Kashrut (also kashruth or kashrus, כַּשְׁרוּת) is the set of Jewish dietary laws. Food that may be consumed according to halakha (Jewish law) is termed kosher in English, from the Ashkenazi pronunciation of the Hebrew term kashér (כָּשֵׁר), meaning "fit" (in this context, fit for consumption). Food that is not in accordance with Jewish law is called treif (Yiddish: טרײף or treyf, derived from Hebrew טְרֵפָה trēfáh). Kosher can also refer to anything that is fit for use or correct according to halakha, such as a hanukiyah (candelabra for Hannukah), or a sukkah (a Sukkot booth). The word kosher has become English vernacular, a colloquialism meaning proper, legitimate, genuine, fair, or acceptable.[1][2]
Among the numerous laws that form part of kashrut are the prohibitions on the consumption of unclean animals (such as pork and most insects, with the exception of crickets and locusts), mixtures of meat and milk, and the commandment to slaughter mammals and birds according to a process known as shechita. Most of the basic laws of kashrut are derived from the Torah's Books of Leviticus and Deuteronomy. Their details and practical application, however, is set down in the oral law (eventually codified in the Mishnah and Talmud) and elaborated on in the later rabbinical literature. While the Torah does not state the rationale for most kashrut laws, many reasons have been suggested, including philosophical, practical and hygienic.
Main article:
Kosher foodsThe laws of kashrut can be classified according to the origin of the prohibition (Biblical or rabbinical) and whether the prohibition concerns the food itself or a mixture of foods.[3]
Biblically prohibited foods include:[3]
- Non-kosher animals and birds (based on Leviticus 11:3–8 and Deuteronomy 14:3–21): mammals require certain identifying characteristics (completely cloven hooves and being ruminants), while birds require a tradition that they can be consumed. Fish require scales and fins. All invertebrates are non-kosher apart from a certain type of locust on which most communities lack a clear tradition. No reptiles or amphibians are kosher.
- Carrion (neveilah): meat from a kosher animal that has not been slaughtered according to the laws of shechita.
- Injured (tereifah): an animal with a significant defect or injury, such as a fractured bone or particular types of lung adhesions
- Blood (dam): blood of kosher mammals and fowl is removed through salting, with special procedures for the liver which is very rich in blood
- Particular fats (cheilev): particular parts of the abdominal fat of cattle, goats and sheep must be removed by a process called nikkur
- The twisted nerve (gid hanasheh): the sciatic nerve, as according to the Bible (Genesis 32:33) the patriarch Jacob's was damaged when he fought with an angel, cannot be eaten and is removed by nikkur
- Limb of a living animal (ever min ha-chai): according to Genesis 9:4, a limb torn from an animal that is still alive may not be consumed; this law is considered applicable even to non-Jews
- Untithed food (tevel): produce of the Land of Israel requires the removal of certain tithes, which in ancient times were given to the Kohanim (priests), Levites and the poor (terumah, maaser rishon and maaser ani respectively)
- Fruit during the first three years (orlah): according to Leviticus 19:23, fruit from a tree in the first three years after planting cannot be consumed (both in the Land of Israel and the diaspora)
- New grain (chadash): in Leviticus 23:14 the Bible prohibits newly grown grain (planted after Passover the previous year) until the second day of Passover; there is debate as to whether this law applies to grain grown outside the Land of Israel
- Wine of libation (yayin nesekh): wine that may have been dedicated to idolatrous practices
Biblically prohibited mixtures include:[3]
- Mixtures of meat and milk (basar be-chalav): this law derives from the broad interpretation of the commandment not to "cook a kid in its mother's milk" (Exodus 23:19, 34:26 and Deuteronomy 14:21); other non-kosher food may be used for other benefit (e.g. sold to non-Jews), but mixtures of meat and milk are prohibited even with regards to other benefit
- Plants grown together (kilayim): in the Land of Israel plants are to be grown separately and not in close proximity. A specific subdivision of this law is kil'ei ha-kerem, the prohibition of planting any grain of vegetable near a grapevine; this law applies throughout the world, and one may not derive benefit from the produce
Rabbinically prohibited foods include:[3]
- Non-Jewish milk (chalav akum): milk that may have an admixture of milk from non-kosher animals (see below for current views on this prohibition)
- Non-Jewish cheese (gevinat akum): cheese that may have been produced with non-kosher rennet
- Non-Jewish wine (stam yeinam): wine that while not produced for idolatrous purposes may otherwise have been poured for such a purpose or alternatively when consumed will lead to intermarriage
- Food cooked by a non-Jew (bishul akum): this law was enacted for concerns of intermarriage
- Non-Jewish bread (pat akum): this law was enacted for concerns of intermarriage
- Health risk (sakanah): certain foods and mixtures are considered a health risk, such as mixtures of fish and meat
Only meat from particular species is permissible. Mammals that both chew their cud (ruminate) and have cloven hooves can be kosher. Animals with one characteristic but not the other (the camel, the hyrax and the hare because they have no cloven hooves, and the pig because it does not ruminate) are specifically excluded (Leviticus 11:3–8).[4][5] In 2008, a rabbinical ruling determined that giraffes and their milk are eligible to be considered kosher. The giraffe has both split hooves and chews its cud, characteristics of animals considered kosher. Findings from 2008 show that giraffe milk curdles, meeting kosher standards. Although kosher, the giraffe is not slaughtered today because the process would be very costly. Giraffes are difficult to restrain, and their use for food could cause the species to become endangered.[6][7][8]
Non-kosher birds are listed outright (Deuteronomy 14:12–18) but the exact zoological references are disputed and some references refer to families of birds (24 are mentioned). The Mishnah[9] refers to four signs provided by the sages.[10] First, a dores (predatory bird) is not kosher. Additionally, kosher birds possess three physical characteristics: an extra toe[clarification needed], a zefek (crop), and a korkoban (gizzard) with a peelable lumen. However, individual Jews are barred from merely applying these regulations alone; an established tradition (masorah) is necessary to allow birds to be consumed, even if it can be substantiated that they meet all four criteria.[11] The only exception to this is turkey. There was a time when certain authorities considered the signs enough, so Jews started eating this bird without a masorah because it possesses all the signs (simanim in Hebrew) and there is a place for this[clarification needed] in Jewish law.[citation needed] In Karaite Judaism, there are varying opinions on chicken. Early Karaites avoided chicken because it was not specifically listed as permitted in the Torah. Today, Hakham Meir Rekhavi has argued that chicken is kosher because it is a member of the same order as quail, Galliformes.[12] However, Hakham Avraham Qanai argues that it is not kosher because it is not clear if it is listed in either permitted or prohibited birds. He rebuts the argument using taxonomic arguments, saying the Torah would not give two examples of birds from the same order, doves and pigeons in Columbiformes.[13]
Fish must have fins and scales to be kosher (Leviticus 11:9–12). Shellfish and other non-fish water fauna are not kosher.[14] Here is a list of kosher species of fish. Insects are not kosher except for certain species of kosher locust.[15] Generally any animal that eats other animals, whether they kill their food or eat carrion (Leviticus 11:13–31), is not kosher, as well as any animal that was partially eaten by other animals (Exodus 22:30/Exodus 22:31).
|
| Classes |
Unclean |
| Mammals |
Carnivores; Animals that either do not chew the cud or do not have cloven hooves (i.e., the camel, the hyrax, the hare and the pig) |
| Birds |
Birds of prey; scavengers |
| Reptiles |
All reptiles are unclean (as well as amphibians) |
| Water Animals |
Those that do not have both fins and scales |
| Insects |
All, except particular locust that according to most cannot be identified today |
Meat and milk (or derivatives) cannot be mixed (Deuteronomy 14:21) in the sense that meat and dairy products are not served at the same meal, served or cooked in the same utensils, or stored together. Observant Jews have separate sets of dishes, and sometimes different kitchens, for meat and milk, and wait anywhere between one and six hours after eating meat before consuming milk products.[16] The milchig and fleishig utensils and dishes are the commonly referred to Yiddish delineations between dairy and meat (lit. milky and fleshy) utensils and dishes respectively.[17]
Mammals and fowl must be slaughtered by a trained individual (a shochet) using a special method of slaughter, shechita (Deuteronomy 12:21). Among other features, shechita slaughter severs the jugular vein, carotid artery, esophagus and trachea in a single continuous cutting movement with an unserrated, sharp knife. Failure of any of these criteria renders the meat of the animal unsuitable. The body must be checked after slaughter to confirm that the animal had no medical condition or defect that would have caused it to die of its own accord within a year, which would make the meat unsuitable.[18] These conditions (treifot) include 70 different categories of injuries, diseases, and abnormalities whose presence renders the animal non-kosher. It is forbidden to consume certain parts of the animal, such as certain fats (chelev) and the sciatic nerves from the legs. As much blood as possible must be removed (Leviticus 17:10) through the kashering process; this is usually done through soaking and salting the meat, but organs rich in blood (the liver) are grilled over an open flame.[19] Fish (and locusts, for those Sephardi Jews who agree that they are both kosher and edible) must be killed before being eaten, but no particular method has been specified in Jewish law.
Utensils used for non-kosher foods become non-kosher, and make even otherwise kosher food prepared with them non-kosher. Some such utensils, depending on the material they are made from, can be made suitable for preparing kosher food again by immersion in boiling water or by the application of a blowtorch. Food prepared by Jews in a manner that violates the Shabbat (Sabbath) may not be eaten until the Shabbat is over.[20]
Pesach (Passover) has special dietary rules, the most important of which is the prohibition on eating leavened bread or derivatives of this (chametz, Exodus 12:15). Utensils used in preparing and serving chametz are also forbidden on Passover unless they have been cleansed (kashering).[21] Observant Jews keep separate sets of meat and dairy utensils for Passover use only. In addition, some groups follow various eating restrictions on Passover that go beyond the rules of kashrut, such as not eating gebrochts or garlic.
Biblical rules control the use of agriculture produce. For produce grown in the Land of Israel a modified version of the biblical tithes must be applied, including Terumat HaMaaser, Maaser Rishon, Maaser Sheni, and Maaser Ani (untithed produce is called tevel); the fruit of the first three years of a tree's growth or replanting are forbidden for eating or any other use as orlah;[22] produce grown in the Land of Israel on the seventh year is Shviit, and unless managed carefully is forbidden as a violation of the Shmita (Sabbatical Year). Some rules of kashrut are not universally observed: the rule against eating chadash (new grain) before the 16th of the month Nisan; many hold that this rule does not apply outside the Land of Israel.
Many vegetarian restaurants and producers of vegetarian foods acquire a hechsher, certifying that a Rabbinical organization has approved their products as being kosher. The hechsher usually certifies that certain vegetables have been checked for insect infestation and steps have been taken to ensure that cooked food meets the requirements of bishul Yisrael. Vegetables such as lettuce, cabbage, broccoli and cauliflower must be checked for insect infestation. The proper procedure for inspecting and cleaning varies by species, growing conditions, and views of individual rabbis.
See also: Kosher Eggs
Some processes convert a meat or dairy product into a pareve (neither meat nor dairy) one. For example, rennet is sometimes made from stomach linings, yet is acceptable for making kosher cheese,[23] but such cheeses might not be acceptable to some vegetarians, who would eat only cheese made from a vegetarian rennet. The same applies to kosher gelatin, an animal product, supposedly derived from kosher animal sources. Other gelatin-like products from non-animal sources such as agar agar and carageenan are pareve by nature. Fish gelatin is derived from fish and therefore (like all kosher fish products) pareve. Eggs are also considered pareve despite being an animal product; Mayonnaise, for instance, is usually marked "pareve" despite by definition containing egg.
Kashrut has procedures by which equipment can be cleaned of its previous non-kosher use, but that might be inadequate for those with allergies, vegetarians, or adherents to other religious statutes. For example, dairy manufacturing equipment can be cleaned well enough that the rabbis grant pareve status to products manufactured with it. Nevertheless, someone with a strong allergic sensitivity to dairy products might still react to the dairy residue, and that is why some products that are legitimately pareve carry "milk" warnings.
Jewish philosophy divides the 613 mitzvot into three groups—laws that have a rational explanation and would probably be enacted by most orderly societies (mishpatim), laws that are understood after being explained, but would not be legislated without the Torah's command, (edot), and laws that do not have a rational explanation (chukim). Some Jewish scholars say that kashrut should be categorized as laws for which there is no particular explanation, since the human mind is not always capable of understanding divine intentions. In this line of thinking, the dietary laws were given as a demonstration of God's authority and man must obey without asking why.[24] However, Maimonides believed that Jews were permitted to seek out reasons for the laws of the Torah.[25]
Some theologians have said that the laws of kashrut are symbolic in character: Kosher animals represent virtues, while non-kosher animals represent vices. The 1st century BCE Letter of Aristeas argues that the laws "have been given ... to awake pious thoughts and to form the character".[26] This view reappears in the prolix allegories of Philo of Alexandria and in the writings of early Christian Church Fathers. This symbolism hypothesis features in the work of the 19th century Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch.
The Torah prohibits "seething the kid (goat, sheep, calf) in its mother's milk", a practice perceived as cruel and insensitive.
Hasidism believes that everyday life is imbued with channels connecting with Divinity, the activation of which it sees as helping the Divine Presence to be drawn into the physical world;[27] Hasidism argues that the food laws are related to the way such channels, termed sparks of holiness, interact with various animals.
According to the teachings of Hasidism, sparks of Holiness are released whenever a Jew manipulates any object for a holy reason (which includes eating);[28] however, not all animal products are capable of releasing their sparks of holiness.[29] The Hasidic argument is that animals are imbued with signs that reveal the release of these sparks, and the signs are expressed in the biblical categorization of ritually clean and ritually unclean;[30]
According to Christian theologian Gordon J. Wenham, the purpose of kashrut was to help Jews maintain a distinct and separate existence from other peoples; he says that the effect of the laws was to prevent socialization and intermarriage with non-Jews, preventing Jewish identity from being diluted.[31] Wenham argued that since the impact of the food laws was a public affair, this would have enhanced Jewish attachment to them as a reminder of the distinct status of Jews.[31]
While Kashrut predates the germ theory of disease certain rules appear to protect human health. Prohibitions on consuming carrion eaters (Leviticus 11:31) or the use of bowls and vessels in which animals have died (Leviticus 11:31–32) can be seen as preventing disease. Likewise, rules for processing meat, such as glatt, the requirement that lungs be checked to be free of adhesions, would help prevent consumption of animals that had been infected with tuberculosis. Similarly, the ban on slaughtering unconscious animals would prevent certain sick and possibly infectious animals from being consumed. The prohibition against eating pigs (Leviticus 11:3–8) is the preponderance of parasites (e.g., worms) in pigs. The prohibition against eating the harvests of the first three years and the seventh year (Leviticus 19:23–25; 25:3–5) may be seen as letting the soil replenish so that the harvest is not depleted of nutrients.
There have been attempts to provide empirical support for the view that Jewish food laws have an over-arching health benefit or purpose, one of the earliest being from Maimonides in his Guide for the Perplexed. In 1953, David Macht, an Orthodox Jew and proponent of the theory of biblical scientific foresight, conducted toxicity experiments on many kinds of animals and fish.[32] His experiment involved lupin seedlings being supplied with extracts from the meat of various animals; Macht reported that in 100% of cases, extracts from ritually unclean meat inhibited the seedling's growth more than that from ritually clean meats.[33] At the same time, these explanations are controversial. Scholar Lester L. Grabbe, writing in the Oxford Bible Commentary on Leviticus, states that "[a]n explanation now almost universally rejected is that the laws in this section [Leviticus 11–15] have hygiene as their basis. Although some of the laws of ritual purity roughly correspond to modern ideas of physical cleanliness, many of them have little to do with hygiene. For example, there is no evidence that the 'unclean' animals are intrinsically bad to eat or to be avoided in a Mediterranean climate, as is sometimes asserted."[34]
Certain foods must be prepared in whole or in part by Jews. This includes grape wine,[35] certain cooked foods (bishul akum),[36] cheese (gvinat akum), and according to some also butter (chem'at akum);[37] dairy products (Hebrew: חלב ישראל chalav Yisrael "milk of Israel");[37][38] and bread (Pat Yisrael).[39]
The circled U indicates that this product is certified as kosher by the
Orthodox Union (OU). The word "pareve" indicates that this product contains neither milk nor meat-derived ingredients
For more details on this topic, see
Hechsher.
Although reading the label of food products can identify obviously non-kosher ingredients, some countries allow manufacturers to omit identification of certain ingredients. Such "hidden" ingredients may include lubricants and flavorings, among other additives; in some cases, for instance, the use of natural flavorings, these ingredients are more likely to be derived from non-kosher substances[citation needed]. Furthermore, certain products, such as fish, have a high rate of mislabeling which may substitute a non-kosher fish into a package labeled as a species of kosher fish.[40]
Producers of foods and food additives can contact Jewish religious authorities to have their products certified as kosher: this would most likely involve a visit to the manufacturing facilities by a committee from a rabbinic organization, rather than by an individual rabbi, in order to inspect the production methods and contents, and if everything is sufficiently kosher a certificate would be issued.
Manufacturers sometimes identify the products that have received such certification by adding particular graphical symbols to the label. These symbols are known in Judaism as hechsherim. Due to differences in kashrut standards held by different organizations, the hechsheirim of certain Jewish authorities may at times be considered invalid by other Jewish authorities[citation needed]; the certification marks of the various rabbis and organisations are too numerous to list, but one of the most commonly used in the United States of America is that of the Union of Orthodox Congregations, who use a U inside a circle, symbolising the initials of Orthodox Union. A single K is sometimes used as a symbol for kosher, but since many countries do not allow letters to be trademarked (the method by which other symbols are protected from misuse), it only indicates that the company producing the product claims that it is kosher.
Many of the certification symbols are accompanied by additional letters or words to indicate the category of the product, according to Jewish religious law; the categorisation may conflict with legal classifications, especially in the case of food that Jewish religious law regards as dairy, but legal classification does not.
- D—Dairy
- M—Meat, including poultry
- Pareve—Food that is neither meat nor dairy
- Fish
- P—Passover-related (P is not used for Pareve)
In many cases constant supervision is required because, for various reasons, such as changes in manufacturing processes, products that once were kosher may cease to be so. For example, a kosher lubricating oil may be replaced by one containing tallow, which many rabbinic authorities view as non-kosher. Such changes are often co-ordinated with the supervising rabbi, or supervising organisation, to ensure that new packaging does not suggest any hechsher or kashrut. In some cases, however, existing stocks of pre-printed labels with the hechsher may continue to be used on the now non-kosher product. An active grapevine among the Jewish community discusses which products are now questionable, as well as products which have become kosher but whose labels have yet to carry the hechsher. Some newspapers and periodicals also discuss kashrut products.
Many coffee creamers currently sold in the United States are labeled as "non-dairy", yet also have a "D" alongside their hechsher, which indicates a dairy status. This is because of an ingredient (usually sodium caseinate), which is derived from milk. The rabbis categorize it as dairy that cannot be mixed with meat, but the US government considers it to lack the nutritional value of milk.
Products labeled kosher-style are nonkosher products that have characteristics of kosher foods, such as all-beef hot dogs,[41] or are flavored or prepared in a manner consistent with Ashkenazi practices, like dill pickles.[42] The designation usually refers to delicatessen items.
In 1911, Procter & Gamble was the first company to advertise that their product, Crisco, was kosher. Over the next two decades, companies such as Lender's Bagels, Maxwell House, Manischewitz, and Empire evolved and gave the kosher market more shelf space. In the 1960s, Hebrew National hotdogs launched a "we answer to a higher authority" campaign to appeal to Jews and non-Jews alike. From that point on, kosher became a symbol for both quality and value. The kosher market quickly expanded, and with it more opportunities for kosher products. According to Menachem Lubinsky, founder of the Kosherfest trade fair, there may be as many as 14 million kosher consumers and $40 billion in sales of kosher products in the USA.
Advertising standards laws in many jurisdictions prohibit the use of the phrase kosher in a product's labelling, unless it can be shown that the product conforms to Jewish dietary laws; however, the legal qualifications for conforming to Jewish dietary laws are often defined differently in different jurisdictions. For example, in some places the law may require that a rabbi certify the kashrut nature, in others the rules of kosher are fully defined in law, and in others still it is sufficient that the manufacturer only believes that the product complies with Jewish dietary regulations. In several cases, laws restricting the use of the term kosher have later been determined to be illegal religious interference.
About one-sixth of American Jews maintain the kosher diet.[43] Many Jews observe kashrut partially, by abstaining from pork or shellfish, or not drinking milk with a meat dish. Some keep kosher at home but will eat in a non-kosher restaurant. Jews comprise only about 20% of the market for kosher food in the United States. A sizable non-Jewish segment of the population views kosher certification as an indication of wholesomeness. Strict vegetarians, Muslims, Hindus, and people with allergies to dairy foods, often consider the kosher-parve designation as an assurance that a food contains no animal-derived ingredients, including milk and all of its derivatives,[44] although the products still might contain fish or eggs.
כשר in Ancient Hebrew means, be advantageous, proper, suitable, or succeed [45] according to the Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon. In Modern Hebrew, it generally refers to Kashrut but can also sometimes mean "proper".
By extension, kosher has come to mean legitimate, acceptable, permissible, genuine, and authentic.[1][2][46] For example, the Babylonian Talmud uses kosher in the sense of virtuous, when referring to the Dãrayavahush I (known in English, via Latin, as Darius) as a "kosher king"; Darius, a Persian King, assisted in building the Second Temple.[47]
The word kosher is also part of some common product names. Sometimes it is used as an abbreviation of koshering, meaning the process for making something kosher; for example, kosher salt is a form of salt with irregularly shaped crystals, making it particularly suitable for preparing meat according to the rules of kashrut, because the increased surface area of the crystals absorbs blood more effectively. At other times it is used as a synonym for Jewish tradition; for example, a kosher dill pickle is simply a pickle made in the traditional manner of Jewish New York City pickle makers, using a generous addition of garlic to the brine,[48] and is not necessarily compliant with the traditional Jewish food laws.[49]
- ^ a b Eric Partridge, Tom Dalzell, Terry Victor (2006). The New Partridge Dictionary of Slang and Unconventional English: Volume 2, J-Z. Taylor & Francis. pp. 388. ISBN 0-415-25938-X. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7UIjVGcSe8MC&lpg=PA388&pg=PA388.
- ^ a b B.A. Phythian (1976). A concise dictionary of English slang and colloquialisms. The Writer, Inc. p. 110. ISBN 0-87116-099-4. "Kosher Genuine. Fair. Acceptable."
- ^ a b c d Binyomin Forst (1994). The laws of kashrus: a comprehensive exposition of their underlying concepts and applications. Brooklyn, N.Y: Mesorah Publications. pp. 32–49. ISBN 0-89906-103-6.
- ^ Shulchan Aruch, Yoreh De'ah 79
- ^ For a comprehensive review of the issue involving the difficulty that neither the hyrax nor the hare are ruminants, see Rabbi Natan Slifkin's "The Camel, the Hare and the Hyrax."
- ^ Giraffe is kosher, rabbis rule in Israel
- ^ Shulchan Aruch, Yoreh De'ah 82:1–5
- ^ Rabbi Air Z. Zivotofki. "What's the Truth About Giraffe Meat!". Kashrut.com. http://www.kashrut.com/articles/giraffe/.
- ^ Bavli Chullin 3:22–23
- ^ Kashrut.com: Are Turkeys Kosher?, part 2
- ^ Kashrut.com: Are Turkeys Kosher?, part 3
- ^ Rekhavi, Meir. "Is the Chicken a Kasher Bird?". http://rekhavi.karaitejudaism.org. Teachings of Hakham Rekhavi. http://rekhavi.karaitejudaism.org/chicken.shtml. Retrieved 11 April 2012.
- ^ Qanai, Avraham. "Chicken: The Issues". orahsaddiqim.org. Karaite Jewish Congregation Orah Saddiqim. http://www.orahsaddiqim.org/Kashrut/Chicken_I.shtml. Retrieved 11 April 2012.
- ^ Shulchan Aruch, Yoreh De'ah 83 and 84
- ^ Shulchan Aruch, Yoreh De'ah 85
- ^ Shulchan Aruch, Yoreh De'ah 87 et seq
- ^ Jewish Virtual Library Kashrut: Jewish Dietary Laws
- ^ Shulchan Aruch, Yoreh De'ah 1–65
- ^ Shulchan Aruch Yoreh De'ah 66–78
- ^ Shulchan Aruch, Orach Chayim, 318:1
- ^ Shulchan Aruch, Orach Chayim, 431–452
- ^ Star-k.org
- ^ The rennet must be kosher, either microbial or from special productions of animal rennet using kosher calf stomachs.Oukosher.org, Retrieved August 10, 2005.
- ^ William H. Shea, Clean and Unclean Meats, Biblical Research Institute, December 1998 (archived from the original on 2008-02-12)
- ^ Mishneh Torah Korbanot, Temurah 4:13 (in eds. Frankel; "Rambam L'Am")
- ^ Letter of Aristeas, 145–154
- ^ The Chassidic Masters on Food and Eating, chabad.org
- ^ Meat, chabad.org
- ^ לקוטי אמרים תניא (Hebrew), chabad.org
- ^ Re'eh, rabbifriedman.org (archived from the original on 2007-08-29).
- ^ a b Gordon J. Wenham, The Theology of Unclean Food, The Evangelical Quarterly 53, January March 1981, pp.6–15
- ^ Macht (September–October 1953) (pdf). An Experimental Pharmalogical Appreciation of Leviticus XI and Deuteronomy XIV. XXXVII. Bulletin of the History of Medicine. pp. 444–450. http://members.dslextreme.com/users/hollymick/Macht1953.pdf.
- ^ Macht 1953 op. cit.
- ^ The Oxford Bible Commentary, eds. J. Barton and J. Muddiman. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2001: 99.
- ^ Shulchan Aruch, Yoreh De'ah 114
- ^ Shulchan Aruch, Yoreh De'ah 113
- ^ a b Shulchan Aruch, Yoreh De'ah 115
- ^ Many rely on lenient rulings by Rabbi Moshe Feinstein in Teshuvot Igrot Moshe. Yoreh De'ah 1:47 and other 20th century rabbinic authorities who rule that strict government supervision prevents the admixture of non-kosher milk, making supervision unnecessary. See also Rabbi Chaim Jachter. "Chalav Yisrael – Part I: Rav Soloveitchik's View". http://www.koltorah.org/RAVJ/13-7%20Chalav%20Yisrael%20-%20Part%201.htm. Retrieved 2007-12-02.
- ^ Shulchan Aruch, Yoreh De'ah 112, Orach Chayim 603
- ^ See: New York Times Article on Fish Mislabeling
- ^ Zeldes, Leah A. (2010-07-08). "Know your wiener!". Dining Chicago. Chicago's Restaurant & Entertainment Guide, Inc.. http://www.diningchicago.com/blog/2010/07/08/know-your-wiener/. Retrieved 2010-07-31.
- ^ Zeldes, Leah A. (2010-07-20). "Origins of neon relish and other Chicago hot dog conundrums". Dining Chicago. Chicago's Restaurant & Entertainment Guide, Inc.. http://www.diningchicago.com/blog/2010/07/20/chicago-hot-dog-yellow-mustard-neon-green-relish#pickle. Retrieved 2010-07-31.
- ^ Stern, the author of How to Keep Kosher: A Comprehensive Guide to Understanding Jewish Dietary Laws, is one of a million or so American Jews (out of around six million total) who keeps her kitchen year-round according to the laws of kashruth, or kosher.
- ^ Kosher-directory.com
- ^ http://tmcdaniel.palmerseminary.edu/BDB.pdf
- ^ Jewish dietary laws
- ^ Tractate Rosh Hashanah 3b, Schottenstein Edition, Mesorah Publications Ltd.
- ^ Brief note on kosher pickles in "The Pickle Wing" of nyfoodmuseum.org
- ^ Kashrut: Jewish Dietary Laws "Judaism 101"
- Samuel Dresner, Seymour Siegel and David Pollock The Jewish Dietary Laws, United Synagogue, New York, 1982. ISBN 0-8381-2105-5
- Isidore Grunfeld, The Jewish Dietary Laws, London: Soncino, 1972. ISBN 0-900689-22-6
- Isaac Klein, A Guide to Jewish Religious Practice, JTSA, 1992
- David C. Kraemer, Jewish Eating and Identity Throughout the Ages, Routledge, 2008
- James M. Lebeau, The Jewish Dietary Laws: Sanctify Life, United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism, New York, 1983
- Yacov Lipschutz, Kashruth: A Comprehensive Background and Reference Guide to the Principles of Kashruth. New York: Mesorah Publications Ltd, 1989
- Jordan D. Rosenblum, Food and Identity in Early Rabbinic Judaism, Cambridge University Press, 2010. ISBN 0-521-19598-5.
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