west, savanna in the east, and numerous lakes throughout the country. The climate is temperate, with two rainy seasons and two dry seasons every year.

The population is young and predominantly rural, with a density among the highest in Africa. Rwandans form three groups: the Hutu, Tutsi, and Twa. The Twa are a pygmy people who descend from Rwanda's earliest inhabitants, but scholars disagree on the origins of and differences between the Hutu and Tutsi; some believe that they are derived from former social castes, while others view them as being races or tribes. Christianity is the largest religion in the country, and the principal language is Kinyarwanda, which is spoken by most Rwandans. Rwanda has a presidential system of government. The President is Paul Kagame of the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF). Rwanda has low corruption compared with neighbouring countries, but human rights organisations allege suppression of opposition groups, intimidation, and restrictions on freedom of speech. The country has been governed by a strict administrative hierarchy since precolonial times; there are currently five provinces, which are delineated by borders drawn in 2006.

Hunter gatherers settled the territory in the stone and iron ages, followed later by Bantu settlers. The population coalesced, first into clans and then into kingdoms. The Kingdom of Rwanda dominated from the mid-eighteenth century, with the Tutsi Kings conquering others militarily, centralising power, and later enacting anti-Hutu policies. Germany colonised Rwanda in 1884, followed by Belgium, which invaded in 1916 during World War I. Both European nations ruled through the Kings and perpetuated pro-Tutsi policy. The Hutu population revolted in 1959, massacring a large number of Tutsi and ultimately establishing an independent Hutu-dominated state in 1962. The Tutsi-led Rwandan Patriotic Front launched a civil war in 1990, which was followed by the 1994 Genocide, in which Hutu extremists killed an estimated 500,000 to 1 million Tutsi and moderate Hutu. The RPF ended the genocide with a military victory.

Rwanda's economy suffered heavily during the 1994 Rwandan Genocide, but has since strengthened. The economy is based mostly on subsistence agriculture. Coffee and tea are the major cash crops for export. Tourism is a fast-growing sector and is now the country's leading foreign exchange earner; Rwanda is one of only two countries in which mountain gorillas can be visited safely, and visitors are prepared to pay high prices for gorilla tracking permits. Music and dance are an integral part of Rwandan culture, particularly drums and the highly choreographed intore dance. Traditional arts and crafts are produced throughout the country, including imigongo, a unique cow dung art.

History[link]

Humans moved into what is now Rwanda following the last glacial period, either in the Neolithic period around 8000 BC, or in the long humid period which followed, up to around 3000 BC.^[5] Archaeological excavations have revealed evidence of sparse settlement by hunter gatherers in the late stone age, followed by a larger population of early Iron Age settlers, who produced dimpled pottery and iron tools.^[6][7] These early inhabitants were the ancestors of the Twa, a group of aboriginal pygmy hunter-gatherers who remain in Rwanda today.^[8] Between 700 BC and 1500 AD, a number of Bantu groups migrated into Rwanda, and began to clear forest land for agriculture.^[9][8] The forest-dwelling Twa lost much of their habitat and were forced to move on to the slopes of mountains.^[10] Historians have several theories regarding the nature of the Bantu migrations; one theory is that the first settlers were Hutu, while the Tutsi migrated later and formed a distinct racial group, possibly of Cushitic origin.^[11] An alternative theory is that the migration was slow and steady, with incoming groups integrating into rather than conquering the existing society.^[12][8] Under this theory, the Hutu and Tutsi distinction arose later and was a class distinction rather than a racial one.^[13][14]

A reconstruction of the King of Rwanda's palace at Nyanza

The flag of Rwanda between 1962 and 2001.

The earliest form of social organisation in the area was the clan (ubwoko).^[15] Clans existed across the Great Lakes region, with around twenty in the area that is now Rwanda.^[16] The clans were not limited to genealogical lineages or geographical area, and most included Hutu, Tutsi, and Twa.^[16] From the 15th century, the clans began to coalesce into kingdoms;^[17] by 1700 around eight kingdoms existed in present-day Rwanda.^[18] One of these, the Kingdom of Rwanda, ruled by the Tutsi Nyiginya clan, became increasingly dominant from the mid-eighteenth century.^[19] The kingdom reached its greatest extent during the nineteenth century under the reign of King Kigeli Rwabugiri. Rwabugiri conquered several smaller states, expanded the kingdom west and north,^[20][19] and initiated administrative reforms; these included ubuhake, in which Tutsi patrons ceded cattle, and therefore privileged status, to Hutu or Tutsi clients in exchange for economic and personal service,^[21] and uburetwa, a corvée system in which Hutu were forced to work for Tutsi chiefs.^[20] Rwabugiri's changes caused a rift to grow between the Hutu and Tutsi populations.^[20] The Twa were better off than in pre-Kingdom days, with some becoming dancers in the royal court,^[10] but their numbers continued to decline.^[22]

The Berlin Conference of 1884 assigned the territory to Germany as part of German East Africa, marking the beginning of the colonial era. The explorer Gustav Adolf von Götzen was the first European to significantly explore the country in 1894; he crossed from the south-east to Lake Kivu and met the king.^[23][24] The Germans did not significantly alter the social structure of the country, but exerted influence by supporting the king and the existing hierarchy and delegating power to local chiefs.^[25] Belgian forces took control of Rwanda and Burundi during World War I, beginning a period of more direct colonial rule.^[26] Belgium simplified and centralised the power structure,^[27] and introduced large-scale projects in education, health, public works, and agricultural supervision, including new crops and improved agricultural techniques to try to reduce the incidence of famine.^[28] Both the Germans and the Belgians promoted Tutsi supremacy, considering the Hutu and Tutsi different races.^[29] In 1935, Belgium introduced identity cards labelling each individual as either Tutsi, Hutu, Twa or Naturalised. While it had previously been possible for particularly wealthy Hutu to become honorary Tutsi, the identity cards prevented any further movement between the classes.^[30]

Belgium continued to rule Rwanda as a UN Trust Territory after World War II, with a mandate to oversee independence.^[31][32] Tension escalated between the Tutsi, who favoured early independence, and the Hutu emancipation movement, culminating in the 1959 Rwandan Revolution: Hutu activists began killing Tutsi, forcing more than 100,000 to seek refuge in neighbouring countries.^[33][34] In 1962, the now pro-Hutu Belgians held a referendum and elections in which the country voted to abolish the monarchy. Rwanda was separated from Burundi and gained independence in 1962.^[35] Cycles of violence followed, with exiled Tutsi attacking from neighbouring countries and the Hutu retaliating with large-scale slaughter and repression of the Tutsi.^[36] In 1973, Juvénal Habyarimana took power in a a military coup. Pro-Hutu discrimination continued, but there was greater economic prosperity and a reduced amount of violence against Tutsi.^[37] The Twa remained marginalised, and by 1990 were almost entirely forced out of the forests by the government; many became beggars.^[38]

Juvénal Habyarimana

In 1990, the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), a rebel group composed mostly of Tutsi refugees, invaded northern Rwanda, initiating the Rwandan Civil War.^[39] Neither side was able to gain a decisive advantage in the war,^[40] but by 1992 it had weakened Habyarimana's authority; mass demonstrations forced him into a coalition with the domestic opposition and eventually to sign the 1993 Arusha Accords with the RPF.^[41] The cease-fire ended on 6 April 1994 when Habyarimana's plane was shot down near Kigali Airport, killing the President.^[42] The shooting down of the plane served as the catalyst for the Rwandan Genocide, which began within a few hours. Over the course of approximately 100 days, between 500,000 and 1,000,000^[43] Tutsi and politically moderate Hutu were killed in well-planned attacks on the orders of the interim government.^[44] Many Twa were also killed, despite not being directly targeted.^[38] The Tutsi RPF restarted their offensive, and took control of the country methodically, gaining control of the whole country by mid-July.^[45] The international response to the Genocide was limited, with major powers reluctant to strengthen the already overstretched UN peacekeeping force.^[46] When the RPF took over, approximately two million Hutu fled to neighbouring countries, in particular Zaire, fearing reprisals;^[47] additionally, the RPF-led army was a key belligerent in the First and Second Congo Wars.^[48] Within Rwanda, a period of reconciliation and justice began, with the establishment of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) and the reintroduction of Gacaca, a traditional village court system. During the 2000s Rwanda's economy, tourist numbers and Human Development Index grew rapidly;^[49][50] between 2006 and 2011 the poverty rate reduced from 57% to 45%,^[51] and child mortality rates dropped from 180 per 1000 live births in 2000 to 111 per 1000 in 2009.^[52]

Politics and government[link]

Rwandan President Paul Kagame

The President of Rwanda is the head of state,^[53] and has broad powers including creating policy in conjunction with the Cabinet,^[54] exercising the prerogative of mercy,^[55] commanding the armed forces,^[56] negotiating and ratifying treaties,^[57] signing presidential orders,^[58] and declaring war or a state of emergency.^[56] The President is elected by popular vote every seven years,^[59] and appoints the Prime Minister and all other members of Cabinet.^[60] The incumbent President is Paul Kagame, who took office upon the resignation of his predecessor, Pasteur Bizimungu, in 2000. Kagame subsequently won elections in 2003 and 2010,^[61][62] although human rights organisations have criticised these elections as being "marked by increasing political repression and a crackdown on free speech".^[63]

The current constitution was adopted following a national referendum in 2003, replacing the transitional constitution which had been in place since 1994.^[64] The constitution mandates a multi-party system of government, with politics based on democracy and elections.^[65] However, the constitution places conditions on how political parties may operate. Article 54 states that "political organizations are prohibited from basing themselves on race, ethnic group, tribe, clan, region, sex, religion or any other division which may give rise to discrimination".^[66] The government has also enacted laws criminalising genocide ideology, which can include intimidation, defamatory speeches, genocide denial and mocking of victims.^[67] According to Human Rights Watch, these laws effectively make Rwanda a one-party state, as "under the guise of preventing another genocide, the government displays a marked intolerance of the most basic forms of dissent".^[68] Amnesty International is also critical, saying that genocide ideology laws have been used to "silence dissent, including criticisms of the ruling RPF party and demands for justice for RPF war crimes".^[69]

The Parliament consists of two chambers. It makes legislation and is empowered by the constitution to oversee the activities of the President and the Cabinet.^[70] The lower chamber is the Chamber of Deputies, which has 80 members serving five-year terms. Twenty-four of these seats are reserved for women, elected through a joint assembly of local government officials; another three seats are reserved for youth and disabled members; the remaining 53 are elected by universal suffrage under a proportional representation system.^[71] Following the 2008 election, there are 45 female deputies, making Rwanda the only country with a female majority in the national parliament.^[72] The upper chamber is the 26-seat Senate, whose members are selected by a variety of bodies. A mandatory minimum of 30% of the senators are women. Senators serve eight-year terms.^[73]

The Chamber of Deputies building

Rwanda's legal system is largely based on German and Belgian civil law systems and customary law.^[74] The judiciary is independent of the executive branch,^[75] although the President and the Senate are involved in the appointment of Supreme Court judges.^[76] Human Rights Watch have praised the Rwandan government for progress made in the delivery of justice including the abolition of the death penalty,^[77] but also allege interference in the judicial system by members of the government, such as the politically motivated appointment of judges, misuse of prosecutorial power, and pressure on judges to make particular decisions.^[78] The constitution provides for two types of courts: ordinary and specialised.^[79] Ordinary courts are the Supreme Court, the High Court, and regional courts, while specialised courts are military courts and the traditional Gacaca courts, which have been revived to expedite the trials of genocide suspects.^[80]

Rwanda has low corruption levels relative to most other African countries; in 2010, Transparency International ranked Rwanda as the 8th cleanest out of 47 countries in Sub-Saharan Africa and 66th cleanest out of 178 in the world.^[81] The constitution provides for an Ombudsman, whose duties include prevention and fighting of corruption.^[82][83] Public officials (including the President) are required by the constitution to declare their wealth to the Ombudsman and to the public; those who do not comply are suspended from office.^[84]

The Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) has been the dominant political party in the country since 1994. The RPF has maintained control of the presidency and the Parliament in national elections, with the party's vote share consistently exceeding 70%. The RPF is seen as a Tutsi-dominated party but receives support from across the country, and is credited with ensuring continued peace, stability, and economic growth.^[85] Human rights organisations, including Amnesty International and Freedom House, claim that the government suppresses the freedoms of opposition groups by restricting candidacies in elections to government-friendly parties, suppressing demonstrations, and arresting opposition leaders and journalists.^[69][86]

Rwanda is a member of the United Nations,^[87] African Union, Francophonie^[88], East African Community^[89], and the Commonwealth of Nations^[90]. For many years during the Habyarimana regime, the country maintained close ties with France, as well as Belgium, the former colonial power.^[91] Under the RPF government, however, Rwanda has sought closer ties with neighbouring countries in East Africa and with the English-speaking world. Diplomatic relations with France were suspended between 2006 and 2010 following the indictment of Rwandan officials by a French judge.^[92] Relations with the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) were tense following Rwanda's involvement in the First and Second Congo Wars;^[48] the Congolese army alleged Rwandan attacks on their troops, while Rwanda blamed the Congolese government for failing to suppress Hutu rebels in North and South Kivu provinces.^[93][94] Rwanda's relationship with Uganda was also tense for much of the 2000s following a 1999 clash between the two countries' armies as they backed opposing rebel groups in the Second Congo War.^[95] As of 2012, relations with both Uganda and the DRC are improved.^[95][96]

Administrative divisions[link]

Provinces of Rwanda

Rwanda has been governed by a strict hierarchy since precolonial times.^[97] Before colonisation, the King (Mwami) exercised control through a system of provinces, districts, hills, and neighbourhoods.^[98] The current constitution divides Rwanda into provinces (intara), districts (uturere), cities, municipalities, towns, sectors (imirenge), cells (utugari), and villages (imidugudu); the larger divisions, and their borders, are established by Parliament.^[99]

The five provinces act as intermediaries between the national government and their constituent districts to ensure that national policies are implemented at the district level. The "Rwanda Decentralisation Strategic Framework" developed by the Ministry of Local Government assigns to provinces the responsibility for "coordinating governance issues in the Province, as well as monitoring and evaluation."^[100] Each province is headed by a governor, appointed by the President and approved by the Senate.^[101] The districts are responsible for coordinating public service delivery and economic development. They are divided into sectors, which are responsible for the delivery of public services as mandated by the districts.^[102] Districts and sectors have directly elected councils, and are run by an executive committee selected by that council.^[103] The cells and villages are the smallest political units, providing a link between the people and the sectors.^[102] All adult resident citizens are members of their local cell council, from which an executive committee is elected.^[103] The city of Kigali is a provincial-level authority, which coordinates urban planning within the city.^[100]

The present borders were drawn in 2006 with the aim of decentralising power and removing associations with the old system and the genocide. The previous structure of twelve provinces centred around the largest cities was replaced with five provinces based primarily on geography.^[104] These are Northern Province, Southern Province, Eastern Province, Western Province, and the Municipality of Kigali in the centre.

Geography[link]

The Kagera and Ruvubu rivers, part of the upper Nile

At 26,338 square kilometres (10,169 sq mi), Rwanda is the world's 149th-largest country.^[105] It is comparable in size to Haiti or the state of Maryland in the United States.^[74][106] The entire country is at a high altitude: the lowest point is the Rusizi River at 950 metres (3,117 ft) above sea level.^[74] Rwanda is located in Central/Eastern Africa, and is bordered by the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west, Uganda to the north, Tanzania to the east, and Burundi to the south.^[74] It lies a few degrees south of the equator and is landlocked.^[92] The capital, Kigali, is located near the centre of Rwanda.^[107]

The watershed between the major Congo and Nile drainage basins runs from north to south through Rwanda, with around 80% of the country's area draining into the Nile and 20% into the Congo via the Rusizi River.^[108] The country's longest river is the Nyabarongo, which rises in the south-west, flows north, east, and southeast before merging with the Ruvubu to form the Kagera; the Kagera then flows due north along the eastern border with Tanzania. The Nyabarongo-Kagera eventually drains into Lake Victoria, and its source in Nyungwe Forest is a contender for the as-yet undetermined overall source of the Nile.^[109] Rwanda has many lakes, the largest being Lake Kivu. This lake occupies the floor of the Albertine Rift along most of the length of Rwanda's western border, and with a maximum depth of 480 metres (1,575 ft),^[110] it is one of the twenty deepest lakes in the world.^[111] Other sizeable lakes include Burera, Ruhondo, Muhazi, Rweru, and Ihema, the last being the largest of a string of lakes in the eastern plains of Akagera National Park.^[112]

Lake and volcano in the Virunga Mountains

Mountains dominate central and western Rwanda; these mountains are part of the Albertine Rift Mountains that flank the Albertine branch of the East African Rift; this branch runs from north to south along Rwanda's western border.^[113] The highest peaks are found in the Virunga volcano chain in the northwest; this includes Mount Karisimbi, Rwanda's highest point, at 4,507 metres (14,787 ft).^[114] This western section of the country, which lies within the Albertine Rift montane forests ecoregion,^[113] has an elevation of 1,500 metres (4,921 ft) to 2,500 metres (8,202 ft).^[115] The centre of the country is predominantly rolling hills, while the eastern border region consists of savanna, plains and swamps.^[116]

Rwanda has a temperate tropical highland climate, with lower temperatures than are typical for equatorial countries due to its high elevation.^[92] Kigali, in the centre of the country, has a typical daily temperature range between 12 °C (54 °F) and 27 °C (81 °F), with little variation through the year.^[117] There are some temperature variations across the country; the mountainous west and north are generally cooler than the lower-lying east.^[118] There are two rainy seasons in the year; the first runs from February to June and the second from September to December. These are separated by two dry seasons: the major one from June to September, during which there is often no rain at all, and a shorter and less severe one from December to February.^[119] Rainfall varies geographically, with the west and northwest of the country receiving more precipitation annually than the east and southeast.^[120]

Biodiversity[link]

Topis in Akagera National Park

In prehistoric times montane forest occupied one third of the territory of present-day Rwanda. Naturally occurring vegetation is now mostly restricted to the three National Parks, with terraced agriculture dominating the rest of the country.^[122] Nyungwe, the largest remaining tract of forest, contains 200 species of tree as well as orchids and begonias.^[123] Vegetation in the Volcanoes National Park is mostly bamboo and moorland, with small areas of forest.^[122] By contrast, Akagera has a savanna ecosystem in which acacia dominates the flora. There are several rare or endangered plant species in Akagera, including Markhamia lutea and Eulophia guineensis.^[124]

The greatest diversity of large mammals is found in the three National Parks, which are designated conservation areas.^[125] Akagera contains typical savanna animals such as giraffes and elephants,^[126] while Volcanoes is home to an estimated one third of the worldwide mountain gorilla population.^[127] Nyungwe Forest boasts thirteen primate species including chimpanzees and Ruwenzori colobus arboreal monkeys; the Ruwenzori colobus move in groups of up to 400 individuals, the largest troop size of any primate in Africa.^[128]

There are 670 bird species in Rwanda, with variation between the east and the west.^[129] Nyungwe Forest, in the west, has 280 recorded species, of which 26 are endemic to the Albertine Rift;^[129] endemic species include the Ruwenzori Turaco and Handsome Francolin.^[130] Eastern Rwanda, by contrast, features savanna birds such as the Black-headed Gonolek and those associated with swamps and lakes, including storks and cranes.^[129]

Economy[link]

Coffee beans drying in Maraba. Coffee is one of Rwanda's major cash crops.

Rwanda's economy suffered heavily during the 1994 Genocide, with widespread loss of life, failure to maintain the infrastructure, looting, and neglect of important cash crops. This caused a large drop in GDP and destroyed the country's ability to attract private and external investment.^[74] The economy has since strengthened, with per-capita GDP (PPP) estimated at $1,284 in 2011,^[3] compared with $416 in 1994.^[131] Major export markets include China, Germany, and the United States.^[74] The economy is managed by the central National Bank of Rwanda and the currency is the Rwandan franc; in June 2010, the exchange rate was 588 francs to the United States dollar.^[132] Rwanda joined the East African Community in 2007 and there are plans for a common East African shilling, which could be in place by 2015.^[133]

Rwanda is a country of few natural resources,^[92] and the economy is based mostly on subsistence agriculture by local farmers using simple tools.^[134] An estimated 90% of the working population farms, and agriculture comprised an estimated 42.1% of GDP in 2010.^[74] Since the mid-1980s, farm sizes and food production have been decreasing, due in part to the resettlement of displaced people.^[135][136] Despite Rwanda's fertile ecosystem, food production often does not keep pace with population growth, and food imports are required.^[74]

Crops grown in the country include coffee, tea, pyrethrum, bananas, beans, sorghum and potatoes. Coffee and tea are the major cash crops for export, with the high altitudes, steep slopes and volcanic soils providing favourable conditions. Reliance on agricultural exports makes Rwanda vulnerable to shifts in their prices.^[137] Animals raised in Rwanda include cows, goats, sheep, pigs, chicken, and rabbits, with geographical variation in the numbers of each.^[138] Production systems are mostly traditional, although there are a few intensive dairy farms around Kigali.^[138] Shortages of land and water, insufficient and poor-quality feed, and regular disease epidemics with insufficient veterinary services are major constraints that restrict output. Fishing takes place on the country's lakes, but stocks are very depleted, and live fish are being imported in an attempt to revive the industry.^[139]

The industrial sector is small, contributing 14.3% of GDP in 2010.^[74] Products manufactured include cement, agricultural products, small-scale beverages, soap, furniture, shoes, plastic goods, textiles and cigarettes.^[74] Rwanda's mining industry is an important contributor, generating US$93 million in 2008.^[140] Minerals mined include cassiterite, wolframite, gold, and coltan, which is used in the manufacture of electronic and communication devices such as mobile phones.^[140][141]

Mountain gorillas in Volcanoes National Park

Rwanda's service sector suffered during the late-2000s recession as banks reduced lending and foreign aid projects and investment were reduced.^[142] The sector rebounded in 2010, becoming the country's largest sector by economic output and contributing 43.6% of the country's GDP.^[74] Key tertiary contributors include banking and finance, wholesale and retail trade, hotels and restaurants, transport, storage, communication, insurance, real estate, business services and public administration including education and health.^[142] Tourism is one of the fastest-growing economic resources and became the country's leading foreign exchange earner in 2011.^[143] In spite of the genocide's legacy, the country is increasingly perceived internationally as a safe destination;^[144] The Directorate of Immigration and Emigration recorded 405,801 people visiting the country between January and June 2011; 16% of these arrived from outside Africa.^[145] Revenue from tourism was US$115.6 million between January and June 2011; holidaymakers contributed 43% of this revenue, despite being only 9% of the numbers.^[145] Rwanda is one of only two countries in which mountain gorillas can be visited safely; gorilla tracking, in the Volcanoes National Park, attracts thousands of visitors per year, who are prepared to pay high prices for permits.^[146] Other attractions include Nyungwe Forest, home to chimpanzees, Ruwenzori colobus and other primates, the resorts of Lake Kivu, and Akagera, a small savanna reserve in the east of the country.^[147]

Media and communications[link]

The largest radio and television stations are state-run. Most Rwandans have access to radio and Radio Rwanda is the main source of news throughout the country. Television access is limited mostly to urban areas.^[148] The press is tightly restricted and newspapers routinely self-censor to avoid government reprisals.^[148] Nonetheless, publications in Kinyarwanda, English, and French critical of the government are widely available in Kigali. Restrictions were increased in the run-up to the Rwandan presidential election of 2010, with two independent newspapers, Umuseso and Umuvugizi, being suspended for six months by the High Media Council.^[149]

Rwandatel is the country's oldest telecommunications group, providing landlines to 23,000 subscribers, mostly government institutions, banks, NGOs and embassies.^[150] Private landline subscription levels are low. As of 2011, mobile phone penetration in the country is 35%, up 1% on the previous year.^[151] The leading provider is MTN, with around 2.5 million subscribers, followed by Tigo with 700,000.^[151] A third mobile phone service, run by Bharti Airtel, is scheduled for launch in the first quarter of 2012.^[152] Rwandatel also operated a mobile phone network, but the industry regulator revoked its licence in April 2011, following the company's failure to meet agreed investment commitments.^[153] Internet penetration is low but rising rapidly; in 2010 there were 7.7 internet users per 100 people, up from 2.1 in 2007.^[154] In 2011, a 2,300 kilometres (1,400 mi) fibre-optic telecommunications network was completed, intended to provide broadband services and facilitate electronic commerce.^[155] This network is connected to SEACOM, a submarine fibre-optic cable connecting communication carriers in southern and eastern Africa. Within Rwanda the cables run along major roads, linking towns around the country.^[155] Mobile provider MTN also runs a wireless internet service accessible in most areas of Kigali via pre-paid subscription.^[156]

Infrastructure[link]

Rural water pump

The Rwandan government prioritised funding of water supply development during the 2000s, significantly increasing its share of the national budget.^[157] This funding, along with donor support, caused a rapid increase in access to safe water; in 2008, 73% of the population had access to safe water, up from about 55% in 2005.^[157] The country's water infrastructure consists of urban and rural systems which deliver water to the public, mainly through standpipes in rural areas and private connections in urban areas. In areas not served by these systems, hand pumps and managed springs are used.^[158] Despite rainfall exceeding 100 centimetres (39 in) annually in many areas,^[117] little use is made of rainwater harvesting.^[158] Access to sanitation remains low; the United Nations estimates that in 2006, 34% of urban and 20% of rural dwellers had access to improved sanitation.^[159] Government policy measures to improve sanitation are limited, focusing only on urban areas.^[159] The majority of the population, both urban and rural, use public shared pit latrines for sanitation.^[159]

Rwanda's electricity supply was, until the early 2000s, generated almost entirely from hydroelectric sources; power stations on Lakes Burera and Ruhondo provided 90% of the country's electricity.^[160] A combination of below average rainfall and human activity, including the draining of the Rugezi wetlands for cultivation and grazing, caused the two lakes' water levels to fall from 1990 onwards; by 2004 levels were reduced by 50%, leading to a sharp drop in output from the power stations.^[161] This, coupled with increased demand as the economy grew, precipitated a shortfall in 2004 and widespread loadshedding.^[161] As an emergency measure, the government installed diesel generators north of Kigali; by 2006 these were providing 56% of the country's electricity, but were very costly.^[161] The government enacted a number of measures to alleviate this problem, including rehabilitating the Rugezi wetlands, which supply water to Burera and Ruhondo and investing in a scheme to extract methane gas from Lake Kivu, expected in its first phase to increase the country's power generation by 40%.^[162] Only 6% of the population had access to electricity in 2009.^[163]

The government has increased investment in the transport infrastructure of Rwanda since the 1994 Genocide, with aid from the United States, European Union, Japan, and others. The transport system centres primarily around the road network, with paved roads between Kigali and most other major cities and towns in the country.^[164] Rwanda is linked by road to other countries in East Africa, such as Uganda, Tanzania, Burundi and Kenya, as well as to the eastern Congolese cities of Goma and Bukavu; the country's most important trade route is the road to the port of Mombasa via Kampala and Nairobi.^[165] The principal form of public transport in the country is the shared taxi. Express routes link the major cities and local service is offered to most villages along the main roads. Coach services are available to various destinations in neighbouring countries. The country has an international airport at Kigali that serves one domestic and several international destinations.^[166] As of 2011 the country has no railways, although funding has been secured for a feasibility study into extending the Tanzanian Central Line into Rwanda.^[167] There is no public water transport between the port cities on Lake Kivu, although a limited private service exists and the government has initiated a programme to encourage development of a full service.^[164] In May 2012 the British Prime Minister David Cameron auctioned a bat signed by Indian cricket "God" Sachin Tendulkar to raise funds for building a cricket stadium in Rwanda.^[168]

Demographics[link]

Rural children

2012 estimates place Rwanda's population at 11,689,696.^[74] The population is young: an estimated 42.7% are under the age of 15, and 97.5% are under 65. The annual birth rate is estimated at 40.2 births per 1,000 inhabitants, and the death rate at 14.9.^[74] The life expectancy is 58.02 years (59.52 years for females and 56.57 years for males), which is the 30th lowest out of 221 countries and territories.^[74][169] The sex ratio of the country is relatively even.^[74]

At 408 inhabitants per square kilometre (1,060 /sq mi), Rwanda's population density is amongst the highest in Africa. Historians such as Gérard Prunier believe that the 1994 genocide can be partly attributed to the population density.^[170] The population is predominantly rural, with a few large towns; dwellings are evenly spread throughout the country.^[92] The only sparsely populated area of the country is the savanna land in the former province of Umutara and Akagera National Park in the east.^[171] Kigali is the largest city, with a population of around one million.^[172] Its rapidly increasing population challenges its infrastructural development.^{[74][173][174]} Other notable towns are Gitarama, Butare, and Gisenyi, all with populations below 100,000.^[175] The urban population rose from 6% of the population in 1990,^[173] to 16.6% in 2006;^[176] by 2011, however, the proportion had dropped slightly, to 14.8%.^[176]

Rwanda has been a unified state since pre-colonial times,^[29] and the population is drawn from just one ethnic and linguistic group, the Banyarwanda;^[177] this contrasts with most modern African states, whose borders were drawn by colonial powers and did not correspond to ethnic boundaries or pre-colonial kingdoms.^[178] Within the Banyarwanda people, there are three separate groups, the Hutu (84% of the population as of 2009), Tutsi (15%) and Twa (1%).^[179][74] The Twa are a pygmy people who descend from Rwanda's earliest inhabitants, but scholars do not agree on the origins of and differences between the Hutu and Tutsi.^[180] Anthropologist Jean Hiernaux contends that the Tutsi are a separate race, with a tendency towards "long and narrow heads, faces and noses";^[181] others, such as Villia Jefremovas, believe there is no discernible physical difference and the categories were not historically rigid.^[182] In precolonial Rwanda the Tutsi were the ruling class, from whom the Kings and the majority of chiefs were derived, while the Hutu were agriculturalists.^[183] The current government discourages the Hutu/Tutsi/Twa distinction, and has removed such classification from identity cards.^[184]

Rwamagana Church

The majority of Rwandans are Catholic, but there have been significant changes in the nation's religious demographics since the Genocide, with many conversions to Evangelical Christian faiths and Islam.^[185] As of 2006, Catholics represented 56.5% of the population, Protestants 37.1% (of whom 11.1% were Seventh Day Adventists) and Muslims 4.6%.^[186] 1.7% claimed no religious beliefs.^[186] Traditional African religion, despite officially representing only 0.1% of the population, retains an influence. Many Rwandans view the Christian God as synonymous with the traditional Rwandan God Imana.^[187]

The country's principal language is Kinyarwanda, which is spoken by most Rwandans. The major European languages during the colonial era were German, and then French, which was introduced by Belgium and remained an official and widely spoken language after independence.^[188] The influx of former refugees from Uganda and elsewhere during the late 20th century^[188] has created a linguistic divide between the English-speaking population and the French-speaking remainder of the country.^[189] Kinyarwanda, English and French are all official languages. Kinyarwanda is the language of government and English is the primary educational medium. Swahili, the lingua franca of East Africa, is also widely spoken, particularly in rural areas.^[189] Additionally, inhabitants of Rwanda's Nkombo Island speak Amashi, a language closely related to Kinyarwanda.^[190]

Culture[link]

Traditional Rwandan intore dancers

Music and dance are an integral part of Rwandan ceremonies, festivals, social gatherings and storytelling. The most famous traditional dance is a highly choreographed routine consisting of three components: the umushagiriro, or cow dance, performed by women;^[191] the intore, or dance of heroes, performed by men;^[191] and the drumming, also traditionally performed by men, on drums known as ingoma.^[192] The best known dance group is the National Ballet, established by President Habyarimana in 1974, which performs nationally and internationally.^[193] Traditionally, music is transmitted orally, with styles varying between the social groups. Drums are of great importance; the royal drummers enjoyed high status within the court of the King (Mwami).^[194] Drummers play together in groups of varying sizes, usually between seven and nine in number.^[195] The country has a growing popular music industry, influenced by East African, Congolese, and American music. The most popular genre is hip hop, with a blend of rap, ragga, R&B and dance-pop.^[196]

The cuisine of Rwanda is based on local staple foods produced by subsistence agriculture such as bananas, plantains (known as ibitoke), pulses, sweet potatoes, beans, and cassava (manioc).^[197] Many Rwandans do not eat meat more than a few times a month.^[197] For those who live near lakes and have access to fish, tilapia is popular.^[197] The potato, thought to have been introduced to Rwanda by German and Belgian colonialists, is very popular.^[198] Ubugari (or umutsima) is a paste made from cassava or maize and water to form a porridge-like consistency that is eaten throughout East Africa.^[199] Isombe is made from mashed cassava leaves and served with dried fish.^[198] Lunch is usually a buffet known as mélange, consisting of the above staples and sometimes meat.^[200] Brochettes are the most popular food when eating out in the evening, usually made from goat but sometimes tripe, beef, or fish.^[200] In rural areas, many bars have a brochette seller responsible for tending and slaughtering the goats, skewering and barbecuing the meat, and serving it with grilled bananas.^[201] Milk, particularly in a fermented yoghurt form called ikivuguto, is a common drink throughout the country.^[202] Other drinks include a traditional beer called urwagwa, made from sorghum or bananas, which features in traditional rituals and ceremonies.^[198] Commercial beers brewed in Rwanda include Primus, Mützig, and Amstel.^[199]

Rwandan woven basket