Vimeo results:
Youtube results:
Branches of Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Applied mathematics
- Dynamical systems and differential equations
- Mathematical physics
- Computing
- Information theory and signal processing
- Probability and statistics
- Game theory
- Operations research
Related Topics
- Electromagnetic Spectrum
- Linear Equations
- Applied Physics
- Nano Technology
- Engineering Sciences
- Mathematical Medicine
- Fluid dynamics
- Computational Mathematics
- Gamma Ray Optics
- Onfrared Optics
- Relative Velocity
- Iciam
- Intelligent Imaging Neuroscience
- Biomedical Engineering
- Neuroscience Research
- Quantum Cosmology
- Brain Research
![Hindenburg Disaster Real Footage (1937) [HD]](http://web.archive.org./web/20121009004853im_/http://i.ytimg.com/vi/CgWHbpMVQ1U/0.jpg "Hindenburg Disaster Real Footage (1937) [HD]. Footage of the Nazi airship catching fire, crashing and burning to the ground. This original footage from the British Pathe archive shows impressive shots of the Hindenburg flying overhead, flying over its landing ground at Lakehurst, New Jersey, and then finally there is footage of the famous crash. 13 out of 36 passengers died, whilst 22 out of 61 crew members died, so many survived the disaster. Check out our playlist: www.youtube.com Subscribe to British Pathe: www.youtube.com Follow us on Twitter: @britishpathe.com Join us on Facebook: www.facebook.com From: www.britishpathe.com")
Open Collage in a new Window
Email the Collage
- Loading...
Loading suggestions ...
- 1840
- 1845
- 1850
- 1852
- 1853
- 1854
- 1855
- 1856
- 1857
- 1858
- 1859
- 1860
- 1861
- 1862
- 1863
- 1864
- 1865
- 1866
- 1867
- 1868
- 1869
- 1870
- 1871
- 1873
- 1874
- 1875
- 1876
- 1879
- 1882
- 1884
- 1887
- 1889
- 1890
- 1891
- 1892
- 1894
- 1896
- 1898
- 1899
- 1900
- 1900–1909
- 1902
- 1907
- 1908
- 1910
- 1910s
- 1911
- 1913
- 1915
- 1920s
- 1928
- 1930s
- 1934
- 1935
- 1936
- 1937
- 1937 in archaeology
- 1937 in architecture
- 1937 in art
- 1937 in Australia
- 1937 in aviation
- 1937 in Canada
- 1937 in China
- 1937 in comics
- 1937 in Ecuador
- 1937 in film
- 1937 in France
- 1937 in Germany
- 1937 in Greece
- 1937 in India
- 1937 in Ireland
- 1937 in Italy
- 1937 in Japan
- 1937 in literature
- 1937 in Malaya
- 1937 in Mexico
- 1937 in music
- 1937 in New Zealand
- 1937 in Norway
- 1937 in poetry
- 1937 in radio
- 1937 in science
- 1937 in Singapore
- 1937 in South Africa
- 1937 in sports
- 1937 in television
- 1938
- 1939
- 1940
- 1940s
- 1950s
- 1959
- 1960s
- 1969
- 1971
- 1973
- 1989
- 1990
- 1992
- 1994
- 1995
- 1996
- 1998
- 1999
- 19th century
- 2000
- 2001
- 2002
- 2003
- 2004
- 2005
- 2006
- 2008
- 2009
- 2010
- 2011
- 2012
- 20th century
- 21st century
- 2nd millennium
- Ab urbe condita
- Abdelaziz Bouteflika
- Abner Haynes
- Abraham Lincoln
- Addis Ababa
- Adolf Hitler
- Aerobile
- Alabama
- Alan Thornett
- Albert Szent-Györgyi
- Alberta Nelson
- Alfred Abel
- Alfred Adler
- Alfred Dyke Acland
- Amarro Fiamberti
- Amelia Earhart
- Andrew W. Mellon
- André Besette
- Ange-Felix Patasse
- Anna Dawson
- Anne Aubrey
- Anthony Hopkins
- Anti-Comintern Pact
- Antonio Gramsci
- April 1
- April 10
- April 12
- April 15
- April 16
- April 17
- April 18
- April 19
- April 20
- April 21
- April 22
- April 24
- April 25
- April 26
- April 27
- April 28
- April 29
- April 5
- April 6
- April 7
- April 9
- Arctic Ocean
- Argentina
- Armenian calendar
- Armin Hary
- Arne Næss Jr.
- Arthur Edmund Carewe
- Arturo Toscanini
- Asia
- Assyrian calendar
- Atherton Report
- August 11
- August 14
- August 16
- August 18
- August 2
- August 20
- August 21
- August 26
- August 27
- August 29
- August 30
- August 31
- August 4
- August 5
- August 6
- August 8
- Austen Chamberlain
- Avram Hershko
- Bahá'í calendar
- Bali tiger
- Barbara Steele
- Barbara Windsor
- Barney Wilen
- Barry Switzer
- Batman
- Battle of Jarama
- Battle of Nanjing
- Beijing
- Belfast
- Belgium
- Bella Akhmadulina
- Bengali calendar
- Berber calendar
- Bessie Smith
- Bill Cosby
- Bill Lawry
- Billy Dee Williams
- Billy Meier
- Blues
- Bob Schieffer
- Bobby Allison
- Bobby Charlton
- Bobby Scott
- Bombing of Guernica
- Bombing of Jaén
- Boris Spassky
- Boris Yegorov
- Brahms
- Brazil
- Bruce McLaren
- Brussels
- Buddhist calendar
- Byzantine calendar
- California
- Canada
- Carl Orff
- Carlos Gaviria Díaz
- Carlos Lamarca
- Cartoon character
- Category 1937
- Category 1937 awards
- Category 1937 births
- Category 1937 deaths
- Category 1937 in law
- Category 1937 works
- Cathie Jung
- CBS
- CD
- Celal Bayar
- Centennial
- Chad
- Chan Sek Keong
- Charles Dumas
- Charles Evans Hughes
- Charles-Marie Widor
- Charmian May
- Chicago
- China
- Chinese calendar
- Chuck Low
- Chuck Traynor
- Coalition government
- Coenraad Bron
- Colin Clive
- Colin Powell
- Colony of Aden
- Comic book
- Communism
- Communist
- Condor Legion
- Coptic calendar
- Craig Breedlove
- Crown colony
- Croydon Airport
- Crystal City, Texas
- Cüneyt Arkın
- Daffy Duck
- Dahlak Archipelago
- Danan, Ethiopia
- Daniel McFadden
- Darwin Joston
- David Bedford
- David Hockney
- Dawn Fraser
- Debre Libanos
- December 1
- December 11
- December 12
- December 13
- December 15
- December 16
- December 17
- December 20
- December 21
- December 25
- December 26
- December 28
- December 29
- December 3
- December 30
- December 31
- December 4
- December 7
- December 8
- December 9
- Detective Comics
- Dictator
- Divini Redemptoris
- Divorce
- Don Everly
- Don Galloway
- Donald Dewar
- Donald Goines
- Dresden, Germany
- Drift ice
- Dustin Hoffman
- Dyan Cannon
- Dáil
- Dáil Éireann
- East Asiatic Company
- Edith Wharton
- Edward VIII
- Edwin Atherton
- Elihu Root
- Elinor Donahue
- Ellis Parker Butler
- England
- Erich Ludendorff
- Eritrea
- Ernest Hemingway
- Estado Novo (Brazil)
- Estonia
- Ethiopia
- Ethiopian calendar
- Europe
- Falangist
- Falangists
- February 1
- February 10
- February 11
- February 12
- February 13
- February 16
- February 19
- February 2
- February 20
- February 21
- February 24
- February 25
- February 27
- February 3
- February 4
- February 5
- February 7
- February 8
- February 9
- Ferdinand Piech
- Fernando de la Rúa
- Flag Day
- France
- Francisco Franco
- Frank B. Kellogg
- Frank Calabrese, Sr.
- Frankfurt, Germany
- Frankie Valli
- Franz Vranitzky
- Fred Astaire
- Fred Noonan
- Garrett Morris
- Gaston Doumergue
- Geibeltbad Pirna
- General strike
- Gennady Yanayev
- George Carlin
- George Gershwin
- George Leonardos
- George Paget Thomson
- George Reisman
- George Steer
- George Takei
- George VI
- Germany
- Gestapo
- Getúlio Vargas
- Gijon
- Giovanna Marini
- Gisela Elsner
- Gnassingbe Eyadema
- Golden Gate Bridge
- Gordon Banks
- Gorilla Monsoon
- Graham Dowling
- Great Britain
- Great Purge
- Gregorian calendar
- Guernica (painting)
- Guernica (town)
- Guglielmo Marconi
- Guitar
- Gunma
- Gustaf Dalén
- Guy Standing
- H. P. Lovecraft
- Hans Cieslarczyk
- Hans Niels Andersen
- Harald Rosenthal
- Harald V of Norway
- Harris Yulin
- Harry Neale
- Harry Vardon
- Hawaii
- Hazel R. O'Leary
- HC Ambrì-Piotta
- Hebrew calendar
- Heinkel He 51
- Henry Ossawa Tanner
- Herb Brooks
- Hindenburg disaster
- Hindu calendar
- Hollywood Bowl
- Holocene calendar
- Hossbach Memorandum
- Howard Hughes
- Howie Morenz
- Hugo Black
- Hunter S. Thompson
- Ice hockey
- Inauguration Day
- Ingrid Pitt
- Iranian calendar
- Irish Free State
- Islamic calendar
- Italy
- J. Bruce Ismay
- J. M. Barrie
- J. R. R. Tolkien
- Jack Nicholson
- Jack Worrall
- Jackie Collins
- Jacques Santer
- Jagdish Chandra Bose
- James Florio
- James MacArthur
- James Michael Curley
- Jan Kaplický
- Jane Fonda
- January 1
- January 11
- January 13
- January 14
- January 15
- January 17
- January 18
- January 19
- January 2
- January 20
- January 21
- January 22
- January 23
- January 25
- January 26
- January 27
- January 29
- January 3
- January 30
- January 31
- January 4
- January 6
- January 8
- Japan
- Japanese calendar
- Jaén, Spain
- Jean Alingué Bawoyeu
- Jean de Brunhoff
- Jean Harlow
- Jean-Louis Petit
- Jerry Reed
- Jill Paton Walsh
- Jim Bowen
- Jim Harrison
- Jimmie Angel
- Jo Anne Worley
- Joe Warfield
- John D. Rockefeller
- John Fairfax
- John Hartford
- John Horton Conway
- John Hume
- John Ogdon
- John Steinbeck
- Johnnie Cochran
- Joseph Estrada
- Joseph S. Cullinan
- Joseph Schechtman
- Joseph Stalin
- Joseph Wambaugh
- Julian Bell
- Julian calendar
- July 1
- July 11
- July 12
- July 13
- July 14
- July 18
- July 2
- July 20
- July 21
- July 22
- July 24
- July 25
- July 27
- July 28
- July 29
- July 3
- July 31
- July 4
- July 5
- July 6
- July 7
- July 9
- June 1
- June 10
- June 11
- June 14
- June 15
- June 16
- June 18
- June 19
- June 2
- June 21
- June 23
- June 25
- June 26
- June 28
- June 3
- June 4
- June 7
- June 8
- June 9
- Juvénal Habyarimana
- Kali Yuga
- Karol Szymanowski
- Keith Bosley
- Keizo Obuchi
- Ken Higgs
- Ken Ogata
- Kenneth Colley
- Kerry Packer
- Kilingi-Nõmme
- King Curtis Iaukea
- Kirtanananda Swami
- Korean calendar
- Ku Klux Klan
- League of Nations
- Leeds
- Lenny Wilkens
- Leon Trotsky
- Leslie Gelb
- León, León
- Lily Pons
- Linda Lavin
- Lionel Jospin
- List of centuries
- List of decades
- List of years
- Llanes
- London
- Looney Tunes
- Los Angeles
- Lou Andreas-Salome
- Louis Vierne
- Luciana Paluzzi
- Lucy Beaumont
- Luftwaffe
- LZ 129 Hindenburg
- Léon Blum
- Madeleine Albright
- Madrid
- Mae West
- Magic Sam
- Magnar Solberg
- Manfred Krug
- Manuel Félix López
- March 10
- March 11
- March 12
- March 15
- March 17
- March 18
- March 19
- March 2
- March 20
- March 21
- March 22
- March 23
- March 26
- March 27
- March 29
- March 30
- March 4
- March 5
- March 6
- March 8
- March 9
- Margaret O'Brien
- Marie Prevost
- Martin Niemöller
- Martti Ahtisaari
- Mathematics
- Maui
- Maumoon Abdul Gayoom
- Maurice J. Tobin
- Maurice Ravel
- May 1
- May 12
- May 13
- May 15
- May 16
- May 17
- May 18
- May 2
- May 21
- May 23
- May 24
- May 25
- May 27
- May 28
- May 3
- May 30
- May 4
- May 5
- May 6
- May 7
- May 8
- Me and My Girl
- Merle Haggard
- Michał Drzymała
- Michigan
- Mikk Mikiver
- Millennium
- Minguo calendar
- Mit brennender Sorge
- Morgan Freeman
- Moscow
- Mount Rushmore
- Mozart
- Mrs. Leslie Carter
- Málaga
- Nanjing Massacre
- Nanking
- NASCAR Winston Cup
- Natural gas
- NBC
- Ned Beatty
- Neeme Järvi
- Neville Chamberlain
- New Deal
- New Guinea
- New London, Texas
- New York City
- Newton D. Baker
- Nida Blanca
- NKVD troika
- Nobel Peace Prize
- Noel Paul Stookey
- Noel Rosa
- November 1
- November 10
- November 11
- November 13
- November 17
- November 2
- November 20
- November 21
- November 23
- November 26
- November 3
- November 4
- November 5
- November 6
- November 8
- November 9
- Nylon
- October 1
- October 10
- October 13
- October 15
- October 16
- October 17
- October 18
- October 19
- October 2
- October 21
- October 23
- October 25
- October 26
- October 28
- October 3
- October 4
- October 5
- Of Mice and Men
- Ogaden
- Ohio River
- Oliver Law
- Olusegun Obasanjo
- Orson Welles
- Oscar Levant
- Osgood Perkins
- Otto Klemperer
- Pablo Picasso
- Paolo Conte
- Paris
- Patent
- Paul Behncke
- Paul Elmer More
- Paul Foot
- Paul Karrer
- Paxton Whitehead
- Peel Commission
- Pennsylvania
- Peter Cook
- Peter, Paul and Mary
- Philip Glass
- Phyllis Baker
- Pierre de Coubertin
- Plebiscite
- Pope Pius XI
- Popeye
- Porgy and Bess
- Porky's Duck Hunt
- President of Algeria
- President of Finland
- President of Iraq
- President of Ireland
- President of Latvia
- President of Nigeria
- President of Rwanda
- President of Togo
- President of Vietnam
- President of Zambia
- Public holiday
- Quarantine Speech
- Rabotnicki Skopje
- Radio
- Ralph Ince
- Ramsay MacDonald
- Rape
- Ratan Tata
- Ray Ewry
- Regnal year
- Reich Chancellery
- Remak Ramsay
- Republic of China
- Republic of Ireland
- Richard Boleslavsky
- Richard Petty
- Roald Hoffmann
- Robert Huber
- Robert Laird Borden
- Robert Lucas, Jr.
- Roberta Flack
- Roberto María Ortiz
- Robin Eames
- Robin Warren
- Roch Carrier
- Rod Roddy
- Rodolfo Graziani
- Roger Martin du Gard
- Roger Penske
- Roger Zelazny
- Roman numerals
- Ron Carter
- Ron Luciano
- Ross Alexander
- Rubin Carter
- Rupiah Banda
- Ruth Laredo
- Ruth Roland
- Saddam Hussein
- Saima Harmaja
- Sally Kellerman
- Sandy Dennis
- Scotland
- Scottsboro Boys
- September 11
- September 13
- September 14
- September 15
- September 16
- September 17
- September 19
- September 2
- September 21
- September 22
- September 25
- September 26
- September 27
- September 28
- September 29
- September 4
- September 5
- September 6
- September 7
- Sexagenary cycle
- Shanghai
- Shirley Bassey
- Shōwa period
- Snitz Edwards
- Sofiko Chiaureli
- Solar eclipse
- Solomon P. Ortiz
- Soviet
- Soviet Union
- Spain
- Spanish Civil War
- Spinach
- Stephen Lewis
- Suzanne Pleshette
- Switzerland
- Sydney
- Taoiseach
- Ted Healy
- Tex Avery
- Texaco
- Thai solar calendar
- The Cadillacs
- The Dandy
- The Hobbit
- The Shadow
- Theaters
- Thomas Aquinas Daly
- Thomas Pynchon
- Tianjin
- To Have and Have Not
- Tom Courtenay
- Tom Smothers
- Tomas Masaryk
- Tomb of the Unknowns
- Toni Harper
- Tran Duc Luong
- Trevor Baylis
- Trini Lopez
- Trotskyism
- Tung Chee-Hwa
- Tyler, Texas
- U.S. Supreme Court
- Una Stubbs
- Underwood Dudley
- United Auto Workers
- United States
- United States Senate
- USA
- USS Panay (PR-5)
- USS Panay incident
- Vaira Vike Freiberga
- Valentina Tereshkova
- Valerie Singleton
- Vanessa Redgrave
- Vibora Luviminda
- Victor Laloux
- Vikram Samvat
- Vitaly Zholobov
- Vivaldi
- Vladimir Ashkenazy
- Waldo Waterman
- Wallace H. Carothers
- Wallis Simpson
- Walt Disney
- Walter Haworth
- Warren Beatty
- Washington, D.C.
- Washington, DC
- Waylon Jennings
- West End theatre
- Westminster Abbey
- White River Monster
- William Devane
- William Gillette
- William Henry Hastie
- Willie Rushton
- World War II
- Wray Carlton
- Yekatit 12
- Yoshiro Mori
- Yukio Endo (gymnast)
- Yuri Senkevich
- Yvonne Craig
- Zdenek Zikan
- Éamon de Valera
-
Addis Ababa
http://wn.com/Addis_Ababa -
Alabama
Alabama () is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States of America. It is bordered by Tennessee to the north, Georgia to the east, Florida and the Gulf of Mexico to the south, and Mississippi to the west. Alabama ranks 30th in total land area and ranks second in the size of its inland waterways. The state ranks 23rd in population with almost 4.6 million residents in 2006.
http://wn.com/Alabama -
Arctic Ocean
The Arctic Ocean, located in the Northern Hemisphere and mostly in the Arctic north polar region, is the smallest, and shallowest of the world's five major oceanic divisions. The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) recognizes it as an ocean, although some oceanographers call it the Arctic Mediterranean Sea or simply the Arctic Sea, classifying it as one of the mediterranean seas of the Atlantic Ocean. Alternatively, the Arctic Ocean can be seen as the northernmost lobe of the all-encompassing World Ocean.
http://wn.com/Arctic_Ocean -
Argentina
Argentina (), officially the Argentine Republic (, ), is the second largest country in South America, constituted as a federation of 23 provinces and an autonomous city, Buenos Aires. It is the eighth-largest country in the world by land area and the largest among Spanish-speaking nations, though Mexico, Colombia and Spain are more populous.
http://wn.com/Argentina -
Beijing
{| style="float:right;"
http://wn.com/Beijing -
Belfast
Belfast () is the capital of and the largest city in Northern Ireland. It is the seat of devolved government and legislative Northern Ireland Assembly. It is the largest urban area in Northern Ireland, the second-largest city in Ireland and the 15th-largest city in the United Kingdom. It is the main settlement in the province of Ulster. The city of Belfast has a population of 267,500 and lies at the heart of the Belfast urban area, which has a population of 483,418. The Belfast metropolitan area has a total population of 579,276. Belfast is also the 100th-largest urban zone in the EU. Belfast was granted city status in 1888.
http://wn.com/Belfast -
Belgium
Belgium (, ), officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a state in Western Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts the EU's headquarters, as well as those of several other major international organizations such as NATO. Belgium covers an area of , and it has a population of about 10.8 million people.
http://wn.com/Belgium -
Bombing of Guernica
http://wn.com/Bombing_of_Guernica -
Brazil
Brazil (; , ), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (, ), is the largest country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country, both by geographical area and by population. It is the only Portuguese-speaking country in the Americas and the largest lusophone country in the world.
http://wn.com/Brazil -
Brussels
Brussels (, pronounced ; , pronounced ), officially the Brussels Region or Brussels-Capital Region (, Dutch: ), is the de facto capital city of the European Union (EU) and the largest urban area in Belgium. It comprises 19 municipalities, including the City of Brussels proper, which is the constitutional capital of Belgium, the seat of the French Community of Belgium and of the Flemish Community.
http://wn.com/Brussels -
California
California (pronounced ) is the most populous state in the United States and the third-largest by land area, after Alaska and Texas. California is also the most populous sub-national entity in North America. It's on the U.S. West Coast, bordered by the Pacific Ocean to the west and by the states of Oregon to the north, Nevada to the east, Arizona to the southeast, Baja California, Mexico, to the south. Its 5 largest cities are Los Angeles, San Diego, San Jose, San Francisco, and Long Beach, with Los Angeles, San Diego, and San Jose each having at least 1 million residents. Like many populous states, California's capital, Sacramento is smaller than the state's largest city, Los Angeles. The state is home to the nation's 2nd- and 6th-largest census statistical areas and 8 of the nation's 50 most populous cities. California has a varied climate and geography and a multi-cultural population.
http://wn.com/California -
Canada
Canada () is a country in North America, extending from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west and northward into the Arctic Ocean. It is the world's second largest country by total area. Canada's common border with the United States to the south and northwest is the longest in the world.
http://wn.com/Canada -
Chad
http://wn.com/Chad -
Chicago
Chicago ( or ) is the largest city in the state of Illinois. With over 2.8 million residents, it is the most populous city in the Midwestern United States and the third most populous city in the country. Its metropolitan area, commonly named "Chicagoland," is the 26th most populous in the world, home to an estimated 9.7 million people spread across the U.S. states of Illinois, Wisconsin, and Indiana. Chicago is the county seat of Cook County.
http://wn.com/Chicago -
China
China is seen variously as an ancient civilization extending over a large area in East Asia, a nation and/or a multinational entity.
http://wn.com/China -
Croydon Airport
Croydon Airport (ICAO: EGCR) was an airport in South London which straddled the boundary between what are now the London boroughs of Croydon and Sutton. Croydon was the first airport in the world to introduce air traffic control, in 1921. It was the main airport for London before it was replaced by Northolt Aerodrome, London Heathrow Airport and London Gatwick Airport. Both the terminal building and entrance lodge are Grade II listed buildings.
http://wn.com/Croydon_Airport -
Crystal City, Texas
Crystal City is a city in and the county seat of Zavala County, Texas, United States. The population was 7,190 at the 2000 census. The mascot of Crystal City High School is the Javelina.
http://wn.com/Crystal_City_Texas -
Dahlak Archipelago
The Dahlak Archipelago is an island group located in the Red Sea near Massawa, Eritrea. It consists of two large and 124 small islands. The pearl fisheries of the archipelago have been famous since Roman times and still produce a substantial number of pearls. Only four of the islands are permanently inhabited, of which Dahlak Kebir is the largest and most populated. Other inhabited islands of the archipelago are Dhuladhiya, Dissei, Dohul, Erwa, Harat, Harmil, Isra-Tu, Nahaleg, Norah and Shumma, although not all are permanently inhabited.
http://wn.com/Dahlak_Archipelago -
Danan, Ethiopia
Danan () is a town in the eastern part of Ethiopia known as the Ogaden. Located in the Gode Zone of the Somali Region (or kilil), and it is located the main road between Gode and Kebri Dahar (Qabridahare) the nearest towns with electricity. This town has a latitude and longitude of .
http://wn.com/Danan_Ethiopia -
England
England () is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west and the North Sea to the east, with the English Channel to the south separating it from continental Europe. Most of England comprises the central and southern part of the island of Great Britain in the North Atlantic. The country also includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly and the Isle of Wight.
http://wn.com/England -
Eritrea
http://wn.com/Eritrea -
Ethiopia
{{Infobox country
http://wn.com/Ethiopia -
France
{{Infobox Country
http://wn.com/France -
Geibeltbad Pirna
The Geibeltbad Pirna is a public bath and water sport facility in Pirna near Dresden, Saxony in Germany. Finished under the Nazis on July 20, 1937, it is one of the largest baths in the world. The 20,000 square metre site was renovated and upgraded in 2001-02 to include an indoor swimming pool, wellness centre and other facilities. From 1937 to 1990 Geibeltbad was a venue for the German swimming championships as well as a training site. In 2006, the bath welcomed 233,588 visitors.
http://wn.com/Geibeltbad_Pirna -
Germany
Germany (), officially the Federal Republic of Germany (, ), is a country in Western Europe. It is bordered to the north by the North Sea, Denmark, and the Baltic Sea; to the east by Poland and the Czech Republic; to the south by Austria and Switzerland; and to the west by France, Luxembourg, Belgium, and the Netherlands. The territory of Germany covers 357.021 km2 and is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. With 81.8 million inhabitants, it is the most populous member state of the European Union, and home to the third-largest number of international migrants worldwide.
http://wn.com/Germany -
Gestapo
The Gestapo (; abbreviation of Geheime Staatspolizei, Secret State Police) was the official secret police of Nazi Germany. Beginning in April 1934, it was under the administration of the SS leader Heinrich Himmler in his position as Chief of German Police (Chef der Deutschen Polizei). From September 1939 forward it was administered by the Reichssicherheitshauptamt (RSHA) ("Reich Main Security Office") and was considered a sister organization of the Sicherheitsdienst (SD) ("Security Service") and also a suboffice of the Sicherheitspolizei (SiPo) ("security police").
http://wn.com/Gestapo -
Gijon
http://wn.com/Gijon -
Great Britain
Great Britain is an island situated to the northwest of Continental Europe. It is the ninth largest island in the world, and the largest European island. With a population of about 60.0 million people in mid-2009, it is the third most populated island on Earth. Great Britain is surrounded by over 1,000 smaller islands and islets. The island of Ireland lies to its west. Politically, Great Britain may also refer to the island itself together with a number of surrounding islands which comprise the territory of England, Scotland and Wales.
http://wn.com/Great_Britain -
Guernica (town)
Guernica (; official and ) is a town in the province of Biscay, in the Autonomous Community of the Basque Country, Spain. The town of Guernica is united in one municipality with neighbouring Luno ("Lumo" in Basque), Gernika-Lumo. The population of the municipality is 16,224 as of 2009.
http://wn.com/Guernica_(town) -
Gunma
http://wn.com/Gunma -
Hawaii
: For geographic details see Geography and environment or Hawaiian Islands.
http://wn.com/Hawaii -
Hollywood Bowl
The Hollywood Bowl is a modern amphitheater in the Hollywood area of Los Angeles, California, United States that is used primarily for music performances. It has a seating capacity of 17,376.
http://wn.com/Hollywood_Bowl -
Irish Free State
http://wn.com/Irish_Free_State -
Italy
http://wn.com/Italy -
Japan
http://wn.com/Japan -
Jaén, Spain
http://wn.com/Jaén_Spain -
Kilingi-Nõmme
http://wn.com/Kilingi-Nõmme -
Leeds
Leeds () is a city and metropolitan borough in West Yorkshire, England. In 2001 Leeds' main urban subdivision had a population of 443,247, while the entire city had a population of (). Leeds is the cultural, financial and commercial heart of the West Yorkshire Urban Area, which at the 2001 census had a population of 1.5 million, and the Leeds city region, an economic area with Leeds at its core, had a population of 2.9 million. Leeds is the UK's largest centre for business, legal, and financial services outside London, and according to the most recent Office for National Statistics estimates, Leeds is the fastest growing city in the UK.
http://wn.com/Leeds -
León, León
http://wn.com/León_León -
Llanes
Llanes (the Concejo de Llanes, Conceyu de Llanes in Asturian language) an administrative district of the province of Asturias, in northern Spain. Stretching for about 30 km along the coast at the extreme east of the province, Llanes is bounded to the south by the high ridge of the limestone Sierra del Cuera, which rises to over 1,100 m. The region is part of the Costa Verde (Green Coast) of Spain, which is known for its spectacular coastal scenery, beaches, and mountains. Llanes lies to the north of the Picos de Europa, a mountain range whose geology is almost entirely of limestone karst.
http://wn.com/Llanes -
London
London () is the capital of England and the United Kingdom, the largest metropolitan area in the United Kingdom and the largest urban zone in the European Union by most measures. London has been a major settlement for two millennia, its history going back to its founding by the Romans, who called it Londinium. London's core, the ancient City of London, largely retains its square-mile mediaeval boundaries. Since at least the 19th century, the name London has also referred to the metropolis developed around this core. The bulk of this conurbation forms the London region and the Greater London administrative area, governed by the elected Mayor of London and the London Assembly.
http://wn.com/London -
Los Angeles
Los Angeles ( ; , Spanish for "The Angels") is the second most populous city in the United States, the most populous city in the state of California and the western United States, with a population of 3.83 million within its administrative limits on a land area of . The urban area of Los Angeles extends beyond the administrative city limits with a population of over 14.8 million and it is the 14th largest urban area in the world, affording it megacity status. The metropolitan statistical area (MSA) is home to nearly 12.9 million residents while the broader Los Angeles-Long Beach-Riverside combined statistical area (CSA) contains nearly 17.8 million people. Los Angeles is also the seat of Los Angeles County, the most populated and one of the most multicultural counties in the United States. The city's inhabitants are referred to as "Angelenos" ().
http://wn.com/Los_Angeles -
Madrid
http://wn.com/Madrid -
Maui
http://wn.com/Maui -
Michigan
Michigan () is a U.S. state located in the Great Lakes Region of the United States of America. The name Michigan is a French corruption of the Ojibwe word mishigama, meaning "large water" or "large lake".
http://wn.com/Michigan -
Moscow
Moscow ( or ; ; see also ) is the capital, the most populous city, and the most populous federal subject of Russia. The city is a major political, economic, cultural, religious, financial, educational, and transportation centre of Russia and the world, a global city. Moscow is the most populous city on the continent of Europe and the seventh largest city proper in the world, a megacity. The population of Moscow (as of 1 January 2010) is 10,563,038.
http://wn.com/Moscow -
Nanking
http://wn.com/Nanking -
New London, Texas
New London is a city in Rusk County, Texas, United States. The population was 987 at the 2000 census.
http://wn.com/New_London_Texas -
Nobel Peace Prize
The Nobel Peace Prize (Swedish and Norwegian: Nobels fredspris) is one of the five Nobel Prizes bequeathed by the Swedish industrialist and inventor Alfred Nobel.
http://wn.com/Nobel_Peace_Prize -
Ogaden
http://wn.com/Ogaden -
Pennsylvania
The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania () is a U.S. state and Commonwealth located in the Northeastern and Middle Atlantic regions of the United States. The state borders Delaware and Maryland to the south, West Virginia to the southwest, Ohio to the west, New York and Ontario, Canada, to the north, and New Jersey to the east. The state's four most populous cities are Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Allentown and Erie. The state capital is Harrisburg.
http://wn.com/Pennsylvania -
Reich Chancellery
The Reich Chancellery () was the traditional name of the office of the Chancellor of Germany (Reichskanzler) from 1871 to 1945. Today the office is usually called Kanzleramt (Chancellor's Office), or more formally Bundeskanzleramt (Federal Chancellor's Office).
http://wn.com/Reich_Chancellery -
Republic of China
The Republic of China (ROC), commonly known as Taiwan, is a state in East Asia located off the east coast of mainland China. Subject to an ongoing dispute with the People's Republic of China (PRC) that has left it with limited formal diplomatic relations, the government of the Republic of China currently governs the islands of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu and other minor islands. Neighbouring states include the People's Republic of China to the west, Japan to the northeast, and the Philippines to the south.
http://wn.com/Republic_of_China -
Republic of Ireland
Ireland (, , , ), described as the Republic of Ireland (), is a state in northwest Europe with a population of almost 4.5 million people. It is a parliamentary democratic constitutional republic occupying approximately five-sixths of the island of Ireland, which was partitioned into two jurisdictions in 1921. It is bordered to the northeast by Northern Ireland, which is a part of the United Kingdom, and is otherwise surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, the Irish Sea to the east, St George's Channel to the southeast, and the Celtic Sea to the south.
http://wn.com/Republic_of_Ireland -
Scotland
Scotland (Scottish Gaelic: Alba) is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain, it shares a border with England to the south and is bounded by the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the southwest. In addition to the mainland, Scotland includes over 790 islands including the Northern Isles and the Hebrides.
http://wn.com/Scotland -
Shanghai
http://wn.com/Shanghai -
Soviet
http://wn.com/Soviet -
Soviet Union
http://wn.com/Soviet_Union -
Spain
Spain ( ; , ), officially the Kingdom of Spain (), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Its mainland is bordered to the south and east by the Mediterranean Sea except for a small land boundary with the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar; to the north by France, Andorra, and the Bay of Biscay; and to the northwest and west by the Atlantic Ocean and Portugal.
http://wn.com/Spain -
Switzerland
Switzerland (, , , ), officially the Swiss Confederation (Confoederatio Helvetica in Latin, hence its ISO country codes CH and CHE), is a federal republic consisting of 26 cantons, with Bern as the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in Western Europe where it is bordered by Germany to the north, France to the west, Italy to the south, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east.
http://wn.com/Switzerland -
Sydney
Sydney () is the largest and most populous city in Australia and the state capital of New South Wales. Sydney is located on Australia's south-east coast of the Tasman Sea. With an approximate population of 4.5 million in the Sydney metropolitan area the city is the largest in Oceania. Inhabitants of Sydney are called Sydneysiders, comprising a cosmopolitan and international population of people from numerous places around the world.
http://wn.com/Sydney -
Tianjin
(; ; Postal map spelling: Tientsin) is a metropolis in Northeastern China and one of the five national central cities. It is governed as a direct-controlled municipality, one of four such designations, and is thus under direct administration of the central government, and borders Hebei Province and Beijing Municipality, bounded to the east by the Bohai Gulf portion of the Yellow Sea. In terms of urban population, it is the sixth largest city of the People's Republic of China, and its urban land area ranks 5th in the nation, only after Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, and Shenzhen.
http://wn.com/Tianjin -
Tomb of the Unknowns
The Tomb of the Unknowns (also known as the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, although it has never been officially named) is a monument dedicated to American service members who have died without their remains being identified. It is located in Arlington National Cemetery in the United States. The World War I "Unknown" is a recipient of the Medal of Honor, the Victoria Cross, and several other foreign nations' highest service awards. The U.S. Unknowns who were interred afterwards are also recipients of the Medal of Honor, presented by the U.S. presidents who presided over their funerals.
http://wn.com/Tomb_of_the_Unknowns -
Tyler, Texas
Tyler is a city in and the county seat of Smith County, Texas, in the United States. The city is named for President John Tyler in recognition of his support for Texas's admission to the United States. The 2000 census recorded the city's population to be 83,650, while in 2008 it was estimated to have reached 108,772.
http://wn.com/Tyler_Texas -
United States
The United States of America (also referred to as the United States, the U.S., the USA, or America) is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district. The country is situated mostly in central North America, where its forty-eight contiguous states and Washington, D.C., the capital district, lie between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, bordered by Canada to the north and Mexico to the south. The state of Alaska is in the northwest of the continent, with Canada to the east and Russia to the west across the Bering Strait. The state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific. The country also possesses several territories in the Caribbean and Pacific.
http://wn.com/United_States -
USA
http://wn.com/USA -
USS Panay (PR-5)
{|
http://wn.com/USS_Panay_(PR-5) -
Washington, D.C.
Washington, D.C. (), formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D.C., is the capital of the United States, founded on July 16, 1790. Article One of the United States Constitution provides for a federal district, distinct from the states, to serve as the permanent national capital. The City of Washington was originally a separate municipality within the federal territory until an act of Congress in 1871 established a single, unified municipal government for the whole District. It is for this reason that the city, while legally named the District of Columbia, is known as Washington, D.C. The city shares its name with the U.S. state of Washington, which is located on the country's Pacific coast.
http://wn.com/Washington_DC -
Washington, DC
http://wn.com/Washington_DC -
West End theatre
West End theatre is a popular term for mainstream professional theatre staged in the large theatres of London's 'Theatreland,' the West End. Along with New York's Broadway theatre, West End theatre is usually considered to represent the highest level of commercial theatre in the English speaking world. Seeing a West End show is a common tourist activity in London.
http://wn.com/West_End_theatre -
Westminster Abbey
http://wn.com/Westminster_Abbey
-
Abdelaziz Bouteflika
Abdelaziz Bouteflika (; ) (born March 2, 1937) has been the tenth President of Algeria since 1999.
http://wn.com/Abdelaziz_Bouteflika -
Abner Haynes
Abner Haynes (born September 19, 1937 in Denton, Texas) is a former college and professional football player in the United States.
http://wn.com/Abner_Haynes -
Abraham Lincoln
http://wn.com/Abraham_Lincoln -
Adolf Hitler
http://wn.com/Adolf_Hitler -
Alan Thornett
Alan Thornett (born 15 June 1937) is a British Trotskyist leader, and one of the officers of the left-wing Respect party.
http://wn.com/Alan_Thornett -
Albert Szent-Györgyi
http://wn.com/Albert_Szent-Györgyi -
Alberta Nelson
Alberta Nelson (August 14, 1937 - April 29, 2006) was an American television and film actress. She was born on August 14, 1937, and attended Villa Maria Academy and later graduated from Andrews High School for Girls in Willoughby, Ohio. After several dramatic parts in television in the early 1960s, Nelson made five guest appearances on The Andy Griffith Show, four of them as Goober Pyle's girlfriend, Flora Malherbe.
http://wn.com/Alberta_Nelson -
Alfred Abel
http://wn.com/Alfred_Abel -
Alfred Adler
http://wn.com/Alfred_Adler -
Alfred Dyke Acland
Colonel Alfred Dyke Acland, CBE, KJStJ, JP (19 August 1858 – 22 March 1937) was a British distinguished military officer.
http://wn.com/Alfred_Dyke_Acland -
Amarro Fiamberti
Amarro Fiamberti was an Italian psychiatrist who first performed a transorbital lobotomy (by accessing the frontal lobe of the brain through the orbits) in 1937. The technique remained rarely practised until his reports were discovered by his contemporary, the American neurologist Walter Freeman, who improved the surgical technique, initially by using ice picks (hence the name "ice pick lobotomy") and later employing more refined equipment.
http://wn.com/Amarro_Fiamberti -
Amelia Earhart
Amelia Mary Earhart ( ); (born July 24, 1897; missing July 2, 1937; declared legally dead January 5, 1939) was a noted American aviation pioneer and author. Earhart was the first woman to receive the Distinguished Flying Cross, awarded for becoming the first aviatrix to fly solo across the Atlantic Ocean. She set many other records, wrote best-selling books about her flying experiences and was instrumental in the formation of The Ninety-Nines, an organization for female pilots. Earhart joined the faculty of the world-famous Purdue University aviation department in 1935 as a visiting faculty member to counsel women on careers and help inspire others with her love for aviation. She was also a member of the National Woman's Party, and an early supporter of the Equal Rights Amendment.
http://wn.com/Amelia_Earhart -
André Besette
http://wn.com/André_Besette -
Ange-Felix Patasse
http://wn.com/Ange-Felix_Patasse -
Anna Dawson
Anna Dawson (born 27 July 1937) is an English actress and singer.
http://wn.com/Anna_Dawson -
Anne Aubrey
Anne Aubrey (born 1 January 1937 in London) is a British actress.
http://wn.com/Anne_Aubrey -
Anthony Hopkins
Sir Philip Anthony Hopkins, CBE (born 31 December 1937), is a Welsh actor of film, stage and television. Considered to be one of the greatest living actors, he is perhaps best known for his portrayal of cannibalistic serial killer Hannibal Lecter in The Silence of the Lambs, its sequel, Hannibal, and its prequel, Red Dragon. Other prominent film credits include Magic, The Elephant Man, 84 Charing Cross Road, Dracula, Legends of the Fall, The Remains of the Day, Amistad, Nixon and Fracture. Hopkins was born and brought up in Wales. Retaining his British citizenship, he became a U.S. citizen on 12 April 2000. He received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 2003 and was made a Fellow of the British Academy of Film and Television Arts in 2008.
http://wn.com/Anthony_Hopkins -
Antonio Gramsci
Antonio Gramsci () (January 22, 1891 – April 27, 1937) was an Italian philosopher, writer, politician and political theorist. A founding member and onetime leader of the Communist Party of Italy, he was imprisoned by Benito Mussolini's Fascist regime. His writings mostly deal with the analysis of culture and political leadership. He is notable as a highly original thinker within the Marxist tradition. He is renowned for his concept of cultural hegemony as a means of maintaining the state in a capitalist society.
http://wn.com/Antonio_Gramsci -
Armin Hary
MedalCountry|
http://wn.com/Armin_Hary -
Arne Næss Jr.
http://wn.com/Arne_Næss_Jr -
Arthur Edmund Carewe
http://wn.com/Arthur_Edmund_Carewe -
Arturo Toscanini
Arturo Toscanini (; March 25, 1867 – January 16, 1957) was an Italian conductor. One of the most acclaimed musicians of the late 19th century and 20th century, he was renowned for his brilliant intensity, his restless perfectionism, his phenomenal ear for orchestral detail and sonority, and his photographic memory. As music director of the NBC Symphony Orchestra he became a household name through his radio and television broadcasts and many recordings of the operatic and symphonic repertoire. He is widely considered to have been one of the greatest conductors of the 20th century.
http://wn.com/Arturo_Toscanini -
Austen Chamberlain
Sir Joseph Austen Chamberlain, KG (16 October 1863 – 17 March 1937) was a British statesman and recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize.
http://wn.com/Austen_Chamberlain -
Avram Hershko
Avram Hershko () (born 31 December 1937) is a Hungarian-born Israeli biochemist and Nobel laureate in Chemistry.
http://wn.com/Avram_Hershko -
Barbara Steele
Barbara Steele (born December 29, 1937; Birkenhead, Merseyside, England) is an English film actress. She is best known for starring in Italian gothic horror films of the 1960s. Her breakthrough role came in Italian director Mario Bava's Black Sunday (1960), now hailed as a classic. Steele starred in a string of horror films, including The Horrible Dr. Hichcock (1962); The Ghost, directed by Riccardo Freda and Roger Corman's 1961 adaptation of Edgar Allan Poe's short story "The Pit and the Pendulum". According to Kim Newman's Nightmare Movies, she is on record as saying that she never wanted "to climb out of another fucking coffin again".
http://wn.com/Barbara_Steele -
Barney Wilen
Barney Wilen (March 4, 1937–May 25, 1996) was a French tenor and soprano saxophonist and jazz composer.
http://wn.com/Barney_Wilen -
Barry Switzer
Barry Switzer (born October 5, 1937) is a former football coach, in the college and professional ranks, between 1962 and 1997. He has one of the highest winning percentages of any college football coach in history, and is one of only two head coaches to win both a college football national championship and a Super Bowl (the other being his college teammate and rival head coach Jimmy Johnson.)
http://wn.com/Barry_Switzer -
Batman
http://wn.com/Batman -
Beijing
| style="float:right;"
http://wn.com/Beijing -
Bessie Smith
http://wn.com/Bessie_Smith -
Bill Lawry
William Morris "Bill" Lawry, AM (born 11 February 1937) is a former cricketer who played for Victoria and Australia. He captained Australia in 25 Tests, winning nine, losing eight and drawing eight, and led Australia in the inaugural One Day International match, played in 1971. An opening batsman with a reputation for resolute defence, he had the ability to spend long periods of time at the crease. As his career progressed, he wound back his strokeplay to the point where he was described by an English journalist as "the corpse with pads on". Lawry was unceremoniously dumped as captain and player for the final Test of the 1970–71 Ashes series in Australia. Lawry's sacking is regarded as one of the more distasteful incidents in Australian cricket history—he was not informed personally of the selectors' decision before the decision was first broadcast on radio and he only became aware of his fate when confronted by reporters. Lawry is part of Channel Nine's cricket commentary team and has been in the role for over 30 years.
http://wn.com/Bill_Lawry -
Billy Dee Williams
Billy Dee Williams (born William December Williams, Jr.; April 6, 1937) is an American actor, artist, singer, and writer, best known for his role as Lando Calrissian in the original Star Wars trilogy.
http://wn.com/Billy_Dee_Williams -
Billy Meier
"Billy" Eduard Albert Meier (February 3, 1937) is a citizen of Switzerland who claims to be a UFO contactee and prophet. He is also the source of many controversial UFO photographs, which he states are evidence of his encounters. Meier reports regular contact with extraterrestrials who impart spiritual and philosophical wisdom. He describes the Plejaren (aliens from the Pleiades) as humanoid.
http://wn.com/Billy_Meier -
Bob Schieffer
Bob Lloyd Schieffer (; born February 25, 1937) is an American television journalist who has been with CBS News since 1969, serving 23 years as anchor on the Saturday edition of CBS Evening News from 1973 to 1996; chief Washington correspondent since 1982, moderator of the Sunday public affairs show Face the Nation since 1991, and, between March 2005 and August 31, 2006, interim weekday anchor of the CBS Evening News.
http://wn.com/Bob_Schieffer -
Bobby Allison
Robert Arthur Allison (born December 3, 1937) is a former NASCAR Winston Cup driver and was named one of NASCAR's 50 greatest drivers. His two sons, Clifford Allison and Davey Allison followed him into racing, and both died within a year of each other.
http://wn.com/Bobby_Allison -
Bobby Charlton
Sir Robert "Bobby" Charlton CBE (born 11 October 1937 in Ashington, Northumberland) is an English former professional football player who won the World Cup and was named the European Footballer of the Year in 1966. He played almost all of his club football at Manchester United, where he became renowned for his attacking instincts from midfield and his ferocious long-range shot. His elder brother Jack, who was also in the World Cup-winning team, is a former defender for Leeds United and coach.
http://wn.com/Bobby_Charlton -
Boris Spassky
Boris Vasilievich Spassky (also Spasskij; ; born January 30, 1937) is a Soviet-French chess grandmaster. He was the tenth World Chess Champion, holding the title from late 1969 to 1972.
http://wn.com/Boris_Spassky -
Boris Yegorov
http://wn.com/Boris_Yegorov -
Brahms
http://wn.com/Brahms -
Bruce McLaren
| style="float:right; background:transparent;"
http://wn.com/Bruce_McLaren -
Carl Orff
http://wn.com/Carl_Orff -
Carlos Gaviria Díaz
http://wn.com/Carlos_Gaviria_Díaz -
Cathie Jung
Cathie Jung (born 1937) is an American Victorian dress and corset enthusiast residing in Old Mystic, Connecticut, USA, who currently holds the Guinness World Record for the smallest waist on a living person. Jung, who is 5 foot 6 inches tall, has a waist that measures 15 inches .
http://wn.com/Cathie_Jung -
Celal Bayar
http://wn.com/Celal_Bayar -
Chan Sek Keong
Chan Sek Keong (; born 5 November 1937) is the current Chief Justice of Singapore, having taken over from the former Chief Justice Yong Pung How on 11 April 2006. Chan was formerly the Attorney-General of Singapore, before being succeeded by Chao Hick Tin on 11 April 2006.
http://wn.com/Chan_Sek_Keong -
Charles Dumas
Charles ("Charlie") Everett Dumas (February 12, 1937 – January 5, 2004) was an American high jumper, the 1956 Olympic champion, and the first person to clear 7 ft.
http://wn.com/Charles_Dumas -
Charles Evans Hughes
http://wn.com/Charles_Evans_Hughes -
Charles-Marie Widor
http://wn.com/Charles-Marie_Widor -
Charmian May
Charmian May (16 June 1937 – 24 October 2002) was an English actress who appeared in The Good Life, Keeping Up Appearances and ''Bridget Jones's Diary''.
http://wn.com/Charmian_May -
China
China is seen variously as an ancient civilization extending over a large area in East Asia, a nation and/or a multinational entity.
http://wn.com/China -
Chuck Low
Charleston Lewis "Chuck" Low (born December 1, 1937, New York City, New York) is an American character actor.
http://wn.com/Chuck_Low -
Chuck Traynor
Charles "Chuck" E. Traynor (August 21, 1937 - July 22, 2002) was an American entrepreneur and pornographer.
http://wn.com/Chuck_Traynor -
Coenraad Bron
http://wn.com/Coenraad_Bron -
Colin Clive
Colin Clive (20 January 1900, Saint-Malo, Ille-et-Vilaine – 25 June 1937) was a English stage and screen actor best remembered for his portrayal of Dr. Frankenstein in James Whale's two Universal Frankenstein films Frankenstein and Bride of Frankenstein.
http://wn.com/Colin_Clive -
Colin Powell
http://wn.com/Colin_Powell -
Condor Legion
The Condor Legion () was a unit composed of volunteers from the German Air Force (Luftwaffe) and from the German Army (Wehrmacht Heer) which served with the Nationalists during the Spanish Civil War of July 1936 to March 1939. The Condor legion developed methods of terror bombing which were used widely in the Second World War shortly afterwards. The bombing of Guernica was the most infamous operation carried out by the Condor Legion during this period. Hugo Sperrle commanded the aircraft units of the Condor Legion and Wilhelm Ritter von Thoma commanded the ground units.
http://wn.com/Condor_Legion -
Cüneyt Arkın
http://wn.com/Cüneyt_Arkın -
Daniel McFadden
Daniel Little McFadden (born July 29, 1937) is an econometrician who received (jointly with James Heckman) the 2000 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences; McFadden's share of the prize was "for his development of theory and methods for analyzing discrete choice". He is currently the E. Morris Cox Professor of Economics at the University of California, Berkeley.
http://wn.com/Daniel_McFadden -
Darwin Joston
Francis Darwin Solomon (December 9, 1937 – June 1, 1998) was an American actor known professionally as Darwin Joston (sometimes credited as Darwin Jostin during the early years of his career). Joston began his career as a New York stage actor, and he appeared in many popular television shows during the 1960s, early 1970s, and mid-1980s, but he is best known for his performances in independent films that later achieved cult status, particularly Assault on Precinct 13.
http://wn.com/Darwin_Joston -
David Hockney
David Hockney, CH, RA, (born 9 July 1937) is an English painter, draughtsman, printmaker, stage designer and photographer, who is based in Bridlington, Yorkshire, although he also maintains a base in London. An important contributor to the Pop art movement of the 1960s, he is considered one of the most influential British artists of the twentieth century.
http://wn.com/David_Hockney -
Dawn Fraser
Dawn Fraser AO, MBE (born 4 September 1937) is an Australian champion swimmer. She is one of only two swimmers to win the same Olympic event three times, in her case, the 100 meters freestyle.
http://wn.com/Dawn_Fraser -
Don Everly
http://wn.com/Don_Everly -
Don Galloway
http://wn.com/Don_Galloway -
Donald Dewar
Donald Campbell Dewar (21 August 1937 – 11 October 2000) was a Scottish Labour Party politician, and the first holder of the office of First Minister of Scotland, from the establishment of the Scottish Parliament in 1999 until his death. He was also a Member of Parliament (MP) of the United Kingdom and Secretary of State for Scotland for several years.
http://wn.com/Donald_Dewar -
Donald Goines
http://wn.com/Donald_Goines -
Dustin Hoffman
Dustin Lee Hoffman (born August 8, 1937) is an American actor with a career in film, television, and theatre since 1960. He has been known for his versatile portrayals of antiheroes and vulnerable types of characters.
http://wn.com/Dustin_Hoffman -
Dyan Cannon
Dyan Cannon (born Samille Diane Friesen on January 4, 1937) is an American film and television actress, director, screenwriter, editor, and producer.
http://wn.com/Dyan_Cannon -
Edward VIII
#redirectEdward VIII of the United Kingdom
http://wn.com/Edward_VIII -
Edwin Atherton
Edwin Newton Atherton (October 12, 1896 – August 31, 1944) was born in Washington D.C. and served as a Foreign Service Officer, BOI Agent, Private Investigator and head of the college athletics organization, the Pacific Coast Conference in the 1940s.
http://wn.com/Edwin_Atherton -
Elihu Root
http://wn.com/Elihu_Root -
Elinor Donahue
Mary Eleanor Donahue (born April 19, 1937), best known as Elinor Donahue, is an American actress. The naturally red-headed Donahue played Robert Young's eldest/popular daughter, Betty Anderson, on the 1950s sitcom, Father Knows Best. She was married for nearly 30 years to producer Harry Ackerman, whom she met on the set of that series. She and Harry Ackerman had three children together: Peter Ackerman, James Ackerman, and Christopher Ackerman.
http://wn.com/Elinor_Donahue -
Ellis Parker Butler
http://wn.com/Ellis_Parker_Butler -
Erich Ludendorff
http://wn.com/Erich_Ludendorff -
Ernest Hemingway
http://wn.com/Ernest_Hemingway -
Ferdinand Piech
http://wn.com/Ferdinand_Piech -
Fernando de la Rúa
http://wn.com/Fernando_de_la_Rúa -
Francisco Franco
http://wn.com/Francisco_Franco -
Frank B. Kellogg
http://wn.com/Frank_B_Kellogg -
Franz Vranitzky
http://wn.com/Franz_Vranitzky -
Fred Astaire
Fred Astaire (May 10, 1899 – June 22, 1987), born Frederick Austerlitz, was an American film and Broadway stage dancer, choreographer, singer and actor. His stage and subsequent film career spanned a total of 76 years, during which he made 31 musical films. He was named the fifth Greatest Male Star of All Time by the American Film Institute. He is particularly associated with Ginger Rogers, with whom he made ten films.
http://wn.com/Fred_Astaire -
Fred Noonan
Frederick Joseph "Fred" Noonan (April 4, 1893 – missing July 2, 1937, declared dead June 20, 1938) was an American flight navigator, sea captain and aviation pioneer who first charted many commercial airline routes across the Pacific Ocean during the 1930s. He was last seen in Lae, New Guinea, on July 2, 1937, and disappeared with Amelia Earhart somewhere over the Central Pacific Ocean during their attempted round-the-world flight.
http://wn.com/Fred_Noonan -
Garrett Morris
Garrett Morris (born February 1, 1937) is an American comedian and actor from New Orleans, Louisiana. He was part of the original cast of the sketch comedy program Saturday Night Live, appearing from 1975 to 1980.
http://wn.com/Garrett_Morris -
Gaston Doumergue
Pierre-Paul-Henri-Gaston Doumergue (; Aigues-Vives, Gard, 1 August 1863 18 June 1937 in Aigues-Vives) was a French politician of the Third Republic.
http://wn.com/Gaston_Doumergue -
Gennady Yanayev
Gennady Ivanovich Yanayev (; 26 August 1937 – 24 September 2010) was a Soviet Russian politician and statesman whose career spanned the rules of Khrushchev, Brezhnev, Andropov and Chernenko, and culminated during the Gorbachev years. Yanayev was born in Perevoz, Gorky Oblast. After years in local politics, he rose to prominence as Chairman of the All-Union Central Council of Trade Unions, but he also held other lesser posts such as deputy of the Union of Soviet Societies for Friendship and Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries.
http://wn.com/Gennady_Yanayev -
George Gershwin
http://wn.com/George_Gershwin -
George Leonardos
Giorgios Leonardos () is a Greek author of historical novels.
http://wn.com/George_Leonardos -
George Paget Thomson
http://wn.com/George_Paget_Thomson -
George Reisman
George Gerald Reisman (born January 13, 1937) is Professor Emeritus of Economics at Pepperdine University and author of Capitalism: A Treatise on Economics (1996). He is also the author of an earlier book, The Government Against the Economy (1979), which was praised by F.A. Hayek and Henry Hazlitt, the contents of which are mostly subsumed in his lengthy treatise, Capitalism.
http://wn.com/George_Reisman -
George Steer
http://wn.com/George_Steer -
George Takei
George Hosato Takei Altman (born April 20, 1937) is an American actor of Japanese descent, best known for his role in the television series , in which he played Hikaru Sulu, helmsman of the . He is an outspoken proponent of gay rights and active in state and local politics as well as continuing his acting career. He has won several awards and accolades in his work on human rights and Japanese-American relations, including his work with the Japanese American National Museum.
http://wn.com/George_Takei -
George VI
http://wn.com/George_VI -
Getúlio Vargas
http://wn.com/Getúlio_Vargas -
Giovanna Marini
Giovanna Marini, anagraphically Giovanna Salviucci in Marini (Rome, January 19, 1937), is an Italian singer-songwriter and researcher of ethnomusicology.
http://wn.com/Giovanna_Marini -
Gisela Elsner
http://wn.com/Gisela_Elsner -
Gnassingbe Eyadema
http://wn.com/Gnassingbe_Eyadema -
Gordon Banks
http://wn.com/Gordon_Banks -
Gorilla Monsoon
http://wn.com/Gorilla_Monsoon -
Graham Dowling
Graham Thorne Dowling (born 4 March 1937, Christchurch) is a former New Zealand cricketer who played 39 Test matches and captained New Zealand in 19 of them. Playing as a specialist right-handed batsman, usually an opener, he achieved moderate success, averaging 31 with the bat. His finest moment came when he made a nine-hour 239 that led to New Zealand's first victory against India. It was his first match as captain, and he was the only player to score a double century on his captaincy debut until the feat was done by Shivnarine Chanderpaul against South Africa in 2005. Nevertheless, New Zealand lost the two remaining Tests to go down 1-3.
http://wn.com/Graham_Dowling -
Guglielmo Marconi
http://wn.com/Guglielmo_Marconi -
Gustaf Dalén
http://wn.com/Gustaf_Dalén -
Guy Standing
Commander Sir Guy Standing KBE RNVR (1 September 1873–24 February 1937) was an English actor.
http://wn.com/Guy_Standing -
H. P. Lovecraft
http://wn.com/H_P_Lovecraft -
Hans Cieslarczyk
Hans Cieslarczyk (born 3 May 1937) is a former German football (soccer) player.
http://wn.com/Hans_Cieslarczyk -
Hans Niels Andersen
http://wn.com/Hans_Niels_Andersen -
Harald Rosenthal
Harald Rosenthal (* June 9, 1937
http://wn.com/Harald_Rosenthal -
Harald V of Norway
http://wn.com/Harald_V_of_Norway -
Harris Yulin
Harris Yulin (born November 5, 1937) is an American actor who has appeared in dozens of Hollywood and television films.
http://wn.com/Harris_Yulin -
Harry Neale
Harry Neale (born March 9, 1937 in Sarnia, Ontario, Canada) is a hockey colour commentator, who currently works for the Buffalo Sabres on the MSG Network and WGR. He is a former NHL and WHA coach and General Manager.
http://wn.com/Harry_Neale -
Harry Vardon
Harry Vardon (9 May 1870 – 20 March 1937) was a Jersey professional golfer and member of the fabled Great Triumvirate of the sport in his day, along with John Henry Taylor and James Braid. He won The Open Championship a record six times and also won the U.S. Open.
http://wn.com/Harry_Vardon -
Hazel R. O'Leary
'''Hazel Reid O'Leary''' (born May 17, 1937) was the seventh United States Secretary of Energy, from 1993 to 1997, appointed by President Bill Clinton. As of 2009, she is the first and only woman and first and only African American to hold the position. Since 2004 she has served as president of Fisk University, an historically black college (HBCU).
http://wn.com/Hazel_R_O'Leary -
Henry Ossawa Tanner
http://wn.com/Henry_Ossawa_Tanner -
Herb Brooks
Herbert Paul Brooks, Jr. (August 5, 1937 – August 11, 2003) was an American ice hockey coach, best known for coaching the U.S. national team to a gold medal at the 1980 Winter Olympics in an event known as the "Miracle on Ice".
http://wn.com/Herb_Brooks -
Howard Hughes
http://wn.com/Howard_Hughes -
Hugo Black
http://wn.com/Hugo_Black -
Hunter S. Thompson
http://wn.com/Hunter_S_Thompson -
Ingrid Pitt
Ingrid Pitt (born 21 November 1937) is an actress best known for her work in horror films of the 1960s and 1970s.
http://wn.com/Ingrid_Pitt -
J. Bruce Ismay
Joseph Bruce Ismay (12 December 1862 – 17 October 1937) was an English businessman who served as chairman and managing director of the White Star Line of steamships. He came to international attention as the highest-ranking White Star official among the 706 people (vs. 1,517 fatalities from crew and passengers totaling 2,223) to survive the maiden voyage of his company's marquee ocean liner, the RMS Titanic.
http://wn.com/J_Bruce_Ismay -
J. M. Barrie
http://wn.com/J_M_Barrie -
J. R. R. Tolkien
http://wn.com/J_R_R_Tolkien -
Jack Nicholson
John Joseph "Jack" Nicholson (born April 22, 1937) is an American actor, film director and producer. He is renowned for his often dark-themed portrayals of neurotic characters.
http://wn.com/Jack_Nicholson -
Jack Worrall
http://wn.com/Jack_Worrall -
Jacques Santer
Jacques Santer (born 18 May 1937) is a politician from Luxembourg.
http://wn.com/Jacques_Santer -
Jagdish Chandra Bose
http://wn.com/Jagdish_Chandra_Bose -
James Florio
James Joseph "Jim" Florio (born August 29, 1937) is a Democratic politician who served as the 49th Governor of New Jersey from 1990 to 1994, the first Italian American to hold the position. He also served as a member of the United States House of Representatives for 15 years between 1975 and 1990.
http://wn.com/James_Florio -
James MacArthur
James Gordon MacArthur (born December 8, 1937) is an American actor best known for the role of Danny "Danno" Williams, the reliable second-in-command of the fictional Hawaiian State Police squad Hawaii Five-O, a role which won him fans all over the world.
http://wn.com/James_MacArthur -
James Michael Curley
James Michael Curley (November 20, 1874 – November 12, 1958) was an American politician who served in the United States House of Representatives, as the mayor of Boston, Massachusetts, and as the 53rd Governor of Massachusetts.
http://wn.com/James_Michael_Curley -
Jan Kaplický
http://wn.com/Jan_Kaplický -
Jane Fonda
Jane Fonda (born December 21, 1937) is an American actress, writer, political activist, former fashion model, and fitness guru. She rose to fame in the 1960s with films such as Barbarella and Cat Ballou. She has won two Academy Awards and received several other awards and nominations. After 15 years of retirement, she returned to film in 2005 with Monster in Law followed by Georgia Rule two years later. She also produced and starred in several exercise videos released between 1982 and 1995.
http://wn.com/Jane_Fonda -
Jean Alingué Bawoyeu
http://wn.com/Jean_Alingué_Bawoyeu -
Jean de Brunhoff
Jean de Brunhoff (December 9, 1899 – October 16, 1937) was a French writer and illustrator known for co-creating Babar, which first appeared in 1931. The stories were originally told to their second son, Mathieu, when he was sick, by his wife Cecile de Brunhoff. After its first appearance, six more titles followed, authored by Jean de Brunhoff.
http://wn.com/Jean_de_Brunhoff -
Jean Harlow
http://wn.com/Jean_Harlow -
Jean-Louis Petit
http://wn.com/Jean-Louis_Petit -
Jim Bowen
Jim Bowen (born Peter Williams on 20 August 1937) is an English stand-up comedian and TV personality. He is best-known as the host of the ITV gameshow Bullseye, which he hosted between 1981 and 1995.
http://wn.com/Jim_Bowen -
Jim Harrison
James "Jim" Harrison (born December 11, 1937) is an American author known for his poetry, fiction, essays, reviews, and writings about food. He has been called "a force of nature," and his work has been compared to that of William Faulkner and Ernest Hemingway. Harrison's characters tend to be rural by birth and have retained some of the best of an agrarian pioneer ancestry by dint of their intelligence and some formal education. They have attuned themselves to the best of the natural and civilized worlds, surrounded by excesses but determined to live their lives as well as possible.
http://wn.com/Jim_Harrison -
Jo Anne Worley
Jo Anne Worley (born September 6, 1937) is an American actress. Her work covers television, films, theater, game shows, talk shows, commercials, and cartoons. She is best known for her work on the comedy-variety show ''Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In''.
http://wn.com/Jo_Anne_Worley -
Joe Warfield
Joe Warfield (born November 6, 1937) is an American actor born in Baltimore, Maryland.
http://wn.com/Joe_Warfield -
John D. Rockefeller
http://wn.com/John_D_Rockefeller -
John Fairfax
http://wn.com/John_Fairfax -
John Hartford
John Cowan Hartford (December 30, 1937 – June 4, 2001) was an American folk, country and bluegrass composer and musician known for his mastery of the fiddle and banjo, as well as for his witty lyrics, unique vocal style, and extensive knowledge of Mississippi River lore. Hartford performed with a variety of ensembles throughout his career, and is perhaps best known for his solo performances where he would interchange the guitar, banjo, and fiddle from song to song. He also invented his own shuffle tap dance move, and clogged on an amplified piece of plywood while he played and sang.
http://wn.com/John_Hartford -
John Horton Conway
John Horton Conway (b. 26 December 1937) is a prolific mathematician active in the theory of finite groups, knot theory, number theory, combinatorial game theory and coding theory. He has also contributed to many branches of recreational mathematics, notably the invention of the cellular automaton called the Game of Life.
http://wn.com/John_Horton_Conway -
John Ogdon
John Andrew Howard Ogdon (27 January 1937 – 1 August 1989) was an English pianist and composer.
http://wn.com/John_Ogdon -
John Steinbeck
http://wn.com/John_Steinbeck -
Johnnie Cochran
Johnnie L. Cochran, Jr. (October 2, 1937 March 29, 2005) was an American lawyer best known for his leadership role in the defense and criminal acquittal of O. J. Simpson for the alleged murder of his former wife Nicole Simpson and her friend Ronald Goldman.
http://wn.com/Johnnie_Cochran -
Joseph Estrada
Joseph "Erap" Estrada (born Jose Marcelo Ejercito on 19 April 1937) was the 13th President of the Philippines, serving from 1998 until 2001. Estrada was the only president to have resigned from office and was the first person in the Post-EDSA era to be elected both to the presidency and vice-presidency.
http://wn.com/Joseph_Estrada -
Joseph S. Cullinan
Joseph Stephen Cullinan (December 31, 1860 - March 11, 1937) was a U.S. oil industrialist. Although he was a native of Pennsylvania, his lifetime business endeavors would help shape the early oil industry of Texas. He founded The Texas Company, which would eventually be known as Texaco Incorporated.
http://wn.com/Joseph_S_Cullinan -
Joseph Schechtman
Joseph Boris (Ber) Schechtman (; 1891-1970) was a writer and Revisionist political activist. He was the author of several books of history, including The Arab Refugee Problem (1952), and a two-volume biography of Vladimir Jabotinsky, The Life and Times of Vladimar Jabotinsky. Rebel and Statesman: The Early Years (1956) and Fighter and Prophet. The Vladimir Jabotinsky Story: the Last Years (1961).
http://wn.com/Joseph_Schechtman -
Joseph Stalin
http://wn.com/Joseph_Stalin -
Joseph Wambaugh
Joseph Aloysius Wambaugh, Jr. (born January 22, 1937, in East Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania) is a bestselling American writer known for his fictional and non-fictional accounts of police work in the United States. Several of his first novels were set in Los Angeles, California, and the surrounding area, and featured Los Angeles police officers as protagonists.
http://wn.com/Joseph_Wambaugh -
Julian Bell
Julian Heward Bell (4 February 1908 – 18 July 1937) was an English poet, and the son of Clive and Vanessa Bell (who was the elder sister of Virginia Woolf). The writer Quentin Bell was his younger brother, and the writer and painter Angelica Garnett is his half-sister. His relationship with his mother is explored in Susan Sellers' novel Vanessa and Virginia.
http://wn.com/Julian_Bell -
Juvénal Habyarimana
http://wn.com/Juvénal_Habyarimana -
Karol Szymanowski
http://wn.com/Karol_Szymanowski -
Keith Bosley
Keith Bosley (born 1937) is a British poet and language expert.
http://wn.com/Keith_Bosley -
Keizo Obuchi
http://wn.com/Keizo_Obuchi -
Ken Ogata
http://wn.com/Ken_Ogata -
Kenneth Colley
Kenneth Colley (born 7 December 1937) is a British actor. A long-time character actor, he came to wider prominence through his role as Admiral Piett in ' and '.
http://wn.com/Kenneth_Colley -
King Curtis Iaukea
Curtis Piehau Iaukea, III (b. 1938) was a professional wrestler better known as King Curtis Iaukea. Iaukea won championships in several of the major regional US promotions, both as a single and in various tag team combinations, during the 1960s. He then competed in the World Wrestling Federation (WWF) where he won the WWF Tag Team Championship. He was also later The Master of the Dungeon of Doom in World Championship Wrestling (WCW). Under the name "Iau Kea" he appeared in the film The Three Stooges Go Around the World in a Daze with Moe Howard declaring "That's not a man! That's a committee!".
http://wn.com/King_Curtis_Iaukea -
Kirtanananda Swami
Kirtanananda Swami, also known as Swami Bhaktipada, (born September 6, 1937) is an American religious figure, former ISKCON guru and co-founder of the New Vrindaban Hare Krishna community in Marshall County, West Virginia.
http://wn.com/Kirtanananda_Swami -
Lenny Wilkens
Leonard Randolph "Lenny" Wilkens (born October 28, 1937, in Brooklyn, New York, U.S.) is a retired American basketball player and coach in the NBA. He was inducted twice into the Basketball Hall of Fame, first in 1989 as a player and then later as a coach in 1998.
http://wn.com/Lenny_Wilkens -
Leon Trotsky
http://wn.com/Leon_Trotsky -
Lily Pons
Lily Pons (April 12, 1898 – February 13, 1976) was a French-American coloratura soprano.
http://wn.com/Lily_Pons -
Linda Lavin
Linda Lavin (born October 15, 1937) is an American singer and actress. She is best known for playing the title character in the sitcom Alice and for her Broadway performances.
http://wn.com/Linda_Lavin -
Lionel Jospin
Lionel Jospin (; born 12 July 1937) is a French politician who served as Prime Minister of France from 1997 to 2002.
http://wn.com/Lionel_Jospin -
Lou Andreas-Salome
http://wn.com/Lou_Andreas-Salome -
Louis Vierne
Louis Victor Jules Vierne (8 October 1870 – 2 June 1937) was a French organist and composer.
http://wn.com/Louis_Vierne -
Luciana Paluzzi
Luciana Paluzzi (born June 10, 1937 in Rome, Italy) is an Italian actress. She is best known for playing SPECTRE assassin Fiona Volpe in the fourth James Bond film Thunderball.
http://wn.com/Luciana_Paluzzi -
Lucy Beaumont
http://wn.com/Lucy_Beaumont -
Léon Blum
http://wn.com/Léon_Blum -
Madeleine Albright
Madeleine Korbel Albright (born May 15, 1937) is the first woman to become a United States Secretary of State. She was appointed by U.S. President Bill Clinton on December 5, 1996, and was unanimously confirmed by a U.S. Senate vote of 99-0. She was sworn in on January 23, 1997.
http://wn.com/Madeleine_Albright -
Magic Sam
http://wn.com/Magic_Sam -
Magnar Solberg
MedalCountry|
http://wn.com/Magnar_Solberg -
Manfred Krug
Manfred Krug (born February 8, 1937 in Duisburg) is a German actor and singer.
http://wn.com/Manfred_Krug -
Margaret O'Brien
'''Margaret O'Brien''' (born January 15, 1937) is an American film and stage actress. Although her film career as a leading character was brief, she was one of the most popular child actors in cinema history. In her later career, she appeared on stage and in supporting film roles.
http://wn.com/Margaret_O'Brien -
Martin Niemöller
http://wn.com/Martin_Niemöller -
Maumoon Abdul Gayoom
Maumoon Abdul Gayoom () (born December 29, 1937) was President of the Maldives from 1978 to 2008. After serving as Minister of Transport, he was elected as President by the Majlis and succeeded Ibrahim Nasir on November 11, 1978. He eventually became the longest-ruling head of government in Asia. After 30 years in office, Gayoom was defeated in the October 2008 presidential election and was succeeded by the opposition leader, Mohamed Nasheed of the Maldivian Democratic Party on November 11, 2008 - exactly 30 years to the day he first came to power. Gayoom also served as the leader of the Dhivehi Rayyithunge Party from 2005 to 2010. Remaining as the opposition leader from November 2008 onwards, in January 2010 Gayoom retired from active politics and was bestowed with the title of "Zaeem" (Honorary Leader) by the third congress of the DRP.
http://wn.com/Maumoon_Abdul_Gayoom -
Maurice J. Tobin
Maurice Joseph Tobin (May 22, 1901 July 19, 1953) was a Mayor of Boston, Massachusetts, the 56th Governor of the U.S. state of Massachusetts, and U.S. Secretary of Labor.
http://wn.com/Maurice_J_Tobin -
Maurice Ravel
Joseph-Maurice Ravel (March 7, 1875December 28, 1937) was a French composer of Impressionist music known especially for his melodies, orchestral and instrumental textures and effects. Much of his piano music, chamber music, vocal music and orchestral music has entered the standard concert repertoire.
http://wn.com/Maurice_Ravel -
Michał Drzymała
http://wn.com/Michał_Drzymała -
Mikk Mikiver
http://wn.com/Mikk_Mikiver -
Morgan Freeman
Morgan Porterfield Freeman, Jr. (born June 1, 1937) is an American actor, film director, and narrator. He is noted for his reserved demeanor and authoritative speaking voice.
http://wn.com/Morgan_Freeman -
Mozart
http://wn.com/Mozart -
Mrs. Leslie Carter
''For the female soloist popstar see Leslie Carter.
http://wn.com/Mrs_Leslie_Carter -
Nanking
http://wn.com/Nanking -
Ned Beatty
Ned Thomas Beatty (born July 6, 1937) is an American actor. He appeared in more than 100 successful blockbuster films, which won a Drama Desk Award and nominated by an Academy Award, two Emmy Awards and a Golden Globe Award.
http://wn.com/Ned_Beatty -
Neeme Järvi
http://wn.com/Neeme_Järvi -
Neville Chamberlain
http://wn.com/Neville_Chamberlain -
Newton D. Baker
Newton Diehl Baker, Jr. (December 3, 1871 – December 25, 1937) was an American politician of the United States Democratic Party. He served as the 37th mayor of Cleveland, Ohio from 1912 to 1915 and as Secretary of War from 1916 to 1921.
http://wn.com/Newton_D_Baker -
Nida Blanca
Dorothy Acueza Jones, (January 6, 1936 – November 7, 2001) popularly known by her stage name Nida Blanca, was a Filipina actress. She starred in over 163 movies and 14 television shows and received over 16 awards for movies and six awards for television during her 50-year film career. She was named one of 15 Best Actress of all Time by YES magazine.
http://wn.com/Nida_Blanca -
Noel Rosa
Noel de Medeiros Rosa (December 11, 1910 - May 4, 1937) was a Brazilian songwriter, singer, and guitar/banjo player. One of the greatest names in Brazilian popular music, Noel gave a new twist to samba, combining its Afro-Brazilian roots with a more urban, witty language and making it a vehicle for ironic social commentary.
http://wn.com/Noel_Rosa -
Oliver Law
Oliver Law (1899 – July 9, 1937) was an African American communist, labor organizer, and social activist, who commanded the Abraham Lincoln Brigade in the Spanish Civil War.
http://wn.com/Oliver_Law -
Olusegun Obasanjo
''', GCFR (pronounced in Yoruba, in English; born circa 5 March 1937) is a former Nigerian Army general and former President of Nigeria. A Nigerian of Yoruba descent, Obasanjo was a career soldier before serving twice as his nation's head of state, once as a military ruler, between 13 February 1976 to 1 October 1979 and again from 29 May 1999 to 29 May 2007, as elected President. His current home is Abeokuta, the Capital City of Ogun State, where he reigns as a tribal nobleman, holding the titles of the Balogun of the Owu Lineage and the Ekerin Balogun of the Egba clan of Yorubaland.
http://wn.com/Olusegun_Obasanjo -
Orson Welles
http://wn.com/Orson_Welles -
Oscar Levant
Oscar Levant (December 27, 1906 – August 14, 1972) was an American pianist, composer, author, comedian, and actor. He was more famous for his mordant character and witticisms, on the radio and in movies and television, than for his music.
http://wn.com/Oscar_Levant -
Osgood Perkins
http://wn.com/Osgood_Perkins -
Pablo Picasso
http://wn.com/Pablo_Picasso -
Paolo Conte
Paolo Conte (born January 6, 1937) is an Italian singer, pianist, composer and lawyer notable for his grainy, resonant voice, his colourful and dreamy compositions (evocative of Italian and Mediterranean sounds, as well as of jazz music, South American atmospheres and of French-language singers like Jacques Brel and Georges Brassens) and his wistful, sometimes melancholic lyrics.
http://wn.com/Paolo_Conte -
Paul Elmer More
Paul Elmer More (December 12, 1864 – March 9, 1937) was an American journalist, critic, essayist and Christian apologist.
http://wn.com/Paul_Elmer_More -
Paul Foot
Paul Mackintosh Foot (8 November 1937 in Palestine – 18 July 2004 at Stansted Airport) was a British investigative journalist, political campaigner, author, and long-time member of the Socialist Workers Party (SWP). He was the grandson of Isaac Foot, who had been a Liberal MP, and the son of Hugh Foot (who was the last Governor of Cyprus and, as Lord Caradon, the British Ambassador to the United Nations from 1964 to 1970). He was the nephew of Michael Foot, former leader of the Labour Party.
http://wn.com/Paul_Foot -
Paul Karrer
http://wn.com/Paul_Karrer -
Paxton Whitehead
Paxton Whitehead (born 17 October 1937) is a British actor who made his professional debut in 1956.
http://wn.com/Paxton_Whitehead -
Peter Cook
Peter Edward Cook (17 November 1937 – 9 January 1995) was an English satirist, writer and comedian. An influential figure in British comedy, he is regarded as the leading light of the British satire boom of the 1960s. He has been described by Stephen Fry as "the funniest man who ever drew breath". Cook is closely associated with anti-establishment comedy that emerged in Britain and the USA in the late 1950s.
http://wn.com/Peter_Cook -
Philip Glass
Philip Morris Glass (born January 31, 1937) is an American music composer. He is considered one of the most influential composers of the late 20th century and is widely acknowledged as a composer who has brought art music to the public (along with precursors such as Richard Strauss, Kurt Weill and Leonard Bernstein).
http://wn.com/Philip_Glass -
Phyllis Baker
http://wn.com/Phyllis_Baker -
Pierre de Coubertin
http://wn.com/Pierre_de_Coubertin -
Pope Pius XI
Pope Pius XI (Latin: Pius PP. XI; ; 31 May 1857 – 10 February 1939), born Ambrogio Damiano Achille Ratti, was Pope from 6 February 1922, and sovereign of Vatican City from its creation as an independent state on 11 February 1929 until his death on 10 February 1939. He issued numerous encyclicals including Quadragesimo Anno highlighting capitalistic greed of international finance, social justice issues and Quas Primas establishing the feast of Christ the King. He took as his papal motto "Christ's peace in Christ's kingdom".
http://wn.com/Pope_Pius_XI -
Ralph Ince
Ralph Ince (January 16, 1887 – April 10, 1937), was an American film director, actor and screenwriter of the silent era. He directed 171 films between 1910 and 1937. He also appeared in 110 films between 1907 and 1937.
http://wn.com/Ralph_Ince -
Ramsay MacDonald
http://wn.com/Ramsay_MacDonald -
Ratan Tata
http://wn.com/Ratan_Tata -
Ray Ewry
Raymond "Ray" Clarence Ewry (October 14, 1873 – September 29, 1937) was an American track and field athlete who won 8 gold medals at the Olympic Games and 2 gold medals at the "Intercalated Games" (1906 in Athens). This puts him among the most successful Olympians of all time.
http://wn.com/Ray_Ewry -
Remak Ramsay
Remak Ramsay (born February 2, 1937) is an American veteran stage, film and television actor.
http://wn.com/Remak_Ramsay -
Richard Boleslavsky
http://wn.com/Richard_Boleslavsky -
Richard Petty
:For the president & C.E.O. of Maple Leafs Sports & Entertainment, see Richard Peddie.
http://wn.com/Richard_Petty -
Roald Hoffmann
Roald Hoffmann (born July 18, 1937) is an American theoretical chemist who won the 1981 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. He currently teaches at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York.
http://wn.com/Roald_Hoffmann -
Robert Huber
Robert Huber is a German biochemist and Nobel laureate.
http://wn.com/Robert_Huber -
Robert Laird Borden
http://wn.com/Robert_Laird_Borden -
Robert Lucas, Jr.
Robert Emerson Lucas, Jr. (born September 15, 1937, Yakima, Washington) is an American economist at the University of Chicago. He received the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1995 and is consistently indexed among the top 10 economists in the Research Papers in Economics rankings. He is married to economist Nancy Stokey.
http://wn.com/Robert_Lucas_Jr -
Roberto María Ortiz
http://wn.com/Roberto_María_Ortiz -
Robin Eames
http://wn.com/Robin_Eames -
Robin Warren
John Robin Warren AC (born 11 June 1937 in Adelaide) is an Australian pathologist, Nobel Laureate and researcher who is credited with the 1979 re-discovery of the bacterium Helicobacter pylori, together with Barry Marshall.
http://wn.com/Robin_Warren -
Roch Carrier
Roch Carrier, OC (born 13 May 1937) is a Canadian novelist and author of "contes" (a very brief form of the short story). He is among the best known Quebec writers in English Canada.
http://wn.com/Roch_Carrier -
Rod Roddy
Robert Ray "Rod" Roddy (September 28, 1937 – October 27, 2003) was an American radio and television announcer. He is primarily known for his role as an offstage announcer on game shows. Among the shows that he announced are the CBS game shows Press Your Luck and The Price Is Right. On the latter, he succeeded original announcer Johnny Olson and held the role from 1986 until his death in 2003.
http://wn.com/Rod_Roddy -
Rodolfo Graziani
Rodolfo Graziani, 1st Marquess of Neghelli (August 11, 1882 - January 11, 1955), was an officer in the Italian Royal Army (Regio Esercito) who led military expeditions in Africa before and during World War II.
http://wn.com/Rodolfo_Graziani -
Roger Martin du Gard
Roger Martin du Gard (23 March 1881 - 22 August 1958) was a French author and winner of the 1937 Nobel Prize for Literature. Trained as a paleographer and archivist, Martin du Gard brought to his works a spirit of objectivity and a scrupulous regard for details. For his concern with documentation and with the relationship of social reality to individual development, he has been linked with the realist and naturalist traditions of the 19th century. His major work was Les Thibault, a roman fleuve about the Thibault family, originally published as a series of eight novels. The story follows the fortunes of the two Thibault brothers, Antoine and Jacques, from their prosperous bourgeois upbringing, through the First World War, to their deaths. He also wrote a novel, Jean Barois, set in the historical context of the Dreyfus Affair.
http://wn.com/Roger_Martin_du_Gard -
Roger Penske
Roger S. Penske (born February 20, 1937, in Shaker Heights, Ohio) is the owner of the automobile racing team Penske Racing, the Penske Corporation, and other automotive related businesses. A winning racer in the late 1950s, Penske was named 1961's Sports Car Club of America Driver of the Year by Sports Illustrated. Retiring from driving a few years later he created one of the most successful teams in IndyCar Series and NASCAR racing.
http://wn.com/Roger_Penske -
Roger Zelazny
http://wn.com/Roger_Zelazny -
Ron Carter
Ron Carter (born May 4, 1937) is an American jazz double-bassist. His appearances on over 2,500 albums make him one of the most-recorded bassists in jazz history, along with Milt Hinton, Ray Brown and Leroy Vinnegar. Carter is also an acclaimed cellist who has recorded numerous times on that instrument.
http://wn.com/Ron_Carter -
Ross Alexander
http://wn.com/Ross_Alexander -
Rubin Carter
Rubin "Hurricane" Carter (born May 6, 1937) was a professional middleweight boxer from 1961 to 1966 and a member of the New Jersey Boxing Hall of Fame. In 1966, Carter was arrested for multiple homicides in the Lafayette Bar and Grill in Paterson, New Jersey. He and another man, John Artis, were tried twice and convicted for the murders, but the convictions were overturned on appeal in 1985 and the prosecution chose not to try the case for a third time. From 1993 to 2005 Carter served as executive director of the Association of the Wrongly Convicted.
http://wn.com/Rubin_Carter -
Rupiah Banda
Rupiah Bwezani Banda (born 13 February 1937) is a Zambian politician who has been the fourth President of Zambia since 2008.
http://wn.com/Rupiah_Banda -
Ruth Roland
Ruth Roland (August 26, 1892 - September 22, 1937) was an American stage and film actress and film producer.
http://wn.com/Ruth_Roland -
Saddam Hussein
http://wn.com/Saddam_Hussein -
Saima Harmaja
http://wn.com/Saima_Harmaja -
Sally Kellerman
Sally Kellerman (born June 2, 1937) is an American actress and singer known for her role as Major Margaret "Hot Lips" Houlihan in the film MASH (1970), for which she was nominated for an Oscar for Best Actress in a Supporting Role.
http://wn.com/Sally_Kellerman -
Sandy Dennis
http://wn.com/Sandy_Dennis -
Shanghai
http://wn.com/Shanghai -
Shirley Bassey
Dame Shirley Veronica Bassey, DBE (born 8 January 1937 in Cardiff, Wales), is a Welsh singer who found fame in the late 1950s and has continued a successful career since then worldwide. She is best known for recording the theme songs to the James Bond films Goldfinger (1964), Diamonds Are Forever (1971), and Moonraker (1979), and is a UNESCO Artist for Peace.
http://wn.com/Shirley_Bassey -
Snitz Edwards
http://wn.com/Snitz_Edwards -
Sofiko Chiaureli
Sofiko Chiaureli () was a Georgian actress, thought to be the muse of filmmaker Sergei Parajanov. She played a wide variety of roles on stage of the Kote Mardzhanishvili Theatre (1960-1964, 1964-2008) and the Rustavelli Theatre (1964-1968).
http://wn.com/Sofiko_Chiaureli -
Solomon P. Ortiz
Solomon Porfirio Ortiz (born June 3, 1937 in Robstown, Texas) is an American politician from the State of Texas who currently serves in the United States House of Representatives from ([http://nationalatlas.gov/printable/images/preview/congdist/tx27_109.gif map]) based in Corpus Christi.
http://wn.com/Solomon_P_Ortiz -
Spanish Civil War
http://wn.com/Spanish_Civil_War -
Stephen Lewis
Stephen Henry Lewis, CC (born November 11, 1937) is a Canadian politician, broadcaster and diplomat. He was the leader of the democratic socialist Ontario New Democratic Party for most of the 1970s. During many of the those years as leader, his father David Lewis was simultaneously the leader of the Federal New Democratic Party. After politics, he became a broadcaster on both CBC Radio, and Toronto's CityTV. In the mid-1980s, he was appointed as Canada's United Nations ambassador, by Progressive Conservative Prime Minister, Brian Mulroney. He quit in 1988 and worked at various United Nations agencies during the 1990s. In the 2000s, he served a term as the United Nations' special envoy for HIV/AIDS in Africa. He is currently Distinguished Visiting Professor at Ryerson University in Toronto. In 2003, he gained investiture into the Order of Canada.
http://wn.com/Stephen_Lewis -
Suzanne Pleshette
http://wn.com/Suzanne_Pleshette -
Ted Healy
Ted Healy (October 1, 1896 – December 21, 1937) was an American vaudeville performer, comedian, and actor. He is chiefly remembered today as the original employer of the Three Stooges, but had a successful stage and film career of his own.
http://wn.com/Ted_Healy -
Tex Avery
Frederick Bean "Fred/Tex" Avery (February 26, 1908 – August 26, 1980) was an American animator, cartoonist, voice actor and director, famous for producing animated cartoons during The Golden Age of Hollywood animation. He did his most significant work for the Warner Bros. and Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer studios, creating the characters of Daffy Duck, Bugs Bunny, Droopy, Screwy Squirrel, and developing Porky Pig and Chilly Willy (this last one for the Walter Lantz Studio) into the personas for which they are remembered.
http://wn.com/Tex_Avery -
The Shadow
The Shadow is a collection of serialized dramas, originally in pulp magazines, then on 1930s radio and then in a wide variety of media, that follow the exploits of the title character, a crime-fighting vigilante with psychic powers. One of the most famous pulp heroes of the 20th century, The Shadow has been featured in comic books, comic strips, television, video games, and at least five motion pictures. The radio drama is well-remembered for those episodes voiced by Orson Welles.
http://wn.com/The_Shadow -
Thomas Aquinas Daly
Thomas Aquinas Daly (born March 27, 1937) is an American contemporary landscape and still life painter.
http://wn.com/Thomas_Aquinas_Daly -
Thomas Pynchon
Thomas Ruggles Pynchon, Jr. (born May 8, 1937) is an American novelist. For his most praised novel, ''Gravity's Rainbow'', Pynchon received the National Book Award, and is regularly cited as a contender for the Nobel Prize for Literature. Pynchon is a MacArthur Fellow, is noted for his dense and complex novels, and both his fiction and non-fiction writings encompass a vast array of subject matter, styles and themes, including (but not limited to) the fields of history, science, and mathematics.
http://wn.com/Thomas_Pynchon -
Tianjin
(; ; Postal map spelling: Tientsin) is a metropolis in Northeastern China and one of the five national central cities. It is governed as a direct-controlled municipality, one of four such designations, and is thus under direct administration of the central government, and borders Hebei Province and Beijing Municipality, bounded to the east by the Bohai Gulf portion of the Yellow Sea. In terms of urban population, it is the sixth largest city of the People's Republic of China, and its urban land area ranks 5th in the nation, only after Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, and Shenzhen.
http://wn.com/Tianjin -
Tom Smothers
Tom Smothers (born Thomas Bolyn Smothers III on February 2, 1937) is an American comedian, composer and musician, best known as half of the musical comedy team the Smothers Brothers, alongside his younger brother Dick.
http://wn.com/Tom_Smothers -
Tomas Masaryk
http://wn.com/Tomas_Masaryk -
Tran Duc Luong
http://wn.com/Tran_Duc_Luong -
Trevor Baylis
Trevor Graham Baylis OBE (born 13 May 1937) is an English inventor. He is best known for inventing the wind-up radio. Rather than using batteries or external electrical source, the radio is powered by the user winding a crank for several seconds. This stores energy in a spring which then drives an electrical generator to operate the radio receiver. He invented it in response to the need to communicate information about AIDS to the people of Africa.
http://wn.com/Trevor_Baylis -
Trini Lopez
http://wn.com/Trini_Lopez -
Tung Chee-Hwa
http://wn.com/Tung_Chee-Hwa -
Una Stubbs
Una Stubbs (born 1 May 1937) is an English actress and former dancer who has appeared extensively on British television and in the theatre, and less frequently in films. She is particularly known for her roles in the sitcom Till Death Us Do Part and the children's series Worzel Gummidge.
http://wn.com/Una_Stubbs -
Vaira Vike Freiberga
http://wn.com/Vaira_Vike_Freiberga -
Valentina Tereshkova
Valentina Vladimirovna Tereshkova () (born 6 March 1937) is the first woman in space, now a retired Soviet cosmonaut. Out of more than four hundred applicants and then out of five finalists, she was selected to pilot Vostok 6 on 16 June 1963 and become the first woman to fly in space. This also made her the first civilian in space (she was only honorarily inducted into the USSR's Air Force as a condition on joining the Cosmonaut Corps). On this mission, lasting almost three days in space, she performed various tests on herself to collect data on the female body's reaction to spaceflight.
http://wn.com/Valentina_Tereshkova -
Valerie Singleton
Valerie Singleton OBE (born 9 April 1937) is an English television and radio presenter, best known as a presenter of the popular children's series, Blue Peter. She was educated at the independent The Arts Educational School, in Tring, Hertfordshire, to which the school had relocated from London at the outbreak of the Second World War.
http://wn.com/Valerie_Singleton -
Vanessa Redgrave
Vanessa Redgrave, CBE (born 30 January 1937) is an English actress of stage, screen and television, as well as a political activist.
http://wn.com/Vanessa_Redgrave -
Victor Laloux
__NOTOC__
http://wn.com/Victor_Laloux -
Vitaly Zholobov
http://wn.com/Vitaly_Zholobov -
Vivaldi
http://wn.com/Vivaldi -
Vladimir Ashkenazy
http://wn.com/Vladimir_Ashkenazy -
Waldo Waterman
Waldo Dean Waterman (June 16, 1894 - December 8, 1976) was an inventor and aviation pioneer from San Diego, California. His most notable contributions to aviation
http://wn.com/Waldo_Waterman -
Wallace H. Carothers
http://wn.com/Wallace_H_Carothers -
Wallis Simpson
#redirectWallis, Duchess of Windsor
http://wn.com/Wallis_Simpson -
Walt Disney
http://wn.com/Walt_Disney -
Warren Beatty
Warren Beatty (, ; born March 30, 1937) is an American actor, producer, screenwriter and director.
http://wn.com/Warren_Beatty -
Waylon Jennings
Waylon Arnold Jennings (June 15, 1937 – February 13, 2002) was an American country music singer, writer and musician. A self-taught guitar player, he rose to prominence as a bass player for Buddy Holly following the break-up of The Crickets. Jennings escaped death in the February 3, 1959, plane crash that took the lives of Buddy Holly, Ritchie Valens, and J. P. "The Big Bopper" Richardson when he gave up his seat to Richardson who had been sick with the flu. Urban legend and Hollywood folklore have it that Jennings and The Big Bopper flipped a coin for the last seat on the plane, with Jennings losing. It was, in fact, Tommy Allsup who flipped the coin for the fated plane trip, losing his seat to Ritchie Valens.
http://wn.com/Waylon_Jennings -
William Gillette
William Hooker Gillette (July 24, 1853 - April 29, 1937) was an American actor, playwright and stage-manager in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries who is best remembered today for portraying Sherlock Holmes.
http://wn.com/William_Gillette -
William Henry Hastie
http://wn.com/William_Henry_Hastie -
Willie Rushton
http://wn.com/Willie_Rushton -
Wray Carlton
Linwood Wray Carlton (born June 18, 1937 in Wallace, North Carolina) is a former American collegiate and Professional Football running back who played professionally in both Canada and the U.S.
http://wn.com/Wray_Carlton -
Yoshiro Mori
http://wn.com/Yoshiro_Mori -
Yuri Senkevich
Yuri Aleksandrovich Senkevich () (March 4, 1937 in Choibalsan, Mongolia – September 25, 2003 in Moscow, Russia) was a Soviet doctor, scientist. He is Candidate of Sciences. He became famous in the USSR and worldwide for his participation in the Ra Expedition, in which he sailed together with Thor Heyerdahl.
http://wn.com/Yuri_Senkevich -
Yvonne Craig
Yvonne Joyce Craig (born May 16, 1937) is an American actress known for her role as Batgirl from the 1960s TV series Batman.
http://wn.com/Yvonne_Craig -
Éamon de Valera
http://wn.com/Éamon_de_Valera
Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937)
"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937)" Actors
"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937)" Director
Send this Playlist by SMS
Email this Page
Hindenburg Disaster Real Footage (1937) [HD]
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:00
- Published: 27 Jul 2011
- Updated: 08 Oct 2012
Hindenburg Disaster Real Footage (1937) [HD]. Footage of the Nazi airship catching fire, crashing and burning to the ground. This original footage from the British Pathe archive shows impressive shots of the Hindenburg flying overhead, flying over its landing ground at Lakehurst, New Jersey, and then finally there is footage of the famous crash. 13 out of 36 passengers died, whilst 22 out of 61 crew members died, so many survived the disaster. Check out our playlist: www.youtube.com Subscribe to British Pathe: www.youtube.com Follow us on Twitter: @britishpathe.com Join us on Facebook: www.facebook.com From: www.britishpathe.com
http://wn.com/Hindenburg_Disaster_Real_Footage_1937_HD_
Journal TV - Almanac Newsreels - Year in Review: 1937
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 47:35
- Published: 07 Feb 2011
- Updated: 08 Oct 2012
This was the 1930's: The Great Depression was bearing down on all; the Hindenburg air ship burned; Charles Lindberghs's baby was kindapped and later found dead.
http://wn.com/Journal_TV_Almanac_Newsreels_Year_in_Review_1937
Around The Corner (1937) How Differential Steering Works
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:31
- Published: 16 Sep 2009
- Updated: 07 Oct 2012
How the automobile differential allows a vehicle to turn a corner while keeping the wheels from skidding.
http://wn.com/Around_The_Corner_1937_How_Differential_Steering_Works
1937 THE HINDENBURG - NEW OUTSTANDING COLOR FOOTAGE!!!
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:01
- Published: 02 Dec 2007
- Updated: 05 Oct 2012
www.romanoarchives.tk 1937. The Luftschiffbau Zeppelin 129 Hindenburg. Almost unedited new color footage of the airship, including the Hindenburg burning. The part of the clip from 1 to 1:38 is from an original Agfa color amateur film. The rest of the video contains coloured footage. Calling "fair use" for the soundtrack, added in 2007 by ROMANO-ARCHIVES, "Blodeuwedd" composed and performed by Ceiri Torjussen. www.ceiri.com Music used with the Author's written permission. Montage and Editing by ROMANO-ARCHIVES. Do you want to know more about the Hindenburg and other great airships?! We suggest the website of friend youtuber airships129: www.airships.net www.airships.net "SUBSCRIBING to this Channel is a MUST for researchers and RARE HISTORICAL FOOTAGE fans!!!" V. Romano This is a clip from the ROMANO-ARCHIVES' new website-"Unknown World War 2 in Color"-"The Pre-War Years" section. At: www.webalice.it Visit also: romanoarchives.altervista.org Or: digilander.libero.it A better quality silent version of this clip is available. Hi-Res videos from our Collections are available on DVD, CD or directly in your inbox. Clips and movies can also be downloaded from our servers using a PW or uploaded by us to your FTP.
http://wn.com/1937_THE_HINDENBURG_NEW_OUTSTANDING_COLOR_FOOTAGE!!!
Buck and Bubbles... Varsity Show (1937)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:26
- Published: 18 Mar 2009
- Updated: 07 Oct 2012
Buck & Bubbles starring in Varsity Show (1937)
http://wn.com/Buck_and_Bubbles_Varsity_Show_1937
Pluto- Bone Trouble (1937)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:22
- Published: 25 Sep 2007
- Updated: 08 Oct 2012
As it hasn't been uploaded, I'm uploading this wonderful cartoon, the first one of the Pluto's serie. Pluto has no bone, so he decides to steal one from his neighbour Spike... but when he is discovered, he escapes in a deserted carnival. This is a great piece of animation, and the sequence in the hall of mirrors is simply delicious! (Thanks to Overhill who found this cartoon for me ;))
http://wn.com/Pluto_Bone_Trouble_1937
Skeleton Frolic (1937)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:12
- Published: 18 Oct 2007
- Updated: 08 Oct 2012
a Columbia cartoon, directed by Ub Iwerks
http://wn.com/Skeleton_Frolic_1937
Hindenburg Explodes (1937)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:27
- Published: 16 Sep 2009
- Updated: 30 Sep 2012
B&W, Silent Good footage of the giant Zeppelin over New York prior to the accident. en.wikipedia.org
http://wn.com/Hindenburg_Explodes_1937
The RV World of 1937
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:29
- Published: 24 Jan 2007
- Updated: 28 Sep 2012
A classic film about RV life produced by Chevrolet in 1937.
http://wn.com/The_RV_World_of_1937
Amelia Earhart, 1897 - 1937
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:36
- Published: 02 Mar 2008
- Updated: 11 Sep 2012
Amelia Earhart, 1897 - 1937
http://wn.com/Amelia_Earhart,_1897_1937
Boulder Dam - 1937
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 35:00
- Published: 12 Aug 2009
- Updated: 03 Oct 2012
This Department of Interior film captures Boulder Dam — better known as Hoover Dam — in the midst of its construction. See how the Colorado River flowed before, and after, the construction of what was then the world's tallest dam. SUMMARY Part 1 shows the Colorado River and the arid deserts of the Southwest. Bulldozers build a road to the proposed dam site. A train brings in supplies and materials made throughout the US The dam site is surveyed. Shows Boulder City, Nev., including workmen's dormitories, kitchen, and mess hall. Workers ride to the dam site in trucks and drill and blast out diversion tunnels. Power shovels clear debris. In part 2, diversion tunnels are blasted open and coffer dams are constructed. Bulldozers and trucks clear excavated material. Sand and gravel is brought in by train and is screened, washed, and graded. Concrete is mixed and is carried by truck and locomotive to the dam site. In part 3, concrete is poured into forms. Shows the interior of a tunnel, the intake towers, spillways, and penstock valves. Tubing is made at the dam site and is assembled by workmen. In part 4, penstock pipe sections are trucked from factory to the dam site and lowered into position by cable. Concrete is poured into coffer dams. President Roosevelt speaks at the dedication ceremonies. Shows flashes of spillways, transmission towers, and power lines, and an aerial view of Boulder Dam and Lake Meade. Boulder Dam, 1937 Transcript (PDF): www.archives.gov CREATED BY <b>...</b>
http://wn.com/Boulder_Dam_1937
Suwałki Suvalki 1937 That which is no more
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:54
- Published: 31 Oct 2009
- Updated: 26 Jul 2012
Suwałki Suvalki 1937 + Steve Roach
http://wn.com/Suwałki_Suvalki_1937_That_which_is_no_more
Walt Disney Treasures - Hawaiian Holiday (1937)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:22
- Published: 28 Jul 2010
- Updated: 07 Oct 2012
Mickey, Minnie, Donald, Goofy, and Pluto relax in sunny Hawaii in this classic 1937 cartoon!
http://wn.com/Walt_Disney_Treasures_Hawaiian_Holiday_1937
1937 GMC RAT ROD BUILDUP
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:36
- Published: 25 May 2007
- Updated: 07 Oct 2012
How to build your rod from scratch. Follow along as Scott Graves designs, fabricates, and assembles another fun hot rod out of a 1937 GMC pickup. Power comes from a 1962 235 inline 6, mates to a S10 T5, and sends it to a pair of 7.50-17 BF Goodrich tires thru the 3.08 geared rearend. Everything was fabricated in the his shop area you see with just a few basic tools.
http://wn.com/1937_GMC_RAT_ROD_BUILDUP
Pépé le Moko (1937)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 93:37
- Published: 17 May 2012
- Updated: 06 Oct 2012
www.imdb.com
http://wn.com/Pépé_le_Moko_1937
Ernest Hemingway: The Spanish Earth (1937)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 53:57
- Published: 05 Aug 2011
- Updated: 07 Oct 2012
This documentary film uses footage of war and glimpses of rural Spanish life in its portrayal of the struggle of the Spanish Republican government against a rebellion by right-wing forces led by General Francisco Franco and backed by Nazi Germany and fascist Italy. The film was written by Ernest Hemingway and John Dos Passos (among others) and was narrated by Hemingway. Please help seeding this video ! This video is in the Public Domain, visit Archive.org for more informations.
http://wn.com/Ernest_Hemingway_The_Spanish_Earth_1937
Benito Mussolini 1937 speaking in German
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:00
- Published: 23 Oct 2007
- Updated: 04 Oct 2012
Benito Mussolini speaks in the Berlin Olympic stadium at night during his 1937 visit to Germany. He spoke very good German
http://wn.com/Benito_Mussolini_1937_speaking_in_German
Japanese Imperial Army Victory March Nanking 1937 日本軍の勝利は1937年南京行進
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:09
- Published: 01 May 2010
- Updated: 08 Oct 2012
We have the triumphant Victory March of the victorious Imperial Army through the devastated streets of Nanking looked upon by the few living relatives of those killed by the thousands, todays equivalent would like the British Army doing a victory parade in the streets of Derry accompanied by the Orange order to celebrate the Derry massacre. If you look at the Nanking massacre information on the internet you will be taken aback by the many entries from the Japan media side which do not recognise any undue killings over and above military operational casualties , In fact the whole period in Japan is only referred as the Nanking INCIDENT.
http://wn.com/Japanese_Imperial_Army_Victory_March_Nanking_1937_日本軍の勝利は1937年南京行進
Travel Trailer Life in 1937 Florida Snowbird Park
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:57
- Published: 09 Apr 2007
- Updated: 11 Sep 2012
Here Today and Gone Tomorrow. That's the Motto of Millions Who Follow the Sun With a Home on Wheels. Only these RVers were doing in back in 1935 when a site in a Florida trailer resort cost one dollar a week with an extra twenty-five cents for electricity! Visit Trailerite.com and celebrate the History of RVing.
http://wn.com/Travel_Trailer_Life_in_1937_Florida_Snowbird_Park
Dark Journey (1937)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 75:39
- Published: 27 Oct 2011
- Updated: 02 Sep 2012
A 1937 British spy film directed by Victor Saville set in the First World War. Its plot concerns two secret agents on opposite sides, played by Conrad Veidt and Vivien Leigh, who fall in love. Director: Victor Saville Writers: Lajos Biró (play), Lajos Biró (screenplay) Stars: Conrad Veidt, Vivien Leigh and Joan Gardner
http://wn.com/Dark_Journey_1937
La Grande Illusion (1937) Trailer
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:14
- Published: 15 Aug 2010
- Updated: 08 Oct 2012
La Grande Illusion (1937) Trailer The Grand Illusion www.imdb.com Director: Jean Renoir Jean Gabin, Dita Parlo, Pierre Fresnay, Erich von Stroheim
http://wn.com/La_Grande_Illusion_1937_Trailer
Early Wu style Taijiquan (1937)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:17
- Published: 23 Apr 2010
- Updated: 06 Oct 2012
Possibly the earliest Wu style Taijiquan video with Chu Minyi, disciple of Wu Jianquan, recorded in 1937 in Shanghai. The video shows the Wu style set, tuishou and even Chu's 'modern and scientific' approach including his 'stick' and 'ball' system. A piece of history
http://wn.com/Early_Wu_style_Taijiquan_1937
Record Making With Duke Ellington (1937).wmv
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:06
- Published: 22 Feb 2010
- Updated: 27 Sep 2012
Creative Commons / Dominic
Creative Commons / Carl Van Vechten
Creative Commons / Billy Hathorn
Creative Commons / WhisperToMe
Public Domain / Elsapucai
Creative Commons
Creative Commons
Creative Commons / Andreas Praefcke
Creative Commons / Stein Sjølie
Creative Commons / Davepape![Vierling-Förster piano (1937) [3][4]](http://web.archive.org./web/20121009004853im_/http://cdn1.wn.com/pd/ab/a8/9e4db26749d2a8cfe2e1f9f46028_small.jpg "Vierling-Förster piano (1937) [3][4]")
Creative Commons
Creative Commons
Public Domain / Daderot
Creative Commons
Public Domain / Estormiz
Creative Commons / J Bar
Public Domain / Estormiz
Public Domain / Estormiz
Creative Commons / Artotem
Public Domain / Smallbones
Creative Commons / Mmxx
Creative Commons / Benediktleander
Creative Commons / Benediktleander
Creative Commons / Alphageekpa
Creative Commons / Beyond My Ken
Creative Commons / Cobatfor
Creative Commons / Cobatfor
Public Domain / Nev1
Creative Commons
Creative Commons / Gwillhickers
![Vierling-Förster piano (1937) [3][4]](http://web.archive.org./web/20121009004853/http://cdn5.wn.com/pd/ab/a8/9e4db26749d2a8cfe2e1f9f46028_medium.jpg "Vierling-Förster piano (1937) [3][4]")
Photo: DOD / Public Domain
07 Oct 2012
America's longest war entered its 12th year Sunday, with the anniversary marked by a Taliban statement claiming that NATO forces are "fleeing Afghanistan" in "humiliation and disgrace". The US led the...
Photo: AP / Andres Kudacki
06 Oct 2012
It’s getting tiresome; every other month a Clásico is contested in some competition (La Liga? The Copa del Rey? The Champions League? The Supercopa de España?). At least that’s how it appears. Though...
Photo: AP / Lee Jin-man
07 Oct 2012
October 7, 2012 -- Updated 0717 GMT (1517 HKT) US troops launch rockets during a training exercise in the South Korean border county of Cheorwon on September 13. Seoul, South Korea (CNN) -- South...
Photo: AP / Al Jacinto
07 Oct 2012
Manila: The Philippine government and Muslim rebels have agreed a peace deal for the country's troubled south, President Benigno Aquino announced on Sunday, signalling an end to a 40-year conflict...
Photo: AP / Muhammed Muheisen
07 Oct 2012
Imran Khan says two-day convoy has been a success despite failing to reach intended destination Imran Khan addresses a peace rally in Tank. Photograph: A Majeed/AFP/Getty Images...
Cantor revisits 1937 degeneracy, censorship
03 Oct 2012
San Francisco Chronicle
With increasingly complicated issues of censorship and freedom of expression reverberating around the globe - from the suppression of artist Ai Weiwei to the protests against "Innocence of Muslims" in the Arab world - a glance back toward "Degenerate Art," the notorious 1937 Munich exhibition...(size: 3.2Kb)
1937 film, 'Borneo', debuts at fest
27 Sep 2012
New Straits/Business Times
ENVIRONMENTAL THEME: Three-day event kicks off tomorrow The poster for ‘Borneo’, which is the last adventure film together by American documentary makers Martin and Osa Johnson in 1937. 1 / 1 KOTA KINABALU: A FILM by famous American documentary filmmakers Martin and Osa Johnson, Borneo, will...(size: 2.2Kb)
Krispy Kreme National Coffee Day Freebies - PR Newswire - The Sacramento Bee Since 1937, ...
26 Sep 2012
Sacramento Bee
WINSTON-SALEM, N.C., Sept. 25, 2012 -- /PRNewswire/ -- Since 1937, Krispy Kreme's one-of-a-kind doughnuts have been recognized for their uniquely delicious taste. And what goes better with a delicious doughnut than a perfect cup of coffee? Krispy Kreme is continuing to celebrate 75 years of its...(size: 2.1Kb)
Denver Post
Given the season, it's understandably an afterthought. There are, after all, elk to be tracked, kokanee salmon and pre-spawn brown trout to be stalked, long walks with the bird dog begging at your door. Yet, subtly situated amid autumn's grandeur, gently trumpeted beneath the bugles and bays of the...(size: 4.2Kb)
The Columbus Dispatch
He presided over trial of ‘handcuff rapist’ in 1989...(size: 5.0Kb)
Cincinnati
This season marks 75 years since the Cincinnati Bengals first took to the gridiron. But not todays Bengals, who date to the 1968 season. The original Bengals was a short-lived professional team from 1937 to 1941. In the early days of football, upstart leagues competed for both the players and fans...(size: 4.7Kb)
Cincinnati
This season marks 75 years since the Cincinnati Bengals first took to the gridiron. But not todays Bengals, who date to the 1968 season. The original Bengals was a short-lived professional team from 1937 to 1941. In the early days of football, upstart leagues competed for both the players and fans...(size: 4.7Kb)
Librarian ‘Rules for Reading’ from 1937
10 Sep 2012
mediabistro
Librarian Christian Sheehy posted some “Rules for Reading” she discovered in library archives from 1937. We’ve...(size: 0.8Kb)
Viewpoints: 1937 law continues to pay dividends for conservation - Viewpoints - The Sacramento Bee ...
09 Sep 2012
Sacramento Bee
Fall in California is a special time. The slant of light changes, the weather cools and migrating waterfowl are noisily on the move. The coming season is a great time to get outside and enjoy our state's natural resources. It is also an appropriate time to reflect on the ways in which much of...(size: 4.0Kb)
Bluebird resurrected: Historic boat used to break the world water speed record in 1937 is ...
26 Aug 2012
The Daily Mail
It has taken two...(size: 0.1Kb)
This article is about the year 1937.
| Millennium: | 2nd millennium |
|---|---|
| Centuries: | 19th century – 20th century – 21st century |
| Decades: | 1900s 1910s 1920s – 1930s – 1940s 1950s 1960s |
| Years: | 1934 1935 1936 – 1937 – 1938 1939 1940 |
| 1937 by topic: |
| Subject |
| By country |
| Leaders |
| Birth and death categories |
| Establishments and disestablishments categories |
| Works and introductions categories |
| Gregorian calendar | 1937 MCMXXXVII |
| Ab urbe condita | 2690 |
| Armenian calendar | 1386 ԹՎ ՌՅՁԶ |
| Assyrian calendar | 6687 |
| Bahá'í calendar | 93–94 |
| Bengali calendar | 1344 |
| Berber calendar | 2887 |
| British Regnal year | 1 Geo. 6 – 2 Geo. 6 |
| Buddhist calendar | 2481 |
| Burmese calendar | 1299 |
| Byzantine calendar | 7445–7446 |
| Chinese calendar | 丙子年十一月十九日 (4573/4633-11-19) — to —
丁丑年十一月廿九日(4574/4634-11-29) |
| Coptic calendar | 1653–1654 |
| Ethiopian calendar | 1929–1930 |
| Hebrew calendar | 5697–5698 |
| Hindu calendars | |
| - Vikram Samvat | 1993–1994 |
| - Shaka Samvat | 1859–1860 |
| - Kali Yuga | 5038–5039 |
| Holocene calendar | 11937 |
| Iranian calendar | 1315–1316 |
| Islamic calendar | 1355–1356 |
| Japanese calendar | Shōwa 12 (昭和12年) |
| Julian calendar | Gregorian minus 13 days |
| Korean calendar | 4270 |
| Minguo calendar | ROC 26 民國26年 |
| Thai solar calendar | 2480 |
 |
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: 1937 |
Year 1937 (MCMXXXVII) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar.
Events[link]
January[link]
- January 1 – Anastasio Somoza García becomes President of Nicaragua.
- January 3 – The first science fiction convention is held in Leeds, England.
- January 11 – The first issue of Look magazine goes on sale in the United States.
- January 19 – Howard Hughes establishes a record by flying from Los Angeles to New York City in 7 hours, 28 minutes and 25 seconds.
- January 20 – Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes swears in Franklin D. Roosevelt for a second term. This is the first time Inauguration Day in the United States occurs on that date, on which it has occurred ever since; the change is due to the ratification in 1933 of the 20th amendment to the U.S. Constitution.
- January 23 – In Moscow, seventeen leading Communists go on trial, accused of participating in a plot led by Leon Trotsky to overthrow Joseph Stalin's regime and assassinate its leaders.
- January 26 – The U.S. state of Michigan celebrates its Centennial Anniversary of statehood.
- January 31
- The Ohio River floods.
- The Soviet Union executes 31 people for alleged Trotskyism.
February[link]
- February 5 – U.S President Franklin D. Roosevelt proposes a plan to enlarge the Supreme Court of the United States.
- February 8 – Spanish Civil War: Falangist troops take Málaga.
- February 8 –February 27 – Spanish Civil War – Battle of Jarama: Nationalist and government troops fight to a stalemate.
- February 11 – A sit-down strike ends when General Motors recognizes the United Automobile Workers Union.
- February 16 – Wallace H. Carothers receives a patent for nylon.
- February 19
- Airliner VH-UHH (Stinson) goes down over Lamington National Park, bound for Sydney, killing five people.
- Yekatit 12: During a public ceremony at the Viceregal Palace (the former Imperial residence) in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, two Eritrean nationalists attempt to kill viceroy Rodolfo Graziani with a number of grenades. The Italian security guard fire into the crowd of Ethiopian onlookers. Authorities exact further reprisals, which include indiscriminately slaughtering native Ethiopians over the next three days, detaining thousands of Ethiopians in inhospitable conditions at Danan in the Ogaden and Nokra in the Dahlak Archipelago, and slaughtering almost 300 monks at Debre Libanos monastery.
- February 20 – Roberto Ortiz is elected president of Argentina.
- February 21 – The League of Nations Non-Intervention Committee prohibits foreign nationals from fighting in the Spanish Civil War.
March[link]
- March – The first issue of the comic book Detective Comics is published in the United States. Twenty-seven issues later, Detective Comics introduces Batman. The comic goes on to become the longest continually published comic magazine in American history; it is still published as of 2012[update].
- March 10 – The Encyclical Mit brennender Sorge of Pope Pius XI is published in Nazi Germany.
- March 17 – The Atherton Report (private investigator Edwin Atherton's report detailing vice and police corruption in San Francisco) is released.
- March 18 – In the worst school disaster in American history in terms of lives lost, the New London School in New London, Texas suffers a catastrophic natural gas explosion, killing in excess of 295 students and teachers.
- March 19
- The Encyclical Divini Redemptoris of Pope Pius XI about communism is published.
- Mother Frances Hospital opens in Tyler, Texas in response to the New London School explosion.
- March 21 – The first successful flying car, Waldo Waterman's Aerobile, makes its initial flight.
- March 26
- In Crystal City, Texas, spinach growers erect a statue of the cartoon character Popeye.
- William Henry Hastie becomes the first African-American appointed to a federal judgeship .
April[link]
- April 1 – Aden becomes a British crown colony. Bombing of Jaén, Spain by Nazi forces
- April 9 – The Kamikaze arrives at Croydon Airport in London; it is the first Japanese-built aircraft to fly to Europe.
- April 12 – NLRB v. Jones & Laughlin Steel: The Supreme Court of the United States rules that the National Labor Relations Act is constitutional.
- April 15 – Henry W. Bates born to Thelma and Avery Bates.
- April 17 – The animated short Porky's Duck Hunt, directed by Tex Avery for the Looney Tunes series, featuring the debut of Daffy Duck, is released.
- April 20 – A fire in an elementary school in Kilingi-Nõmme, Estonia, kills seventeen students and injures fifty.
- April 26 – Spanish Civil War: Guernica, Spain is bombed. In his report of the Falangist attack on Guernica, British journalist George Steer reports finding German bomb casings, connecting Luftwaffe planes with the attack.
May[link]
- May
- The Dáil Éireann passes the Executive Authority (Consequential Provisions) Act, 1937, which abolishes the office of Governor-General of the Irish Free State, retrospectively dated to December 1936.
- 17 million unemployed in the USA.
- May 1 – A general strike occurs in Paris, France.
- May 6 – Hindenburg disaster: In the United States, the German airship Hindenburg bursts into flame when mooring to a mast in Lakehurst, New Jersey. Of the 36 passengers and 61 crew on board, 13 passengers and 22 crew die, as well as one member of the ground crew.
- May 7 – Spanish Civil War: The German Condor Legion Fighter Group, equipped with Heinkel He 51 biplanes, arrives in Spain to assist Francisco Franco's forces.
- May 12 – The coronation of George VI and Queen Elizabeth (later Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother) takes place at Westminster Abbey, London.
- May 21
- A Soviet station becomes the first scientific research settlement to operate on the drift ice of the Arctic Ocean.
- As one of the reprisals for the attempted assassination of Italian viceroy Rodolfo Graziani, a detachment of Italian troops massacres the entire community of Debre Libanos, killing 297 monks and 23 laymen.
- May 27 – In California, the Golden Gate Bridge opens to pedestrian traffic, creating a vital link between San Francisco and Marin County. The next day, President Franklin D. Roosevelt pushes a button in Washington, D.C., signaling the start of vehicle traffic over the Golden Gate Bridge.
- May 28 – Neville Chamberlain becomes Prime Minister of the United Kingdom.
- May 30
- Spanish Civil War: Spanish ship Ciudad de Barcelona is torpedoed.
- The Chicago Police Department shoot and kill ten unarmed demonstrators in Chicago in what is known as the Memorial Day massacre.
June[link]
- June 3 – Wallis Simpson marries The Duke of Windsor (the former Edward VIII), in France.
- June 8
- The first total solar eclipse to exceed seven minutes of totality in over 800 years, is visible in the Pacific and Peru.
- Carl Orff's Carmina Burana premieres in Frankfurt, Germany.
- June 14 – Pennsylvania becomes the first (and only) of the United States to celebrate Flag Day officially as a state holiday.
- June 21 – The coalition government of Léon Blum resigns in France.
- June 28 – Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) established in the United States, superseding the Emergency Conservation Work program.
- June – Picasso completes his painting Guernica.
- June/July – The Dáil Éireann debates and passes the draft new Constitution of Ireland, which is then submitted for public approval by plebiscite.
July[link]
- July 1
- The Gestapo arrests pastor Martin Niemöller.
- In a referendum the people of the Irish Free State accept the new Constitution by 685,105 votes to 527,945.
- First alleged sighting of the White River Monster.
- July 2
- Amelia Earhart and navigator Fred Noonan disappear after taking off from New Guinea during Earhart's attempt to become the first woman to fly around the world.
- A guard takes his place at the Tomb of the Unknowns in Washington, DC; continuous guard has been maintained there ever since.
- July 5 – The highest recorded temperature in Canada, at Yellow Grass, Saskatchewan, is 45°C (113°F).
- July 7
- Sino-Japanese War: Battle of Lugou Bridge (aka Marco Polo Bridge Incident): Japanese forces invade China (often seen as the beginning of World War II in Asia).
- Peel Commission proposes partition of the British Mandate of Palestine into separate Arab and Jewish states.[1][2]
- July 11 – American popular composer George Gershwin dies in Los Angeles of a brain tumor, age 38.
- July 20 – The Geibeltbad Pirna is opened in Dresden, Germany.
- July 21 – Éamon de Valera is elected President of the Executive Council (prime minister) of the Irish Free State by the Dáil (parliament).
- July 22 – New Deal: The United States Senate votes down President Franklin D. Roosevelt's proposal to add more justices to the Supreme Court of the United States.
- July 24 – Alabama drops rape charges against the so-called Scottsboro Boys.
- July 25–July 31 – Sino-Japanese War: Battle of Beiping-Tianjin, a series of actions fought around Beiping and Tianjin, resulting in Japanese victory.
- July 28 – The Irish Republican Army attempts the assassination by bomb of George VI in Belfast.
August[link]
- August 2 – The Marihuana Tax Act Pub. 238, 75th Congress, 50 Stat. 551 (Aug. 2, 1937), is a significant bill on the path that will lead to the criminalization of cannabis. It was introduced to U.S. Congress by Commissioner of the Federal Bureau of Narcotics, Harry Anslinger. (The Act is now commonly referred to using the modern spelling as the 1937 Marijuana Tax Act.)
- August 5 – The Soviet Union commences one of the largest campaigns of the Great Purge, to "eliminate anti-Soviet elements". Within the following year, at least 724,000 people are killed on order of the troikas, many of them chosen for shooting by their ethnicity[citation needed].
- August 6 – Spanish Civil War: Falangist artillery bombards Madrid.
- August 8 – Japan occupies Beijing.
- August 26 – Sino-Japanese War: Japanese aircraft attack the car carrying the ambassador of Great Britain during a raid on Shanghai.
September[link]
- September 2 – The Great Hong Kong Typhoon kills an estimated 11,000 persons.
- September 5 – Spanish Civil War: The city of Llanes falls to the Falangists.
- September 7 – CBS broadcasts a two-and-a-half hour memorial concert nationwide on radio in memory of George Gershwin, live from the Hollywood Bowl. Many celebrities appear, including Oscar Levant, Fred Astaire, Otto Klemperer, Lily Pons, and members of the original cast of Porgy and Bess. The concert is recorded and released complete years later in what is excellent sound for its time, on CD. The Los Angeles Philharmonic is the featured orchestra.
- September 17 – Abraham Lincoln's head is dedicated at Mount Rushmore.
- September 19 – Swiss professional ice hockey club HC Ambrì-Piotta founded.
- September 21 – George Allen & Unwin, Ltd. of London publishes the first edition of J. R. R. Tolkien's The Hobbit.
- September 25 – Sino-Japanese War: Battle of Pingxingguan: The Communist Chinese National Revolutionary Army defeats the Japanese.
- September 26 – Street and Smith Publications launches a half-hour radio program, The Shadow, with Orson Welles in the title role.
- September 27 – The last Bali tiger dies.
October[link]
- October 1
- The Marihuana Tax Act becomes law in the United States.
- U.S. Supreme Court associate justice Hugo Black, in a nationwide radio broadcast, refutes allegations of past involvement in the Ku Klux Klan.
- October 3 – Sino-Japanese War: Japanese troops advance toward Nanking.
- October 4 – Rabotnicki Skopje is established as a football club .
- October 5 – Roosevelt gives his famous Quarantine Speech in Chicago.
- October 13 – Germany, in a note to Brussels, guarantees the inviolability and integrity of Belgium so long as the latter abstains from military action against Germany.
- October 15 – Ernest Hemingway's novel To Have and Have Not is first published.
- October 18–October 21 – Spanish Civil War: The whole Spanish northern seaboard falls into the Falangists' hands; Republican forces in Gijon, Spain, set fire to petrol reserves prior to retreating before the advancing Falangists.
- October 25 – Celal Bayar forms the new (ninth) government of Turkey.
November[link]
- November 3 – Underdog Maurice J. Tobin resoundingly defeats former governor and mayor James Michael Curley in a Boston mayoral election that shocks the political establishment.
- November 5
- Spanish Civil War – 35,000 Republican supporters are massacred in Piedrafita de Babia, near León.
- World War II: In the Reich Chancellery, Adolf Hitler holds a secret meeting and states his plans for acquiring "living space" for the German people (recorded in the Hossbach Memorandum).
- November 6 – Italy joins the Anti-Comintern Pact.
- November 9 – Sino-Japanese War: Japanese troops take Shanghai.
- November 10 – Brazilian president Getúlio Vargas announces the Estado Novo ("New State"), thence becoming dictator of Brazil until 1945.
- November 11 – The Kogushi sulfur mine collapse, in western Gunma, Japan, kills at least 245 people.
December[link]
- December 4 – The Dandy comic is first published in Scotland; it will still be running as of 2011[update].
- December 11 – Italy withdraws from the League of Nations.
- December 12
- USS Panay incident: Japanese bombers sink the American gunboat USS Panay.
- Mae West makes a risque guest appearance on the NBC Chase and Sanborn Hour that eventually results in her being banned from radio.
- December 13 – Sino-Japanese War: The Battle of Nanjing ends and the Nanjing Massacre begins. Japanese troops slaughter over 300,000 civilians and prisoners over three months.
- December 16 – The original production of the musical Me and My Girl opens at the West End Victoria Palace Theatre in London. A later revival of this musical would win an award.
- December 21 – Walt Disney's Snow White premieres in selected theaters.
- December 25 – At the age of 70, legendary conductor Arturo Toscanini conducts the NBC Symphony Orchestra on radio for the first time, beginning his successful 17-year tenure with that orchestra. This first concert consists of music by Vivaldi (at a time when he was still seldom played), Mozart, and Brahms. Millions tune in to listen, including U.S. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt.
- December 29 – The new Constitution of Ireland (Bunreacht na hÉireann) comes into force. The Irish Free State becomes "Ireland", and Éamon de Valera becomes the first Taoiseach (prime minister) of the new state. A Presidential Commission (made up the Chief Justice, the Speaker of Dáil Éireann, and the President of the High Court) assumes the powers of the new presidency, pending the popular election of the first President of Ireland in June 1938. The new constitution prohibits divorce.
Date unknown[link]
- Switzerland begins construction of its Border Line defences.
- The Vibora Luviminda trades union's sugar plantation strike on Maui island, Hawaii.
- Jimmie Angel lands his plane on top of Devil's Mountain; however, the plane gets damaged and he has to trek through the rainforest for help.
- Italian psychiatrist Amarro Fiamberti is the first to document a transorbital approach to the brain, which becomes the basis for the controversial medical procedure of transorbital lobotomy.
- Of Mice and Men by John Steinbeck is published.
- Soviet industry produces about four times as much as it had in 1928.
Births[link]
January–February[link]
- January 1 – Anne Aubrey, British actress
- January 4 – Dyan Cannon, American actress
- January 6
- Paolo Conte, Italian singer, Pianist and Composer
- Underwood Dudley, American mathematician
- Nida Blanca, Filipina actress (d. 2001)
- January 8 – Shirley Bassey, Welsh singer
- January 13 – George Reisman, American economist
- January 14 – Ken Higgs, English cricketer
- January 15 – Margaret O'Brien, American actress
- January 18
- John Hume, Northern Irish politician, Nobel Peace Prize laureate
- Yukio Endo, Japanese gymnast (d. 2009)
- January 19 – Giovanna Marini, Italian singer-songwriter
- January 21 – Prince Max, Duke in Bavaria, heir to the Bavarian Royal House
- January 22 – Joseph Wambaugh, American author
- January 25 – Ange-Felix Patasse, former President of Central African Republic (d. 2011)
- January 27 – John Ogdon, English pianist (d. 1989)
- January 29 – Bobby Scott, American musician, producer and songwriter (d. 1990)
- January 30
- Vanessa Redgrave, English actress
- Boris Spassky, Russian chess grandmaster
- January 31
- Suzanne Pleshette, American actress (d. 2008)
- Philip Glass, American composer
- February 1
- Garrett Morris, American comedian
- Don Everly, American rock 'n' roll musician
- February 2
- Tom Smothers, American musician and comedian
- Magic Sam, American musician (d. 1969)
- Remak Ramsay, American actor
- February 3 – Billy Meier, Swiss Prophet
- February 4 – Magnar Solberg, Norwegian biathlete
- February 8 – Manfred Krug, German actor and singer
- February 9
- Francis William Lawvere, American mathematician
- Robert "Bilbo" Walker Jr., American blues guitarist
- February 10 – Roberta Flack, American soul singer
- February 11 – Bill Lawry, Australian cricketer
- February 12 – Charles Dumas, American athlete
- February 13 – Rupiah Banda, President of Zambia
- February 20
- George Leonardos, Greek journalist and author
- Robert Huber, German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate
- Roger Penske, American race car driver
- Nancy Wilson, American singer
- February 21 – King Harald V of Norway
- February 25
- Tom Courtenay, English actor
- Bob Schieffer, American television journalist
March–April[link]
- March 2 – Abdelaziz Bouteflika, President of Algeria
- March 4
- Graham Dowling, New Zealand cricketer
- Leslie Gelb, American president of the Council on Foreign Relations
- Yuri Senkevich, Russian cosmonaut (d. 2003)
- Barney Wilen, French jazz saxophonist (d. 1996)
- March 5 – Olusegun Obasanjo, former President of Nigeria
- March 6 – Valentina Tereshkova, Russian cosmonaut, first woman in space
- March 8 – Juvénal Habyarimana, President of Rwanda (d. 1994)
- March 9 – Harry Neale, Canadian ice hockey coach and broadcaster
- March 17 – Frank Calabrese, Sr., American Gangster in the Chicago Outfit
- March 20 – Jerry Reed, American country musician (d. 2008)
- March 22 – Armin Hary, German athlete
- March 23 – Craig Breedlove, American race car driver
- March 27 – Thomas Aquinas Daly, American painter
- March 30 – Warren Beatty, American actor and director
- April 5 – Colin Powell, U.S. Secretary of State
- April 6
- Merle Haggard, American country musician
- Billy Dee Williams, American actor
- April 7 – Louise Faulkner, missing Australian woman
- April 9 – Valerie Singleton, English television presenter
- April 10 – Bella Akhmadulina, Russian poet (d. 2010)
- April 16 – George "The Animal" Steele, American professional wrestler
- April 17 – Ferdinand Piech, Austrian engineer and business magnate
- April 18 – Jan Kaplický, British architect of Czech origin
- April 19
- Elinor Donahue, American actress
- Joseph Estrada, former President of the Philippines
- April 20 – George Takei, American actor
- April 22 – Jack Nicholson, American actor
- April 24 – Rafi' Daham Al-Tikriti, director of the Iraqi Intelligence Service
- April 27
- Robin Eames, Northern Irish clergyman
- Sandy Dennis, American actress (d. 1992)
- April 28 – Saddam Hussein, President of Iraq (d. 2006)
- April 29 – Jill Paton Walsh, English novelist
May–June[link]
- May 1 – Una Stubbs, British actress
- May 2 – Gisela Elsner, German writer
- May 3
- Frankie Valli, American musician
- Hans Cieslarczyk, German football player
- May 4 – Ron Carter, American jazz musician
- May 5 – Tran Duc Luong, President of Vietnam
- May 6 – Rubin 'Hurricane' Carter, American boxer
- May 8
- Thomas Pynchon, American writer
- Carlos Gaviria Díaz, Colombian justice and politician
- May 12 – George Carlin, American comedian (d. 2008)
- May 13
- Roch Carrier, Canadian writer
- Roger Zelazny, American writer (d. 1995)
- Trevor Baylis, English inventor
- May 15
- Madeleine Albright, U.S. Secretary of State
- Trini Lopez, American musician
- May 16 – Yvonne Craig, American actress
- May 17 – Hazel R. O'Leary, U.S. Secretary of Energy
- May 18 – Jacques Santer, Luxembourg politician, President of the European Council
- May 21
- John Fairfax, British ocean rower
- Sofiko Chiaureli, Georgian actress (d. 2008)
- Mengistu Haile Mariam, former President of Ethiopia
- May 24 – Roger Peterson, pilot who flew the plane on The Day the Music Died (d. 1959)
- June 1 – Morgan Freeman, American actor
- June 2 – Sally Kellerman, American actress (MASH)
- June 3
- Phyllis Baker, American professional baseball player (d. 2006)
- Crawford Hallock Greenewalt, Jr., American archaeologist (d. 2012)
- Solomon P. Ortiz, U.S. Congressman from Texas
- June 4 – Gorilla Monsoon, American professional wrestler and announcer (d. 1999)
- June 7 – Neeme Järvi, Estonian conductor
- June 8 – Toni Harper, American child singer
- June 9 – Harald Rosenthal, German biologist
- June 10 – Luciana Paluzzi, Italian actress
- June 11 – Robin Warren, Australian pathologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- June 15
- Waylon Jennings, American country singer (d. 2002)
- Alan Thornett, British Trotskyist activist
- June 16 – Charmian May, British actress (d. 2002)
- June 18
- Wray Carlton, American football player
- Vitaly Zholobov, Soviet cosmonaut
- June 23 – Martti Ahtisaari, President of Finland
- June 25 – Keizo Obuchi, Prime Minister of Japan (d. 2000)
- June 26 – Robert Coleman Richardson, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- June 28 – Ron Luciano, American baseball umpire and writer (d. 1995)
July–August[link]
- July 3 – Richard Petty, seven-time NASCAR Winston Cup champion
- July 4 – Sonja Haraldsen, Queen of Norway and wife to King Harald V of Norway
- July 6
- Vladimir Ashkenazy, Russian pianist
- Ned Beatty, American actor
- July 7 – Tung Chee-Hwa, Hong Kong administrator
- July 9 – David Hockney, English-born artist
- July 12
- Lionel Jospin, Prime Minister of France
- Bill Cosby, American actor and comedian
- July 14 – Yoshiro Mori, Japanese politician
- July 18
- Roald Hoffmann, Polish-born chemist, Nobel Prize laureate
- Hunter S. Thompson, American author and journalist (d. 2005)
- July 20 – Ken Ogata, Japanese actor (d. 2008)
- July 27
- Don Galloway, American actor (d. 2009)
- Anna Dawson, British actress
- July 29 – Daniel McFadden, American economist, Nobel Prize laureate
- August 2 – Coenraad Bron, Dutch Computer Scientist
- August 4 – David Bedford, American musician
- August 5 – Herb Brooks, American hockey coach (d. 2003)
- August 6 – Barbara Windsor, English actress
- August 8 – Dustin Hoffman, American actor
- August 14 – Alberta Nelson, American actress (d. 2006)
- August 16 – David Anderson, Canadian politician
- August 18
- Willie Rushton, English comedian and cartoonist (d. 1996)
- Jean Alingué Bawoyeu, Chadian politician and former Prime Minister
- August 20
- Jim Bowen, English stand-up comedian and TV personality
- Jean-Louis Petit, French composer, conductor and organist
- August 21
- Donald Dewar, First Minister of Scotland (d. 2000)
- Robert Stone, American novelist
- Chuck Traynor, American pornographer (d. 2002)
- August 26 – Gennady Yanayev, former Soviet leader (d. 2010)
- August 29 – James Florio, Governor of New Jersey
- August 30 – Bruce McLaren, Founder of McLaren Racing
- August 31 – Bobby Parker (guitarist), from USA
September–October[link]
- September 4
- Dawn Fraser, Australian swimmer
- Mikk Mikiver, Estonian actor and director (d. 2006)
- September 5 – William Devane, American actor
- September 6
- Kirtanananda Swami Bhaktipada (Keith Gordon Ham), Hare Krishna guru
- Jo Anne Worley, American comedienne
- September 7 – Cüneyt Arkın, Turkish film actor
- September 11 – Paola Ruffo di Calabria, Queen of the Belgians
- September 15
- King Curtis Iaukea, American professional wrestler (d. 2010)
- Robert Lucas, Jr., American economist, Nobel Prize laureate
- Fernando de la Rúa, President of Argentina
- September 16 – Keith Bosley, British broadcaster (retired), poet and translator
- September 17 – Ilarion Ionescu-Galati Romanian conductor
- September 19 – Abner Haynes, American football player
- September 28 – Rod Roddy, American television announcer (d. 2003)
- October 2 – Johnnie Cochran, American attorney (d. 2005)
- October 4
- Jackie Collins, English author
- Franz Vranitzky, former Chancellor of Austria
- October 5 – Barry Switzer, American football coach
- October 10 – Bobby Charlton, English footballer
- October 15 – Linda Lavin, American actress (Alice)
- October 17 – Paxton Whitehead, English actor
- October 23 – Carlos Lamarca, Brazilian military turned guerrilla leader (d. 1971)
- October 28 – Lenny Wilkens, American basketball player and coach
November–December[link]
- November 1 – "Whisperin" Bill Anderson, American country music singer-songwriter and game show host
- November 2 – Earl Carroll, American lead vocalist for The Cadillacs
- November 4 – Michael Wilson, Canadian politician and diplomat
- November 5
- Chan Sek Keong, Chief Justice of Singapore
- Harris Yulin, American actor
- November 6 – Joe Warfield, American actor
- November 8 – Paul Mackintosh Foot, British journalist
- November 10 – Zdenek Zikan, Czech football player
- November 11 – Stephen Lewis, Canadian politician and diplomat
- November 17
- Peter Cook, English comedian and writer (d. 1995)
- Manuel Félix López, Ecuadorian politician (d. 2004)
- November 20 – Ruth Laredo, American pianist (d. 2005)
- November 21 – Ingrid Pitt, Polish-born British actress (d. 2010)
- November 26 – Boris Yegorov, Russian cosmonaut (d. 1994)
- December 1
- Chuck Low, American actor
- Vaira Vike Freiberga, former President of Latvia
- December 3 – Bobby Allison, American race car driver
- December 7 – Kenneth Colley, English actor
- December 8
- Michael Bowen, American artist (d. 2009)
- James MacArthur, American actor (d. 2010)
- Arne Næss Jr., Norwegian mountaineer and businessman (d. 2004)
- December 9 – Darwin Joston, American actor (d. 1998)
- December 11 – Jim Harrison, American writer
- December 15 – Donald Goines, American novelist (d. 1973)
- December 17 – Kerry Packer, Australian businessman (d. 2005)
- December 21 – Jane Fonda, American actress and social activist
- December 26
- Professor John Horton Conway, mathematician
- Gnassingbe Eyadema, President of Togo (d. 2005)
- December 28 – Ratan Tata, Indian industrialist
- December 29
- Maumoon Abdul Gayoom, President of the Maldives (1978–2008)
- Barbara Steele, British actress
- December 30
- Gordon Banks, English footballer
- John Hartford, American musician and composer (d. 2001)
- Jim Marshall, American football player
- Noel Paul Stookey, American singer (Peter, Paul and Mary)
- December 31
- Avram Hershko, Israeli biologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry
- Anthony Hopkins, Welsh actor
Date unknown[link]
- Cathie Jung, owner of the smallest waist on a living person (measuring just 15 in.).
Deaths[link]
January–March[link]
- January 2 – Ross Alexander, American actor (b. 1907)
- January 6 – André Besette, Canadian religious leader (b. 1845)
- January 17 – Richard Boleslavsky, Polish film director (b. 1889)
- January 23 – Marie Prevost, Canadian actress (b. 1898)
- February 5 – Lou Andreas-Salome, Russian-born writer (b. 1861)
- February 7 – Elihu Root, American statesman and diplomat, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1845)
- February 11 – Walter Burley Griffin, American architect and town planner (b. 1876)
- February 24 – Guy Standing, British actor (b. 1873)
- February 27 – Charles Donnelly, Irish poet (b. 1915)
- March 8 – Howie Morenz, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1902)
- March 9 – Paul Elmer More, American critic and essayist (b. 1864)
- March 11 – Joseph S. Cullinan, American oil industrialist, founder of Texaco (b. 1860)
- March 12 – Charles-Marie Widor, French organist and composer (b. 1840)
- March 15 – H. P. Lovecraft, American writer (b. 1890)
- March 17 – Austen Chamberlain, English statesman, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1863)
- March 20 – Harry Vardon, English golf professional (b. 1870)
- March 22 – Alfred Dyke Acland, British military officer (b. 1858)
- March 29 – Karol Szymanowski, Polish composer (b. 1882)
April–June[link]
- April 10 – Ralph Ince, American film director (b. 1887)
- April 19 – William Martin Conway, British art critic and mountaineer (b. 1856)
- April 21 – Saima Harmaja, Finnish poet (b. 1913)
- April 22 – Arthur Edmund Carewe, Armenian-American actor (b. 1884)
- April 24 – Lucy Beaumont, English actress (b. 1873)
- April 25 – Michał Drzymała, Polish rebel (b. 1857)
- April 27 – Antonio Gramsci, Italian Communist writer and politician (b. 1891)
- April 29 – William Gillette, American actor (b. 1853)
- May 1 – Snitz Edwards, Hungarian actor (b. 1868)
- May 4 – Noel Rosa, Brazilian songwriter (b. 1910)
- May 23 – John D. Rockefeller, American industrialist and philanthropist (b. 1839)
- May 25 – Henry Ossawa Tanner, American Artist (b. 1859)
- May 28 – Alfred Adler, Austrian psychologist (b. 1870)
- June 2 – Louis Vierne, French composer (b. 1870)
- June 7 – Jean Harlow, American film actress (b. 1911)
- June 10 – Robert Laird Borden, eighth Prime Minister of Canada (b. 1854)
- June 18 – Gaston Doumergue, French Prime Minister (b. 1863)
- June 19 – J. M. Barrie, Scottish novelist and dramatist (b. 1860)
- June 25 – Colin Clive, British actor (b. 1900)
July–September[link]
- July 9 – Oliver Law, American labor organizer and Army officer (killed in battle) (b. 1899)
- July 11 – George Gershwin, American composer (b. 1898)
- July 13 – Victor Laloux, French architect (b. 1850)
- July 18 – Julian Bell, English poet (b. 1908)
- July 20 – Guglielmo Marconi, Italian-born inventor (b. 1874)
- August 11 – Edith Wharton, American writer (b. 1862)
- August 27 – Andrew W. Mellon, American banker and U.S. Secretary of the Treasury (b. 1855)
- September 2 – Pierre de Coubertin, French founder of the modern Olympic Games (b. 1863)
- September 13 – Ellis Parker Butler, American humorist (b. 1869)
- September 14 – Tomas Masaryk, Czechoslovak president (b. 1850)
- September 21 – Osgood Perkins, American actor (b. 1892)
- September 22 – Ruth Roland, American actress (b. 1892)
- September 26 – Bessie Smith, African-American singer (b. 1894)
- September 29 – Ray Ewry, American athlete (b. 1873)
October–December[link]
- October 16 – Jean de Brunhoff, French writer (b. 1899)
- October 17 – J. Bruce Ismay, English businessman (b. 1862)
- October 19 – Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron Rutherford of Nelson, New Zealand physicist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry (b. 1871)
- October 26 – Józef Dowbor-Muśnicki, Polish general (b. 1867)
- November 6 – Johnston Forbes-Robertson, British stage actor (b. 1853)
- November 9 – Ramsay MacDonald, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1866)
- November 13 – Caroline Louise Dudley (aka Mrs. Leslie Carter), stage & screen actress (b. 1862)
- November 17 – Jack Worrall, Australian cricketer and coach (b. 1860)
- November 23
- Jagdish Chandra Bose, Indian physicist (b. 1858)
- George Albert Boulenger, Belgian naturalist (b. 1858)
- December 9 – Gustaf Dalén, Swedish physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1869)
- December 12 – Alfred Abel, German actor (b. 1879)
- December 20 – Erich Ludendorff, German general (b. 1865)
- December 21
- Ted Healy, American actor (b. 1896)
- Frank B. Kellogg, United States Secretary of State, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1856)
- December 25 – Newton D. Baker, United States Secretary of War (b. 1871)
- December 28 – Maurice Ravel, French composer (Bolero) (b. 1875)
- December 30 – Hans Niels Andersen, Danish businessman, founder of the East Asiatic Company (b. 1852)
Date unknown[link]
- Paul Behncke, German admiral (b. 1869)
Nobel Prizes[link]
- Physics – Clinton Joseph Davisson, George Paget Thomson
- Chemistry – Walter Haworth, Paul Karrer
- Physiology or Medicine – Albert von Szent-Györgyi Nagyrapolt
- Literature – Roger Martin du Gard
- Peace – Robert Cecil
References[link]
- ^ League of Nations Mandates - Palestine: Report of the Palestine Royal Commission. July 1937. http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/peel1.html. Retrieved 2012-03-08.
- ^ Schechtman, Joseph B. (1949). Population Transfers in Asia. New York: Hallsby Press. http://www.archive.org/stream/Schechtman-Population-Transfers-in-Asia/Schechtman--PopulationTransfersInAsia_djvu.txt. Retrieved 2012-03-08.
- The 1930s Timeline: 1937 – from American Studies Programs at The University of Virginia
http://wn.com/1937
Related pages:
http://de.wn.com/1937
http://es.wn.com/1937
http://ru.wn.com/1937 год
http://cs.wn.com/1937
http://pt.wn.com/1937
http://pl.wn.com/1937
http://hi.wn.com/१९३७
http://it.wn.com/1937
http://id.wn.com/1937
http://nl.wn.com/1937
http://fr.wn.com/1937
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1937
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
"Earhart" redirects here. For the asteroid, see 3895 Earhart.
| Amelia Earhart | |
|---|---|
 Amelia Earhart, c. 1935 |
|
| Born | (1897-07-24)July 24, 1897 Atchison, Kansas, U.S. |
| Disappeared | July 2, 1937 (aged 39) Pacific Ocean, en route to Howland Island |
| Status | Declared dead in absentia January 5, 1939(1939-01-05) (aged 41) |
| Nationality | American |
| Known for | First woman to fly solo across the Atlantic Ocean and setting many aviation records. |
| Spouse | George P. Putnam |
| Signature | 150px |
Amelia Mary Earhart (/ˈɛərhɑrt/ AIR-hart; July 24, 1897 – disappeared 1937) was a noted American aviation pioneer and author.[1] [N 1] Earhart was the first woman to receive the U.S. Distinguished Flying Cross,[3] awarded for becoming the first aviatrix to fly solo across the Atlantic Ocean.[4] She set many other records,[2] wrote best-selling books about her flying experiences and was instrumental in the formation of The Ninety-Nines, an organization for female pilots.[5] Earhart joined the faculty of the Purdue University aviation department in 1935 as a visiting faculty member to counsel women on careers and help inspire others with her love for aviation. She was also a member of the National Woman's Party, and an early supporter of the Equal Rights Amendment.
During an attempt to make a circumnavigational flight of the globe in 1937 in a Purdue-funded Lockheed Model 10 Electra, Earhart disappeared over the central Pacific Ocean near Howland Island. Fascination with her life, career and disappearance continues to this day.[N 2]
Contents |
Early life[link]
Childhood[link]
Amelia Earhart as a child
Amelia Mary Earhart, daughter of German American Samuel "Edwin" Stanton Earhart (March 28, 1867) and Amelia "Amy" Otis Earhart (1869–1962),[7] was born in Atchison, Kansas, in the home of her maternal grandfather, Alfred Gideon Otis (1827–1912), a former federal judge, president of the Atchison Savings Bank and a leading citizen in Atchison. This was the second child in the marriage as an infant was stillborn in August 1896.[8] Alfred Otis had not initially favored the marriage and was not satisfied with Edwin's progress as a lawyer.[9]
Earhart was named, according to family custom, after her two grandmothers (Amelia Josephine Harres and Mary Wells Patton).[8] From an early age Earhart, nicknamed "Meeley" (sometimes "Millie") was the ringleader while younger sister (two years her junior), Grace Muriel Earhart (1899–1998), nicknamed "Pidge," acted the dutiful follower.[10] Both girls continued to answer to their childhood nicknames well into adulthood.[8] Their upbringing was unconventional since Amy Earhart did not believe in molding her children into "nice little girls."[11] Meanwhile their maternal grandmother disapproved of the "bloomers" worn by Amy's children and although Earhart liked the freedom they provided, she was aware other girls in the neighborhood did not wear them.
Early influence[link]
A spirit of adventure seemed to abide in the Earhart children with the pair setting off daily to explore their neighborhood.[N 3] As a child, Earhart spent long hours playing with Pidge, climbing trees, hunting rats with a rifle and "belly-slamming" her sled downhill. Although this love of the outdoors and "rough-and-tumble" play was common to many youngsters, some biographers have characterized the young Earhart as a tomboy.[13] The girls kept "worms, moths, katydids and a tree toad"[14] in a growing collection gathered in their outings. In 1904, with the help of her uncle, she cobbled together a home-made ramp fashioned after a roller coaster she had seen on a trip to St. Louis and secured the ramp to the roof of the family toolshed. Earhart's well-documented first flight ended dramatically. She emerged from the broken wooden box that had served as a sled with a bruised lip, torn dress and a "sensation of exhilaration." She exclaimed, "Oh, Pidge, it's just like flying!"[9]
Although there had been some missteps in his career up to that point, in 1907 Edwin Earhart's job as a claims officer for the Rock Island Railroad led to a transfer to Des Moines, Iowa. The next year, at the age of 10,[15] Earhart saw her first aircraft at the Iowa State Fair in Des Moines.[16][17] Her father tried to interest her and her sister in taking a flight. One look at the rickety old "flivver" was enough for Earhart, who promptly asked if they could go back to the merry-go-round.[18] She later described the biplane as “a thing of rusty wire and wood and not at all interesting.”[19]
Education[link]
The two sisters, Amelia and Muriel (she went by her middle name from her teens on), remained with their grandparents in Atchison, while their parents moved into new, smaller quarters in Des Moines. During this period, Earhart received a form of home-schooling together with her sister, from her mother and a governess. She later recounted that she was "exceedingly fond of reading"[20] and spent countless hours in the large family library. In 1909, when the family was finally reunited in Des Moines, the Earhart children were enrolled in public school for the first time with Amelia Earhart entering the seventh grade at the age of 12 years.
Family fortunes[link]
While the family's finances seemingly improved with the acquisition of a new house and even the hiring of two servants, it soon became apparent Edwin was an alcoholic. Five years later (in 1914), he was forced to retire and although he attempted to rehabilitate himself through treatment, he was never reinstated at the Rock Island Railroad. At about this time, Earhart's grandmother Amelia Otis died suddenly, leaving a substantial estate that placed her daughter's share in trust, fearing that Edwin's drinking would drain the funds. The Otis house, and all of its contents, was auctioned; Earhart was heart-broken and later described it as the end of her childhood.[21]
In 1915, after a long search, Earhart's father found work as a clerk at the Great Northern Railway in St. Paul, Minnesota, where Earhart entered Central High School as a junior. Edwin applied for a transfer to Springfield, Missouri, in 1915 but the current claims officer reconsidered his retirement and demanded his job back, leaving the elder Earhart with nowhere to go. Facing another calamitous move, Amy Earhart took her children to Chicago where they lived with friends. Earhart made an unusual condition in the choice of her next schooling; she canvassed nearby high schools in Chicago to find the best science program. She rejected the high school nearest her home when she complained that the chemistry lab was "just like a kitchen sink."[22] She eventually was enrolled in Hyde Park High School but spent a miserable semester where a yearbook caption captured the essence of her unhappiness, "A.E. – the girl in brown who walks alone."[23]
Earhart graduated from Hyde Park High School in 1916.[24] Throughout her troubled childhood, she had continued to aspire to a future career; she kept a scrapbook of newspaper clippings about successful women in predominantly male-oriented fields, including film direction and production, law, advertising, management and mechanical engineering.[15] She began junior college at Ogontz School in Rydal, Pennsylvania but did not complete her program.[25][N 4]
During Christmas vacation in 1917, Earhart visited her sister in Toronto. World War I had been raging and Earhart saw the returning wounded soldiers. After receiving training as a nurse's aide from the Red Cross, she began work with the Volunteer Aid Detachment at Spadina Military Hospital. Her duties included preparing food in the kitchen for patients with special diets and handing out prescribed medication in the hospital's dispensary.[26]
1918 Spanish flu pandemic[link]
When the 1918 Spanish flu pandemic reached Toronto, Earhart was engaged in arduous nursing duties including night shifts at the Spadina Military Hospital.[27][28] She became a patient herself, suffering from pneumonia and maxillary sinusitis.[27] She was hospitalized in early November 1918 owing to pneumonia and discharged in December 1918, about two months after the illness had started.[27] Her sinus-related symptoms were pain and pressure around one eye and copious mucus drainage via the nostrils and throat.[29] In the hospital, in the pre-antibiotic era, she had painful minor operations to wash out the affected maxillary sinus,[27][28][29] but these procedures were not successful and Earhart subsequently suffered from worsening headache attacks. Her convalescence lasted nearly a year, which she spent at her sister's home in Northampton, Massachusetts.[28] She passed the time by reading poetry, learning to play the banjo and studying mechanics.[27] Chronic sinusitis was to significantly affect Earhart's flying and activities in later life,[29] and sometimes even on the airfield she was forced to wear a bandage on her cheek to cover a small drainage tube.[30]
Early flying experiences[link]
At about that time, with a young woman friend, Earhart visited an air fair held in conjunction with the Canadian National Exposition in Toronto. One of the highlights of the day was a flying exhibition put on by a World War I "ace."[31] The pilot overhead spotted Earhart and her friend, who were watching from an isolated clearing and dived at them. "I am sure he said to himself, 'Watch me make them scamper,'" she said. Earhart stood her ground as the aircraft came close. "I did not understand it at the time," she said, "but I believe that little red airplane said something to me as it swished by."[32]
By 1919 Earhart prepared to enter Smith College but changed her mind and enrolled at Columbia University signing up for a course in medical studies among other programs.[33] She quit a year later to be with her parents who had reunited in California.
In Long Beach, on December 28, 1920, Earhart and her father visited an airfield where Frank Hawks (who later gained fame as an air racer) gave her a ride that would forever change Earhart's life. "By the time I had got two or three hundred feet off the ground," she said, "I knew I had to fly."[34] After that 10-minute flight (that cost her father $10), she immediately became determined to learn to fly. Working at a variety of jobs, including photographer, truck driver, and stenographer at the local telephone company, she managed to save $1,000 for flying lessons. Earhart had her first lessons, beginning on January 3, 1921, at Kinner Field near Long Beach, but to reach the airfield Earhart took a bus to the end of the line, then walked four miles (6 km). Earhart's mother also provided part of the $1,000 "stake" against her "better judgement."[35] Her teacher was Anita "Neta" Snook, a pioneer female aviator who used a surplus Curtiss JN-4 "Canuck" for training. Earhart arrived with her father and a singular request, "I want to fly. Will you teach me?"[36]
Earhart's commitment to flying required her to accept the frequently hard work and rudimentary conditions that accompanied early aviation training. She chose a leather jacket, but aware that other aviators would be judging her, she slept in it for three nights to give the jacket a "worn" look. To complete her image transformation, she also cropped her hair short in the style of other female flyers.[37] Six months later, Earhart purchased a second-hand bright yellow Kinner Airster biplane which she nicknamed "The Canary." On October 22, 1922, Earhart flew the Airster to an altitude of 14,000 feet (4,300 m), setting a world record for female pilots. On May 15, 1923, Earhart became the 16th woman to be issued a pilot's license (#6017)[38] by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI).[39]
Aviation career and marriage[link]
X5665 – 1926 "CIT-9 Safety Plane" – California Institute of Technology (CalTech) Aerospace model 9 Merrill-type biplane designed by Albert Adams Merrill (Instructor in Aeronautics); 45hp Kinner engine; wingspan: 24'0".
Boston[link]
According to the Boston Globe, Earhart was "one of the best women pilots in the United States," although this characterization has been disputed by aviation experts and experienced pilots in the decades since.[40][41] [N 5] She was an intelligent and competent pilot,[38] but hardly a brilliant aviator, whose early efforts were characterized as inadequate by more seasoned flyers.[43] [N 6] One serious miscalculation occurred during a record attempt that had ended with her spinning down through a cloud bank, only to emerge at 3,000 ft (910 m). Experienced pilots admonished her, "Suppose the clouds had closed in until they touched the ground?"[44] Earhart was chagrined, yet acknowledged her limitations as a pilot and continued to seek out assistance throughout her career from various instructors.[45] By 1927, "Without any serious incident, she had accumulated nearly 500 hours of solo flying – a very respectable achievement."[46]
Throughout this period, her grandmother's inheritance, which was now administered by her mother, was constantly depleted until it finally ran out following a disastrous investment in a failed gypsum mine. Consequently, with no immediate prospects for recouping her investment in flying, Earhart sold the "Canary" as well as a second Kinner and bought a yellow Kissel "Speedster" two-passenger automobile, which she named the "Yellow Peril." Simultaneously, Earhart experienced an exacerbation of her old sinus problem as her pain worsened and in early 1924, she was hospitalized for another sinus operation, which was again unsuccessful. After trying her hand at a number of unusual ventures including setting up a photography company, Earhart set out in a new direction.[47] Following her parents' divorce in 1924, she drove her mother in the "Yellow Peril" on a transcontinental trip from California with stops throughout the West and even a jaunt up to Calgary, Alberta. The meandering tour eventually brought the pair to Boston, Massachusetts where Earhart underwent another sinus procedure, this operation being more successful. After recuperation, she returned for several months to Columbia University but was forced to abandon her studies and any further plans for enrolling at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology because her mother could no longer afford the tuition fees and associated costs. Soon after, she found employment first as a teacher, then as a social worker in 1925 at Denison House, living in Medford, Massachusetts.[48]
When Earhart lived in Medford, she maintained her interest in aviation, becoming a member of the American Aeronautical Society's Boston chapter and was eventually elected its vice president.[49] She flew out of Dennison Airport (later the Naval Air Station Squantum) in Quincy, Massachusetts and helped finance its operation by investing a small sum of money.[50] Earhart also flew the first official flight out of Dennison Airport in 1927.[51] As well as acting as a sales representative for Kinner airplanes in the Boston area, Earhart wrote local newspaper columns promoting flying and as her local celebrity grew, she laid out the plans for an organization devoted to female flyers.[52]
1928 transatlantic flight[link]
After Charles Lindbergh's solo flight across the Atlantic in 1927, Amy Phipps Guest, (1873–1959), expressed interest in being the first woman to fly (or be flown) across the Atlantic Ocean. After deciding the trip was too perilous for her to undertake, she offered to sponsor the project, suggesting they find "another girl with the right image." While at work one afternoon in April 1928, Earhart got a phone call from Capt. Hilton H. Railey, who asked her, "Would you like to fly the Atlantic?"
The project coordinators (including book publisher and publicist George P. Putnam) interviewed Earhart and asked her to accompany pilot Wilmer Stultz and co-pilot/mechanic Louis Gordon on the flight, nominally as a passenger, but with the added duty of keeping the flight log. The team departed Trepassey Harbor, Newfoundland in a Fokker F.VIIb/3m on June 17, 1928, landing at Burry Port (near Llanelli), Wales, United Kingdom, exactly 20 hours and 40 minutes later.[53] Since most of the flight was on "instruments" and Earhart had no training for this type of flying, she did not pilot the aircraft. When interviewed after landing, she said, "Stultz did all the flying—had to. I was just baggage, like a sack of potatoes." She added, "...maybe someday I'll try it alone."[54]
While in England, Earhart is reported as receiving a rousing welcome on June 19, 1928, when landing at Woolston in Southampton, England.[55] She flew the Avro Avian 594 Avian III, SN: R3/AV/101 owned by Lady Mary Heath and later purchased the aircraft and had it shipped back to the United States (where it was assigned “unlicensed aircraft identification mark” 7083).[56]
When the Stultz, Gordon and Earhart flight crew returned to the United States, they were greeted with a ticker-tape parade in New York followed by a reception with President Calvin Coolidge at the White House.
Celebrity image[link]
Trading on her physical resemblance to Lindbergh,[57] whom the press had dubbed "Lucky Lindy," some newspapers and magazines began referring to Earhart as "Lady Lindy."[58][N 7] The United Press was more grandiloquent; to them, Earhart was the reigning "Queen of the Air."[59] Immediately after her return to the United States, she undertook an exhausting lecture tour (1928–1929). Meanwhile, Putnam had undertaken to heavily promote her in a campaign including publishing a book she authored, a series of new lecture tours and using pictures of her in mass market endorsements for products including luggage, Lucky Strike cigarettes (this caused image problems for her, with McCall's magazine retracting an offer)[60] and women's clothing and sportswear. The money that she made with "Lucky Strike" had been earmarked for a $1,500 donation to Commander Richard Byrd's imminent South Pole expedition.[60]
The marketing campaign by both Earhart and G.P. Putnam was successful in establishing the Earhart mystique in the public psyche.[61] Rather than simply endorsing the products, Earhart actively became involved in the promotions, especially in women's fashions. For a number of years she had sewn her own clothes, but the "active living" lines that were sold in 50 stores such as Macy's in metropolitan areas were an expression of a new Earhart image. Her concept of simple, natural lines matched with wrinkle-proof, washable materials was the embodiment of a sleek, purposeful but feminine "A.E." (the familiar name she went by with family and friends).[59][62] The luggage line that she promoted (marketed as Modernaire Earhart Luggage) also bore her unmistakable stamp. She ensured that the luggage met the demands of air travel; it is still being produced today.[63]
A wide range of promotional items would appear bearing the Earhart "image" and likewise, modern equivalents continue to be marketed.[N 8] A more recent Gap khaki pants ad campaign (1993) featured Earhart's likeness, and was the progenitor of additional modern revivals of her in advertising campaigns, including Apple Computer's "Think Different" advertising campaign (1997).[65]
Promoting aviation[link]
The celebrity endorsements would help Earhart finance her flying.[66] Accepting a position as associate editor at Cosmopolitan magazine, she turned this forum into an opportunity to campaign for greater public acceptance of aviation, especially focusing on the role of women entering the field.[67] In 1929, Earhart was among the first aviators to promote commercial air travel through the development of a passenger airline service; along with Charles Lindbergh, she represented Transcontinental Air Transport (TAT) and invested time and money in setting up the first regional shuttle service between New York and Washington, DC. (TAT later became TWA). She was a Vice President of National Airways, which conducted the flying operations of the Boston-Maine Airways and several other airlines in the northeast.[68] By 1940, it had become Northeast Airlines.
Competitive flying[link]
Although Earhart had gained fame for her transatlantic flight, she endeavored to set an "untarnished" record of her own.[69] Shortly after her return, piloting Avian 7083, she set off on her first long solo flight which occurred just as her name was coming into the national spotlight. By making the trip in August 1928, Earhart became the first woman to fly solo across the North American continent and back.[70] Gradually her piloting skills and professionalism grew, as acknowledged by experienced professional pilots who flew with her. General Leigh Wade flew with Earhart in 1929: "She was a born flier, with a delicate touch on the stick."[71]
Earhart subsequently made her first attempt at competitive air racing in 1929 during the first Santa Monica-to-Cleveland Women's Air Derby (later nicknamed the "Powder Puff Derby" by Will Rogers). During the race, at the last intermediate stop before the finish in Cleveland, Earhart and her friend Ruth Nichols were tied for first place. Nichols was to take off right before Earhart, but her aircraft hit a tractor at the end of the runway and flipped over. Instead of taking off, Earhart ran to the wrecked aircraft and dragged her friend out. Only when she was sure that Nichols was uninjured did Earhart take off for Cleveland but due to the time lost, she finished third. Her courageous act was symbolic of Earhart's selflessness; typically, she rarely referred to the incident in later years.[72]
In 1930, Earhart became an official of the National Aeronautic Association where she actively promoted the establishment of separate women's records and was instrumental in the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI) accepting a similar international standard.[67] In 1931, flying a Pitcairn PCA-2 autogyro, she set a world altitude record of 18,415 feet (5,613 m) in a borrowed company machine.[73] While to a reader today it might seem that Earhart was engaged in flying "stunts," she was, with other female flyers, crucial to making the American public "air minded" and convincing them that "aviation was no longer just for daredevils and supermen."[74]
During this period, Earhart became involved with The Ninety-Nines, an organization of female pilots providing moral support and advancing the cause of women in aviation. She had called a meeting of female pilots in 1929 following the Women's Air Derby. She suggested the name based on the number of the charter members; she later became the organization's first president in 1930.[5] Earhart was a vigorous advocate for female pilots and when the 1934 Bendix Trophy Race banned women, she openly refused to fly screen actress Mary Pickford to Cleveland to open the races.[75]
Marriage[link]
For a while Earhart was engaged to Samuel Chapman, a chemical engineer from Boston, breaking off her engagement on November 23, 1928.[76] During the same period, Earhart and Putnam had spent a great deal of time together, leading to intimacy. George P. Putnam, who was known as GP, was divorced in 1929 and sought out Earhart, proposing to her six times before she finally agreed.[N 9] After substantial hesitation on her part, they married on February 7, 1931, in Putnam's mother's house in Noank, Connecticut. Earhart referred to her marriage as a "partnership" with "dual control." In a letter written to Putnam and hand delivered to him on the day of the wedding, she wrote, "I want you to understand I shall not hold you to any midaevil [sic] code of faithfulness to me nor shall I consider myself bound to you similarly."[N 10][79][80]
Earhart's ideas on marriage were liberal for the time as she believed in equal responsibilities for both "breadwinners" and pointedly kept her own name rather than being referred to as Mrs. Putnam. When The New York Times, per the rules of its stylebook, insisted on referring to her as Mrs. Putnam, she laughed it off. GP also learned quite soon that he would be called "Mr. Earhart."[81] There was no honeymoon for the newlyweds as Earhart was involved in a nine-day cross-country tour promoting autogyros and the tour sponsor, Beech-nut Gum. Although Earhart and Putnam had no children, he had two sons by his previous marriage to Dorothy Binney (1888–1982),[82] a chemical heiress whose father's company, Binney & Smith, invented Crayola crayons:[83] the explorer and writer David Binney Putnam (1913–1992) and George Palmer Putnam, Jr. (born 1921).[84] Earhart was especially fond of David who frequently visited his father at their family home in Rye, New York. George had contracted polio shortly after his parents' separation and was unable to visit as often.
1932 transatlantic solo flight[link]
At the age of 34, on the morning of May 20, 1932, Earhart set off from Harbour Grace, Newfoundland with the latest copy of a local newspaper (the dated copy was intended to confirm the date of the flight). She intended to fly to Paris in her single engine Lockheed Vega 5B to emulate Charles Lindbergh's solo flight.[85][N 11] After a flight lasting 14 hours, 56 minutes during which she contended with strong northerly winds, icy conditions and mechanical problems, Earhart landed in a pasture at Culmore, north of Derry, Northern Ireland. The landing was witnessed by Cecil King and T. Sawyer.[88] When a farm hand asked, "Have you flown far?" Earhart replied, "From America."[89] The site now is the home of a small museum, the Amelia Earhart Centre.[90]
As the first woman to fly solo non-stop across the Atlantic, Earhart received the Distinguished Flying Cross from Congress, the Cross of Knight of the Legion of Honor from the French Government and the Gold Medal of the National Geographic Society from President Herbert Hoover. As her fame grew, she developed friendships with many people in high offices, most notably Eleanor Roosevelt, the First Lady from 1933–1945. Roosevelt shared many of Earhart's interests and passions, especially women's causes. After flying with Earhart, Roosevelt obtained a student permit but did not pursue her plans to learn to fly. The two friends communicated frequently throughout their lives.[N 12] Another famous flyer, Jacqueline Cochran, considered Earhart's greatest rival by both media and the public, also became a confidante and friend during this period.[92]
Other solo flights[link]
On January 11, 1935, Earhart became the first person to fly solo from Honolulu, Hawaii to Oakland, California. Although this transoceanic flight had been attempted by many others, most notably by the unfortunate participants in the 1927 Dole Air Race which had reversed the route, her trailblazing[93] flight had been mainly routine, with no mechanical breakdowns. In her final hours, she even relaxed and listened to "the broadcast of the Metropolitan Opera from New York."[93]
That year, once more flying her faithful Vega which Earhart had tagged "old Bessie, the fire horse,"[N 13] she soloed from Los Angeles to Mexico City on April 19. The next record attempt was a nonstop flight from Mexico City to New York. Setting off on May 8, her flight was uneventful although the large crowds that greeted her at Newark, New Jersey were a concern[95] as she had to be careful not to taxi into the throng.
Earhart again participated in long-distance air racing, placing fifth in the 1935 Bendix Trophy Race, the best result she could manage considering that her stock Lockheed Vega topping out at 195 mph (314 km/h) was outclassed by purpose-built air racers which reached more than 300 mph (480 km/h).[96] The race had been a particularly difficult one as one competitor, Cecil Allen, died in a fiery takeoff mishap and rival Jacqueline Cochran was forced to retire due to mechanical problems, the "blinding fog"[97] and violent thunderstorms that plagued the race.
Between 1930–1935, Earhart had set seven women's speed and distance aviation records in a variety of aircraft including the Kinner Airster, Lockheed Vega and Pitcairn Autogiro. By 1935, recognizing the limitations of her "lovely red Vega" in long, transoceanic flights, Earhart contemplated, in her own words, a new "prize... one flight which I most wanted to attempt – a circumnavigation of the globe as near its waistline as could be."[98] For the new venture, she would need a new aircraft.
Move to California[link]
While Earhart was away on a speaking tour in late November 1934, a fire broke out at the Putnam residence in Rye destroying many family treasures and Earhart's personal mementos.[99] As Putnam had already sold his interest in the New York based publishing company to his cousin, Palmer, following the fire the couple decided to move to the West Coast where Putnam took up his new position as head of the editorial board of Paramount Pictures in North Hollywood.[100][N 14] While speaking in California in late 1934, Earhart had contacted Hollywood "stunt" pilot Paul Mantz in order to improve her flying focusing especially on long distance flying in her Vega and wanted to move closer to him.
At Earhart's urging, Putnam purchased a small home in June 1935 adjacent to the clubhouse of the Lakeside Golf Club in Toluca Lake, a San Fernando Valley celebrity enclave community nestled between the Warner Brothers and Universal Pictures studio complexes where they had earlier rented a temporary residence.[101][102] Earhart and Putnam would not move in immediately, however, as they decided to very considerably remodel and enlarge the existing small structure to meet their needs thus delaying their occupation of their new home for some months.[103]
In September 1935 Earhart and Mantz formally established a business partnership they had been considering since late 1934 by creating the short-lived Earhart-Mantz Flying School which Mantz controlled and operated through his aviation company, United Air Services, located at the Burbank Airport about five miles from Earhart's Toluca Lake home. Putnam handled publicity for the school which primarily taught instrument flying using Link Trainers.[104]
1937 world flight[link]
Planning[link]
Earhart joined the faculty of Purdue University in 1935 as a visiting faculty member to counsel women on careers and as a technical advisor to the Department of Aeronautics.[97][N 15] Early in 1936, Earhart started to plan a round-the-world flight. Not the first to circle the globe, it would be the longest at 29,000 miles (47,000 km), following a grueling equatorial route. With financing from Purdue,[N 16] in July 1936, a Lockheed Electra 10E was built at Lockheed Aircraft Company to her specifications which included extensive modifications to the fuselage to incorporate a large fuel tank.[106] Earhart dubbed the twin engine monoplane airliner her "flying laboratory" and hangared it at Mantz's United Air Services located just across the airfield from Lockheed's Burbank plant in which it had been built.[107]
Although the Electra was publicized as a "flying laboratory," little useful science was planned and the flight was arranged around Earhart's intention to circumnavigate the globe along with gathering raw material and public attention for her next book.[108] Her first choice as navigator was Captain Harry Manning, who had been the captain of the President Roosevelt, the ship that had brought Earhart back from Europe in 1928.[105]
Through contacts in the Los Angeles aviation community, Fred Noonan was subsequently chosen as a second navigator because there were significant additional factors which had to be dealt with while using celestial navigation for aircraft.[109][110] He had vast experience in both marine (he was a licensed ship's captain) and flight navigation. Noonan had recently left Pan Am, where he established most of the company's China Clipper seaplane routes across the Pacific. Noonan had also been responsible for training Pan American's navigators for the route between San Francisco and Manila.[111][N 17] The original plans were for Noonan to navigate from Hawaii to Howland Island, a particularly difficult portion of the flight; then Manning would continue with Earhart to Australia and she would proceed on her own for the remainder of the project.
First attempt[link]
On St. Patrick's Day, March 17, 1937, Earhart and her crew flew the first leg from Oakland, California to Honolulu, Hawaii. In addition to Earhart and Noonan, Harry Manning and Mantz (who was acting as Earhart's technical advisor) were on board. Due to lubrication and galling problems with the propeller hubs' variable pitch mechanisms, the aircraft needed servicing in Hawaii. Ultimately, the Electra ended up at the United States Navy's Luke Field on Ford Island in Pearl Harbor. The flight resumed three days later from Luke Field with Earhart, Noonan and Manning on board and during the takeoff run, Earhart ground-looped. The circumstances of the ground loop remain controversial. Some witnesses at Luke Field including the Associated Press journalist on the scene said they saw a tire blow.[112] Earhart thought either the Electra's right tire had blown and/or the right landing gear had collapsed. Some sources, including Mantz, cited pilot error.[112]
With the aircraft severely damaged, the flight was called off and the aircraft was shipped by sea to the Lockheed facility in Burbank, California for repairs.[113]
Second attempt[link]
While the Electra was being repaired Earhart and Putnam secured additional funds and prepared for a second attempt. This time flying west to east, the second attempt began with an unpublicized flight from Oakland to Miami, Florida, and after arriving there Earhart publicly announced her plans to circumnavigate the globe. The flight's opposite direction was partly the result of changes in global wind and weather patterns along the planned route since the earlier attempt. Fred Noonan was Earhart's only crew member for the second flight. They departed Miami on June 1 and after numerous stops in South America, Africa, the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia, arrived at Lae, New Guinea, on June 29, 1937. At this stage about 22,000 miles (35,000 km) of the journey had been completed. The remaining 7,000 miles (11,000 km) would all be over the Pacific.
Departure from Lae[link]
On July 2, 1937 (midnight GMT) Earhart and Noonan took off from Lae in the heavily loaded Electra. Their intended destination was Howland Island, a flat sliver of land 6,500 ft (2,000 m) long and 1,600 ft (500 m) wide, 10 ft (3 m) high and 2,556 miles (4,113 km) away. Their last known position report was near the Nukumanu Islands, about 800 miles (1,300 km) into the flight. The United States Coast Guard cutter Itasca was on station at Howland, assigned to communicate with Earhart's Lockheed Electra 10E and guide them to the island once they arrived in the vicinity.
Final approach to Howland Island[link]
Through a series of misunderstandings or errors (the details of which are still controversial), the final approach to Howland Island using radio navigation was not successful. Fred Noonan had earlier written about problems affecting the accuracy of radio direction finding in navigation.[N 18] Some sources have noted Earhart's apparent lack of understanding of her Bendix direction-finding loop antenna, which at the time was very new technology. Another cited cause of possible confusion was that the USCG cutter Itasca and Earhart planned their communication schedule using time systems set a half hour apart (with Earhart using Greenwich Civil Time (GCT) and the Itasca under a Naval time zone designation system).[114]
Motion picture evidence from Lae suggests that an antenna mounted underneath the fuselage may have been torn off from the fuel-heavy Electra during taxi or takeoff from Lae's turf runway, though no antenna was reported found at Lae. Don Dwiggins, in his biography of Paul Mantz (who assisted Earhart and Noonan in their flight planning), noted that the aviators had cut off their long-wire antenna, due to the annoyance of having to crank it back into the aircraft after each use.
Radio signals[link]
During Earhart and Noonan's approach to Howland Island the Itasca received strong and clear voice transmissions from Earhart identifying as KHAQQ but she apparently was unable to hear voice transmissions from the ship. At 7:42 am Earhart radioed "We must be on you, but cannot see you—but gas is running low. Have been unable to reach you by radio. We are flying at 1,000 feet." Her 7:58 am transmission said she couldn't hear the Itasca and asked them to send voice signals so she could try to take a radio bearing (this transmission was reported by the Itasca as the loudest possible signal, indicating Earhart and Noonan were in the immediate area). They couldn't send voice at the frequency she asked for, so Morse code signals were sent instead. Earhart acknowledged receiving these but said she was unable to determine their direction.[115]
In her last known transmission at 8:43 am Earhart broadcast "We are on the line 157 337. We will repeat this message. We will repeat this on 6210 kilocycles. Wait." However, a few moments later she was back on the same frequency (3105 kHz) with a transmission which was logged as a "questionable": "We are running on line north and south."[116] Earhart's transmissions seemed to indicate she and Noonan believed they had reached Howland's charted position, which was incorrect by about five nautical miles (10 km). The Itasca used her oil-fired boilers to generate smoke for a period of time but the fliers apparently did not see it. The many scattered clouds in the area around Howland Island have also been cited as a problem: their dark shadows on the ocean surface may have been almost indistinguishable from the island's subdued and very flat profile.
Whether any post-loss radio signals were received from Earhart and Noonan remains controversial. If transmissions were received from the Electra, most if not all were weak and hopelessly garbled. Earhart's voice transmissions to Howland were on 3105 kHz, a frequency restricted to aviation use in the United States by the FCC.[N 19] This frequency was not thought to be fit for broadcasts over great distances. When Earhart was at cruising altitude and midway between Lae and Howland (over 1,000 miles (1,600 km) from each) neither station heard her scheduled transmission at 0815 GCT.[118] Moreover, the 50-watt transmitter used by Earhart was attached to a less-than-optimum-length V-type antenna.[119][120][N 20]
The last voice transmission received on Howland Island from Earhart indicated she and Noonan were flying along a line of position (taken from a "sun line" running on 157–337 degrees) which Noonan would have calculated and drawn on a chart as passing through Howland.[121][N 21] After all contact was lost with Howland Island, attempts were made to reach the flyers with both voice and Morse code transmissions. Operators across the Pacific and the United States may have heard signals from the downed Electra but these were unintelligible or weak.[122][N 22]
Some of these transmissions were hoaxes but others were deemed authentic. Bearings taken by Pan American Airways stations suggested signals originating from several locations, including Gardner Island.[123][124] It was noted at the time that if these signals were from Earhart and Noonan, they must have been on land with the aircraft since water would have otherwise shorted out the Electra's electrical system.[125][N 23][126][N 24] Sporadic signals were reported for four or five days after the disappearance but none yielded any understandable information.[127][N 25] The captain of the Colorado later said "There was no doubt many stations were calling the Earhart plane on the plane's frequency, some by voice and others by signals. All of these added to the confusion and doubtfulness of the authenticity of the reports."[128]
Search efforts[link]
Beginning approximately one hour after Earhart's last recorded message, the USCG Itasca undertook an ultimately unsuccessful search north and west of Howland Island based on initial assumptions about transmissions from the aircraft. The United States Navy soon joined the search and over a period of about three days sent available resources to the search area in the vicinity of Howland Island. The initial search by the Itasca involved running up the 157/337 line of position to the NNW from Howland Island. The Itasca then searched the area to the immediate NE of the island, corresponding to the area, yet wider than the area searched to the NW. Based on bearings of several supposed Earhart radio transmissions, some of the search efforts were directed to a specific position 281 degrees NW of Howland Island without finding land or evidence of the flyers.[129] Four days after Earhart's last verified radio transmission, on July 6, 1937, the captain of the battleship Colorado received orders from the Commandant, Fourteenth Naval District to take over all naval and coast guard units to coordinate search efforts.[129]
Later search efforts were directed to the Phoenix Islands south of Howland Island.[130] A week after the disappearance, naval aircraft from the Colorado flew over several islands in the group including Gardner Island, which had been uninhabited for over 40 years. The subsequent report on Gardner read: "Here signs of recent habitation were clearly visible but repeated circling and zooming failed to elicit any answering wave from possible inhabitants and it was finally taken for granted that none were there... At the western end of the island a tramp steamer (of about 4000 tons)... lay high and almost dry head onto the coral beach with her back broken in two places. The lagoon at Gardner looked sufficiently deep and certainly large enough so that a seaplane or even an airboat could have landed or takenoff [sic] in any direction with little if any difficulty. Given a chance, it is believed that Miss Earhart could have landed her aircraft in this lagoon and swum or waded ashore."[N 26] They also found that Gardner's shape and size as recorded on charts were wholly inaccurate. Other Navy search efforts were again directed north, west and southwest of Howland Island, based on a possibility the Electra had ditched in the ocean, was afloat, or that the aviators were in an emergency raft.[132]
The official search efforts lasted until July 19, 1937.[133] At $4 million, the air and sea search by the Navy and Coast Guard was the most costly and intensive in U.S. history up to that time but search and rescue techniques during the era were rudimentary and some of the search was based on erroneous assumptions and flawed information. Official reporting of the search effort was influenced by individuals wary about how their roles in looking for an American hero might be reported by the press.[134] [N 27] Despite an unprecedented search by the United States Navy and Coast Guard no physical evidence of Earhart, Noonan or the Electra 10E was found. The United States Navy aircraft carrier Lexington and battleship Colorado, the Itasca (and even two Japanese ships, the oceanographic survey vessel Koshu and auxiliary seaplane tender Kamoi) searched for six–seven days each, covering 150,000 square miles (390,000 km2).[135][136]
Immediately after the end of the official search, Putnam financed a private search by local authorities of nearby Pacific islands and waters, concentrating on the Gilberts. In late July 1937 Putnam chartered two small boats and while he remained in the United States, directed a search of the Phoenix Islands, Christmas (Kiritimati) Island, Fanning (Tabuaeran) Island, the Gilbert Islands and the Marshall Islands, but no trace of the Electra or its occupants was found.[137]
Back in the United States, Putnam acted to become the trustee of Earhart's estate so that he could pay for the searches and related bills. In probate court in Los Angeles, Putnam requested to have the "death in absentia" seven-year waiting period waived so that he could manage Earhart's finances. As a result, Earhart was declared legally dead on January 5, 1939.[138]
Theories on Earhart's disappearance[link]
Many theories emerged after the disappearance of Earhart and Noonan. Two possibilities concerning the flyers' fate have prevailed among researchers and historians:
Crash and sink theory[link]
Many researchers believe the Electra ran out of fuel and Earhart and Noonan ditched at sea. Navigator and aeronautical engineer Elgen Long and his wife Marie K. Long devoted 35 years of exhaustive research to the "crash and sink" theory, which is the most widely accepted explanation for the disappearance.[139] Capt. Laurance F. Safford, USN, who was responsible for the interwar Mid Pacific Strategic Direction Finding Net, and the decoding of the Japanese PURPLE cipher messages for the attack on Pearl Harbor, began a lengthy analysis of the Earhart flight during the 1970s. His research included the intricate radio transmission documentation. Safford came to the conclusion, "poor planning, worse execution."[140] Rear Admiral Richard R. Black, USN, who was in administrative charge of the Howland Island airstrip and was present in the radio room on the Itasca, asserted in 1982 that "the Electra went into the sea about 10 am, July 2, 1937 not far from Howland".[140] British aviation historian Roy Nesbit interpreted evidence in contemporary accounts and Putnam's correspondence and concluded Earhart's Electra was not fully fueled at Lae.[141] William L. Polhemous, the navigator on Ann Pellegreno's 1967 flight which followed Earhart and Noonan's original flight path, studied navigational tables for July 2, 1937 and thought Noonan may have miscalculated the "single line approach" intended to "hit" Howland.[142]
David Jourdan, a former Navy submariner and ocean engineer specializing in deep-sea recoveries, has claimed any transmissions attributed to Gardner Island were false. Through his company Nauticos he extensively searched a 1,200-square-mile (3,100 km2) quadrant north and west of Howland Island during two deep-sea sonar expeditions (2002 and 2006, total cost $4.5 million) and found nothing. The search locations were derived from the line of position (157–337) broadcast by Earhart on July 2, 1937.[114] Nevertheless, Elgen Long's interpretations have led Jourdan to conclude, "The analysis of all the data we have – the fuel analysis, the radio calls, other things – tells me she went into the water off Howland."[114] Earhart's stepson George Palmer Putnam Jr. has been quoted as saying he believes "the plane just ran out of gas."[143] Susan Butler, author of the "definitive"[144] Earhart biography East to the Dawn, says she thinks the aircraft went into the ocean out of sight of Howland Island and rests on the seafloor at a depth of 17,000 feet (5 km).[145] Tom D. Crouch, Senior Curator of the National Air and Space Museum, has said the Earhart/Noonan Electra is "18,000 ft. down" and may even yield a range of artifacts that could rival the finds of the Titanic, adding, "...the mystery is part of what keeps us interested. In part, we remember her because she's our favorite missing person."[114]
Gardner Island hypothesis[link]
Immediately after Earhart and Noonan's disappearance, the United States Navy, Paul Mantz and Earhart's mother (who convinced G.P. Putnam to undertake a search in the Gardner Group)[146] all expressed belief the flight had ended in the Phoenix Islands (now part of Kiribati), some 350 miles (560 km) southeast of Howland Island.
In July 2007, an editor at Avionews in Rome compared the Gardner Island hypothesis to other non-crash-and-sink theories and called it the "most confirmed" of them.[147] In 1988, The International Group for Historic Aircraft Recovery (TIGHAR) initiated their project to investigate the Earhart/Noonan disappearance and since then has sent six[148] expeditions to the island. They have suggested Earhart and Noonan may have flown without further radio transmissions[149] for two and a half hours along the line of position Earhart noted in her last transmission received at Howland, arrived at then-uninhabited Gardner Island (now Nikumaroro) in the Phoenix group, landed on an extensive reef flat near the wreck of a large freighter (the SS Norwich City) and ultimately perished.
TIGHAR's research has produced a range of documented archaeological and anecdotal evidence supporting this hypothesis.[150][151] For example, in 1940, Gerald Gallagher, a British colonial officer and licensed pilot, radioed his superiors to inform them that he had found a "skeleton... possibly that of a woman", along with an old-fashioned sextant box, under a tree on the island's southeast corner. He was ordered to send the remains to Fiji, where in 1941, British colonial authorities took detailed measurements of the bones and concluded they were from a male about 5 ft 5 in tall.[152] However, in 1998 an analysis of the measurement data by forensic anthropologists indicated the skeleton had belonged to a "tall white female of northern European ancestry." The bones themselves were misplaced in Fiji long ago and have not been found.[153]
During World War II, US Coast Guard LORAN Unit 92, a radio navigation station built in the summer and fall of 1944, and operational from mid-November 1944 until mid-May 1945, was located on Gardner Island's southeast end. Dozens of U.S. Coast Guard personnel were involved in its construction and operation, but were mostly forbidden from leaving the small base or having contact with the Gilbertese colonists then on the island and found no artifacts known to relate to Earhart.[154]
Artifacts discovered by TIGHAR on Nikumaroro have included improvised tools, an aluminum panel (possibly from an Electra), an oddly cut piece of clear Plexiglas the same thickness and curvature of an Electra window and a size 9 Cat's Paw heel dating from the 1930s which resembles Earhart's footwear in world flight photos.[155] [N 28] The evidence remains circumstantial, but Earhart's surviving stepson, George Putnam Jr., has expressed support for TIGHAR's research.[156]
In 2007, a TIGHAR expedition visited Nikumaroro searching for unambiguously identifiable aircraft artifacts and DNA. The group included engineers, technical experts and others.[157] They found artifacts of uncertain origin on the weather-ravaged atoll, including bronze bearings which may have belonged to Earhart's aircraft and a zipper pull which might have come from her flight suit.[158] In 2010, the research group said it had found bones that appeared to be part of a human finger. Subsequent DNA testing at the University of Oklahoma proved inconclusive as to whether the bone fragments were from a human or from a sea turtle.[159]
On March 20, 2012, the US State Department and TIGHAR together announced that TIGHAR is launching a new search based on the re-evaluation of a 1937 photograph taken of the reef at Nikumaroro. Called "Niku 7" and endorsed by Dr. Robert Ballard, the expedition will embark in July 2012 to undertake an underwater search off Nikumaroro.[160][161]
Myths, urban legends and unsupported claims[link]
The unresolved circumstances of Earhart's disappearance, along with her fame, attracted a great body of other claims relating to her last flight, all of which have been generally dismissed for lack of verifiable evidence. Several unsupported theories have become well known in popular culture.
Spies for FDR[link]
A World War II-era movie called Flight for Freedom (1943) starring Rosalind Russell and Fred MacMurray furthered a myth that Earhart was spying on the Japanese in the Pacific at the request of the Franklin Roosevelt administration.[150][N 29] By 1949, both the United Press and U.S. Army Intelligence had concluded this rumor was groundless. Jackie Cochran, another pioneering aviator and one of Earhart's friends, made a postwar search of numerous files in Japan and was convinced the Japanese were not involved in Earhart's disappearance.[162]
Saipan claims[link]
In 1966, CBS Correspondent Fred Goerner published a book claiming Earhart and Noonan were captured and executed when their aircraft crashed on the island of Saipan, part of the Mariana Islands archipelago, while it was under Japanese occupation.[163][164] [N 30][165] [N 31] In 2009, an Earhart relative stated that the pair died in Japanese custody, citing unnamed witnesses including Japanese troops and Saipan natives.[166] He said that the Japanese cut the valuable Lockheed aircraft into scrap and threw the pieces into the ocean.[166]
Thomas E. Devine (who served in a postal Army unit) wrote Eyewitness: The Amelia Earhart Incident which includes a letter from the daughter of a Japanese police official who claimed her father was responsible for Earhart's execution.
Former U.S. Marine Robert Wallack claimed he and other Marines opened a safe on Saipan and found Earhart's briefcase. Former U.S. Marine Earskin J. Nabers claimed that while serving as a wireless operator on Saipan in 1944, he decoded a message from naval officials which said Earhart's aircraft had been found at the airfield in the village of As Lito, that he was later ordered to guard the aircraft, and then witnessed its destruction.[167] In 1990, the NBC-TV series Unsolved Mysteries broadcast an interview with a Saipanese woman who claimed to have witnessed Earhart and Noonan's execution by Japanese soldiers. No independent confirmation or support has ever emerged for any of these claims.[168] Purported photographs of Earhart during her captivity have been identified as either fraudulent or having been taken before her final flight.[169]
Since the end of World War II, a location on Tinian, which is five miles (eight km) southwest of Saipan, had been rumoured to be the grave of the two aviators. In 2004 a scientifically supported archaeological dig at the site failed to turn up any bones.[170]
Tokyo Rose rumor[link]
A rumor which claimed that Earhart had made propaganda radio broadcasts as one of the many women compelled to serve as Tokyo Rose was investigated closely by George Putnam. According to several biographies of Earhart, Putnam investigated this rumor personally but after listening to many recordings of numerous Tokyo Roses, he did not recognize her voice among them.[171]
New Britain[link]
The theory that Earhart may have turned back mid-flight has been posited. She would then have tried to reach the airfield at Rabaul, New Britain (northeast of mainland Papua New Guinea), approximately 2,200 miles (3,500 km) from Howland.[172]
In 1990, Donald Angwin, a veteran of the Australian Army's World War II campaign in New Britain, contacted researchers to suggest that a wrecked aircraft he had witnessed in jungle about 40 miles (64 km) southwest of Rabaul, on April 17, 1945, may have been Earhart's Electra.[173] Angwin, who was a corporal in the 11th Battalion at the time,[174] reported that he and other members of a forward patrol on Japanese-occupied New Britain had found a wrecked twin-engined, unpainted all-metal aircraft. The soldiers recorded a rough position on a map, along with serial numbers seen on the wreckage. While the map was located in the possession of another veteran in 1993, subsequent searches of the area indicated failed to find a wreck. [173]
While Angwin died in 2001, David Billings, an Australian aircraft engineer, has continued to investigate his theory. Billings claims that the serial numbers written on the map, “600H/P S3HI C/N1055", represent:
- a 600 hp (450 kW) Pratt & Whitney R-1340-S3H1 model engine and;
- "Constructor’s Number 1055", an airframe identifier.
These would be consistent with a Lockheed Electra 10E, such as that flown by Earhart, although they do not contain enough information to identify the wreck in question as NR16020.[173]
Pacific Wrecks, a website that documents World War II-era aircraft crash sites, notes that no other Electra has been reported lost in or around Papua New Guinea.[175] The site, however, also questions whether Earhart could have been so far from Howland and points out that the R-1340-S3H1 may have been from a USAAF B-17E (41-2429; nicknamed "Why Don't We Do This More Often") reported to have exploded in mid-air over the area on August 7, 1942.[175]
Assuming another identity[link]
In November 2006, the National Geographic Channel aired episode two of the Undiscovered History series about a claim that Earhart survived the world flight, moved to New Jersey, changed her name, remarried and became Irene Craigmile Bolam. This claim had originally been raised in the book Amelia Earhart Lives (1970) by author Joe Klaas, based on the research of Major Joseph Gervais. Irene Bolam, who had been a banker in New York during the 1940s, denied being Earhart, filed a lawsuit requesting $1.5 million in damages and submitted a lengthy affidavit in which she refuted the claims. The book's publisher, McGraw-Hill, withdrew the book from the market shortly after it was released and court records indicate that they made an out of court settlement with her.[176][177] Subsequently, Bolam's personal life history was thoroughly documented by researchers, eliminating any possibility she was Earhart. Kevin Richlin, a professional criminal forensic expert hired by National Geographic, studied photographs of both women and cited many measurable facial differences between Earhart and Bolam.[178]
Legacy[link]
Earhart was a widely known international celebrity during her lifetime. Her shyly charismatic appeal, independence, persistence, coolness under pressure, courage and goal-oriented career along with the circumstances of her disappearance at a comparatively early age have driven her lasting fame in popular culture. Hundreds of articles and scores of books have been written about her life which is often cited as a motivational tale, especially for girls. Earhart is generally regarded as a feminist icon.[179]
Earhart's accomplishments in aviation inspired a generation of female aviators, including the more than 1,000 women pilots of the Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASP) who ferried military aircraft, towed gliders, flew target practice aircraft, and served as transport pilots during World War II.[180][181]
The home where Earhart was born is now the Amelia Earhart Birthplace Museum and is maintained by the Ninety-Nines, an international group of female pilots of whom Earhart was the first elected president.[182]
A small section of Earhart's Lockheed Electra starboard engine nacelle recovered in the aftermath of the Hawaii crash has been confirmed as authentic and is now regarded as a control piece that will help to authenticate possible future discoveries. The evaluation of the scrap of metal was featured on an episode of History Detectives on Season 7 in 2009.[183]
Records and achievements[link]
- Woman's world altitude record: 14,000 ft (1922)
- First woman to fly the Atlantic (1928)
- Speed records for 100 km (and with 500 lb (230 kg) cargo) (1931)
- First woman to fly an autogyro (1931)
- Altitude record for autogyros: 15,000 ft (1931)
- First person to cross the U.S. in an autogyro (1932)
- First woman to fly the Atlantic solo (1932)
- First person to fly the Atlantic twice (1932)
- First woman to receive the Distinguished Flying Cross (1932)
- First woman to fly non-stop, coast-to-coast across the U.S. (1933)
- Woman's speed transcontinental record (1933)
- First person to fly solo between Honolulu, Hawaii and Oakland, California (1935)
- First person to fly solo from Los Angeles, California to Mexico City, Mexico (1935)
- First person to fly solo nonstop from Mexico City, Mexico to Newark, New Jersey (1935)
- Speed record for east-to-west flight from Oakland, California to Honolulu, Hawaii (1937)[184]
Books by Earhart[link]
Earhart was a successful and heavily promoted writer who served as aviation editor for Cosmopolitan magazine from 1928 to 1930. She wrote magazine articles, newspaper columns, essays and published two books based upon her experiences as a flyer during her lifetime:
- 20 Hrs., 40 Min. (1928) was a journal of her experiences as the first woman passenger on a transatlantic flight.
- The Fun of It (1932) was a memoir of her flying experiences and an essay on women in aviation.
- Last Flight (1937) featured the periodic journal entries she sent back to the United States during her world flight attempt, published in newspapers in the weeks prior to her final departure from New Guinea. Compiled by her husband GP Putnam after she disappeared over the Pacific, many historians consider this book to be only partially Earhart's original work.
Memorial flights[link]
Two notable memorial flights by female aviators subsequently followed Earhart's original circumnavigational route.
- In 1967, Ann Dearing Holtgren Pellegreno and a crew of three successfully flew a similar aircraft (a Lockheed 10A Electra) to complete a world flight that closely mirrored Earhart's flight plan. On the 30th anniversary of her disappearance, Pellegreno dropped a wreath in Earhart's honor over tiny Howland Island and returned to Oakland, completing the 28,000-mile (45,000 km) commemorative flight on July 7, 1967.
- In 1997, on the 60th anniversary of Earhart's world flight, San Antonio businesswoman Linda Finch retraced the final flight path flying the same make and model of aircraft as Earhart, a restored 1935 Lockheed Electra 10E. Finch touched down in 18 countries before finishing the trip two and a half months later when she arrived back at Oakland Airport on May 28, 1997.
In 2001, another commemorative flight retraced the route undertaken by Earhart in her August 1928 trans-continental record flight. Dr. Carlene Mendieta flew an original Avro Avian, the same type that was used in 1928.[70]
Other honors[link]
- Amelia Earhart Centre And Wildlife Sanctuary was established at the site of her 1932 landing in Northern Ireland, Ballyarnet Country Park, Derry.
- The "Earhart Tree" on Banyan Drive in Hilo, Hawaii, was planted by Earhart in 1935.
- The Zonta International Amelia Earhart Fellowship Awards were established in 1938.
- Earhart Light (also known as the Amelia Earhart Light), a navigational day beacon on Howland Island (has not been maintained and is crumbling).
- The Amelia Earhart Memorial Scholarships (established in 1939 by The Ninety-Nines), provides scholarships to women for advanced pilot certificates and ratings, jet type ratings, college degrees and technical training.
- The Purdue University Amelia Earhart Scholarship, first awarded in 1940, is based on academic merit and leadership and is open to juniors and seniors enrolled in any school at the West Lafayette campus. After being discontinued in the 1970s, a donor resurrected the award in 1999.
- In 1942, a United States Liberty ship named SS Amelia Earhart was launched (it was wrecked in 1948).
- Amelia Earhart Field (1947), formerly Masters Field and Miami Municipal Airport, after closure in 1959, the Amelia Earhart Regional Park was dedicated in an area of undeveloped federal government land located north and west of the former Miami Municipal Airport and immediately south of Opa-locka Airport.
- Amelia Earhart Airport (1958),[185] located in Atchison, Kansas.
- Amelia Earhart Commemorative Stamp (8¢ airmail postage) was issued in 1963 by the United States Postmaster-General.
- The Civil Air Patrol Amelia Earhart Award (since 1964) is awarded to cadets who have completed the first 11 achievements of the cadet program along with receipt of the General Billy Mitchell Award.
- Amelia Earhart Residence Hall opened in 1964 as a residence hall for women at Purdue University and became coed in 2002. An eight-foot sculpture of Earhart, by Ernest Shelton, was placed in front of the Earhart Hall Dining Court in 2009.[186]
- Member of National Women's Hall of Fame (1973).
- Crittenton Women’s Union (Boston) Amelia Earhart Award recognizes a woman who continues Earhart’s pioneering spirit and who has significantly contributed to the expansion of opportunities for women. (since 1982)
- Earhart Corona, a corona on Venus was named by the (IAU) in 1982.[187]
- The Amelia Earhart Birthplace,[188] Atchison, Kansas (a museum and historic site, owned and maintained by The Ninety-Nines since 1984).
- UCI Irvine Amelia Earhart Award (since 1990).
- Member of Motorsports Hall of Fame of America (1992).
- 3895 Earhart, a minor planet discovered in 1987, was named in 1995 after her, by its discoverer, Carolyn S. Shoemaker.
- Earhart Foundation, located in Ann Arbor, MI. Established in 1995, the foundation funds research and scholarship through a network of 50 "Earhart professors" across the United States.
- Amelia Earhart Festival (annual event since 1996), located in Atchison, Kansas.
- Amelia Earhart Pioneering Achievement Award, Atchison, Kansas: Since 1996, the Cloud L. Cray Foundation provides a $10,000 women’s scholarship to the educational institution of the honoree’s choice.
- Amelia Earhart Earthwork in Warnock Lake Park, Atchison, Kansas. Stan Herd created the 1-acre (4,000 m2) landscape mural in 1997 from permanent plantings and stone to celebrate the 100th anniversary of Earhart's birth. Located at 39°32′15″N 95°08′43″W / 39.537621°N 95.145158°W / 39.537621; -95.145158 and best viewed from the air.
- Amelia Earhart Bridge (1997), located in Atchison, Kansas.
- Greater Miami Aviation Association Amelia Earhart Award for outstanding achievement (2006); first recipient: noted flyer Patricia "Patty" Wagstaff.
- On December 6, 2006, California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and First Lady Maria Shriver inducted Earhart into the California Hall of Fame located at The California Museum for History, Women and the Arts.
- USNS Amelia Earhart (T-AKE-6) was named in her honor in May 2007.
- Amelia Earhart full size bronze statue was placed at the Spirit of Flight Center located in Lafayette, Colorado in 2008.
- The Amelia Earhart General Aviation Terminal, a satellite terminal at Boston's Logan Airport (formerly used by American Eagle, now unused)
- Amelia Earhart Dam on the Mystic River in eastern Massachusetts.
- Schools named after Earhart are found throughout the United States including the Amelia Earhart Elementary School, in Alameda, California, Amelia Earhart Elementary School, in Hialeah, Florida, Amelia Earhart Middle School, Riverside, California and Amelia Earhart International Baccalaureate World School, in Indio, California.
- Amelia Earhart Hotel, located in Wiesbaden, Germany, originally used as a hotel for women, then as temporary military housing is now operated as the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Europe District Headquarters with offices for the Army Contracting Agency and the Defense Contract Management Agency.
- Amelia Earhart Road, located in Oklahoma City (headquarters of The Ninety-Nines), Oklahoma.
- Earhart Road, located next to the Oakland International Airport North Field in Oakland, California.
- Amelia Earhart Playhouse, at Wiesbaden Army Airfield.[189]
Popular culture[link]
Earhart's life has spurred the imaginations of many writers and others:
- Patti Smith published two poems dedicated to Earhart: "Amelia Earhart I" and "Amelia Earheart II" in her 1972 poetry collection Seventh Heaven.
- I Was Amelia Earhart (1996) is a faux autobiography by Jane Mendelsohn in which "Earhart" tells the story of what happened to her in 1937, complete with heavy doses of romance with her navigator.
- Flying Blind (1999) by Max Allan Collins is a detective novel in which the intrepid Nathan Heller is hired to be a bodyguard for Earhart.
- Amelia And Eleanor Go For A Ride (1999) is a children's picture book written by Pam Munoz Ryan and illustrated by Brian Selznick. It tells the story of the impromptu flight taken by Earheart and Eleanor Roosevelt in 1933.
- In Christopher Moore's 2003 novel, Fluke, Earhart survived her wreck and appears as the mother of one of the characters.
- "Amelia Earhart's Last Flight", by "Yodelling Cowboy" Red River Dave McEnery, is thought to be the first song ever performed on commercial television (at the 1939 World's Fair). He recorded it in 1941 and it was subsequently covered by artists including Kinky Friedman and the Country Gentlemen.
- Possibly the first tribute album dedicated to the legend of Earhart was by Plainsong, In Search of Amelia Earhart, Elektra K42120, released in 1972. Both the album and the Press Pak released by Elektra are highly prized by collectors and have reached cult status.[190]
- Singer Joni Mitchell wrote a song called "Amelia" on her 1976 album, Hejira, based on Earhart's legacy. A video of her live album Shadows and Light (1980) includes the song "Amelia" and incorporates clips of Earhart.
- In 1979, Bachman-Turner Overdrive (BTO) released a song called "Amelia Earhart" on their album, Rock n' Roll Nights.[citation needed]
- Erik Frandsen's musical: Song of Singapore, that opened May 23, 1991, features a lounge singer with amnesia, recovering to discover she's Earhart.
- Singer/songwriter Deb Talan's second album, Something Burning (2000), begins with a song called "Thinking Amelia".[citation needed]
- The song "Aviator" by Nemo, which appears on their 2004 debut LP Signs of Life, was written about Earhart's last flight.[citation needed]
- The song "I Miss My Sky", written by Heather Nova for her 2005 album Redbird, is dedicated to Earhart.[citation needed]
- English singer/songwriter Tom McRae's fourth album King of Cards (2007) features a song called "The Ballad of Amelia Earhart".
- Pop/rock singer-songwriter Jon Mclaughlin wrote a song titled "Amelia's Missing" (2007).[citation needed]
- The song "Amelia" from the 2009 album Blue Lights on the Runway by Irish band Bell X1 contemplates the last moments and fate of Earhart.[citation needed]
- In 2011, the Great Canadian Theatre Company hosted a musical play titled Amelia: The Girl Who Wants To Fly.[191]
- The 1943 Rosalind Russell film Flight for Freedom derived from a treatment, Stand by to Die, was a fictionalized treatment of Earhart's life.[140]
- "In Search of: Amelia Earhart," (1976) was episode 16 of the 1976–1982 In Search Of series.
- A 1976 television bio production titled Amelia Earhart starring Susan Clark and John Forsythe included flying by Hollywood stunt pilot Frank Tallman whose late partner in Tallmantz Aviation, Paul Mantz, had tutored Earhart in the 1930s.
- In the climax of the 1977 science fiction film Close Encounters of the Third Kind, Earhart is seen walking out of the Mothership, along with a crowd of a hundred other alien abduction survivors.
- The documentary Amelia Earhart: The Price of Courage (1993) from American Experience.[192][193]
- Amelia Earhart: The Final Flight (1994) starring Diane Keaton, Rutger Hauer and Bruce Dern was initially released as TV movie and subsequently released as a theatrical feature.[194]
- In the Star Trek: Voyager episode "The 37's" (first aired 1995), Earhart, portrayed by Sharon Lawrence, was one of many humans abducted by an alien race in 1937, only to be found in cryo-stasis on a planet on the other side of the galaxy.[195]
- Academy Award nominee Amy Adams portrayed Earhart in Night at the Museum 2: Battle of the Smithsonian (2009).
- In Amelia (2009), Earhart is portrayed by Hilary Swank, who also served as co-executive producer of the biopic.[196]
- The webcomic XKCD made Earhart the subject of its 950th issue on September 12, 2011.[197][198]
See also[link]
- Amelia Earhart Park
- Aviation
- Aviation archaeology
- Bernt Balchen
- Irene Craigmile Bolam
- Jacqueline Cochran
- Cornelia Fort
- Douglas Corrigan
- Frances Wilson Grayson
- German American
- Howland Island
- Lae, a city in Papua New Guinea
- Lockheed Model 10 Electra
- Lockheed Vega
- Nancy Harkness Love
- Elsie Mackay
- Paul Mantz
- Nikumaroro (Gardner Island)
- Ninety-Nines (International Organization of Women Pilots)
- Opa-locka Airport
- Harriet Quimby
- Radio navigation
- Neta Snook
- Women Airforce Service Pilots
- List of female adventurers
Notes[link]
- ^ Charles Kuralt said on CBS television program Sunday Morning, referring to Earhart: "She was a pioneer in aviation... she led the way so that others could follow and go on to even greater achievements." he wanted everyone to know about her and he stated,"Trailblazers prepare the rest of us for the future."[2]
- ^ Quote: "She vanished nearly 60 years ago, but fascination with Amelia Earhart continues through each new generation."[6]
- ^ Quote: "...the judge nevertheless adored his brave and intelligent granddaughter and in her [Earhart's] love of adventure, she seemed to have inherited his pioneering spirit."[12]
- ^ Although a good student, Earhart cut short her time at Ogontz when she became a nursing assistant in Canada.
- ^ Quote: "Amelia was reduced to being a judge of a model-airplane contest."[42]
- ^ A modern observer, Ric Gillespie, states: "Earhart’s piloting skills were average at best."
- ^ Putnam himself may have coined the term "Lady Lindy."
- ^ All licensed use of the Earhart name and likeness are owned by the family of Amelia Earhart.[64]
- ^ Quote: "Amelia eventually said yes – or rather nodded yes – to GP's sixth proposal of marriage.[77]
- ^ Quote: "It was pencilled longhand... a slip or two in spelling meticulously corrected." The later typewritten note has the word medieval incorrectly spelled. The original note has some slight variances in the header, use of commas and the salutation but is spelled correctly.[78]
- ^ Earhart's Vega 5B was her third, after trading in two Vega 1s at the Lockheed Aircraft Company's Burbank plant.[86]
- ^ Franklin D. Roosevelt was not in favor of his wife becoming a pilot. Eleanor Roosevelt would later feature prominently in another aviation-related cause when she took a famous flight with a young Black aviator that helped establish the credentials of the "Tuskegee Airmen".[91]
- ^ "Old Bessie" started out as a Vega 5 built in 1928 as c/n 36, but was modified with a replacement fuselage to become a 5B.[94]
- ^ Amelia preferred the more benign weather of the west coast for flying and based her later years' operation from California rather than the east coast.
- ^ Her job at Purdue was outlined by Edward C. Elliott, the President of Purdue University.
- ^ Purdue University established the Amelia Earhart Fund for Aeronautical Research at $50,000 to fund the purchase of the Lockheed Electra 10E.[105]
- ^ Noonan also navigated the China Clipper on its first flight to Manila, departing Alameda under the command of Captain Ed Musick, on November 22, 1935.
- ^ Noonan, Fred. Memo to Operations Manager, Pacific Division, Pan American Airlines, April 29, 1935: "The inaccuracies of direction finding bearings can be very definitely cataloged: twilight effects, faint signals, wide splits of minima and inaccurate calibration."
- ^ Quote: "Frequencies between 2,504 to 3,497.5 kc were allocated to "Coastal harbor, government, aviation, fixed, miscellaneous."[117]
- ^ The height of the antenna is important, a horizontally polarized antenna operating at a small fraction of its wavelength above the ground will be less efficient than that same antenna operating at cruising altitude.
- ^ Safford disputes a "sun line" theory and proposes that Noonan asked Earhart to fly 157–337 magnetic or to fly at right angles to the original track on north-south courses.
- ^ A teenager in the northeastern United States claims to have heard post-loss transmissions from Earhart and Noonan but modern analysis has shown there was an extremely low probability of any signal from Amelia Earhart being received in the United States on a harmonic of a frequency she could transmit upon.
- ^ The essential components were all mounted low, including the generator, batteries, dynamotor and transmitter.
- ^ In order to operate the radio for any length of time, the aircraft would have had to be standing more or less upright on its landing gear with the right engine running in order to charge the 50-watt transmitter's battery, which would have consumed six gallons of fuel per hour.
- ^ The first two days were marked by rumors and misinformation regarding radio transmission capabilities of the Lockheed Model 10 Electra that were finally resolved by the aircraft company.
- ^ Memo from Senior Aviator, USS Colorado, to The Chief of the Bureau of Aeronautics, "Aircraft Search of Earhart Plane." Their commander Capt Friedell made no note of "recent habitation" in his official summary.[131]
- ^ FDR himself had to respond to accusations that the search was justified.
- ^ According to records, Noonan was 6 ft (1.8 m) tall and Earhart was 5 ft 8 in (1.73 m) and wore a size 6 shoe according to her sister.
- ^ Some authors have speculated that Earhart and Noonan were shot down by Japanese aircraft as she was thought to be spying on Japanese territory so America could supposedly plan an attack.
- ^ Goerner’s book was immediately challenged, but the Time Magazine article on it does include a quote from Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, who allegedly told Goerner in March 1965: "I want to tell you Earhart and her navigator did go down in the Marshalls and were picked up by the Japanese."
- ^ Goerner disclosed in his book that Nimitz refused permission to be quoted.
References[link]
Citations[link]
- ^ Morey 1995, p. 11.
- ^ a b Oakes 1985
- ^ Goldstein and Dillon 1997, pp. 111, 112.
- ^ Pearce 1988, p. 95.
- ^ a b Lovell 1989, p. 152.
- ^ The Mystery of Amelia Earhart. Social Studies School Service
- ^ Harvard University Library: A/E11/M-129, Earhart, Amy Otis, 1869–1962. Papers, 1944, n.d.: A Finding Aid
- ^ a b c Goldstein and Dillon 1997, p. 8.
- ^ a b Goldstein and Dillon 1997, p. 9.
- ^ The Ninety-Nines Grace Muriel Earhart Morrissey
- ^ Goldstein and Dillon 1997, pp. 8–9.
- ^ Randolph 1987, p. 16.
- ^ Rich 1989, p. 4.
- ^ Lovell 1989, p. 14.
- ^ a b "Amelia Earhart: Celebrating 100 Years of Flight." ameliaearhart.com. Retrieved: July 2, 2010.
- ^ Goldstein and Dillon 1997, p. 14
- ^ Morrissey 1963, pp. 17–18.
- ^ Randolph 1987, p. 18.
- ^ Lovell 1989, p. 15.
- ^ Hamill 1976, p. 51.
- ^ Garst 1947, p. 35.
- ^ Blau 1977, pp. 10–11.
- ^ Rich 1989, p. 11.
- ^ Long 1999, p. 33.
- ^ Kerby 1990, pp. 18–19.
- ^ Popplewell, Brett. "The city Amelia loved." Toronto Star, June 29, 2008. Retrieved: June 30, 2008.
- ^ a b c d e Lovell 1989, p. 27.
- ^ a b c Earhart 1932, p. 21.
- ^ a b c Backus 1982, pp. 49–50.
- ^ Rich 1989, pp. 31–32.
- ^ Earhart 1937, p. 2.
- ^ Earhart 1937, p. 3.
- ^ Thames 1989, p. 7.
- ^ Earhart 1937, p. 4.
- ^ "Lady Lindy, Amelia Earhart's Life History." aviationhistory.org. Retrieved: October 12, 2009.
- ^ Marshall 2007, p. 21.
- ^ Blau 1977, pp. 15–16.
- ^ a b Long 1999, p. 36.
- ^ U-S-History.com: Aerospace Amelia Earhart 1897–1937
- ^ Goldstein and Dillon 1997, p. 40.
- ^ Lovell 1989, p. 37.
- ^ Hamill 1976, p. 67.
- ^ Gillespie 2006.
- ^ Goldstein and Dillon 1997, p. 34.
- ^ Lovell 1989, pp. 40–42.
- ^ Long 1999, p. 46.
- ^ Goldstein and Dillon 1997, p. 33.
- ^ "Amelia Earhart Biographical Sketch", George Palmer Putnam Collection of Amelia Earhart Papers, Purdue University.
- ^ Rich 1989, p. 43.
- ^ Long 1999, p. 38.
- ^ Chaisson, Stephanie. "Squantum has a hold on its residents." The Patriot Ledger newspaper, Quincy, Massachusetts, July 12, 2007.
- ^ Randolph 1987, p. 41.
- ^ Bryan 1979, p. 132.
- ^ Goldstein and Dillon 1997, p. 54.
- ^ Southampton: A pictorial peep into the past. Southern Newspapers Ltd, 1980.
- ^ 1927 Avro Avian
- ^ Goldstein and Dillon 1997, p. 55.
- ^ Glines 1997, p. 44.
- ^ a b Rich 1989, p. 177.
- ^ a b Pearce 1988, p. 76.
- ^ Crouch, Tom D. "Searching for Amelia Earhart." Invention & Technology, Summer 2007 via americanheritage.com. Retrieved: July 2, 2010.
- ^ Lovell 1989, p. 135.
- ^ Soard, Lori. "Amelia Earhart Luggage." LoveToKnow Corp, 2011. Retrieved: December 11, 2011.
- ^ "Business." "The Official Website of Amelia Earhart." Retrieved: December 11, 2011.
- ^ Lubben and Barnett 2007, pp. 9, 146, 162.
- ^ "Biography of Amelia Earhart." Amelia Earhart Birthplace Museum. Retrieved: July 2, 2010.
- ^ a b Glines 1997, p. 45.
- ^ Boston and Maine Railroad Employees Magazine, Volume 8, Number 10, July 1933, copy in Purdue University Special Collections
- ^ Rich 1989, p. 73.
- ^ a b Mendieta, Carlene. "Amelia Earhart's Flight Across America: Rediscovering a Legend." ameliaflight.com. Retrieved: May 21, 2007.
- ^ Rich 1989, p. 85.
- ^ Lauber 1989, p. 47.
- ^ Van Pelt 2008, pp. 20–21.
- ^ Corn 1983, p. 75.
- ^ Oakes 1985, p. 31.
- ^ Lovell 1989, pp. 130, 138.
- ^ Pearce 1988, p. 81.
- ^ Lovell 1989, pp. 165–166.
- ^ "Newly Discovered Amelia Earhart Letter Shows Her Wild Side." Wireless Flash News, February 25, 2003. Retrieved: July 2, 2010.
- ^ Patterson-Neubert, Amy. "Public to get first look at Amelia Earhart's private life." Purdue News, 2003. Retrieved: July 2, 2010.
- ^ Pearce 1988, p. 82.
- ^ St. Lucie Historical Society, Inc.: Dorothy Binney Putnam Upton Blanding Palmer 1888–1982
- ^ St. Lucie Historical Society, Inc.:Edwin Binney 1866–1934
- ^ Lovell 1989, pp. 154, 174.
- ^ Parsons 1983, pp. 95–97.
- ^ "Lockheed Vega NV7952." Davis-Monthan Aviation Field Register, September 11, 2011.
- ^ Butler 1997, p. 263.
- ^ Space & Aviation Retrieved: March 2, 2008.
- ^ Goddard, Seth. "Life Hero of the Week Profile—Amelia Earhart—First Lady of the Sky." www.life.com, May 19, 1997. Retrieved: March 29, 2008.
- ^ "Amelia Earhart Centre." Derry City Council Heritage and Museum Service. Retrieved: October 23, 2009.
- ^ Glines 1997, p. 47.
- ^ Leder 1987, p. 49.
- ^ a b Goldstein and Dillon 1997, p. 132.
- ^ Allen 1964, pp. 199, 200, 202.
- ^ Lovell 1989, p. 218.
- ^ Oakes 1985, p. 35.
- ^ a b Goldstein and Dillon 1997, p. 145.
- ^ Earhart 1937, p. 37.
- ^ Lovell 1989, p. 209.
- ^ Sloate 1990, p. 64.
- ^ Altman, Elizabeth. "Amelia Earhart home, Toluca Lake, 2003." Oviatt Library Digital Archives, Delmar T. Oviatt Library, Urban Archives Center, California State University, Northridge, California. Photo: As of 29 September 2003 (2003 -09-29)[update]. Retrieved: September 23, 2011.
- ^ "History of Toluca Lake." TolucaLakeChamber.com. Retrieved: September 15, 2010.
- ^ Butler 1997, p. 341.
- ^ Long 1999, pp. 53–54.
- ^ a b Goldstein and Dillon 1997, p. 150.
- ^ "Lockheed Model 10E Electra c/n: 1055 Reg: NR16020." PacificWrecks.com, January 5, 2011.
- ^ Long 1999, p. 59.
- ^ "Miss Earhart to get 'Flying Laboratory'." The New York Times, April 20, 1936, p. 3.
- ^ Long 1999, p. 65.
- ^ Post and Gatty 1931, pp. 45–56.
- ^ Grooch 1936, pp. 177, 189.
- ^ a b Rich 1989, p. 245.
- ^ Leder 1987, p. 48.
- ^ a b c d Hoversten 2007, pp. 22–23.
- ^ Jacobson, Randall S., PhD "The Final Flight. Part 3: At Howland Island." tighar.org, 2009. Retrieved: July 10, 2010.
- ^ "Earhart Navigation FAQ." tighar.org. Retrieved: July 10, 2010.
- ^ American Radio Relay League 1945, p. 453.
- ^ Long 1999, p. 20.
- ^ Everette, Michael. "Electric Radio Communications Equipment Installed on Board Lockeed Electra NR16020." tighar.org, 2009. Retrieved: July 10, 2010.
- ^ American Radio Relay League 1945, pp. 196–199.
- ^ Safford et al. 2003, p. 145.
- ^ Brandenberg, Bob. "Probability of Betty Hearing Amelia on a Harmonic Gardner Sunset: 0538Z Sunrise: 1747Z," tighar.org, 2007. Retrieved: July 10, 2010.
- ^ Gillespie 2006, p. 115.
- ^ Strippel 1995, p. 18.
- ^ Gillespie 2006, diagram p. 190.
- ^ Gillespie 2006, p. 140.
- ^ Goldstein and Dillon 1997, p. 241.
- ^ Gillespie 2006, p. 146.
- ^ a b Goldstein and Dillon 1997 p. 251.
- ^ Goldstein and Dillon 1997, p. 248.
- ^ Finding Amelia DVD, Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 2006. DVD: Contents: Reports: Lambrecht.pdf, p. 3.
- ^ Goldstein and Dillon 1997, p. 254.
- ^ Safford et al. 2003, pp. 61–62, 67–68.
- ^ Goldstein and Dillon 1997, pp. 254–255.
- ^ Goldstein and Dillon 1997, pp. 245–254.
- ^ King et al. 2001, pp. 32–33.
- ^ Goldstein and Dillon 1997, p. 257.
- ^ Van Pelt 2006, p. 205.
- ^ Long, Elgen. "'Crash and Sink' Theory." elgenlong.com, 2006. Retrieved: July 2, 2009.
- ^ a b c Strippel 1995, p. 20.
- ^ Strippel 1995, p. 58.
- ^ Strippel 1995, pp. 58, 60.
- ^ Kleinberg, Eliot. "Amelia Earhart's disappearance still haunts her stepson, 83." Palm Beach Post, December 27, 2004 via lincolnshirepostpolio.org.uk. Retrieved: July 19, 2007.
- ^ Thurman, Judith. "Missing Woman: Amelia Earhart's flight." The New Yorker, September 14, 2009. Retrieved: July 26, 2010.
- ^ "Amelia Earhart: Susan Butler interview." History Detectives, Season 7 Video. via PBS.org. Retrieved: July 26, 2010.
- ^ Rich 1989, pp. 272–273.
- ^ "The end of Amelia Earhart (2): several theories." Avio News (WAPA), July 16, 2007. Retrieved: July 17, 2007.
- ^ "Earhart Project Expeditions." tighar.org, May 14, 2010. Retrieved: August 25, 2010.
- ^ Jacobson, Randall S., PhD "The Final Flight. 4: The Airplane Returns to Earth." tighar.org, 2009. Retrieved: July 10, 2010.
- ^ a b "Common Earhart Myths." tighar.org, Copyright date of 2009 on page. Retrieved: November 28, 2009.
- ^ "The TIGHAR Hypothesis." tighar.org, Summer 2009. Retrieved: November 28, 2009.
- ^ "Bones chronology." tighar.org, 2010. Retrieved: August 25, 2010.
- ^ Gast, Phil. "DNA tests on bone fragment inconclusive in Amelia Earhart search." CNN, March 4, 2011.
- ^ "Loran-History, Loran Unit 92, Gardner Island." loran-history.info. Retrieved August 30, 2011.
- ^ Pyle, Richard. "Diary a clue to Amelia Earhart mystery." AP, April 1, 2007. Retrieved: July 2, 2009.
- ^ Cruikshank, Joe. "The Search for Earhart's Plane Continues." Treasure County Palm News, November 4, 2006. Retrieved: April 1, 2007.
- ^ Pyle, Richard. "New search begins in Earhart mystery." AP, July 12, 2007. Retrieved: July 2, 2009.
- ^ Pyle, Richard. "Group Ends Island Search for Earhart." AP, August 2, 2007. Retrieved: July 2, 2009.
- ^ "DNA tests on bone fragment inconclusive in Amelia Earhart search" www.cnn.com, March 3, 2011, Retrieved: March 3, 2011.
- ^ "Hillary Clinton Wades Into Amelia Earhart Mystery." Huffington Post, March 20, 2012.
- ^ Dell, Maryanne. "Amelia Earhart mystery: A new search begins." Orange County Register, March 21, 2012.
- ^ Cochran 1954, p. 160.
- ^ "Obituary: Fred Goerner, Broadcaster, 69." The New York Times, September 16, 1994.
- ^ "Sinister Conspiracy?" Time Magazine, September 16, 1966. Retrieved: July 2, 2009.
- ^ Goerner 1966, p. 304.
- ^ a b Henley, David C. "Cousin: Japanese captured Amelia Earhart." Nevada Appeal, October 31, 2009. Retrieved: November 7, 2009.
- ^ "Thomas E. Devine: What Really Happened to Amelia Earhart." google.com. Retrieved: July 2, 2010.
- ^ Strippel 1995, p. 52.
- ^ "Amelia Earhart FAQ." tighar.org. Retrieved: July 10, 2010.
- ^ "TIGHARS on Tinian." tighar.org, November 7, 2004. Retrieved: July 2, 2009.
- ^ Goldstein and Dillon 1997, p. 282.
- ^ "The Enduring Mystery of Amelia Earhart's Disappearance Maybe Finally Coming To an End." The Atlantic Flyer, September 2007, p. 3.
- ^ a b c Billings, David. "Aircraft Search Project in Papua New Guinea." Wings Over Kansas, 2000. Retrieved: March 27, 2012.
- ^ "Angwin, Donald Arthur." Commonwealth of Australia: Military Forces, 2002. Retrieved: March 27, 2012.
- ^ a b "Amelia Earhart Myths from the Pacific War." Pacific Wrecks, 2011. Retrieved: March 27, 2012.
- ^ Gillespie, Ric. "Amelia Earhart Survived by Colonel Rollin Reineck, USAF (ret.), 2003." tighar.org. Retrieved: July 10, 2010.
- ^ Gillespie, Ric. "Is This Amelia Earhart?" tighar.org,, 2009. Retrieved: July 10, 2010.
- ^ Strippel 1995, pp. 52–53.
- ^ Hamill 1976, p. 49.
- ^ Regis 2008, pp. 102–105.
- ^ Haynsworth and Toomey 1998
- ^ "The Yellow Brick Road Trip." theyellowbrickroadtrip.blogspot.com. Retrieved: July 2, 2009.
- ^ "Amelia Earhart's plane." History Detectives, 2009. Retrieved: July 24, 2010.
- ^ Sloate 1990, pp. 116–117.
- ^ "Kansas City Airport." Kansas Government Journal, Volume 44, 1958, p. 20. Retrieved: June 25, 2010.
- ^ "Purdue unveils Amelia Earhart sculpture." Purdue University News Service, April 16, 2009. Retrieved: June 25, 2010.
- ^ "Feature Information: Venus: Earhart." U.S.G.S. Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. Retrieved: June 25, 2010.
- ^ "The Amelia Earhart Birthplace Museum." ameliaearhartmuseum.org. Retrieved: June 25, 2010.
- ^ "Amelia Earhart Playhouse." wiesbaden.army.mil. Retrieved: January 21, 2010.
- ^ "In Search of Amelia Earhart/Now We Are Three." andyrobertsmusic.com. Retrieved: July 2, 2010.
- ^ Amelia: The Girl Who Wants to Fly. Great Canadian Theatre Company. Retrieved: October 6, 2011.
- ^ "Amelia Earhart: The Price of Courage (1993)." American Experience. Retrieved: February 23, 2010.
- ^ "American Experience| Amelia Earhart: The Price of Courage (1993)." imdb.com. Retrieved: February 23, 2010.
- ^ McCallion, Bernadette. "Amelia Earhart: The Final Flight (1994)." The New York Times. Retrieved: December 26, 2011.
- ^ "Star Trek: Voyager episode (The 37's)." Internet Movie Database. Retrieved: February 23, 2010.
- ^ Fleming, Michael. "Hilary Swank to play Amelia Earhart: Mira Nair to direct biopic from Ron Bass script." Variety, February 7, 2008. Retrieved: December 8, 2008.
- ^ Munroe, Randall. "Mystery solved." XKCD. Retrieved: September 12, 2011.
- ^ Chivers, Tom. "The 10 best webcomics from Achewood to XKCD." The Telegraph, November 6, 2009.
Bibliography of cited sources[link]
- Allen, Richard Sanders. Revolution in the Sky: Those Fabulous Lockheeds, The Pilots Who Flew Them. Brattleboro, Vermont: The Stephen Greene Press, 1964.
- Backus, Jean L. Letters from Amelia 1901–1937. Boston: Beacon Press, 1982. ISBN 0-8070-6703-2.
- Blau, Melinda. Whatever Happened to Amelia Earhart? Milwaukee, Wisconsin: Contemporary Perspectives Inc., 1977. ISBN 0-8172-1057-1.
- Briand, Paul. Daughter of the Sky. New York: Duell, Sloan, Pearce, 1960. No ISBN.
- Brink, Randall. Lost Star: The Search for Amelia Earhart. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1994. ISBN 978-0393026832.
- Burke, John. Winged Legend: The Story of Amelia Earhart. New York: Ballantine Books, 1971. ISBN 0-425-03304-X.
- Butler, Susan. East to the Dawn: The Life of Amelia Earhart. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-306-80887-0.
- Bryan, C.D.B. The National Air and Space Museum. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1979. ISBN 0-8109-0666-X.
- Campbell, Mike with Thomas E. Devine. With Our Own Eyes: Eyewitnesses to the Final Days of Amelia Earhart. Lancaster, Ohio: Lucky Press, LLC, 2002. ISBN 0-9706377-6-4.
- Cochran, Jacqueline and Maryann Bucknum Brinkley. Jackie Cochran: The Autobiography of the Greatest Woman Pilot in Aviation History. Toronto: Bantam Books, 1987. ISBN 0-553-05211-X.
- Cochran, Jacqueline. Stars at Noon. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1954.
- Corn, Joseph J. The Winged Gospel. New York: Oxford University Press, 1983. ISBN 0-19-503356-6.
- Crouch, Thomas D. "Searching for Amelia Earhart." Invention & Technology, Volume 23, Issue 1, Summer 2007.
- Devine, Thomas E. Eyewitness: The Amelia Earhart Incident. Frederick, Colorado: Renaissance House, 1987. ISBN 0-939650-48-7.
- Earhart, Amelia. Last Flight. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company (first edition: Putnam), 1937.
- Garst, Shannon. Amelia Earhart: Heroine of the Skies. New York: Julian Messner, Inc., 1947. No ISBN.
- Gillespie, Ric. Finding Amelia: The True Story of the Earhart Disappearance. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 2006. ISBN 1-59114-319-5.
- Glines, C.V. "'Lady Lindy': The Remarkable Life of Amelia Earhart." Aviation History, July 1997.
- Goerner, Fred. The Search for Amelia Earhart. New York: Doubleday, 1966. ISBN 0-385-07424-7.
- Goldstein, Donald M. and Katherine V. Dillon. Amelia: The Centennial Biography of an Aviation Pioneer. Washington, D.C.: Brassey's, 1997. ISBN 1-57488-134-5.
- Grooch, William Stephen. Skyway to Asia. New York: Longmans, Green and Co., 1936. No ISBN.
- Hamill, Pete. "Leather and Pearls: The Cult of Amelia Earhart." MS Magazine, September 1976.
- Hoverstein, Paul. "An American Obsession". Air & Space Smithsonian, Vol. 22, No. 2, June/July 2007.
- Kerby, Mona. Amelia Earhart: Courage in the Sky (Women of our Time series). New York: Puffin Books, 1990. ISBN 0-14-034263-X.
- King, Thomas F. et al. Amelia Earhart's Shoes. Walnut Creek, California: AltaMira Press, 2001. ISBN 0-7591-0130-2.
- Lauber, Patricia. Lost Star: The Story of Amelia Earhart. New York: Scholastic, 1989. ISBN 0-590-41159-4.
- Leder, Jane. Amelia Earhart (Great Mysteries: Opposing Viewpoints). San Diego: Greehaven Press, Inc., 1989. ISBN 0-89908-070-7.
- Long, Elgen M. and Marie K. Amelia Earhart: The Mystery Solved. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1999. ISBN 0-684-86005-8.
- Loomis, Vincent V. Amelia Earhart, the Final Story. New York: Random House, 1985. ISBN 978-0-394-53191-5.
- Lovell, Mary S. The Sound of Wings. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1989. ISBN 0-312-03431-8.
- Lubben, Kristen and Erin Barnett. Amelia Earhart: Image and Icon. New York: International Center of Photography, 2007. ISBN 978-3-86521-407-2.
- Marshall, Patti. "Neta Snook". Aviation History, Vol. 17, No. 3, January 2007, pp. 21–22.
- Morey, Eileen. The Importance of Amelia Earhart. San Diego: Lucent Books, 1995. ISBN 1-56006-065-4.
- Morrissey, Muriel Earhart. Amelia Earhart. Santa Barbara, California: Bellerophon Books, 1992. ISBN 0-88388-044-X.
- Morrissey, Muriel Earhart. Courage is the Price: The Biography of Amelia Earhart. Wichita, Kansas: McCormick-Armstrong Publishing Division, 1963. ISBN 1-141-40879-1.
- Oakes, Claudia M. United States Women in Aviation 1930–1939. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1985. ISBN 0-87474-380-X.
- O'Leary, Michael. "The Earhart Discovery: Fact or Fiction?" Air Classics, Vol 28, No. 8, August 1992.
- Parsons, Bill with Bill Bowman. The Challenge of the Atlantic: A Photo-Illustrated History of Early Aviation in Harbour Grace, Newfoundland. St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador: Robinson-Blackmore Book Publishers, 1983. ISBN 0-920884-06-7.
- Pearce, Carol Ann. Amelia Earhart. New York: Facts on File, 1988. ISBN 0-8160-1520-1.
- Pellegrino, Anne Holtgren. World Flight: The Amelia Trail. Ames, Iowa: The Iowa State University Press, 1971. ISBN 0-8138-1760-9.
- Post, Wiley and Harold Gatty. "Chapter III, "Driving from the back seat." Around the World in Eight Days. New York: Rand McNally & Company, 1931.
- The Radio Amateur's Handbook. West Hartford, Connecticut: American Radio Relay League, 1945. No ISBN.
- Randolph, Blythe. Amelia Earhart. New York: Franklin Watts, 1987. ISBN 0-531-10331-5.
- Regis, Margaret. When Our Mothers Went to War: An Illustrated History of Women in World War II. Seattle: NavPublishing, 2008. ISBN 978-1879932050.
- Rich, Doris L. Amelia Earhart: A Biography. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1989. ISBN 1-56098-725-1.
- Safford, Laurance F. with Cameron A. Warren and Robert R. Payne. Earhart's Flight into Yesterday: The Facts Without the Fiction, McLean, Virginia: Paladwr Press, 2003. ISBN 1-888962-20-8.
- Sloate, Susan. Amelia Earhart: Challenging the Skies. New York: Fawcett Books, 1990. ISBN 978-0-449-90396-4 .
- Strippel, Richard G. Amelia Earhart: The Myth and the Reality. New York: Exposition Press, 1972. ISBN 0-682-47447-9.
- Strippel, Richard G. "Researching Amelia: A Detailed Summary for the Serious Researcher into the Disappearance of Amelia Earhart." Air Classics, Vol. 31, No. 11, November 1995.
- Thames, Richard. Amelia Earhart. New York: Franklin Watts, 1989. ISBN 0-531-10851-1.
- Van Pelt, Lori. Amelia Earhart: The Sky's No Limit. London: Macmillan, 2005. ISBN 978-0-7653-1061-3.
- Van Pelt, Lori. "Amelia's Autogiro Adventures." Aviation History, March 2008.
- Ware, Susan. Still Missing: Amelia Earhart and the Search for Modern Feminism. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1993. ISBN 0-393-03551-4.
- Wright, Monte Duane. Most Probable Position, A History of Aerial Navigation to 1941. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas, 1972. ISBN 0-7006-0092-2.
Additional resources[link]
- Barker, Ralph. Great Mysteries of the Air. London: Pan Books, 1966. ISBN 0-330-02096-X.
- Cady, Barbara. They Changed the World: 200 Icons Who Have Made a Difference. New York: Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers, 2003. ISBN 1-57912-328-7.
- Chapman, Sally Putnam, with Stephanie Mansfield. Whistled Like a Bird: The Untold Story of Dorothy Putnam, George Putnam and Amelia Earhart. New York: Warner Books, 1997. ISBN 0-446-52055-1.
- Haynsworth, Leslie and David Toomey. Amelia Earhart's Daughters: The Wild and Glorious Story of American Women Aviators from World War II to the Dawn of the Space Age. New York: Harper Collins Publishers Inc., 1998. ISBN 0-380-72984-9.
- Landsberg. Alan. In Search of Missing Persons. New York: Bantam Books, 1978. ISBN 0-553-11459-X.
- Moolman, Valerie. Women Aloft (The Epic of Flight series). Alexandria, Virginia: Time-Life Books, 1981. ISBN 0-8094-3287-0.
- Turner, Mary. The Women's Century: A Celebration of Changing Roles 1900–2000. Kew, Richmond, Surrey, UK: The National Archives, 2003. ISBN 1-903365-51-1.
External links[link]
|
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Amelia Earhart |
 |
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Amelia Earhart |
- A 1930's American Hope, Amelia Earhart, Essay by Mariette Vermeulen, April 3, 1997
- "George Palmer Putnam Collection of Amelia Earhart Papers," Purdue University Libraries
- Amelia Earhart Birthplace Museum
- Amelia Earhart Collection of Papers, Memorabilia and Artifacts The world's largest collection of Earhart photographs, artifacts and correspondence. More than 600 photos are now online
- Amelia Earhart's Flight Across America: Rediscovering a Legend
- Amelia Earhart Official Web site
- Amelia Earhart: On The Future Of Women In Flying (listen online)
- Museum of Women Pilots
- Amelia Earhart at Find a Grave
- Amelia Earhart Memorial flight Recreation
- Life and Mystery of Amelia Earhart slideshow by Life magazine
- Amelia Earhart interview following the 1932 transatlantic flight
- General Correspondence: Earhart, Amelia, 1932–1934, The Wilbur and Orville Wright Papers at the Library of Congress
- Speech by Amelia Earhart from the collection American English Dialect Recordings, Library of Congress
- CG cutter Itasca and the search for Earhart
- FBI file on Amelia Earhart
- Booknotes interview with Susan Butler on East to the Dawn: The Life of Amelia Earhart, December 14, 1997.
- Skeptoid #295: Finding Amelia Earhart at Skeptoid
|
||||||||
|
||||||||||||
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Earhart, Amelia Mary |
| Alternative names | A.E., "Mellie" and "Millie" (nicknames) |
| Short description | American aviator |
| Date of birth | July 24, 1897 |
| Place of birth | Atchison, Kansas, United States |
| Date of death | Unknown (missing since July 2, 1937) |
| Place of death | Unknown (missing over the Pacific Ocean) |
http://wn.com/Amelia_Earhart
Related pages:
http://it.wn.com/Amelia Earhart
http://cs.wn.com/Amelia Earhartová
http://id.wn.com/Amelia Earhart
http://es.wn.com/Amelia Earhart
http://ru.wn.com/Эрхарт, Амелия
http://pt.wn.com/Amelia Earhart
http://pl.wn.com/Amelia Earhart
http://fr.wn.com/Amelia Earhart
http://de.wn.com/Amelia Earhart
http://hi.wn.com/अमीलिया एरहार्ट
http://nl.wn.com/Amelia Earhart
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amelia_Earhart
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is about Walt Disney, the person. For the company he founded, see The Walt Disney Company. For other uses, see Walt Disney (disambiguation).
| Walt Disney | |
|---|---|
 Walt Disney on January 1, 1954 |
|
| Born | Walter Elias Disney (1901-12-05)December 5, 1901[1] Hermosa, Chicago, Illinois, U.S. |
| Died | December 15, 1966(1966-12-15) (aged 65) Burbank, California, U.S. |
| Cause of death | Lung Cancer |
| Resting place | Forest Lawn Memorial Park, Glendale, California, U.S. |
| Residence | Burbank, California |
| Nationality | American |
| Education | McKinley High School |
| Occupation | Film producer, Co-founder of The Walt Disney Company, formerly known as Walt Disney Productions |
| Years active | 1920–1966 |
| Home town | Chicago, Illinois |
| Political party | Republican |
| Board member of | The Walt Disney Company |
| Religion | Christian (Congregationalist)[2] |
| Spouse | Lillian Bounds (1925–1966; his death) |
| Children | Diane Marie Disney Sharon Mae Disney |
| Parents | Elias Disney Flora Call Disney |
| Relatives | Ronald William Miller (son-in-law) Robert Borgfeldt Brown (son-in-law) Roy Edward Disney (nephew) |
| Family | Herbert Arthur Disney (brother) Raymond Arnold Disney (brother) Roy Oliver Disney (brother) Ruth Flora Disney (sister) |
| Awards | 7 Emmy Awards, 22 Academy Awards, Cecil B.DeMille Award |
| Signature |  |
Walter Elias "Walt" Disney (December 5, 1901 – December 15, 1966) was an American film producer, director, screenwriter, voice actor, animator, entrepreneur, entertainer, international icon,[3] and philanthropist, well known for his influence in the field of entertainment during the 20th century. Along with his brother Roy O. Disney, he was co-founder of Walt Disney Productions, which later became one of the best-known motion picture producers in the world. The corporation is now known as The Walt Disney Company and had an annual revenue of approximately US$36 billion in the 2010 financial year.[4]
Disney is particularly noted as a film producer and a popular showman, as well as an innovator in animation and theme park design. He and his staff created some of the world's most well-known fictional characters including Mickey Mouse, for whom Disney himself provided the original voice. During his lifetime he received four honorary Academy Awards and won 22 Academy Awards from a total of 59 nominations, including a record four in one year,[5] giving him more awards and nominations than any other individual in history.[6] Disney also won seven Emmy Awards and gave his name to the Disneyland and Walt Disney World Resort theme parks in the U.S., as well as the international resorts Tokyo Disney Resort, Disneyland Paris, and Hong Kong Disneyland.
The year after his December 15, 1966 death from lung cancer in Burbank, California, construction began on Walt Disney World Resort in Florida. His brother Roy Disney inaugurated the Magic Kingdom on October 1, 1971.
Contents |
1901–1937: Beginnings[link]
Childhood[link]
File:Flora and Elias Disney.JPG
Walt’s parents, Elias and Flora (Call) Disney
Disney was born on December 5, 1901, at 2156 N. Tripp Avenue in Chicago's Hermosa community area to Irish-Canadian father Elias Disney and Flora Call Disney, who was of German and English descent.[7][8] His great-grandfather, Arundel Elias Disney, had emigrated from Gowran, County Kilkenny, Ireland where he was born in 1801. Arundel Disney was a descendant of Robert d'Isigny, a Frenchman who had travelled to England with William the Conqueror in 1066.[9] With the d'Isigny name anglicised as "Disney", the family settled in a village now known as Norton Disney, south of the city of Lincoln, in the county of Lincolnshire.
In 1878, Disney's father Elias had moved from Huron County, Ontario, Canada to the United States at first seeking gold in California before finally settling down to farm with his parents near Ellis, Kansas, until 1884. Elias worked for the Union Pacific Railroad and married Flora Call on January 1, 1888, in Acron, Florida. The family moved to Chicago, Illinois, in 1890,[10] hometown of his brother Robert[10] who helped Elias financially for most of his early life.[10] In 1906, when Walt was four, Elias and his family moved to a farm in Marceline, Missouri,[11] where his brother Roy had recently purchased farmland.[11] In Marceline, Disney developed his love for drawing[12] with one of the family's neighbors, a retired doctor named "Doc" Sherwood, paying him to draw pictures of Sherwood's horse, Rupert.[12] His interest in trains also developed in Marceline, a town that owed its existence to the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway which ran through it. Walt would put his ear to the tracks in anticipation of the coming train[8] then try and spot his uncle, engineer Michael Martin, conducting the train.
The Disneys remained in Marceline for four years,[13] before moving to Kansas City in 1911[14] where Walt and his younger sister Ruth attended the Benton Grammar School. At school he met Walter Pfeiffer who came from a family of theatre aficionados, and introduced Walt to the world of vaudeville and motion pictures. Before long Walt was spending more time at the Pfeiffers' than at home.[15] As well as attending Saturday courses at the Kansas City Art Institute,[16] Walt often took Ruth to Electric Park, 15 blocks from their home, which Disney would later acknowledge as a major influence of his design of Disneyland.[citation needed]
Teenage years[link]
In 1917, Elias acquired shares in the O-Zell jelly factory in Chicago and moved his family back to the city,[17] where in the fall Disney began his freshman year at McKinley High School and took night courses at the Chicago Art Institute.[18] He became the cartoonist for the school newspaper, drawing patriotic topics and focusing on World War I. Despite dropping out of high school at the age of sixteen to join the army, Disney was rejected for being underage.[19]
After his rejection by the army, Walt and a friend decided to join the Red Cross.[20] Soon after joining he was sent to France for a year, where he drove an ambulance, but only after the armistice was signed on November 11, 1918.[21]
Hoping to find work outside the Chicago O-Zell factory,[22] in 1919 Walt moved back to Kansas City to begin his artistic career.[23] After considering whether to become an actor or a newspaper artist, he decided on a career as a newspaper artist, drawing political caricatures or comic strips. But when nobody wanted to hire him as either an artist or even as an ambulance driver, his brother Roy, then working in a local bank, got Walt a temporary job through a bank colleague at the Pesmen-Rubin Art Studio[23] where he created advertisements for newspapers, magazines, and movie theaters.[24] At Pesmen-Rubin he met cartoonist Ubbe Iwerks[25] and when their time at the studio expired, they decided to start their own commercial company together.[26]
In January 1920, Disney and Iwerks formed a short-lived company called, "Iwerks-Disney Commercial Artists". However, following a rough start, Disney left temporarily to earn money at the Kansas City Film Ad Company, and was soon joined by Iwerks who was not able to run their business alone.[27] While working for the Kansas City Film Ad Company, where he made commercials based on cutout animations, Disney became interested in animation, and decided to become an animator.[28] The owner of the Ad Company, A.V. Cauger, allowed him to borrow a camera from work to experiment with at home. After reading the Edwin G. Lutz book Animated Cartoons: How They Are Made, Their Origin and Development, Disney considered cel animation to be much more promising than the cutout animation he was doing for Cauger. Walt eventually decided to open his own animation business,[29] and recruited a fellow co-worker at the Kansas City Film Ad Company, Fred Harman, as his first employee.[29] Walt and Harman then secured a deal with local theater owner Frank L. Newman, arguably the most popular "showman" in the Kansas City area at the time,[30] to screen their cartoons at his local theater, which they titled Laugh-O-Grams.[30]
Laugh-O-Gram Studio[link]
Presented as "Newman Laugh-O-Grams",[30] Disney's cartoons became widely popular in the Kansas City area[31] and through their success, he was able to acquire his own studio, also called Laugh-O-Gram,[32] for which he hired a vast number of additional animators, including Fred Harman's brother Hugh Harman, Rudolf Ising, and his close friend Ubbe Iwerks.[33] Unfortunately, studio profits were insufficient to cover the high salaries paid to employees. Unable to successfully manage money,[34] Disney's studio became loaded with debt[34] and wound up bankrupt[35] whereupon he decided to set up a studio in the movie industry's capital city, Hollywood, California.[36]
Hollywood[link]
Disney and his brother Roy pooled their money and set up a cartoon studio in Hollywood[37] where they needed to find a distributor for Walt's new Alice Comedies, which he had started making while in Kansas City[35] but never got to distribute. Disney sent an unfinished print to New York distributor Margaret Winkler, who promptly wrote back to him that she was keen on a distribution deal for more live-action/animated shorts based upon Alice's Wonderland.[38]
Alice Comedies[link]
Virginia Davis, the live-action star of Alice’s Wonderland and her family relocated from Kansas City to Hollywood at Disney's request, as did Iwerks and his family. This was the beginning of the Disney Brothers' Studio located on Hyperion Avenue in the Silver Lake district, where it remained until 1939. In 1925, Disney hired a young woman named Lillian Bounds to ink and paint celluloid. After a brief courtship, the pair married that same year.
The new series, Alice Comedies, proved reasonably successful, and featured both Dawn O'Day and Margie Gay as Alice with Lois Hardwick also briefly assuming the role. By the time the series ended in 1927, its focus was more on the animated characters and in particular a cat named Julius who resembled Felix the Cat, rather than the live-action Alice.
Oswald the Lucky Rabbit[link]
Main article: Oswald the Lucky Rabbit
By 1927, Charles Mintz had married Margaret Winkler and assumed control of her business. He then ordered a new all-animated series to be put into production for distribution through Universal Pictures. The new series, Oswald the Lucky Rabbit, was an almost instant success, and the character, Oswald — drawn and created by Iwerks — became a popular figure. The Disney studio expanded and Walt re-hired Harman, Rudolph Ising, Carman Maxwell, and Friz Freleng from Kansas City.
Disney went to New York in February 1928 to negotiate a higher fee per short and was shocked when Mintz told him that not only did he want to reduce the fee he paid Disney per short but also that he had most of his main animators, including Harman, Ising, Maxwell, and Freleng—but not Iwerks, who refused to leave Disney—under contract and would start his own studio if Disney did not accept the reduced production budgets. Universal, not Disney, owned the Oswald trademark, and could make the films without Walt. Disney declined Mintz's offer and as a result lost most of his animation staff whereupon he found himself on his own again.[39]
It subsequently took his company 78 years to get back the rights to the Oswald character when in 2006 the Walt Disney Company reacquired the rights to Oswald the Lucky Rabbit from NBC Universal, through a trade for longtime ABC sports commentator Al Michaels.[40]
Mickey Mouse[link]
Main article: Mickey Mouse
After losing the rights to Oswald, Disney felt the need to develop a new character to replace him, which was based on a mouse he had adopted as a pet while working in his Laugh-O-Gram studio in Kansas City.[41] Ub Iwerks reworked the sketches made by Disney to make the character easier to animate although Mickey's voice and personality were provided by Disney himself until 1947. In the words of one Disney employee, "Ub designed Mickey's physical appearance, but Walt gave him his soul."[41] Besides Oswald and Mickey, a similar mouse-character is seen in the Alice Comedies, which featured "Ike the Mouse". Moreover, the first Flip the Frog cartoon called Fiddlesticks showed a Mickey Mouse look-alike playing fiddle. The initial films were animated by Iwerks with his name prominently featured on the title cards. Originally named "Mortimer", the mouse was later re-christened "Mickey" by Lillian Disney who thought that the name Mortimer did not fit. Mortimer later became the name of Mickey's rival for Minnie – taller than his renowned adversary and speaking with a Brooklyn accent.
The first animated short to feature Mickey, Plane Crazy was a silent film like all of Disney's previous works. After failing to find a distributor for the short and its follow-up, The Gallopin' Gaucho, Disney created a Mickey cartoon with sound called Steamboat Willie. A businessman named Pat Powers provided Disney with both distribution and Cinephone, a sound-synchronization process. Steamboat Willie became an instant success,[42] and Plane Crazy, The Galloping Gaucho, and all future Mickey cartoons were released with soundtracks. After the release of Steamboat Willie, Disney successfully used sound in all of his subsequent cartoons, and Cinephone also became the new distributor for Disney's early sound cartoons.[43] Mickey soon eclipsed Felix the Cat as the world's most popular cartoon character[41] and by 1930, despite their having sound, cartoons featuring Felix had faded from the screen after failing to gain attention.[44] Mickey's popularity would subsequently skyrocket in the early 1930s.[41]
[edit] Silly Symphonies
Following in the footsteps of Mickey Mouse series, a series of musical shorts titled, Silly Symphonies were released in 1929. The first, The Skeleton Dance was entirely drawn and animated by Iwerks, who was also responsible for drawing the majority of cartoons released by Disney in 1928 and 1929. Although both series were successful, the Disney studio thought it was not receiving its rightful share of profits from Pat Powers,[45] and in 1930, Disney signed a new distribution deal with Columbia Pictures. The original basis of the cartoons was their musical novelty with the first Silly Symphony cartoons featuring scores by Carl Stalling.[46]
Iwerks was soon lured by Powers into opening his own studio with an exclusive contract, while Stalling would also later leave Disney to join Iwerks.[47] Iwerks launched his Flip the Frog series with the first voiced color cartoon Fiddlesticks, filmed in two-strip Technicolor. Iwerks also created two other cartoon series, Willie Whopper and the Comicolor. In 1936, Iwerks shut down his studio in order to work on various projects dealing with animation technology. He would return to Disney in 1940 and go on to pioneer a number of film processes and specialized animation technologies in the studio's research and development department.
By 1932, although Mickey Mouse had become a relatively popular cinema character, Silly Symphonies was not as successful. The same year also saw competition increase as Max Fleischer's flapper cartoon character, Betty Boop, gained popularity among theater audiences.[48] Fleischer, considered Disney's main rival in the 1930s,[49] was also the father of Richard Fleischer, whom Disney would later hire to direct his 1954 film 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea. Meanwhile, Columbia Pictures dropped the distribution of Disney cartoons to be replaced by United Artists.[50] In late 1932, Herbert Kalmus, who had just completed work on the first three-strip technicolor camera,[51] approached Walt and convinced him to reshoot the black and white Flowers and Trees in three-strip Technicolor.[52] Flowers and Trees would go on to be a phenomenal success and would also win the first 1932 Academy Award for Best Short Subject: Cartoons. After the release of Flowers and Trees, all subsequent Silly Symphony cartoons were in color while Disney was also able to negotiate a two-year deal with Technicolor, giving him the sole right to use their three-strip process,[53][54] a period eventually extended to five years.[46] Through Silly Symphonies, Disney also created his most successful cartoon short of all time, The Three Little Pigs (1933).[55] The cartoon ran in theaters for many months, featuring the hit song that became the anthem of the Great Depression, "Who's Afraid of the Big Bad Wolf".[56]
First Academy Award[link]
In 1932, Disney received a special Academy Award for the creation of "Mickey Mouse", a series which switched to color in 1935 and soon launched spin-offs for supporting characters such as Donald Duck, Goofy, and Pluto. Pluto and Donald became standalone cartoons in 1937,[57] with Goofy following in 1939.[58] Of all Mickey's partners, Donald Duck, who first teamed up with Mickey in the 1934 cartoon, Orphan's Benefit, was arguably the most popular, going on to become Disney's second most successful cartoon character of all time.[59]
Children[link]
The Disneys' first attempt at pregnancy ended in miscarriage. Lillian became pregnant again and gave birth to a daughter, Diane Marie Disney, on December 18, 1933.[60] Later, the Disneys adopted Sharon Mae Disney (December 31, 1936 – February 16, 1993).[61]
Diane married Ron Miller at the age of 20 and is known as Diane Disney Miller. The Millers established and own a winery called Silverado Vineyards in California.[62] Diane and Ron Miller have seven children: Christopher, Joanna, Tamara, Jennifer, Walter, Ronald and Patrick.[63] Years later, Diane went on to become the cofounder of The Walt Disney Family Museum, with the aid of her children.[60] The museum was created to preserve her father's image and reach out to millions of Disney fans worldwide.[64] The museum displays a chronological view of Walt Disney's life through personal artifacts, interactive kiosks and various animations.[64]
Sharon Mae Disney was born December 31, 1936, in Los Angeles, California and was later adopted by the Disneys, due to Lillian's several birth complications.[63][65] In 1950, Sharon went on to star as herself in the Walt Disney Studios special One Hour in Wonderland.[66] Sharon married Robert Brown in 1958, with whom she had one child, and they remained married until his death in 1967.[65] Sharon married William Lund in 1969 and had two children with him, but six years later they divorced.[65][67] Sharon was a philanthropist and had contributed to charities such as the Marianne Frostig Center of Educational Therapy and the Curtis School foundation.[68] In 1993 at the age of 57, Sharon died from cancer at St. John's Hospital in Santa Monica, California.[65] After Sharon's death, her estate donated $11 million to the California School of Performing Arts, where she was a member of the board of trustees for almost two decades. Sharon's donation was commemorated by renaming the School of Dance the Sharon D. Lund School of Dance.[60][69]
1937–1941: Golden age of animation[link]
[edit] "Disney's Folly": Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs
.jpg)
Following the creation of two cartoon series, in 1934 Disney began planning a full-length feature. The following year, opinion polls showed that another cartoon series, Popeye the Sailor, produced by Max Fleischer, was more popular than Mickey Mouse.[70] Nevertheless, Disney was able to put Mickey back on top as well as increase his popularity by colorizing and partially redesigning the character to become what was considered his most appealing design to date.[41] When the film industry learned of Disney's plans to produce an animated feature-length version of Snow White, they were certain that the endeavor would destroy the Disney Studio and dubbed the project "Disney's Folly". Both Lillian and Roy tried to talk Disney out of the project, but he continued plans for the feature, employing Chouinard Art Institute professor Don Graham to start a training operation for the studio staff. Disney then used the Silly Symphonies as a platform for experiments in realistic human animation, distinctive character animation, special effects, and the use of specialized processes and apparatus such as the multiplane camera – a new technique first used by Disney in the 1937 Silly Symphonies short The Old Mill.[71]
All of this development and training was used to increase quality at the studio and to ensure that the feature film would match Disney's quality expectations. Entitled Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, the feature went into full production in 1934 and continued until mid-1937, when the studio ran out of money. To obtain the funding to complete Snow White, Disney had to show a rough cut of the motion picture to loan officers. The film premiered at the Carthay Circle Theater on December 21, 1937 and at its conclusion the audience gave Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs a standing ovation. Snow White, the first animated feature in America made in Technicolor, was released in February 1938 under a new distribution deal with RKO Radio Pictures. RKO had been the distributor for Disney cartoons in 1936, after it closed down the Van Beuren Studios in exchange for distribution.[72] The film became the most successful motion picture of 1938 and earned over $8 million on its initial release. These initial release earnings for Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs would be the equivalent of $122,487,945 in 2010.[73]
Golden age of animation[link]
Following the success of Snow White, for which Disney received one full-size, and seven miniature Oscar statuettes, he was able to build a new campus for the Walt Disney Studios in Burbank, which opened for business on December 24, 1939. Snow White was not only the peak of Disney's success, but also ushered in a period that would later be known as the Golden Age of Animation for the studio.[74][75] Feature animation staff, having just completed Pinocchio, continued work on Fantasia and Bambi as well as the early production stages of Alice in Wonderland, Peter Pan and Wind in the Willows while the shorts staff carried on working on the Mickey Mouse, Donald Duck, Goofy, and Pluto cartoon series, ending the Silly Symphonies at this time.[clarification needed More info needed on end of the Silly Symphonies to make a new and separate sentence.] Animator Fred Moore had redesigned Mickey Mouse in the late 1930s after Donald Duck overtook him in popularity among theater audiences.[76]
Pinocchio and Fantasia followed Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs into the movie theaters in 1940, but both proved financial disappointments. The inexpensive Dumbo was then planned as an income generator, but during production most of the animation staff went on strike, permanently straining relations between Disney and his artists.
1941–1945: World War II era[link]
In 1941, the U.S. State Department sent Disney and a group of animators to South America as part of its Good Neighbor policy, at the same time guaranteeing financing for the resultant movie, Saludos Amigos.[77]
Shortly after the release of Dumbo in October 1941, the US entered World War II. The U.S. Army and Navy Bureau of Aeronautics[78] contracted most of the Disney studio's facilities where the staff created training and instruction films for the military, home-front morale-boosting shorts such as Der Fuehrer's Face and the 1943 feature film Victory Through Air Power. However, military films did not generate income, and the feature film Bambi underperformed on its release in April 1942. Disney successfully re-issued Snow White in 1944, establishing a seven-year re-release tradition for his features. In 1945, The Three Caballeros was the last animated feature released by the studio during the war.
In 1944, Encyclopædia Britannica publisher William Benton, entered into unsuccessful negotiations with Disney to make six to twelve educational films per annum. Disney was asked by the US Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs, Office of Inter-American Affairs (OIAA), to make an educational film about the Amazon Basin, which resulted in the 1944 animated short, The Amazon Awakens.[79][80][81][82][83]
1945–1955: Post-war period[link]
Disney studios also created inexpensive package films, containing collections of cartoon shorts, and issued them to theaters during this period. These included Make Mine Music (1946), Melody Time (1948), Fun and Fancy Free (1947) and The Adventures of Ichabod and Mr. Toad (1949). The latter had only two sections, the first based on The Wind in the Willows by Kenneth Grahame, and the second on The Legend of Sleepy Hollow by Washington Irving. During this period, Disney also ventured into full-length dramatic films that mixed live action and animated scenes, including Song of the South and So Dear to My Heart. After the war ended, Mickey's popularity would also fade.[84]
By the late 1940s, the studio had recovered enough to continue production on the full-length features Alice in Wonderland and Peter Pan, both of which had been shelved during the war years. Work also began on Cinderella, which became Disney's most successful film since Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs. In 1948 the studio also initiated a series of live-action nature films, titled True-Life Adventures, with On Seal Island the first. Despite its resounding success with feature films, the studio's animation shorts were no longer as popular as they once were, with people paying more attention to Warner Bros. and their animation star Bugs Bunny. By 1942, Leon Schlesinger Productions, which produced the Warner Bros. cartoons, had become the country's most popular animation studio.[85] However, while Bugs Bunny's popularity rose in the 1940s, so did Donald Duck's,[86] a character who would replace Mickey Mouse as Disney's star character by 1949.[87]
During the mid-1950s, Disney produced a number of educational films on the space program in collaboration with NASA rocket designer Wernher von Braun: Man in Space and Man and the Moon in 1955, and Mars and Beyond in 1957.
Disney and the Second Red Scare[link]
Disney was a founding member of the anti-communist group Motion Picture Alliance for the Preservation of American Ideals. In 1947, during the Second Red Scare,[88] Disney testified before the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC), where he branded Herbert Sorrell, David Hilberman and William Pomerance, former animators and labor union organizers, Communist agitators. All three men denied the allegations and Sorrell went on to testify before the HUAC in 1946 when insufficient evidence was found to link him to the Communist Party.[89][90]
Disney also accused the Screen Cartoonists Guild of being a Communist front, and charged that the 1941 strike was part of an organized Communist effort to gain influence in Hollywood.[88]
1955–1966: Theme parks and beyond[link]
Planning Disneyland[link]
On a business trip to Chicago in the late-1940s, Disney drew sketches of his ideas for an amusement park where he envisioned his employees spending time with their children. The idea for a children's theme park came after a visit to Children's Fairyland in Oakland, California. It also said that Disney may have been inspired to create Disneyland in the park Republic of the Children located in Manuel B. Gonnet, La Plata, Argentina, and opened in 1951.[91] This plan was originally intended to be built on a plot located across the street to the south of the studio. These original ideas developed into a concept for a larger enterprise that would become Disneyland. Disney spent five years developing Disneyland and created a new subsidiary company, WED Enterprises, to carry out planning and production of the park. A small group of Disney studio employees joined the Disneyland development project as engineers and planners, and were dubbed Imagineers.[citation needed]
As Disney explained one of his earliest plans to Herb Ryman, who created the first aerial drawing of Disneyland presented to the Bank of America during fund raising for the project, he said, "Herbie, I just want it to look like nothing else in the world. And it should be surrounded by a train."[92] Entertaining his daughters and their friends in his backyard and taking them for rides on his Carolwood Pacific Railroad had inspired Disney to include a railroad in the plans for Disneyland.
Disneyland grand opening[link]
File:Waltopening.jpg
Walt Disney giving the dedication day speech July 17, 1955
Disneyland officially opened on July 18, 1955. On Sunday, July 17, 1955, Disneyland hosted a live TV preview, among the thousands of people in attendance were Ronald Reagan, Bob Cummings and Art Linkletter, who shared cohosting duties, as well as the mayor of Anaheim. Walt gave the following dedication day speech:
| “ | To all who come to this happy place; welcome. Disneyland is your land. Here age relives fond memories of the past .... and here youth may savor the challenge and promise of the future. Disneyland is dedicated to the ideals, the dreams and the hard facts that have created America ... with the hope that it will be a source of joy and inspiration to all the world. | ” |
Carolwood Pacific Railroad[link]
Main article: Carolwood Pacific Railroad
During 1949, Disney and his family moved to a new home on a large piece of land in the Holmby Hills district of Los Angeles, California. With the help of his friends Ward and Betty Kimball, who already had their own backyard railroad, Disney developed blueprints and immediately set to work on creating a miniature live steam railroad for his backyard. The name of the railroad, Carolwood Pacific Railroad, came from his home's location on Carolwood Drive. The railroad's half-mile long layout included a 46-foot (14 m) long trestle bridge, loops, overpasses, gradients, an elevated berm, and a 90-foot (27 m) tunnel underneath his wife's flowerbed. He named the miniature working steam locomotive built by Disney Studios engineer Roger E. Broggie Lilly Belle in his wife's honor and had his attorney draw up right-of-way papers giving the railroad a permanent, legal easement through the garden areas, which his wife dutifully signed; however, there is no evidence of the documents ever recorded as a restriction on the property's title.[clarification needed]
Expansion into new areas[link]
As Walt Disney Productions began work on Disneyland, it also began expanding its other entertainment operations. In 1950, Treasure Island became the studio's first all-live-action feature, soon followed by 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea (in CinemaScope, 1954), Old Yeller (1957), The Shaggy Dog (1959), Pollyanna (1960), Swiss Family Robinson (1960), The Absent-Minded Professor (1961), and The Parent Trap (1961). The studio produced its first TV special, One Hour in Wonderland, in 1950. Disney began hosting a weekly anthology series on ABC entitled Disneyland, after the park, on which he aired clips of past Disney productions, gave tours of his studio, and familiarized the public with Disneyland as it was being constructed in Anaheim. The show also featured a Davy Crockett miniseries, which started the "Davy Crockett craze" among American youth, during which millions of coonskin caps and other Crockett memorabilia were sold across the country.[93] In 1955, the studio's first daily television show, Mickey Mouse Club debuted on ABC. It was a groundbreaking comedy/variety show aimed specifically for children. Disney took a strong personal interest in the show and even returned to the animation studio to voice Mickey Mouse in its animated segments during its original 1955-59 production run. The Mickey Mouse Club would continue in various incarnations in syndication and on the Disney Channel into the 1990s.
As the studio expanded and diversified into other media, Disney devoted less of his attention to the animation department, entrusting most of its operations to his key animators, whom he dubbed the Nine Old Men. Although he was spending less time supervising the production of the animated films, he was always present at story meetings.[94] During Disney's lifetime, the animation department created the successful Lady and the Tramp ( the first animated film in CinemaScope) in 1955, Sleeping Beauty ( the first animated film in Super Technirama 70mm) in 1959, One Hundred and One Dalmatians (the first animated feature film to use Xerox cels) in 1961, and The Sword in the Stone in 1963.
Production of short cartoons kept pace until 1956, when Disney shut down the responsible division although special shorts projects would continue for the remainder of the studio's duration on an irregular basis. These productions were all distributed by Disney's new subsidiary, Buena Vista Distribution, which had taken over all distribution duties for Disney films from RKO by 1955. Disneyland, one of the world's first theme parks, finally opened on July 17, 1955, and was immediately successful. Visitors from around the world came to visit Disneyland, which contained attractions based on a number of successful Disney characters and films.
After 1955, the Disneyland TV show was renamed Walt Disney Presents. It switched from black-and-white to color in 1961 and changed its name to Walt Disney's Wonderful World of Color, at the same time moving from ABC to NBC,[95] and eventually evolving into its current form as The Wonderful World of Disney. The series continued to air on NBC until 1981, when it was picked up by CBS.[96] Since then, it has aired on ABC, NBC, the Hallmark Channel and the Cartoon Network via separate broadcast rights deals. During its run, the Disney series offered some recurring characters, such as the newspaper reporter and sleuth "Gallegher" played by Roger Mobley with a plot based on the writings of Richard Harding Davis.
Disney had already formed his own music publishing division in 1949 and in 1956, partly inspired by the huge success of the television theme song The Ballad of Davy Crockett, he created a company-owned record production and distribution entity called Disneyland Records.
Early 1960s successes[link]
File:Shermans042.jpg
(Left to right) Robert B. Sherman, Richard M. Sherman and Walt Disney sing "There's a Great Big Beautiful Tomorrow" (1964)
By the early 1960s, the Disney empire had become a major success, and Walt Disney Productions had established itself as the world's leading producer of family entertainment. Walt Disney was the Head of Pageantry for the 1960 Winter Olympics.
After decades of pursuit, Disney finally acquired the rights to P.L. Travers' books about a magical nanny. Mary Poppins, released in 1964, was the most successful Disney film of the 1960s and featured a memorable song score written by Disney favorites, the Sherman Brothers. The same year, Disney debuted a number of exhibits at the 1964 New York World's Fair, including Audio-Animatronic figures, all of which were later integrated into attractions at Disneyland and a new theme park project which was to be established on the East Coast.
Although the studio would probably have proved major competition for Hanna-Barbera, Disney decided not to enter the race and mimic Hanna-Barbera by producing Saturday morning TV cartoon series. With the expansion of Disney's empire and constant production of feature films, the financial burden involved in such a move would have proven too great.
Plans for Disney World and EPCOT[link]
In early 1964, Disney announced plans to develop another theme park to be called Disney World a few miles southwest of Orlando, Florida. Disney World was to include "the Magic Kingdom", a larger, more elaborate version of Disneyland. It would also feature a number of golf courses and resort hotels. The heart of Disney World, however, was to be the Experimental Prototype City (or Community) of Tomorrow, known as EPCOT for short.
Mineral King Ski Resort[link]
During the early-to-mid 1960s, Walt Disney developed plans for a ski resort in Mineral King, a glacial valley in California's Sierra Nevada mountain range. He brought in experts such as the renowned Olympic ski coach and ski-area designer Willy Schaeffler, who helped plan a visitor village, ski runs and ski lifts among the several bowls surrounding the valley. Plans finally moved into action in the mid 1960s, but Walt died before the actual work started. Disney's death and opposition from conservationists ensured that the resort was never built.
Death[link]
Like many people of the time, Walt Disney was a chain smoker his entire adult life, although he made sure he was not seen smoking around children.[97] In 1966, Disney was scheduled to undergo surgery to repair an old neck injury[98] caused by many years of playing polo at the Riviera Club in Hollywood.[99] On November 2, during pre-operative X-rays, doctors at Providence St. Joseph Medical Center, across the street from the Disney Studio, discovered a tumor in his left lung.[100] Five days later a biopsy showed the tumor to be malignant and to have spread throughout the entire left lung.[100] After removal of the lung, doctors informed Disney that his life expectancy was six months to two years.[100] After several chemotherapy sessions, Disney and his wife spent a short amount of time in Palm Springs, California.[98] On November 30, Disney collapsed at his home. He was revived by fire department personnel and rushed to St. Joseph's where on December 15, 1966, at 9:30 a.m., ten days after his 65th birthday, Disney died of acute circulatory collapse, caused by lung cancer.[98] The last thing he reportedly wrote before his death was the name of actor Kurt Russell, the significance of which remains a mystery, even to Russell.[101]
Roy O. Disney continued out with the Florida project, insisting that the name be changed to Walt Disney World in honor of his brother.
The final productions in which Disney played an active role were the animated feature The Jungle Book and the animated short Winnie the Pooh and the Blustery Day, as well as the live-action musical feature The Happiest Millionaire, all released in 1967. Songwriter Robert B. Sherman recalled of the last time he saw Disney:
| “ | He was up in the third floor of the animation building after a run-through of The Happiest Millionaire. He usually held court in the hallway afterward for the people involved with the picture. And he started talking to them, telling them what he liked and what they should change, and then, when they were through, he turned to us and with a big smile, he said, 'Keep up the good work, boys.' And he walked to his office. It was the last we ever saw of him.[102] | ” |
Hibernation Urban Legend[link]
A long-standing urban legend maintains that Disney was cryogenically frozen, and his frozen corpse stored beneath the Pirates of the Caribbean ride at Disneyland.[103] In fact, Disney was cremated on December 17, 1966, and his ashes interred at the Forest Lawn Memorial Park in Glendale, California. The first known human cryogenic freezing did not occur until January 1967, more than a month after Disney's death.[103]
According to "at least one Disney publicist", as reported in the French magazine Ici Paris in 1969, the source of the rumor was a group of Disney Studio animators with "a bizarre sense of humor" who were playing a final prank on their late boss.[104]
Although the rumor is acknowledged as false by most historians, Robert Mosley (in Disney’s World (1986)) and Marc Eliot (in Walt Disney – Hollywood’s Dark Prince (1993)) argue that Disney may have known of cryonics and may have had an interest in the science.[105] However his daughter Diane wrote in 1972, "There is absolutely no truth to the rumor that my father, Walt Disney, wished to be frozen. I doubt that my father had ever heard of cryonics."[104]
Legacy: 1967–present[link]
Continuing Disney Productions[link]
After Walt Disney's death, Roy Disney returned from retirement to take full control of Walt Disney Productions and WED Enterprises. In October 1971, the families of Walt and Roy met in front of Cinderella Castle at the Magic Kingdom to officially open the Walt Disney World Resort.
After giving his dedication for Walt Disney World, Roy asked Lillian Disney to join him. As the orchestra played "When You Wish upon a Star", she stepped up to the podium accompanied by Mickey Mouse. He then said, "Lilly, you knew all of Walt's ideas and hopes as well as anybody; what would Walt think of it [Walt Disney World]?". "I think Walt would have approved," she replied.[106] Roy died from a cerebral hemorrhage on December 20, 1971, the day he was due to open the Disneyland Christmas parade.
During the second phase of the "Walt Disney World" theme park, EPCOT was translated by Disney's successors into EPCOT Center, which opened in 1982. As it currently exists, EPCOT is essentially a living world's fair, different from the actual functional city that Disney had envisioned. In 1992, Walt Disney Imagineering took the step closer to Disney's original ideas and dedicated Celebration, Florida, a town built by the Walt Disney Company adjacent to Walt Disney World, that hearkens back to the spirit of EPCOT. EPCOT was also originally intended to be devoid of Disney characters which initially limited the appeal of the park to young children. However, the company later changed this policy and Disney characters can now be found throughout the park, often dressed in costumes reflecting the different pavilions.
The Disney entertainment empire[link]
Today, Walt Disney's animation/motion picture studios and theme parks have developed into a multi-billion dollar television, motion picture, vacation destination and media corporation that carry his name. Among other assets The Walt Disney Company owns five vacation resorts, eleven theme parks, two water parks, thirty-nine hotels, eight motion picture studios, six record labels, eleven cable television networks, and one terrestrial television network. As of 2007, the company had annual revenues of over U.S. $35 billion.[107]
Disney Animation[link]
Walt Disney was a pioneer in character animation. He was one of the first people to move away from basic cartoons with just "impossible outlandish gags" and crudely drawn characters to an art form with heartwarming stories and characters the audience can connect to on an emotional level. The personality displayed in the characters of his films and the technological advancements remain influential when animating today. He was also considered by many of his colleagues to be a master storyteller and the animation department did not fully recover from his demise until the late 1980s in a period known as the Disney Renaissance. The most financially and critically successful films produced during this time include Who Framed Roger Rabbit (1988), The Little Mermaid (1989), Beauty and the Beast (1991), Aladdin (1992) and The Lion King (1994). In 1995, Walt Disney Pictures distributed Pixar's Toy Story, the first computer animated feature film. Walt Disney's nephew Roy E. Disney claimed that Walt would have loved Toy Story and that it was "his kind of movie".[108] With the rise of computer animated films a stream of financially unsuccessful Traditional hand-drawn animated features in the early years of the 2000s (decade) emerged. This led to the company's controversial decision to close the traditional animation department. The two satellite studios in Paris and Orlando were closed, and the main studio in Burbank was converted to a computer animation production facility, firing hundreds of people in the process. In 2004, Disney released what was announced as their final "traditionally animated" feature film, Home on the Range. However, since the 2006 acquisition of Pixar, and the resulting rise of John Lasseter to Chief Creative Officer, that position has changed with the largely successful 2009 film The Princess and the Frog. This marked Disney's return to traditional hand-drawn animation and the studio hired back staff who had been laid-off in the past. Today, Disney produces both traditional and computer animation.
CalArts[link]
In his later years, Disney devoted substantial time to funding The California Institute of the Arts (CalArts). Formed in 1961 through a merger of the Los Angeles Conservatory of Music and the Chouinard Art Institute, which had helped in the training of the animation staff during the 1930s, when Disney died, one-fourth of his estate went to CalArts, which helped in building its campus. In his will, Disney paved the way for the creation of several charitable trusts which included one for the California Institute of the Arts and other for the Disney Foundation.[109] He also donated 38 acres (0.154 km2) of the Golden Oaks ranch in Valencia for construction of the school. CalArts moved onto the Valencia campus in 1972.
In an early admissions bulletin, Disney explained: "A hundred years ago, Wagner conceived of a perfect and all-embracing art, combining music, drama, painting, and the dance, but in his wildest imagination he had no hint what infinite possibilities were to become commonplace through the invention of recording, radio, cinema and television. There already have been geniuses combining the arts in the mass-communications media, and they have already given us powerful new art forms. The future holds bright promise for those who imaginations are trained to play on the vast orchestra of the art-in-combination. Such supermen will appear most certainly in those environments which provide contact with all the arts, but even those who devote themselves to a single phase of art will benefit from broadened horizons."[110]
Walt Disney Family Museum[link]
In 2009, The Walt Disney Family Museum opened in the Presidio of San Francisco. Thousands of artifacts from Disney's life and career are on display, including 248 awards that he received.[111]
Antisemitism accusations[link]
Disney was long rumored to be antisemitic during his lifetime, and such rumors have persisted after his death. Indeed, in the 1930s he welcomed German filmmaker and Nazi propagandist Leni Riefenstahl to Hollywood.[112] Disney biographer Neal Gabler, the first writer to gain unrestricted access to the Disney archives, concluded in 2006 that available evidence does not support such accusations. In a CBS interview Gabler summarized his findings:
| “ | That's one of the questions everybody asks me... My answer to that is, not in the conventional sense that we think of someone as being an antisemite. But he got the reputation because, in the 1940s, he got himself allied with a group called the Motion Picture Alliance for the Preservation of American Ideals, which was an anti-Communist and antisemitic organization. And though Walt himself, in my estimation, was not antisemitic, nevertheless, he willingly allied himself with people who were antisemitic, and that reputation stuck. He was never really able to expunge it throughout his life.[113] | ” |
Disney eventually distanced himself from the Motion Picture Alliance in the 1950s.[114]
The Walt Disney Family Museum acknowledges that Disney did have "difficult relationships" with some Jewish individuals, and that ethnic stereotypes common to films of the 1930s were included in some early cartoons, such as Three Little Pigs and The Opry House. However, the museum points out that Disney employed Jews throughout his career, donated to several Jewish charities (The Hebrew Orphan Asylum, Yeshiva College[disambiguation needed 
], Jewish Home for the Aged, The American League for a Free Palestine)[114] and was named "1955 Man of the Year" by the B'nai B'rith chapter in Beverly Hills.[114][115]
Academy Awards[link]
Walt Disney holds the record for both the most Academy Award nominations (59) and the number of Oscars awarded (22). He also earned four honorary Oscars. His last competitive Academy Award was posthumous.[116]
- 1932: Best Short Subject, Cartoons: Flowers and Trees (1932)
- 1932: Honorary Award for creation of Mickey Mouse.
- 1934: Best Short Subject, Cartoons: Three Little Pigs (1933)
- 1935: Best Short Subject, Cartoons: The Tortoise and the Hare (1934)
- 1936: Best Short Subject, Cartoons: Three Orphan Kittens (1935)
- 1937: Best Short Subject, Cartoons: The Country Cousin (1936)
- 1938: Best Short Subject, Cartoons: The Old Mill (1937)
- 1939: Best Short Subject, Cartoons: Ferdinand the Bull (1938)
- 1939: Honorary Award for Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937) The citation read, "For Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, recognized as a significant screen innovation which has charmed millions and pioneered a great new entertainment field." (The award, unique in the history of the Oscars, is one large statuette and seven miniature statuettes.)[5]
- 1940: Best Short Subject, Cartoons: Ugly Duckling (1939)
- 1941: Honorary Award for Fantasia (1940), shared with: William E. Garity and J.N.A. Hawkins. The citation for the certificate of merit read, "For their outstanding contribution to the advancement of the use of sound in motion pictures through the production of Fantasia."[5]
- 1942: Best Short Subject, Cartoons: Lend a Paw (1941)
- 1943: Best Short Subject, Cartoons: Der Fuehrer's Face (1942)
- 1949: Best Short Subject, Two-reel: Seal Island (1948)
- 1949: Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award (Honorary Award)
- 1951: Best Short Subject, Two-reel: Beaver Valley (1950)
- 1952: Best Short Subject, Two-reel: Nature's Half Acre (1951)
- 1953: Best Short Subject, Two-reel: Water Birds (1952)
- 1954: Best Documentary, Features: The Living Desert (1953)
- 1954: Best Documentary, Short Subjects: The Alaskan Eskimo (1953)
- 1954: Best Short Subject, Cartoons: Toot Whistle Plunk and Boom (1953)
- 1954: Best Short Subject, Two-reel: Bear Country (1953)
- 1955: Best Documentary, Features: The Vanishing Prairie (1954)
- 1956: Best Documentary, Short Subjects: Men Against the Arctic
- 1959: Best Short Subject, Live Action Subjects: Grand Canyon
- 1969: Best Short Subject, Cartoons: Winnie the Pooh and the Blustery Day
Other honors[link]
Walt Disney was the inaugural recipient of a star on the Anaheim walk of stars awarded in recognition of his significant contribution to the city of Anaheim and specifically Disneyland, which is now the Disneyland Resort. The star is located at the pedestrian entrance to the Disneyland Resort on Harbor Boulevard. Disney has two stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, one for motion pictures and the other for his television work.
Walt Disney received the Congressional Gold Medal on May 24, 1968 (P.L. 90-316, 82 Stat. 130–131) and the Légion d'Honneur awarded by France in 1935.[117] In 1935, Walt received a special medal from the League of Nations for creation of Mickey Mouse, held to be Mickey Mouse award.[118] He also received the Presidential Medal of Freedom on September 14, 1964.[119] On December 6, 2006, California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and First Lady Maria Shriver inducted Walt Disney into the California Hall of Fame located at The California Museum for History, Women, and the Arts.
A minor planet, 4017 Disneya, discovered in 1980 by Soviet astronomer Lyudmila Karachkina, is named after him.[120]
The Walt Disney Concert Hall in Los Angeles, California, opened in 2003, was named in his honor.
Waltograph, a freeware typeface, is based on his signature and handwriting.
In 1993, HBO began development of a Walt Disney biopic, directed by Frank Pierson and produced by Lawrence Turman, but the project never materialized and was soon abandoned.[121] However, Walt - The Man Behind the Myth, a biographical documentary about Disney, was later made.[122]
| Preceded by None |
Voice of Mickey Mouse 1928–1947, 1955-1959 |
Succeeded by Jimmy MacDonald |
See also[link]
Notes[link]
- ^ "Walt Disney". IMDB. http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0000370/. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ http://www.disneydreamer.com/Waltfaith.htm
- ^ Dave Bryan (2002-08-13). "Walt Disney Helped Wernher von Braun Sell Americans on Space". Associated Press. http://www.space.com/news/spacehistory/vonbraun_disney_020813.html. Retrieved 2010-09-27. [dead link]
- ^ "2010 Form 10-K, Walt Disney Company". United States Securities and Exchange Commission. http://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1001039/000119312510268910/d10k.htm.
- ^ a b c "Walt Disney Academy awards". Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. http://awardsdatabase.oscars.org/index.jsp. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ "Results Page - Academy Awards Database". http://awardsdatabase.oscars.org/ampas_awards/help/helpMain.jsp?helpContentURL=statistics/indexStats.html. Retrieved 16 February 2012.
- ^ "Walt Disney, the man behind the mouse". Chicago Sun-Times. 2009-09-27. http://www.suntimes.com/lifestyles/1790811,disney-walt-museum-san-francisco-092709.article. Retrieved 2010-10-21. [dead link]
- ^ a b "Walt Disney biography". Just Disney. Archived from the original on 2008-06-05. http://web.archive.org/web/20080605151444/http://www.justdisney.com/WaltDisney100/biography01.html. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ Disneyland Paris. Michelin. 2002-08-07. p. 38. ISBN 2-06-048002-7.
- ^ a b c Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 7.
- ^ a b Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 9-10.
- ^ a b Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 15.
- ^ "Walt Disney Hometown Museum". Walt Disney Museum. http://www.waltdisneymuseum.org/. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 18.
- ^ Thomas 1991, pp. 33–41
- ^ "Biography of Walt Disney, Film Producer – kchistory.org – Retrieved September 14, 2009". Kchistory.org. http://kchistory.org/cdm4/item_viewer.php?CISOROOT=/Biographies&CISOPTR=31&CISOBOX=1&REC=2. Retrieved 2011-05-31.
- ^ Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 30.
- ^ Thomas 1991, pp. 42–43
- ^ Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 36.
- ^ Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 37.
- ^ Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 38.
- ^ Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 42.
- ^ a b Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 44.
- ^ Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 45.
- ^ Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 46.
- ^ Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 48.
- ^ Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 51.
- ^ Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 52.
- ^ a b Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 56.
- ^ a b c Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 57.
- ^ Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 58.
- ^ Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 64.
- ^ Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 64-71.
- ^ a b Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 68.
- ^ a b Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 72.
- ^ Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 75.
- ^ Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 78.
- ^ Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 80.
- ^ Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 109.
- ^ Stay 'tooned: Disney gets 'Oswald' for Al Michaels, at ESPN web site, retrieved January 4, 2010
- ^ a b c d e Solomon, Charles. "The Golden Age of Mickey Mouse". Disney. Archived from the original on 2008-07-10. http://web.archive.org/web/20080710052034/http://disney.go.com/disneyatoz/familymuseum/exhibits/articles/mickeymousegoldenage/index.html. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 128.
- ^ Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 129.
- ^ Gordon, Ian (2002). "Felix the Cat". St. James Encyclopedia of Pop Culture. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_g1epc/is_tov/ai_2419100434. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 142.
- ^ a b Merritt, Russell. "THE BIRTH OF THE SILLY SYMPHONIES". Disney. http://disney.go.com/disneyatoz/familymuseum/exhibits/articles/sillysymphonies/index.html. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ "Chronology of the Walt Disney Company". Island Net. http://www.islandnet.com/~kpolsson/disnehis/disn1930.htm. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ Langer, Mark (July 1997) (PDF). Popeye From Strip To Screen. 2. Animation Magazine. pp. 17–19. http://www.awn.com/mag/issue2.4/AWNMag2.4.pdf. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ "Fleischer brothers". Encyclopædia Britannica. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9106382/Fleischer-brothers. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ "Chronology of the Walt Disney Company". Island Net. http://www.islandnet.com/~kpolsson/disnehis/disn1932.htm. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ "System 4". Widescreen Museum. http://www.widescreenmuseum.com/oldcolor/technicolor4.htm. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ "System 4". Widescreen Museum. http://www.widescreenmuseum.com/oldcolor/technicolor5.htm. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ "Walt Disney at the Museum?". Montreal Museum of Fine Arts. http://www.mbam.qc.ca/disney/index_en.html. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ "Once Upon a Time: Walt Disney: The Sources of Inspiration for the Disney Studios". fps magazine. http://www.fpsmagazine.com/review/070312onceupon.php. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ Danks, Adrian. "Huffing and Puffing about Three Little Pigs". Senses of Cinema. Archived from the original on April 22, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080422180415/http://www.sensesofcinema.com/contents/cteq/03/29/3_little_pigs.html. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ "Three Little Pigs". Disney. http://disney.go.com/vault/archives/movies/pigs/pigs.html. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ "Chronology of the Walt Disney Company". Island Net. http://www.islandnet.com/~kpolsson/disnehis/disn1937.htm. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ "GOOFY BIOGRAPHY". Tripod.com. http://members.tripod.com/~kariv/bio.html. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ "Donald Duck". Encyclopædia Britannica. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9096160/Donald-Duck. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ a b c "The Windows on Main Street: Sharon Lund « WDW Central". Wdwcentral.wordpress.com. 2008-12-01. http://wdwcentral.wordpress.com/2008/12/01/the-windows-on-main-street-sharon-lund/. Retrieved 2012-04-08.
- ^ "Social Security Death Index". Ssdi.rootsweb.ancestry.com. 2011-05-26. http://ssdi.rootsweb.ancestry.com. Retrieved 2011-05-31.
- ^ "Silverado Vineyards". Silverado Vineyards. http://www.silveradovineyards.com/winery/history. Retrieved 2012-04-08.
- ^ a b Diane Disney - Biography
- ^ a b "Diane Disney Miller Remembers Dad: Walt's Secret Disneyland Apartment, His Passions & More (PHOTOS)". Huffingtonpost.com. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/02/07/walt-disneys-secret-disneyland-apartment-diane-disney-miller_n_1259421.html. Retrieved 2012-04-08.
- ^ a b c d Sharon Disney - Biography
- ^ One Hour in Wonderland (TV 1950) - IMDb
- ^ Barrier, 2008, p.324)
- ^ "Sharon Disney Lund | Sharon Lund; Daughter of Walt Disney". Los Angeles Times. 1993-10-17. http://articles.latimes.com/1993-02-17/local/me-60_1_walt-disney. Retrieved 2012-04-08.
- ^ "CalArts Honors Major Donors To Its $125 Million Campaign". Calarts.edu. http://calarts.edu/news/2007-mar-21/calarts-honors-major-donors-its-125-million-campaign. Retrieved 2012-04-08.
- ^ "Popeye's Popularity – Article from 1935". Golden Age Cartoons. http://forums.goldenagecartoons.com/showthread.php?t=2907. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ "Walt Disney, Biography". Just Disney. Archived from the original on 2007-07-10. http://web.archive.org/web/20070710012642/http://www.justdisney.com/walt_disney/biography/long_bio.html. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ "Cartoons that Time Forgot". Images Journal. http://www.imagesjournal.com/issue08/reviews/vanbeuren/. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ "The Inflation Calculator". The Inflation Calculator. http://www.westegg.com/inflation/infl.cgi. Retrieved 2011-10-09.
- ^ "Walt Disney Studio Biography". Animation USA. http://www.animationusa.com/resources/aboutdisney.html. Retrieved 2008-05-21. [dead link]
- ^ "The Golden Age of Animation". Disney. http://disney.go.com/disneyatoz/familymuseum/exhibits/articles/goldenage/index.html. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ "Fantasia Review". The Big Cartoon Database. http://www.bcdb.com/bcdb/cartoon.cgi?film=15&m=r. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ Walt & El Grupo (documentary film, 2008).
- ^ "U.S. Naval Activities World War II by State". Patrick Clancey. http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USN/ref/USN-Act/CA.html. Retrieved 2012-03-19.
- ^ Gabler, 2006, p.444
- ^ Cramer, Gisela; Prutsch, Ursula, "Nelson A. Rockefeller's Office of Inter-American Affairs (1940–1946) and Record Group 229", Hispanic American Historical Review 2006 86(4):785–806; doi:10.1215/00182168-2006-050. Cf. p.795 and note 28.
- ^ Bender, Pennee. "Hollywood Meets South American and Stages a Show" Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Studies Association. 2009-05-24 <[1][dead link]>
- ^ Niblo, Stephen R., "Mexico in the 1940s: Modernity, Politics, and Corruption", Wilimington, Del. : Scholarly Resources, 1999. ISBN 0-8420-2794-7. Cf. "Nelson Rockefeller and the Office of Inter-American Affairs", p.333
- ^ Leonard, Thomas M.; Bratzel, John F., Latin America during World War II, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2007. ISBN 978-0-7425-3741-5. Cf. p.47.
- ^ Solomon, Charles. "Mickey in the Post-War Era". Disney. http://disney.go.com/disneyatoz/familymuseum/exhibits/articles/mickeymousepostwar/index.html. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ "Warner Bros. Studio Biography". Animation USA. http://www.animationusa.com/resources/aboutwb.html. Retrieved 2008-05-21. [dead link]
- ^ "Disney's Animated Classics". Sandcastle VI. http://www.sandcastlevi.com/movies/disneyh5.htm. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ "Donald Duck". Pet Care Tips. http://petcaretips.net/donald-duck.html. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ a b "Testimony of Walter E. Disney before HUAC". CNN. 1947-10-24. Archived from the original on May 14, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080514003423/http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/episodes/06/documents/huac/disney.html. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ Cogley, John (1956) Report on Blacklisting, Volume I, Movies Fund for the Republic, New York, p. 34 OCLC 3794664; reprinted in 1972 by Arno Press, New York ISBN 0-405-03915-8
- ^ "Communist brochure" Screen Actors Guild accessed October 20, 2008
- ^ "República de los Niños - Historia del Proyecto". Fundacionvalorar.org.ar. http://www.fundacionvalorar.org.ar/republica2008/Historia.asp. Retrieved 2012-04-08.
- ^ "Walt Disney Quotes". Tripod.com. http://disneyspace.tripod.com/id1.html. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ Cotter, Bill. "The Television Worlds of Disney – PART II". Disney. http://disney.go.com/disneyatoz/familymuseum/exhibits/articles/tvworldsofdisney/index.html. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ John Lasseter-Commentary-Sleeping Beauty-2008 DVD
- ^ "Chronology of the Walt Disney Company". Island Net. http://www.islandnet.com/~kpolsson/disnehis/disn1961.htm. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ "Chronology of the Walt Disney Company". Island Net. http://www.islandnet.com/~kpolsson/disnehis/disn1981.htm. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ Gabler, Neal 2006 Walt Disney: The Triumph of Imagination, Alfed A. Knofph Inc, New York City
- ^ a b c "The Day Walt Died". Disney. http://disney.go.com/disneyatoz/familymuseum/exhibits/articles/waltspassing/index.html. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ "Horsing Around With Walt and Polo". Mouse Planet. http://www.mouseplanet.com/articles.php?art=ww070711ws. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ a b c "Chronology of the Walt Disney Company". Island Net. http://www.islandnet.com/~kpolsson/disnehis/disn1966.htm. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ "Kurt Russell Confirms Disney's Last Words". Star Pulse. http://www.starpulse.com/news/index.php/2007/04/24/kurt_russell_confirms_that_walt_disney_s. Retrieved 2007-04-24.
- ^ Greene, K&R (2001). Inside The Dream: The Personal Story Of Walt Disney. Disney Editions. p. 180. ISBN 0-7868-5350-6.
- ^ a b Mikkelson, B & DP (2007-08-24). "Suspended Animation". Snopes.com. http://www.snopes.com/disney/waltdisn/frozen.asp. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ a b Urban Legends Reference Pages © 1995-2001 by Barbara and David P. Mikkelson
- ^ Hoaxipedia, museumofhoaxes.com "Walt Disney Frozen" by Elliot Feldman © 2008 Alex Boese
- ^ Griffiths, Bill. "Grand opening of Walt Disney world". http://www.startedbyamouse.com/archives/GrandOpeningWDW01.shtml. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ "Walt Disney corporate website". Disney. http://corporate.disney.go.com/investors/index.html. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ Roy E. Disney-The Legacy of Toy Story-Toy Story-2005, DVD
- ^ "Walt Disney's will". Do Your Own Will. http://www.doyourownwill.com/disney.asp. Retrieved 2008-01-03.
- ^ Plagens, Peter (2000). Sunshine Muse: Art on the West Coast, 1945–1970. University of California Press. p. 159. ISBN 0-520-22392-6.
- ^ Rothstein, Edward (September 30, 2009). "Exploring the Man Behind the Animation". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/10/01/arts/design/01disney.html?pagewanted=1.
- ^ Dargis, Manohla (21September 2011). "And Now a Word From the Director". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/25/movies/conflicting-voices-in-lars-von-triers-words-and-works.html?scp=1&sq=And%20Now%20a%20Word%20from&st=Search. Retrieved 26 September 2011.
- ^ "Walt Disney: More Than 'Toons, Theme Parks". CBS News. 2006-11-01. http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2006/11/01/earlyshow/leisure/books/main2141735.shtml.
- ^ a b c Gabler, Neal (2007). Walt Disney: The Triumph of the American Imagination. Random House. p. 458. ISBN 978-0-679-75747-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=41e-Ru0wRkEC&pg=PA458.
- ^ http://disney.go.com/disneyatoz/familymuseum/collection/insidestory/inside_1933d.html
- ^ Walt Disney - Awards
- ^ "Disney, Walt" (in French). Bedetheque. http://www.bedetheque.com/auteur-6857-BD-Disney-Walt.html. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ "Minnie's Cheat Sheet to my Website". AOL. http://hometown.aol.com/seramary/myhomepage/movies.html. Retrieved 2008-05-21. [dead link]
- ^ link removed, see edit summary
- ^ Schmadel, Lutz D. (2003). Dictionary of Minor Planet Names. New York: Springer Science+Business Media. p. 342. ISBN 3-540-00238-3. http://books.google.com/books?q=4017+Disneya.
- ^ David Rooney (1994-03-03). "Disney wins Houston and Washington teaming ...". Variety. http://www.variety.com/article/VR119623. Retrieved 2009-03-31.
- ^ "Walt: The Man Behind the Myth (TV 2001) - IMDb". Internet Movie Database. IMDb.com, Inc.. 2011. http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0296273/. Retrieved 2011-07-14.
References[link]
- Thomas, Bob (1994). Walt Disney: An American Original. New York: Hyperion. ISBN 0-7868-6027-8.
Further reading[link]
- Barrier, Michael (1999). Hollywood Cartoons: American Animation in Its Golden Age. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-516729-5.
- Broggie, Michael (1997, 1998, 2005). Walt Disney's Railroad Story. Virginia Beach, Virginia. Donning Publishers. ISBN 1-56342-009-0
- Eliot, Marc (1993). Walt Disney: Hollywood's Dark Prince. Carol. ISBN 1-55972-174-X
- Mosley, Leonard. Disney's World: A Biography (1985, 2002). Chelsea, MI: Scarborough House. ISBN 0-8128-8514-7.
- Gabler, Neal. Walt Disney: The Triumph of American Imagination (2006). New York, NY. Random House. ISBN 0-679-43822-X
- Schickel, Richard, and Dee, Ivan R. (1967, 1985, 1997). The Disney Version: The Life, Times, Art and Commerce of Walt Disney. Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, Publisher. ISBN 1-56663-158-0.
- Sherman, Robert B. and Sherman, Richard M. (1998) "Walt's Time: From Before to Beyond" ISBN 0-9646059-3-7
- Thomas, Bob (1991). Disney's Art of Animation: From Mickey Mouse to Beauty and the Beast. New York: Hyperion. ISBN 1-56282-899-1.
- Watts, Steven, The Magic Kingdom: Walt Disney and the American Way of Life, University of Missouri Press, 2001, ISBN 0-8262-1379-0
External links[link]
|
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Walt Disney |
|
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Walt Disney |
- Walt Disney at the Internet Movie Database
- Walt Disney at the TCM Movie Database
- Works by or about Walt Disney in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
- Walt Disney Family Museum
- Walt Disney Gravesite
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||
|
|||||
|
||||||||||||||
|
||||||||
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Disney, Walter Elias |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | Producer, director and animator |
| Date of birth | December 5, 1901 |
| Place of birth | Chicago, Illinois, United States |
| Date of death | December 15, 1966 |
| Place of death | Los Angeles, California, United States |
http://wn.com/Walt_Disney
Related pages:
http://de.wn.com/Walt Disney
http://es.wn.com/Walt Disney
http://ru.wn.com/Дисней, Уолт
http://cs.wn.com/Walt Disney
http://pt.wn.com/Walt Disney
http://pl.wn.com/Walt Disney
http://hi.wn.com/वॉल्ट डिज़्नी
http://it.wn.com/Walt Disney
http://id.wn.com/Walt Disney
http://nl.wn.com/Walt Disney
http://fr.wn.com/Walt Disney
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walt_Disney
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
"Hemingway" redirects here. For other uses, see Hemingway (disambiguation).
| Ernest Hemingway | |
|---|---|
 Hemingway in 1939 |
|
| Born | (1899-07-21)July 21, 1899 Oak Park, Illinois, USA |
| Died | July 2, 1961(1961-07-02) (aged 61) Ketchum, Idaho, USA |
| Nationality | American |
| Notable award(s) | Pulitzer Prize for Fiction (1953) Nobel Prize in Literature (1954) |
| Spouse(s) | Elizabeth Hadley Richardson (1921–1927) Pauline Pfeiffer (1927–1940) Martha Gellhorn (1940–1945) Mary Welsh Hemingway (1946–1961) |
| Children | Jack Hemingway (1923–2000) Patrick Hemingway (1928–) Gregory Hemingway (1931–2001) |
|
|
|
| Signature |  |
Ernest Miller Hemingway (July 21, 1899 – July 2, 1961) was an American author and journalist. His economical and understated style had a strong influence on 20th-century fiction, while his life of adventure and his public image influenced later generations. Hemingway produced most of his work between the mid-1920s and the mid-1950s, and won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1954. He published seven novels, six short story collections and two non-fiction works. Three novels, four collections of short stories and three non-fiction works were published posthumously. Many of these are considered classics of American literature.
Hemingway was raised in Oak Park, Illinois. After high school he reported for a few months for The Kansas City Star, before leaving for the Italian front to enlist with the World War I ambulance drivers. In 1918, he was seriously wounded and returned home. His wartime experiences formed the basis for his novel A Farewell to Arms. In 1922, he married Hadley Richardson, the first of his four wives. The couple moved to Paris, where he worked as a foreign correspondent, and fell under the influence of the modernist writers and artists of the 1920s "Lost Generation" expatriate community. The Sun Also Rises, Hemingway's first novel, was published in 1926.
After his 1927 divorce from Hadley Richardson, Hemingway married Pauline Pfeiffer. They divorced after he returned from the Spanish Civil War where he had acted as a journalist, and after which he wrote For Whom the Bell Tolls. Martha Gellhorn became his third wife in 1940. They separated when he met Mary Welsh in London during World War II; during which he was present at the Normandy Landings and liberation of Paris.
Shortly after the publication of The Old Man and the Sea in 1952, Hemingway went on safari to Africa, where he was almost killed in a plane crash that left him in pain or ill-health for much of the rest of his life. Hemingway had permanent residences in Key West, Florida, and Cuba during the 1930s and 1940s, but in 1959 he moved from Cuba to Ketchum, Idaho, where he committed suicide in the summer of 1961.
Contents |
Biography[link]
Early life[link]
Ernest Miller Hemingway was born on July 21, 1899, in Oak Park, Illinois, a suburb of Chicago.[1] His father, Clarence Edmonds Hemingway was a physician, and his mother, Grace Hall-Hemingway, was a musician. Both were well-educated and well-respected in the conservative community of Oak Park,[2] a community about which resident Frank Lloyd Wright said ,"So many churches for so many good people to go to".[3] For a short period after their marriage,[4] Clarence and Grace Hemingway lived with Grace's father, Ernest Hall, who eventually became their first son's namesake.[note 1] Later Hemingway would say he disliked his name, which he "associated with the naive, even foolish hero of Oscar Wilde's play The Importance of Being Earnest".[5] The family eventually moved into a seven-bedroom home in a respectable neighborhood with a music studio for Grace and a medical office for Clarence.[2]
Hemingway's mother frequently performed in concerts around the village. As an adult Hemingway professed to hate his mother, although biographer Michael S. Reynolds points out that Hemingway mirrored her energy and enthusiasm.[6] Her insistence that he learn to play the cello became a "source of conflict", but he later admitted the music lessons were useful to his writing, as is evident in the "contrapuntal structure" of For Whom the Bell Tolls.[7] The family owned a summer home called Windemere on Walloon Lake, near Petoskey, Michigan, where as a boy Hemingway learned to hunt, fish and camp in the woods and lakes of Northern Michigan. His early experiences in nature instilled a passion for outdoor adventure, and living in remote or isolated areas.[8]
From 1913 until 1917, Hemingway attended Oak Park and River Forest High School where he took part in a number of sports, namely boxing, track and field, water polo, and football. He excelled in English classes,[9] and performed in the school orchestra with his sister Marcelline for two years.[6] In his junior year, he took a journalism class, taught by Fannie Biggs, which was structured "as though the classroom were a newspaper office". The better writers in class submitted pieces to the The Trapeze, the school newspaper. Hemingway and Marcelline both had pieces submitted to The Trapeze; Hemingway's first piece, published in January 1916, was about a local performance by the Chicago Symphony Orchestra.[10] He continued to contribute to and to edit the Trapeze and the Tabula (the school's newspaper and yearbook), for which he imitated the language of sportswriters, and used the pen name Ring Lardner, Jr.—a nod to Ring Lardner of the Chicago Tribune whose byline was "Line O'Type". Like Mark Twain, Stephen Crane, Theodore Dreiser and Sinclair Lewis, Hemingway was a journalist before becoming a novelist; after leaving high school he went to work for The Kansas City Star as a cub reporter.[11] Although he stayed there for only six months he relied on the Star's style guide as a foundation for his writing: "Use short sentences. Use short first paragraphs. Use vigorous English. Be positive, not negative."[12]
World War I[link]
Early in 1918 Hemingway responded to a Red Cross recruitment effort in Kansas City and signed on to be an ambulance driver in Italy.[13] He left New York in May, and arrived in Paris as the city was under bombardment from German artillery.[14] By June he was stationed at the Italian Front. It was probably around this time that he first met John Dos Passos, with whom he would maintain a rocky relationship for decades thereafter.[15] On his first day in Milan, he was sent to the scene of a munitions factory explosion where rescuers retrieved the shredded remains of female workers. He described the incident in his non-fiction book Death in the Afternoon: "I remember that after we searched quite thoroughly for the complete dead we collected fragments".[16] A few days later he was stationed at Fossalta di Piave. On July 8 he was seriously wounded by mortar fire, having just returned from the canteen to deliver chocolate and cigarettes to the men at the front line.[16] Despite his wounds, Hemingway carried an Italian soldier to safety, for which he received the Italian Silver Medal of Bravery.[14] Still only 18, Hemingway said of the incident: "When you go to war as a boy you have a great illusion of immortality. Other people get killed; not you ... Then when you are badly wounded the first time you lose that illusion and you know it can happen to you."[17] He sustained severe shrapnel wounds to both legs, underwent an immediate operation at a distribution center, spent five days at a field hospital before he was transferred for recuperation to the Red Cross hospital in Milan.[18] He spent six months at the hospital where he met and formed a strong friendship with "Chink" Dorman-Smith that lasted for decades. While recuperating he fell in love for the first time of his life with Agnes von Kurowsky, a Red Cross nurse seven years his senior. By the time of his release and return to the United States in January 1919, Agnes and Hemingway planned to marry within a few months in America. However in March she wrote that she had become engaged to an Italian officer. Biographer Jeffrey Meyers claims Hemingway was devastated by Agnes' rejection, and that he followed a pattern of abandoning a wife before she abandoned him in future relationships.[19]
Toronto and Chicago[link]
Hemingway returned home early in 1919 to a time of readjustment. At not yet 20 years old, the war had created in him a maturity at odds with living at home without a job and the need for recuperation.[20] As Reynolds explains, "Hemingway could not really tell his parents what he thought when he saw his bloody knee. He could not say how scared he was in another country with surgeons who could not tell him in English if his leg was coming off or not."[21] In the summer he took a fishing and camping trip with high school friends,[17] and in September he spent a week alone in the back-country of Michigan's Upper Peninsula. The trip became the inspiration for his short story "Big Two-Hearted River", in which the semi-autobiographical character Nick Adams takes to the country to find solitude after returning from war.[22] A family friend offered him a job in Toronto and with nothing else to do he accepted. Late that year he began as a freelancer, staff writer and foreign correspondent for the Toronto Star Weekly. He returned to Michigan the following June,[20] and then moved to Chicago in September 1920 to live with friends, while still filing stories for the Toronto Star.
In Chicago he worked as an associate editor of the monthly journal Cooperative Commonwealth, where he met novelist Sherwood Anderson.[23] When St. Louis native Hadley Richardson came to Chicago to visit the sister of Hemingway's roommate, he became infatuated and later claimed, "I knew she was the girl I was going to marry".[24] Hadley was red-haired, with a "nurturing instinct", and eight years older than Hemingway.[24] Despite the difference in age, Hadley, who had grown up with an overprotective mother, seemed less mature than usual for a young woman her age.[25] Bernice Kert, author of The Hemingway Women, claims Hadley was "evocative" of Agnes, but that Hadley had a childishness that Agnes lacked. The two corresponded for a few months, and then decided to marry and travel to Europe.[24] They wanted to visit Rome, but Sherwood Anderson convinced them to visit Paris instead, writing letters of introduction for the young couple.[26] They were married on September 3, 1921; two months later Hemingway was hired as foreign correspondent for the Toronto Star and the couple left for Paris. Of Hemingway's marriage to Hadley, Meyers claims: "With Hadley, Hemingway achieved everything he had hoped for with Agnes: the love of a beautiful woman, a comfortable income, a life in Europe."[27]
Paris[link]
Carlos Baker, Hemingway's first biographer, believes that while Anderson suggested Paris because "the monetary exchange rate" made it an inexpensive place to live, more importantly it was where "the most interesting people in the world" lived. In Paris Hemingway met writers such as Gertrude Stein, James Joyce and Ezra Pound who "could help a young writer up the rungs of a career".[26] The Hemingway of the early Paris years was a "tall, handsome, muscular, broad-shouldered, brown-eyed, rosy-cheeked, square-jawed, soft-voiced young man."[28] He and Hadley lived in a small walk-up at 74 rue du Cardinal Lemoine in the Latin Quarter, and he worked in a rented room in a nearby building.[26] Stein, who was the bastion of modernism in Paris,[29] became Hemingway's mentor; she introduced him to the expatriate artists and writers of the Montparnasse Quarter, whom she referred to as the "Lost Generation"—a term Hemingway popularized with the publication of The Sun Also Rises.[30] A regular at Stein's salon, Hemingway met influential painters such as Pablo Picasso, Joan Miró, and Juan Gris.[31] He eventually withdrew from Stein's influence and their relationship deteriorated into a literary quarrel that spanned decades.[32] The American poet Ezra Pound met Hemingway by chance at Sylvia Beach's bookshop Shakespeare and Company in 1922. The two toured Italy in 1923 and lived on the same street in 1924.[28] They forged a strong friendship, and in Hemingway, Pound recognized and fostered a young talent.[31] Pound introduced Hemingway to the Irish writer James Joyce, with whom Hemingway frequently embarked on "alcoholic sprees".[33]
During his first 20 months in Paris, Hemingway filed 88 stories for the Toronto Star newspaper.[34] He covered the Greco-Turkish War, where he witnessed the burning of Smyrna and wrote travel pieces such as "Tuna Fishing in Spain" and "Trout Fishing All Across Europe: Spain Has the Best, Then Germany".[35] Hemingway was devastated on learning that Hadley had lost a suitcase filled with his manuscripts at the Gare de Lyon as she was traveling to Geneva to meet him in December 1922.[36] The following September, the couple returned to Toronto, where their son John Hadley Nicanor was born on October 10, 1923. During their absence Hemingway's first book, Three Stories and Ten Poems, was published. Two of the stories it contained were all that remained after the loss of the suitcase, and the third had been written the previous spring in Italy. Within months a second volume, in our time (without capitals), was published. The small volume included six vignettes and a dozen stories Hemingway had written the previous summer during his first visit to Spain where he discovered the thrill of the corrida. He missed Paris, considered Toronto boring, and wanted to return to the life of a writer, rather than live the life of a journalist.[37]
Hemingway, Hadley and their son (nicknamed Bumby) returned to Paris in January 1924 and moved into a new apartment on the rue Nôtre-Dame des Champs.[37] Hemingway helped Ford Madox Ford edit the transatlantic review, which published works by Pound, John Dos Passos and Stein, as well as some of Hemingway's own early stories such as "Indian Camp".[38] When In Our Time (with capital letters) was published in 1925, the dust jacket bore comments from Ford.[39][40] "Indian Camp" received considerable praise; Ford saw it as an important early story by a young writer,[41] and critics in the United States praised Hemingway for reinvigorating the short story genre with his crisp style and use of declarative sentences.[42] Six months earlier, Hemingway had met F. Scott Fitzgerald, and the pair formed a friendship of "admiration and hostility".[43] Fitzgerald had published The Great Gatsby the same year: Hemingway read it, liked it, and decided his next work had to be a novel.[44]
Ernest, Hadley, and Bumby Hemingway in Schruns, Austria, in 1926, months before they separated
Ernest Hemingway with Lady Duff Twysden, Hadley Hemingway, and three unidentified people at a cafe in Pamplona, Spain, July 1925.
With his wife Hadley, Hemingway first visited the Festival of San Fermín in Pamplona, Spain in 1923, where he became fascinated by bullfighting.[45] The Hemingways returned to Pamplona in 1924 and a third time in June 1925; that year they brought with them a group of American and British expatriates: Hemingway's Michigan boyhood friend Bill Smith, Stewart, Lady Duff Twysden (recently divorced), her lover Pat Guthrie, and Harold Loeb.[46] A few days after the fiesta ended, on his birthday (21 July), he began to write the draft of what would become The Sun Also Rises, finishing eight weeks later.[47] A few months later, in December 1925, the Hemingways left to spend the winter in Schruns, Austria, where Hemingway began revising the manuscript extensively. Pauline Pfeiffer joined them in January and against Hadley's advice urged him to sign a contract with Scribner's. He left Austria for a quick trip to New York to meet with the publishers, and on his return, during a stop in Paris, began an affair with Pauline, before returning to Schruns to finish the revisions in March.[48] The manuscript arrived in New York in April, he corrected the final proof in Paris in August 1926, and Scribner's published the novel in October.[47][49][50]
The Sun Also Rises epitomized the post-war expatriate generation,[51] received good reviews, and is "recognized as Hemingway's greatest work".[52] Hemingway himself later wrote to his editor Max Perkins that the "point of the book" was not so much about a generation being lost, but that "the earth abideth forever"; he believed the characters in The Sun Also Rises may have been "battered" but were not lost.[53]
Hemingway's marriage to Hadley deteriorated as he was working on The Sun Also Rises.[50] In the spring of 1926, Hadley became aware of his affair with Pauline Pfeiffer, who came to Pamplona with them that July.[54][55] On their return to Paris, Hadley asked for a separation; in November she formally requested a divorce. They split their possessions while Hadley accepted Hemingway's offer of the proceeds from The Sun Also Rises.[56] The couple were divorced in January 1927, and Hemingway married Pauline Pfeiffer in May.[57]
Pfeiffer, who was from a wealthy Catholic Arkansas family, had moved to Paris to work for Vogue magazine. Before their marriage Hemingway converted to Catholicism.[58] They honeymooned in Le Grau-du-Roi, where he contracted anthrax, and he planned his next collection of short stories,[59] Men Without Women, published in October 1927.[60] By the end of the year Pauline, who was pregnant, wanted to move back to America. John Dos Passos recommended Key West, and they left Paris in March 1928. That spring Hemingway suffered a severe injury in their Paris bathroom, when he pulled a skylight down on his head thinking he was pulling on a toilet chain. This left him with a prominent forehead scar, which he carried for the rest of his life. When Hemingway was asked about the scar he was reluctant to answer.[61] After his departure from Paris, Hemingway "never again lived in a big city".[62]
Key West and the Caribbean[link]
In the late spring Hemingway and Pauline traveled to Kansas City, where their son Patrick was born on June 28, 1928. Pauline had a difficult delivery, which Hemingway fictionalized in A Farewell to Arms. After Patrick's birth, Pauline and Hemingway traveled to Wyoming, Massachusetts and New York.[63] In the fall he was in New York with Bumby, about to board a train to Florida, when he received a cable telling him that his father had committed suicide.[note 2][64] Hemingway was devastated, having earlier sent a letter to his father telling him not to worry about financial difficulties; the letter arrived minutes after the suicide. He realized how Hadley must have felt after her own father's suicide in 1903, and he commented, "I'll probably go the same way."[65]
Upon his return to Key West in December, Hemingway worked on the draft of A Farewell to Arms before leaving for France in January. He had finished it in August but delayed the revision. The serialization in Scribner's Magazine was scheduled to begin in May, but as late as April, Hemingway was still working on the ending, which he may have rewritten as many as seventeen times. The completed novel was published on September 27.[66] Biographer James Mellow believes A Farewell to Arms established Hemingway's stature as a major American writer and displayed a level of complexity not apparent in The Sun Also Rises.[67] In Spain during the summer of 1929, Hemingway researched his next work, Death in the Afternoon. He wanted to write a comprehensive treatise on bullfighting, explaining the toreros and corridas and complete with glossaries and appendices, because he believed bullfighting was "of great tragic interest, being literally of life and death."[68]
During the early 1930s Hemingway spent his winters in Key West and summers in Wyoming, where he found "the most beautiful country he had seen in the American West" and hunting that included deer, elk and grizzly bear.[69] His third son, Gregory Hancock Hemingway, was born on November 12, 1931 in Kansas City.[70][note 3] Pauline's uncle bought the couple a house in Key West with a carriage house, the second floor of which was converted into a writing studio.[71] Its location across the street from the lighthouse made it easy for him to find after a long night of drinking. While in Key West Hemingway frequented the local bar Sloppy Joe's.[72] He invited friends—including Waldo Peirce, John Dos Passos, and Max Perkins[73]—to join him on fishing trips and on an all-male expedition to the Dry Tortugas. Meanwhile he continued to travel to Europe and to Cuba, and although he wrote of Key West in 1933, "We have a fine house here, and kids are all well," Mellow believes he "was plainly restless."[74]
In 1933 Hemingway and Pauline went on safari to East Africa. The 10-week trip provided material for Green Hills of Africa, as well as for the short stories "The Snows of Kilimanjaro" and "The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber".[75] The couple visited Mombasa, Nairobi, and Machakos in Kenya, then moved on to Tanganyika, where they hunted in the Serengeti, around Lake Manyara, and west and southeast of present-day Tarangire National Park. Their guide was the noted "white hunter" Philip Hope Percival, who had guided Theodore Roosevelt on his 1909 safari. During these travels Hemingway contracted amoebic dysentery that caused a prolapsed intestine, and he was evacuated by plane to Nairobi, an experience reflected in "The Snows of Kilimanjaro". On Hemingway’s return to Key West in early 1934, he began work on Green Hills of Africa, which he published in 1935 to mixed reviews.[76]
Hemingway bought a boat in 1934, named it the Pilar, and began sailing the Caribbean.[77] In 1935 he first arrived at Bimini, where he spent a considerable amount of time.[75] During this period he also worked on To Have and Have Not, published in 1937 while he was in Spain, the only novel he wrote during the 1930s.[78]
Spanish Civil War and World War II[link]
In 1937 Hemingway agreed to report on the Spanish Civil War for the North American Newspaper Alliance (NANA),[79] arriving in Spain in March with Dutch filmmaker Joris Ivens.[80] Ivens, who was filming The Spanish Earth, wanted Hemingway to replace John Dos Passos as screenwriter, since Dos Passos had left the project when his friend José Robles was arrested and later executed.[81] The incident changed Dos Passos' opinion of the leftist republicans, creating a rift between him and Hemingway, who later spread a rumor that Dos Passos left Spain out of cowardice.[82]
Journalist and writer Martha Gellhorn, whom Hemingway had met in Key West the previous Christmas (1936), joined him in Spain. Like Hadley, Martha was a native of St. Louis, and like Pauline, she had worked for Vogue in Paris. Of Martha, Kert explains, "she never catered to him the way other women did."[83] Late in 1937, while in Madrid with Martha, Hemingway wrote his only play, The Fifth Column, as the city was being bombarded.[84] He returned to Key West for a few months, then back to Spain twice in 1938 where he was present at the Battle of the Ebro, the last republican stand, and was among the British and American journalists who were some of the last to leave the battle as they crossed the river.[85][86]
In the spring of 1939, Hemingway crossed to Cuba in his boat to live in the Hotel Ambos Mundos in Havana. This was the separation phase of a slow and painful split from Pauline, which had begun when Hemingway met Martha.[87] Martha soon joined him in Cuba, and they almost immediately rented "Finca Vigia" ("Lookout Farm"), a 15-acre (61,000 m2) property 15 miles (24 km) from Havana. The attraction of the sea, the warm, deep, current of the Gulf Stream, the great blue river as Hemingway called it, where the fishing for sailfish, kingfish, swordfish and marlin was excellent, was very great. Cojimar, east of Havana, became a regular haunt.[88] Pauline and the children left Hemingway that summer, after the family was reunited during a visit to Wyoming. After Hemingway's divorce from Pauline was finalized, he and Martha were married November 20, 1940, in Cheyenne, Wyoming.[89] As he had after his divorce from Hadley, he changed locations, moving his primary summer residence to Ketchum, Idaho, just outside the newly built resort of Sun Valley, and his winter residence to Cuba.[90] Hemingway, who had been disgusted when a Parisian friend allowed his cats to eat from the table, "developed a passion for cats" in Cuba, keeping dozens of them on the property.[91]
Gellhorn inspired him to write his most famous novel, For Whom the Bell Tolls, which he started in March 1939 and finished in July 1940. It was published in October 1940.[92] Consistent with his pattern of moving around while working on a manuscript, he wrote For Whom the Bell Tolls in Cuba, Wyoming, and Sun Valley.[87] For Whom the Bell Tolls became a Book-of-the-Month Club choice, sold half a million copies within months, was nominated for a Pulitzer Prize, and as Meyers describes it, "triumphantly re-established Hemingway's literary reputation".[93]
In January 1941 Martha was sent to China on assignment for Collier's magazine. Hemingway went with her, sending in dispatches for the newspaper PM, but in general he disliked China.[94] They returned to Cuba before the declaration of war by the United States that December when he convinced the Cuban government to help him refit the Pilar, which he intended to use to ambush German submarines off the coast of Cuba.[17]
From June to December 1944 Hemingway was in Europe. At the D-Day landing, he was kept on a landing craft because military officials considered him "precious cargo",[95] although biographer Kenneth Lynn claims he fabricated accounts that he went ashore during the landings.[96] Late in July he attached himself to "the 22nd Infantry Regiment commanded by Col. Charles 'Buck' Lanham, as it drove toward Paris", and Hemingway became de facto leader to a small band of village militia in Rambouillet outside of Paris.[95] Of Hemingway's exploits, World War II historian Paul Fussell remarks: "Hemingway got into considerable trouble playing infantry captain to a group of Resistance people that he gathered because a correspondent is not supposed to lead troops, even if he does it well".[17] This was in fact in contravention of the Geneva Convention, and Hemingway was brought up on formal charges; he said he "beat the rap" by claiming that he only offered advice.[97]
On August 25 he was present at the liberation of Paris, although contrary to the Hemingway legend, he was not the first into the city, nor did he liberate the Ritz.[98] In Paris he did, however, attend a reunion hosted by Sylvia Beach, where he "made peace with" Gertrude Stein.[99] Later that year he was present at heavy and pointless fighting in the Battle of Hürtgen Forest,[98] which he later described succinctly as "Passchendaele with tree bursts."[100] On December 17, 1944 a feverish and ill Hemingway had himself driven to Luxembourg to cover what would later be called The Battle of the Bulge. As soon as he arrived, however, Lanham handed him to the doctors, who hospitalized him with pneumonia; by the time he recovered a week later, most of the fighting in this battle was over.[97]
In 1947 Hemingway was awarded a Bronze Star for his bravery during World War II. He was recognized for his valor, having been "under fire in combat areas in order to obtain an accurate picture of conditions," with the commendation that "through his talent of expression, Mr. Hemingway enabled readers to obtain a vivid picture of the difficulties and triumphs of the front-line soldier and his organization in combat."[17]
When Hemingway initially arrived in London, England, he met Time magazine correspondent Mary Welsh, with whom he became infatuated; on their third meeting he asked her to marry him. Martha—who had been forced to cross the Atlantic in a ship filled with explosives because he refused to help her get a press pass on a plane—arrived in London to find Hemingway hospitalized with a concussion from a car accident. Unsympathetic to his plight, she accused him of being a bully, and told him she was "through, absolutely finished."[101] The last time he saw her was in March 1945 as he was preparing to return to Cuba.[102]
Cuba and the Nobel Prize[link]
Hemingway said he "was out of business as a writer" from 1942 to 1945.[103] In 1946 he married Mary, who had an ectopic pregnancy five months later. The Hemingway family suffered a series of accidents and health problems in the years following the war: in a 1945 car accident he "smashed his knee" and sustained another "deep wound on his forehead"; Mary broke first her right ankle and then her left in successive skiing accidents. A 1947 car accident left Patrick with a head wound and severely ill.[104] Hemingway sank into depression as his literary friends began to die: in 1939 Yeats and Ford Madox Ford; in 1940 Scott Fitzgerald; in 1941 Sherwood Anderson and James Joyce; in 1946 Gertrude Stein; and the following year in 1947, Max Perkins, Hemingway's long-time Scribner's editor and friend.[105] During this period, he suffered from severe headaches, high blood pressure, weight problems, and eventually diabetes—much of which was the result of previous accidents and many years of heavy drinking.[106] Nonetheless, in January 1946 he began work on The Garden of Eden, finishing 800 pages by June.[107][note 4] During the post–war years he also began work on a trilogy tentatively titled "The Land", "The Sea" and "The Air", which he wanted to combine in one novel titled The Sea Book. However, both projects stalled, and Mellow says that Hemingway's inability to continue was "a symptom of his troubles" during these years.[108][note 5]
In 1948, Hemingway and Mary traveled to Europe, staying in Venice for several months. While there, Hemingway fell in love with the then 19-year-old Adriana Ivancich. The platonic love affair inspired the novel Across the River and Into the Trees, written in Cuba during a time of strife with Mary, and published in 1950 to negative reviews.[109] The following year, furious at the critical reception of Across the River and Into the Trees, he wrote the draft of The Old Man and the Sea in eight weeks, saying that it was "the best I can write ever for all of my life".[106] The Old Man and the Sea became a book-of-the-month selection, made Hemingway an international celebrity, and won the Pulitzer Prize in May 1952, a month before he left for his second trip to Africa.[110][111]
In 1954, while in Africa, Hemingway was almost fatally injured in two successive plane crashes. He chartered a sightseeing flight over the Belgian Congo as a Christmas present to Mary. On their way to photograph Murchison Falls from the air, the plane struck an abandoned utility pole and "crash landed in heavy brush." Hemingway's injuries included a head wound, while Mary broke two ribs.[112] The next day, attempting to reach medical care in Entebbe, they boarded a second plane that exploded at take-off, with Hemingway suffering burns and another concussion, this one serious enough to cause leaking of cerebral fluid.[113] They eventually arrived in Entebbe to find reporters covering the story of Hemingway's death. He briefed the reporters and spent the next few weeks recuperating and reading his erroneous obituaries.[114] Despite his injuries, Hemingway accompanied Patrick and his wife on a planned fishing expedition in February, but pain caused him to be irascible and difficult to get along with.[115] When a bushfire broke out he was again injured, sustaining second degree burns on his legs, front torso, lips, left hand and right forearm.[116] Months later in Venice, "according to Mary they learned the full extent of Hemingway's injuries". She reported to friends that he had two cracked discs, a kidney and liver rupture, a dislocated shoulder and a broken skull.[115] The accidents may have precipitated the physical deterioration that was to follow. After the plane crashes, Hemingway, who had been "a thinly controlled alcoholic throughout much of his life, drank more heavily than usual to combat the pain of his injuries."[117]
In October 1954 Hemingway received the Nobel Prize in Literature. He modestly told the press that Carl Sandburg, Isak Dinesen and Bernard Berenson deserved the prize,[118] but the prize money would be welcome.[119] Mellow claims Hemingway "had coveted the Nobel Prize", but when he won it, months after his plane accidents and the ensuing world-wide press coverage, "there must have been a lingering suspicion in Hemingway's mind that his obituary notices had played a part in the academy's decision."[120] Because he was suffering pain from the African accidents, he decided against traveling to Stockholm.[121] Instead he sent a speech to be read, defining the writer's life: "Writing, at its best, is a lonely life. Organizations for writers palliate the writer's loneliness but I doubt if they improve his writing. He grows in public stature as he sheds his loneliness and often his work deteriorates. For he does his work alone and if he is a good enough writer he must face eternity, or the lack of it, each day."[122][note 6]
 |
Opening statement of Nobel Prize acceptance speech, 1954 [recorded privately by Hemingway after-the-fact].
|
| Problems listening to this file? See media help. | |
From the end of the year in 1955 to early 1956, Hemingway was bedridden.[123] He was told to stop drinking to mitigate liver damage, advice he initially followed but then disregarded.[124] In October 1956 he returned to Europe and met Basque writer Pio Baroja, who was seriously ill and died weeks later. During the trip Hemingway became sick again and was treated for "high blood pressure, liver disease, and arteriosclerosis".[123]
In November, while in Paris, he was reminded of trunks he had stored in the Ritz Hotel in 1928 and never retrieved. The trunks were filled with notebooks and writing from his Paris years. Excited about the discovery, when he returned to Cuba in 1957 he began to shape the recovered work into his memoir A Moveable Feast.[125] By 1959 he ended a period of intense activity: he finished A Moveable Feast (scheduled to be released the following year); brought True at First Light to 200,000 words; added chapters to The Garden of Eden; and worked on Islands in the Stream. The latter three were stored in a safe deposit box in Havana, as he focused on the finishing touches for A Moveable Feast. Reynolds claims that it was during this period he slid into depression, from which he was unable to recover.[126]
The Finca Vigia became crowded with guests and tourists, as Hemingway, beginning to become unhappy with life there, considered a permanent move to Idaho. In 1959 he bought a home overlooking the Big Wood River, outside of Ketchum, and left Cuba—although he apparently remained on easy terms with the Castro government, telling the New York Times he was "delighted" with Castro's overthrow of Batista.[127][128] He was in Cuba in November 1959, between returning from Pamplona and traveling west to Idaho, and the following year for his birthday; however, that year he and Mary decided to leave after hearing the news that Castro wanted to nationalize property owned by Americans and other foreign nationals.[129] In July 1960 the Hemingways left Cuba for the last time, leaving art and manuscripts in a bank vault in Havana. After the 1961 Bay of Pigs Invasion, the Finca Vigia was expropriated by the Cuban government, complete with Hemingway's collection of "four to six thousand books".[130]
Idaho and suicide[link]
File:Hemingway SunValley.jpg
Hemingway bird-hunting at Silver Creek, near Picabo, Idaho. January 1959. With him are Gary Cooper and local resident Bobbie Peterson.
Hemingway continued to rework the material that would be published as A Moveable Feast through the end of the 1950s.[125] In the summer of 1959 he visited Spain to research a series of bullfighting articles commissioned by Life Magazine,[131] returning to Cuba in January 1960 to work on the manuscript. Life only wanted 10,000 words, but the manuscript grew out of control. For the first time in his life, unable to organize his writing, he asked A. E. Hotchner to travel to Cuba to help. Hotchner helped him trim the Life piece to 40,000 words, and Scribner's agreed to a full-length book version (The Dangerous Summer) of almost 130,000 words.[132] Hotchner found Hemingway to be "unusually hesitant, disorganized, and confused",[133] and he was suffering badly from failing eyesight.[134]
On July 25, 1960, Hemingway and Mary left Cuba, never to return. Hemingway then traveled alone to Spain to be photographed for the front cover of the current Life magazine piece. A few days later he was reported in the news to be seriously ill and on the verge of dying, which panicked Mary until she received a cable from him telling her, "Reports false. Enroute Madrid. Love Papa."[135] However, he was seriously ill and believed himself to be on the verge of a breakdown.[132] He was lonely and took to his bed for days, retreating into silence, despite the first installments of The Dangerous Summer published in Life in September 1960 to good reviews.[136] In October he left Spain for New York, where he refused to leave Mary's apartment on the pretext that he was being watched. She quickly took him out to Idaho, where George Saviers (a Sun Valley physician) met them at the train.[132]
At this time Hemingway was worried about money and about his safety.[134] He worried about his taxes, and that he would never return to Cuba to retrieve the manuscripts he had left there in a bank vault. He also became paranoid,[137] and thought the FBI was actively monitoring his movements in Ketchum.[138] [note 7] By the end of November Mary was at wits' end and Saviers suggested Hemingway go to the Mayo Clinic in Minnesota, where he may have believed he was to be treated for hypertension.[137] At an attempt at anonymity he was checked in under Saviers' name.[136] Meyers writes that "an aura of secrecy surrounds Hemingway's treatment at the Mayo", but confirms he was treated with electroconvulsive therapy as many as 15 times in December 1960, then in January 1961 he was "released in ruins."[139] Reynolds accessed Hemingway's records at the Mayo which indicate the combination of medications may have created a depressive state, for which he was treated.[140]
Three months later in April 1961, back in Ketchum, one morning in the kitchen Mary "found Hemingway holding a shotgun." She called Saviers who sedated him and admitted him to the Sun Valley hospital; from there he was returned to the Mayo Clinic for more electro shock treatments.[141] He was released in late June and arrived home in Ketchum on June 30. Two days later, in the early morning hours of July 2, 1961, Hemingway "quite deliberately" shot himself with his favorite shotgun.[142] He unlocked the basement storeroom where his guns were kept, went upstairs to the front entrance foyer of their Ketchum home, and "pushed two shells into the twelve-gauge Boss shotgun ...put the end of the barrel into his mouth, pulled the trigger and blew out his brains." Mary called the Sun Valley Hospital, and Dr. Scott Earle arrived at the house within "fifteen minutes". Despite his finding that Hemingway "had died of a self-inflicted wound to the head", the story told to the press was that the death had been "accidental".[143]
| The world breaks everyone and afterward many are strong in the broken places. But those that will not break it kills. It kills the very good and the very gentle and the very brave impartially. If you are none of these you can be sure it will kill you too but there will be no special hurry. |
| —Ernest Hemingway in A Farewell to Arms |
During his final years, Hemingway's behavior was similar to his father's before he himself committed suicide;[144] his father may have had the genetic disease hemochromatosis, in which the inability to metabolize iron culminates in mental and physical deterioration.[145] Medical records made available in 1991 confirm that Hemingway's hemochromatosis had been diagnosed in early 1961.[146] His sister Ursula and his brother Leicester also committed suicide.[147] Added to Hemingway's physical ailments was the additional problem that he had been a heavy drinker for most of his life.[106]
Hemingway's family and friends flew to Ketchum for the funeral which was officiated by the local Catholic priest, who believed the death accidental.[143] Of the funeral (during which an altar boy fainted at the head of the casket), his brother Leicester wrote: "It seemed to me Ernest would have approved of it all."[148]
In a press interview five years later Mary Hemingway admitted that her husband had committed suicide.[149]
Writing style[link]
The New York Times wrote in 1926 of Hemingway's first novel, "No amount of analysis can convey the quality of The Sun Also Rises. It is a truly gripping story, told in a lean, hard, athletic narrative prose that puts more literary English to shame."[150] The Sun Also Rises is written in spare, tight prose that influenced countless crime and pulp fiction novels and made Hemingway famous.[151] In 1954, when Hemingway was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature, it was for "his mastery of the art of narrative, most recently demonstrated in The Old Man and the Sea, and for the influence that he has exerted on contemporary style."[152]
| If a writer of prose knows enough of what he is writing about he may omit things that he knows and the reader, if the writer is writing truly enough, will have a feeling of those things as strongly as though the writer had stated them. The dignity of movement of an ice-berg is due to only one-eighth of it being above water. A writer who omits things because he does not know them only makes hollow places in his writing. |
| —Ernest Hemingway in Death in the Afternoon[153] |
Henry Louis Gates believes Hemingway's style was fundamentally shaped "in reaction to [his] experience of world war". After World War I, he and other modernists "lost faith in the central institutions of Western civilization," by reacting against the elaborate style of 19th century writers and by creating a style "in which meaning is established through dialogue, through action, and silences—a fiction in which nothing crucial—or at least very little—is stated explicitly."[17]
Because he began as a writer of short stories, Baker believes Hemingway learned to "get the most from the least, how to prune language, how to multiply intensities and how to tell nothing but the truth in a way that allowed for telling more than the truth."[154] Hemingway called his style the iceberg theory: the facts float above water; the supporting structure and symbolism operate out of sight.[154] The concept of the iceberg theory is sometimes referred to as the "theory of omission." Hemingway believed the writer could describe one thing (such as Nick Adams fishing in "The Big Two-Hearted River") though an entirely different thing occurs below the surface (Nick Adams concentrating on fishing to the extent that he does not have to think about anything else).[155]
Jackson Benson believes Hemingway used autobiographical details as framing devices about life in general—not only about his life. For example, Benson postulates that Hemingway used his experiences and drew them out with "what if" scenarios: "what if I were wounded in such a way that I could not sleep at night? What if I were wounded and made crazy, what would happen if I were sent back to the front?"[156] Writing in "The Art of the Short Story," Hemingway explains: "A few things I have found to be true. If you leave out important things or events that you know about, the story is strengthened. If you leave or skip something because you do not know it, the story will be worthless. The test of any story is how very good the stuff that you, not your editors, omit."[157]
| I was always embarrassed by the words sacred, glorious, and sacrifice and the expression in vain. We had heard them ... and had read them ... now for a long time, and I had seen nothing sacred, and the things that were glorious had no glory and the sacrifices were like the stockyards at Chicago if nothing was done with the meat except to bury it. There were many words that you could not stand to hear and finally only the names of places had dignity .... Abstract words such as glory, honor, courage or hallow were obscene beside the concrete names of villages, the numbers of roads, the names of rivers, the numbers of regiments and the dates. |
| —A Farewell to Arms[158] |
The simplicity of the prose is deceptive. Zoe Trodd believes Hemingway crafted skeletal sentences in response to Henry James's observation that World War I had "used up words." Hemingway offers a "multi-focal" photographic reality. His iceberg theory of omission is the foundation on which he builds. The syntax, which lacks subordinating conjunctions, creates static sentences. The photographic "snapshot" style creates a collage of images. Many types of internal punctuation (colons, semicolons, dashes, parentheses) are omitted in favor of short declarative sentences. The sentences build on each other, as events build to create a sense of the whole. Multiple strands exist in one story; an "embedded text" bridges to a different angle. He also uses other cinematic techniques of "cutting" quickly from one scene to the next; or of "splicing" a scene into another. Intentional omissions allow the reader to fill the gap, as though responding to instructions from the author, and create three-dimensional prose.[159]
In his literature, and in his personal writing, Hemingway habitually used the word "and" in place of commas. This use of polysyndeton may serve to convey immediacy. Hemingway's polysyndetonic sentence—or in later works his use of subordinate clauses—uses conjunctions to juxtapose startling visions and images; Jackson Benson compares them to haikus.[160][161] Many of Hemingway's followers misinterpreted his lead and frowned upon all expression of emotion; Saul Bellow satirized this style as "Do you have emotions? Strangle them."[162] However, Hemingway's intent was not to eliminate emotion, but to portray it more scientifically. Hemingway thought it would be easy, and pointless, to describe emotions; he sculpted collages of images in order to grasp "the real thing, the sequence of motion and fact which made the emotion and which would be as valid in a year or in ten years or, with luck and if you stated it purely enough, always".[163] This use of an image as an objective correlative is characteristic of Ezra Pound, T. S. Eliot, James Joyce, and Proust.[164] Hemingway's letters refer to Proust's Remembrance of Things Past several times over the years, and indicate he read the book at least twice.[165]
Themes[link]
The recurring themes of American literature are clearly evident in Hemingway's work. Critic Leslie Fiedler sees the theme he defines as "The Sacred Land"—the American West—extended in Hemingway's work to include mountains in Spain, Switzerland and Africa, and to the streams of Michigan. The American West is given a symbolic nod with the naming of the "Hotel Montana" in The Sun Also Rises and For Whom the Bell Tolls.[166] Although Hemingway writes about sports, Carlos Baker believes the emphasis is more on the athlete than the sport.[167] According to Stoltzfus and Fiedler, Hemingway's nature is a place for rebirth, for therapy, and the hunter or fisherman has a moment of transcendence when the prey is killed.[168] Nature is where men are without women: men fish; men hunt; men find redemption in nature.[166]
Fiedler believes Hemingway inverts the American literary theme of the evil "Dark Woman" versus the good "Light Woman". The dark woman—Brett Ashley of The Sun Also Rises—is a goddess; the light woman—Margot Macomber of "The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber"—is a murderess.[166] Robert Scholes admits that early Hemingway stories, such as "A Very Short Story", present "a male character favorably and a female unfavorably."[169] According to Rena Sanderson, early Hemingway critics lauded his male-centric world of masculine pursuits, and the fiction divided women into "castrators or love-slaves." Feminist critics attacked Hemingway as "public enemy number one", although more recent re-evaluations of his work "have given new visibility to Hemingway's female characters (and their strengths) and have revealed his own sensitivity to gender issues, thus casting doubts on the old assumption that his writings were one-sidedly masculine."[170] Nina Baym believes that Brett Ashley and Margot Macomber "are the two outstanding examples of Hemingway's 'bitch women.'"[171]
The theme of women and death is evident in stories as early as "Indian Camp". The theme of death permeates Hemingway's work. Young believes the emphasis in "Indian Camp" was not so much on the woman who gives birth or the father who commits suicide, but on Nick Adams who witnesses these events as a child, and becomes a "badly scarred and nervous young man." Hemingway sets the events in "Indian Camp" that shape the Adams persona. Young believes "Indian Camp" holds the "master key" to "what its author was up to for some thirty-five years of his writing career." [172] Stoltzfus considers Hemingway's work to be more complex with a representation of the truth inherent in existentialism: if "nothingness" is embraced, then redemption is achieved at the moment of death. Those who face death with dignity and courage live an authentic life. Francis Macomber dies happy because the last hours of his life are authentic; the bullfighter in the corrida represents the pinnacle of a life lived with authenticity.[168] In his paper The Uses of Authenticity: Hemingway and the Literary Field, Timo Müller writes that Hemingway's fiction is successful because the characters live an "authentic life", and the "soldiers, fishers, boxers and backwoodsmen are among the archetypes of authenticity in modern literature".[173]
The theme of emasculation is prevalent in Hemingway's work, most notably in The Sun Also Rises. Emasculation, according to Fiedler, is a result of a generation of wounded soldiers; and of a generation in which women such as Brett gained emancipation. This also applies to the minor character, Frances Clyne, Cohn's girlfriend in the beginning in the book. Her character supports the theme not only because the idea was presented early on in the novel but also the impact she had on Cohn in the start of the book while only appearing a small number of times.[166] Baker believes Hemingway's work emphasizes the "natural" versus the "unnatural". In "Alpine Idyll" the "unnaturalness" of skiing in the high country late spring snow is juxtaposed against the "unnaturalness" of the peasant who allowed his wife's dead body to linger too long in the shed during the winter. The skiers and peasant retreat to the valley to the "natural" spring for redemption.[167]
Some critics have characterized Hemingway's work as misogynistic and homophobic. Susan Beegel analyzed four decades of Hemingway criticism, published in her essay "Critical Reception". She found, particularly in the 1980s, "critics interested in multiculturalism" simply ignored Hemingway; although some "apologetics" have been written. Typical is this analysis of The Sun Also Rises: "Hemingway never lets the reader forget that Cohn is a Jew, not an unattractive character who happens to be a Jew but a character who is unattractive because he is a Jew." During the same decade, according to Beegel, criticism was published that investigated the "horror of homosexuality", and racism in Hemingway's fiction.[174]
Influence and legacy[link]
Hemingway's legacy to American literature is his style: writers who came after him emulated it or avoided it.[175] After his reputation was established with the publication of The Sun Also Rises, he became the spokesperson for the post–World War I generation, having established a style to follow.[151] His books were burned in Berlin in 1933, "as being a monument of modern decadence", and disavowed by his parents as "filth".[176] Reynolds asserts the legacy is that "he left stories and novels so starkly moving that some have become part of our cultural heritage."[177] In a 2004 speech at the John F. Kennedy Library, Russell Banks declared that he, like many male writers of his generation, was influenced by Hemingway's writing philosophy, style, and public image.[178] Müller reports that Hemingway "has the highest recognition value of all writers worldwide".[179]
Benson believes the details of Hemingway's life have become a "prime vehicle for exploitation", resulting in a Hemingway industry.[180] Hemingway scholar Hallengren believes the "hard boiled style" and the machismo must be separated from the author himself.[176] Benson agrees, describing him as introverted and private as J. D. Salinger, although Hemingway masked his nature with braggadocio.[181] In fact, during World War II, Salinger met and corresponded with Hemingway, whom he acknowledged as an influence. In a letter to Hemingway, Salinger claimed their talks "had given him his only hopeful minutes of the entire war" and jokingly "named himself national chairman of the Hemingway Fan Clubs."[182]
The extent of Hemingway's influence is seen in the tributes and echoes of his fiction in popular culture. A minor planet, discovered in 1978 by Soviet astronomer Nikolai Stepanovich Chernykh, was named for him (3656 Hemingway);[183] Ray Bradbury wrote The Kilimanjaro Device, with Hemingway transported to the top of Mount Kilimanjaro;[70] the 1993 motion picture Wrestling Ernest Hemingway, about the friendship of two retired men, Irish and Cuban, in a seaside town in Florida, starred Robert Duvall, Richard Harris, Shirley MacLaine, Sandra Bullock, and Piper Laurie.[184] The influence is evident with the many restaurants named "Hemingway"; and the proliferation of bars called "Harry's" (a nod to the bar in Across the River and Into the Trees).[185] A line of Hemingway furniture, promoted by Hemingway's son Jack (Bumby), has pieces such as the "Kilimanjaro" bedside table, and a "Catherine" slip-covered sofa. Montblanc offers a Hemingway fountain pen, and a line of Hemingway safari clothes has been created.[186] The International Imitation Hemingway Competition was created in 1977 to publicly acknowledge his influence and the comically misplaced efforts of lesser authors to imitate his style. Entrants are encouraged to submit one "really good page of really bad Hemingway" and winners are flown to Italy to Harry's Bar.[187]
In 1965 Mary Hemingway established the Hemingway Foundation and in the 1970s she donated her husband's papers to the John F. Kennedy Library. In 1980 a group of Hemingway scholars gathered to assess the donated papers, subsequently forming the Hemingway Society, "committed to supporting and fostering Hemingway scholarship."[188]
Almost exactly 35 years after Hemingway's death, on July 1, 1996, his granddaughter Margaux Hemingway died in Santa Monica, California. Margaux was a supermodel and actress, co-starring with her sister Mariel in the 1976 movie Lipstick.[189] Her death was later ruled a suicide, making her "the fifth person in four generations of her family to commit suicide."[190]
Selected list of works[link]
Main article: Ernest Hemingway bibliography
- "Indian Camp" (1926)
- The Sun Also Rises (1926)
- A Farewell to Arms (1929)
- "The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber" (1935)
- For Whom the Bell Tolls (1940)
- The Old Man and the Sea (1951)
- A Moveable Feast (1964, posthumous)
- True at First Light (1999)
See also[link]
- American literature
- Family tree showing Ernest Hemingway's parents, siblings, wives, children and grandchildren
Notes[link]
- ^ Hemingway had five siblings: Marcelline (1898); Ursula (1902); Madelaine (1904); Carol (1911); and Leicester (1915). See Reynolds (2000), 17–18
- ^ Clarence Hemingway used his father's Civil War pistol to shoot himself. See Meyers (1985), 2
- ^ Gregory Hemingway underwent sex reassignment surgery in the mid-1990s and thereafter was known as Gloria Hemingway. See Hemingway legacy feud 'resolved'. BBC News. October 3, 2003. Accessed April 26, 2011.
- ^ The Garden of Eden was published posthumously in 1986. See Meyers (1985), 436
- ^ The manuscript for The Sea Book was published posthumously as Islands in the Stream in 1970. See Mellow (1992), 552
- ^ The full speech is available at The Nobel Foundation
- ^ The FBI had opened a file on him during WWII, when he used the Pilar to patrol the waters off Cuba, and J. Edgar Hoover had the agent in Havana watch Hemingway during the 1950s. See Mellow (1992), 597–598. The FBI knew Hemingway was at the Mayo Clinic, as an agent documented in a letter written in January 1961. See Meyers (1985), 543–544
References[link]
- ^ Oliver (1999), 140
- ^ a b Reynolds (2000), 17–18
- ^ Meyers (1985), 4
- ^ Oliver (1999), 134
- ^ Meyers (1985), 8
- ^ a b Reynolds (2000), 19
- ^ Meyers (1985), 3
- ^ Meyers (1985), 13
- ^ Mellow (1992), 21
- ^ Griffin (1985), 25
- ^ Meyers (1985), 19–23
- ^ "Star style and rules for writing". The Kansas City Star. KansasCity.com. Retrieved 30 November 2011.
- ^ Mellow (1992), 48–49
- ^ a b Meyers (1985), 27–31
- ^ Pizer (1986)
- ^ a b Mellow (1992), 57–60
- ^ a b c d e f Putnam, Thomas. "Hemingway on War and Its Aftermath". The National Archives. Retrieved November 30, 2011
- ^ Desnoyers, 3
- ^ Meyers (1985), 37-42
- ^ a b Meyers (1985), 45–53
- ^ Reynolds (1998), 21
- ^ Mellow (1992), 101
- ^ Meyers (1985), 56–58
- ^ a b c Kert (1983), 83–90
- ^ Oliver (1999), 139
- ^ a b c Baker (1972), 7
- ^ Meyers (1985), 60–62
- ^ a b Meyers (1985), 70–74
- ^ Mellow (1991), 8
- ^ Mellow (1992), 308
- ^ a b Reynolds (2000), 28
- ^ Meyers (1985), 77–81
- ^ Meyers (1985), 82
- ^ Reynolds (2000), 24
- ^ Desnoyers, 5
- ^ Meyers (1985), 69–70
- ^ a b Baker (1972), 15–18
- ^ Meyers (1985), 126
- ^ Baker (1972), 34
- ^ Meyers (1985), 127
- ^ Mellow (1992), 236
- ^ Mellow (1992), 314
- ^ Meyers (1985), 159–160
- ^ Baker (1972), 30–34
- ^ Meyers (1985), 117–119
- ^ Nagel (1996), 89
- ^ a b Meyers (1985), 189
- ^ Reynolds (1989), vi–vii
- ^ Mellow (1992), 328
- ^ a b Baker (1972), 44
- ^ Mellow (1992), 302
- ^ Meyers (1985), 192
- ^ Baker (1972), 82
- ^ Baker (1972), 43
- ^ Mellow (1992), 333
- ^ Mellow (1992), 338–340
- ^ Meyers (1985), 172
- ^ Meyers (1985), 173, 184
- ^ Mellow (1992), 348–353
- ^ Meyers (1985), 195
- ^ Robinson (2005)
- ^ Meyers (1985), 204
- ^ Meyers (1985), 208
- ^ Mellow (1992), 367
- ^ qtd. in Meyers (1985), 210
- ^ Meyers (1985), 215
- ^ Mellow (1992), 378
- ^ Baker (1972), 144–145
- ^ Meyers (1985), 222
- ^ a b Oliver (1999), 144
- ^ Meyers (1985), 222–227
- ^ Mellow (1992), 402
- ^ Mellow (1992), 376–377
- ^ Mellow (1992), 424
- ^ a b Desnoyers, 9
- ^ Mellow (1992), 337–340
- ^ Meyers (1985), 280
- ^ Meyers (1985), 292
- ^ Mellow (1992), 488
- ^ Koch (2005), 87
- ^ Meyers (1985), 311
- ^ Koch (2005), 164
- ^ Kert (1983), 287–295
- ^ Koch (2005), 134
- ^ Meyers (1985), 321
- ^ Thomas (2001), 833
- ^ a b Meyers (1985), 326
- ^ Hemingway in Havana, presented by Susan Marling, Radio Four, December 2011
- ^ Lynn (1987), 479
- ^ Meyers (1985), 342
- ^ Meyers (1985), 353
- ^ Meyers (1985), 334
- ^ Meyers (1985), 334–338
- ^ Meyers (1985), 356–361
- ^ a b Meyers (1985), 398–405
- ^ Lynn (1987), 510
- ^ a b Lynn (1987), 518–519
- ^ a b Meyers (1985) 408–411
- ^ Mellow (1992), 535–540
- ^ Martin Herzog. Don’t Fraternize! Post-war American-German relations began 60 years ago, The Atlantic Times, October 2004. Paragraph 10. The quote is from a character speaking of the battle in Across the River and into the Trees
- ^ Kert (1983), 393–398
- ^ Meyers (1985), 416
- ^ qtd. in Mellow (1992), 552
- ^ Meyers (1985), 420–421
- ^ Mellow (1992) 548–550
- ^ a b c Desnoyers, 12
- ^ Meyers (1985), 436
- ^ Mellow (1992), 552
- ^ Meyers (1985), 440–452
- ^ Desnoyers, 13
- ^ Meyers (1985), 489
- ^ Baker (1972), 331–333
- ^ Mellow (1992), 586
- ^ Mellow (1992), 587
- ^ a b Mellow (1992), 588
- ^ Meyers (1985), 505–507
- ^ Beegel (1996), 273
- ^ Lynn (1987), 574
- ^ Baker (1972), 38
- ^ Mellow (1992), 588–589
- ^ Meyers (1985), 509
- ^ "Ernest Hemingway The Nobel Prize in Literature 1954 Banquet Speech". The Nobel Foundation. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1954/hemingway-speech.html. Retrieved December 10, 2009.
- ^ a b Meyers (1985), 512
- ^ Reynolds (2000), 291–293
- ^ a b Meyers (1985), 533
- ^ Reynolds (1999), 321
- ^ Mellow (1992), 494–495
- ^ Meyers (1985), 516–519
- ^ Reynolds (2000), 332, 344
- ^ Mellow (1992), 599
- ^ Meyers (1985), 520
- ^ a b c Reynolds (1999), 544–547
- ^ qtd. in Mellow (1992), 598–600
- ^ a b Meyers (1985), 542–544
- ^ qtd. in Reynolds (1999), 546
- ^ a b Mellow (1992), 598–601
- ^ a b Reynolds (1999), 548
- ^ Meyers (1985), 543
- ^ Meyers (1985), 547–550
- ^ Reynolds (2000), 350
- ^ Meyers (1985), 551
- ^ Reynolds (2000), 16
- ^ a b Kert (1983), 504
- ^ Burwell (1996), 234
- ^ Burwell (1996), 14
- ^ Burwell (1996), 189
- ^ Oliver (1999), 139–149
- ^ Hemingway (1996), 14–18
- ^ Gilroy, Harry. "Widow Believes Hemingway Committed Suicide; She Tells of His Depression and His 'Breakdown' Assails Hotchner Book". (August 23, 1966). The New York Times. Retrieved 30 November 2011.
- ^ "The Sun Also Rises". (October 31, 1926). The New York Times. Retrieved 30 November 2011.
- ^ a b Nagel (1996), 87
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Literature 1954". The Nobel Foundation. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1954/index.html. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
- ^ qtd. in Oliver (1999), 322
- ^ a b Baker (1972), 117
- ^ Oliver (1999), 321–322
- ^ Benson (1989), 351
- ^ Hemingway (1975), 3
- ^ Hemingway (1957 ed.), 185
- ^ Trodd (2007), 8
- ^ McCormick, 49
- ^ Benson (1975), 309
- ^ qtd. in Hoberek (2005), 309
- ^ Hemingway, Ernest. Death in the Afternoon. New York: Simon and Schuster
- ^ McCormick, 47
- ^ Burwell (1996), 187
- ^ a b c d Fiedler (1975), 345–365
- ^ a b Baker (1972), 101–121
- ^ a b Stoltzfus (2005), 215–218
- ^ Scholes (1990), 42
- ^ Sanderson (1996), 171
- ^ Baym (1990), 112
- ^ Young (1964), 6
- ^ Müller (2010), 31
- ^ Beegel (1996), 282
- ^ Oliver (1999), 140–141
- ^ a b Hallengren, Anders. "A Case of Identity: Ernest Hemingway". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 30 November 2011.
- ^ Reynolds (2000), 15
- ^ Banks (2004), 54
- ^ Müller (2010), 30
- ^ Benson (1989), 347
- ^ Benson (1989), 349
- ^ Baker (1969), 420
- ^ Schmadel, Lutz D. (2003) Dictionary of Minor Planet Names. New York: Springer Verlag. ISBN 3-540-00238-3, 307
- ^ Oliver (1999), 360
- ^ Oliver (1999), 142
- ^ Hoffman, Jan. "A Line of Hemingway Furniture, With a Veneer of Taste". (June 15, 1999).The New York Times. Retrieved September 3, 2009.
- ^ Smith, Jack. Wanted: One Really Good Page of Really Bad Hemingway.(March 15, 1993). Los Angeles Times. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
- ^ Miller (2006), 78–80
- ^ "Margaux Hemingway Is Dead; Model and Actress Was 41". (July 3, 1996). The New York Times. Retrieved May 14, 2010
- ^ "Coroner Says Death of Actress Was Suicide". (August 21, 1996). The New York Times. Retrieved May 14, 2010.
Sources[link]
- Baker, Carlos. (1969). Ernest Hemingway: A Life Story. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. ISBN 978-0-02-001690-8
- Baker, Carlos. (1972). Hemingway: The Writer as Artist. Princeton: Princeton UP. ISBN 978-0-691-01305-3
- Baker, Carlos. (1981). "Introduction" in Ernest Hemingway Selected Letters 1917–1961. New York: Scribner's. ISBN 978-0-684-16765-7
- Banks, Russell. (2004). "PEN/Hemingway Prize Speech". The Hemingway Review. Volume 24, issue 1. 53–60
- Baym, Nina. (1990). "Actually I Felt Sorry for the Lion". in Benson, Jackson J. (ed). New Critical Approaches to the Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway. Durham: Duke UP. ISBN 978-0-8223-1067-9
- Beegel, Susan. (1996). "Conclusion: The Critical Reputation". in Donaldson, Scott (ed). The Cambridge Companion to Ernest Hemingway. New York: Cambridge UP. ISBN 978-0-521-45574-9
- Benson, Jackson. (1989). "Ernest Hemingway: The Life as Fiction and the Fiction as Life". American Literature. Volume 61, issue 3. 354–358
- Benson, Jackson. (1975). The Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway: Critical Essays. Durham: Duke UP. ISBN 978-0-8223-0320-6
- Burwell, Rose Marie. (1996). Hemingway: the Postwar Years and the Posthumous Novels. New York: Cambridge UP. ISBN 978-0-521-48199-1
- Desnoyers, Megan Floyd. "Ernest Hemingway: A Storyteller's Legacy". John F. Kennedy Presidential Library Online Resources. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum. Retrieved November 30, 2011.
- Fiedler, Leslie. (1975). Love and Death in the American Novel. New York: Stein and Day. ISBN 978-0-8128-1799-7
- Griffin, Peter. (1985). Along with Youth: Hemingway, the Early Years. New York: Oxford UP. ISBN 978-0-19-503680-0
- Hemingway, Ernest. (1957 ed.) A Farewell to Arms. New York: Scribner's. ISBN 0-684-17469-3
- Hemingway, Ernest. (1975). "The Art of the Short Story" in Benson, Jackson (ed). New Critical Approaches to the Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway. Durham: Duke UP. ISBN 978-0-8223-1067-9
- Hemingway, Leicester. (1996). My Brother, Ernest Hemingway. New York: World Publishing Company. ISBN 978-1-56164-098-0
- Hoberek, Andrew. (2005). Twilight of the Middle Class: Post World War II fiction and White Collar Work. New York: Cambridge UP. ISBN 978-0-691-12145-1
- Kert, Bernice. (1983). The Hemingway Women. New York: Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-31835-7
- Koch, Stephen. (2005). The Breaking Point: Hemingway, Dos Passos, and the Murder of Jose Robles. New York: Counterpoint. ISBN 978-1-58243-280-9
- Lynn, Kenneth. (1987). Hemingway. Cambridge: Harvard UP. ISBN 978-0-674-38732-4
- McCormick, John. American Literature 1919–1932. London: Routledge.
- Mellow, James. (1992). Hemingway: A Life Without Consequences. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-395-37777-2
- Mellow, James. (1991). Charmed Circle: Gertrude Stein and Company. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-395-47982-7
- Meyers, Jeffrey. (1985). Hemingway: A Biography. New York: Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-42126-0
- Miller, Linda Patterson. (2006). "From the African Book to Under Kilimanjaro". The Hemingway Review, Volume 25, issue 2. 78–81
- Müller, Timo. (2010). "The Uses of Authenticity: Hemingway and the Literary Field, 1926–1936". Journal of Modern Literature. Volume 33, issue 1. 28–42
- Nagel, James. (1996). "Brett and the Other Women in The Sun Also Rises". in Donaldson, Scott (ed). The Cambridge Companion to Ernest Hemingway. New York: Cambridge UP. ISBN 978-0-521-45574-9
- Oliver, Charles. (1999). Ernest Hemingway A to Z: The Essential Reference to the Life and Work. New York: Checkmark Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8160-3467-3
- Pizer, Donald. (1986). "The Hemingway: Dos Passos Relationship". Journal of Modern Literature. Volume 13, issue 1. 111-128
- Reynolds, Michael. (1999). Hemingway: The Final Years. New York: Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-32047-3
- Reynolds, Michael. (1989). Hemingway: The Paris Years. New York: Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-31879-1
- Reynolds, Michael. (1998). The Young Hemingway. New York: Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-31776-3
- Reynolds, Michael. (2000). Ernest Hemingway: A Brief Biography A Historical Guide to Ernest Hemingway in Wagner-Martin, Linda (ed). Oxford: Oxford UP. ISBN 978-0-19-512151-3
- Robinson, Daniel. (2005). "My True Occupation is That of a Writer:Hemingway's Passport Correspondence". The Hemingway Review. 87–93
- Trogdon, Robert W. "Forms of Combat: Hemingway, the Critics and Green Hills of Africa". The Hemingway Review. Volume 15, issue 2. 1–14
- Sanderson, Rena. (1996). "Hemingway and Gender History". in Donaldson, Scott (ed). The Cambridge Companion to Ernest Hemingway. New York: Cambridge UP. ISBN 978-0-521-45574-9
- Scholes, Robert. (1990). "New Critical Approaches to the Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway". in Benson, Jackson J. Decoding Papa: 'A Very Short Story' as Work and Text. 33–47. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-1067-9
- Stoltzfus, Ben. (2005). "Sartre, "Nada," and Hemingway's African Stories". Comparative Literature Studies. Volume 42, issue 3. 205–228
- Thomas, Hugh. (2001). The Spanish Civil War. New York: Modern Library. ISBN 978-0-375-75515-6
- Trodd, Zoe. (2007). "Hemingway's Camera Eye: The Problems of Language and an Interwar Politics of Form". The Hemingway Review. Volume 26, issue 2. 7–21
- Young, Philip. (1964). Ernest Hemingway. St. Paul, MN: University of Minnesota. ISBN 978-0-8166-0191-2
External links[link]
|
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: |
 |
Wikisource has original works written by or about: |
|
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Ernest Hemingway |
- Hemingway Archives: John F. Kennedy Library
- Ernest Hemingway's Collection at The University of Texas at Austin
- Ernest Hemingway In His Time at the University of Delaware Library.
- The Hemingway Society
- Rare, Unseen: Hemingway in Cuba – slideshow by Life magazine
- "The Art of Fiction No. 21. The Paris Review. Spring 1958.
- FBI Records: The Vault, Subject: Ernest Hemingway
- Hemingway legal files collection, 1899–1971 Manuscripts and Archives, New York Public Library.
- Ernest Hemingway at C-SPAN's American Writers: A Journey Through History
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
||||||||
|
||||||||
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Hemingway, Ernest Miller |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | American writer and journalist |
| Date of birth | (1899-07-21)July 21, 1899 |
| Place of birth | Oak Park, Illinois |
| Date of death | July 2, 1961(1961-07-02) |
| Place of death | Ketchum, Idaho |
http://wn.com/Ernest_Hemingway
Related pages:
http://de.wn.com/Ernest Hemingway
http://es.wn.com/Ernest Hemingway
http://ru.wn.com/Хемингуэй, Эрнест
http://cs.wn.com/Ernest Hemingway
http://pt.wn.com/Ernest Hemingway
http://pl.wn.com/Ernest Hemingway
http://hi.wn.com/अर्नेस्ट हेमिंगवे
http://it.wn.com/Ernest Hemingway
http://id.wn.com/Ernest Hemingway
http://nl.wn.com/Ernest Hemingway
http://fr.wn.com/Ernest Hemingway
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Hemingway
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
"Mussolini" redirects here. For other uses, see Mussolini (disambiguation).
| Benito Mussolini | |
|---|---|
| 220px | |
| Head of Government of Italy and Duce of Fascism | |
| In office 24 December 1925 – 25 July 1943 |
|
| Monarch | Victor Emmanuel III |
| Preceded by | Himself (as Prime Minister) |
| Succeeded by | Pietro Badoglio (as Prime Minister) |
| 27th Prime Minister of Italy | |
| In office 31 October 1922 – 25 July 1943 |
|
| Monarch | Victor Emmanuel III |
| Preceded by | Luigi Facta |
| Succeeded by | Pietro Badoglio |
| First Marshal of the Empire | |
| In office 30 March 1938 – 25 July 1943 Serving with Victor Emmanuel III |
|
| Head of State of the Italian Social Republic | |
| In office 23 September 1943 – 25 April 1945 |
|
| Personal details | |
| Born | (1883-07-29)29 July 1883 Predappio, Forlì, Kingdom of Italy |
| Died | 28 April 1945(1945-04-28) (aged 61) Giulino di Mezzegra, Kingdom of Italy |
| Resting place | San Cassiano cemetery, Predappio, Forlì, Italian Republic |
| Nationality | Italian |
| Political party | Republican Fascist Party (1943–1945) National Fascist Party (1921–1943) Italian Fasci of Combat (1919–1921) Fasci of Revolutionary Action (1914–1919) Italian Socialist Party (1901–1914) |
| Spouse(s) | Rachele Mussolini |
| Relations | Ida Dalser Margherita Sarfatti Clara Petacci |
| Children | Edda Mussolini Vittorio Mussolini Bruno Mussolini Romano Mussolini Anna Maria Mussolini |
| Profession | Politician, journalist, novelist, teacher |
| Religion | (See this section for details.) |
| Signature |  |
| Military service | |
| Allegiance |  Kingdom of Italy |
| Service/branch | Regio Esercito |
| Years of service | 1915–1917 |
| Rank | Corporal |
| Unit | 11th Bersaglieri Regiment |
| Battles/wars | World War I |
Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini (Italian pronunciation: [beˈniːto musːoˈliːni]; 29 July 1883 – 28 April 1945) was an Italian politician who led the National Fascist Party, ruling the country from 1922 to his ousting in 1943, and is credited with being one of the key figures in the creation of fascism.
Originally a member of the Italian Socialist Party and editor of the Avanti! from 1912 to 1914, Mussolini fought in World War I as an ardent nationalist and created the Fasci di Combattimento in 1919, catalyzing his nationalist and socialist beliefs in the Fascist Manifesto, published in 1921. Following the March on Rome in October 1922 he became the 27th Prime Minister of Italy and began using the title Il Duce by 1925, about which time he had established dictatorial authority by both legal and extraordinary means, aspiring to create a totalitarian state. After 1936, his official title was Sua Eccellenza Benito Mussolini, Capo del Governo, Duce del Fascismo e Fondatore dell'Impero ("His Excellency Benito Mussolini, Head of Government, Duce of Fascism, and Founder of the Empire")[1] Mussolini also created and held the supreme military rank of First Marshal of the Empire along with King Victor Emmanuel III, which gave him and the King joint supreme control over the military of Italy. Mussolini remained in power until he was replaced in 1943; for a short period after this until his death, he was the leader of the Italian Social Republic.
Mussolini was among the founders of Italian Fascism, which included elements of nationalism, corporatism, national syndicalism, expansionism, social progress, and anti-socialism in combination with censorship of subversives and state propaganda. In the years following his creation of the Fascist ideology, Mussolini influenced, or achieved admiration from, a wide variety of political figures.[2]
Among the domestic achievements of Mussolini from the years 1924–1939 were: his public works programs such as the taming of the Pontine Marshes, the improvement of job opportunities, the public transport, and the so-called Italian economic battles. Mussolini also solved the Roman Question by concluding the Lateran Treaty between the Kingdom of Italy and the Holy See. Mussolini and the Fascist regime initiated an aggressive campaign to destroy the Sicilian mafia with mass arrests and mass trials of mafiosi.[3] Mussolini was unable to purge Sicily of the mafia, because the mafia utilized its strong base of supporters to hide and protect itself as an underground movement during Fascist rule in Italy.[4]
On 10 June 1940, Mussolini led Italy into World War II, ultimately siding with Germany. Mussolini was aware that Italy did not have the military capacity to carry out a long war with France and the United Kingdom.[5] Therefore, he waited until the former was on the verge of imminent collapse and surrender because of the German invasion before declaring war on France and the UK, on the assumption that - following France's collapse - the war would be short-lived and peace negotiations would soon take place.[6] Mussolini believed that after the imminent French surrender, Italy could gain from this country some territorial concessions and then concentrate its forces on a major offensive in Egypt where British and Commonwealth forces were outnumbered by Italian forces.[7] However the UK refused to accept German proposals for a peace that would involve accepting Germany's victories in Eastern and Western Europe, plans for a German invasion of the UK did not proceed, and the war continued.
On 24 July 1943, soon after the start of the Allied invasion of Italy, through the Ordine del giorno Grandi Mussolini was defeated in the vote at the Grand Council of Fascism, and the day after the King had him arrested. On 12 September 1943, Mussolini was rescued from prison in the daring Gran Sasso raid by German special forces. Following his rescue, Mussolini headed the Italian Social Republic in parts of Italy that were not occupied by Allied forces. In late April 1945, with total defeat looming, Mussolini attempted to escape north,[8] only to be quickly captured and summarily executed near Lake Como by Italian partisans. His body was then taken to Milan where it was hung upside down at a petrol station for public viewing and to provide confirmation of his demise.[9]
Contents |
Early life[link]
44°06′22″N 11°58′50″E / 44.10613°N 11.980451°E / 44.10613; 11.980451 (Birthplace of Benito Mussolini)
Mussolini was born in Dovia di Predappio, a small town in the province of Forlì in Emilia-Romagna on 29 July 1883. In the Fascist era, Predappio was dubbed "Duce's town", and Forlì was "Duce's city". Pilgrims went to Predappio and Forlì, to see the birthplace of Mussolini. His father Alessandro Mussolini was a blacksmith and a socialist,[10] while his mother Rosa Mussolini, née Maltoni, a devoutly Catholic schoolteacher.[11] Owing to his father's political leanings, Mussolini was named Benito after Mexican reformist President Benito Juárez, while his middle names Andrea and Amilcare were from Italian socialists Andrea Costa and Amilcare Cipriani.[12] Benito was the eldest of his parents' three children. His siblings Arnaldo and Edvige followed.[13]
As a young boy, Mussolini would spend time helping his father in his smithy.[citation needed] Mussolini's early political views were heavily influenced by his father, Alessandro Mussolini, a revolutionary socialist who idolized 19th century Italian nationalist figures with humanist tendencies such as Carlo Pisacane, Giuseppe Mazzini, and Giuseppe Garibaldi.[14] His father's political outlook combined views of anarchist figures like Carlo Cafiero and Mikhail Bakunin, the military authoritarianism of Garibaldi, and the nationalism of Mazzini. [15] In 1902, at the anniversary of Garibaldi's death, Benito Mussolini made a public speech in praise of the republican nationalist. [15] The conflict between his parents about religion meant that, unlike most Italians, Mussolini was not baptised at birth and would not be until much later in life. As a compromise with his mother, Mussolini was sent to a boarding school run by Salesian monks. Mussolini was rebellious and was soon expelled after a series of behaviour related incidents, including throwing stones at the congregation after Mass, stabbing a fellow student in the hand and throwing an inkpot at a teacher.[citation needed] After joining a new school, Mussolini achieved good grades, and qualified as an elementary schoolmaster in 1901.[11]
Emigration to Switzerland and military service[link]
In 1902, Mussolini emigrated to Switzerland, partly to avoid military service.[10] He worked briefly as a stonemason in Geneva, Fribourg and Bern, but was unable to find a permanent job.
During this time he studied the ideas of the philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, the sociologist Vilfredo Pareto, and the syndicalist Georges Sorel. Mussolini also later credited the Marxist Charles Péguy and the syndicalist Hubert Lagardelle as some of his influences.[16] Sorel's emphasis on the need for overthrowing decadent liberal democracy and capitalism by the use of violence, direct action, the general strike, and the use of neo-Machiavellian appeals to emotion, impressed Mussolini deeply.[10]
Mussolini became active in the Italian socialist movement in Switzerland, working for the paper L'Avvenire del Lavoratore, organizing meetings, giving speeches to workers and serving as secretary of the Italian workers' union in Lausanne.[17] In 1903, he was arrested by the Bernese police because of his advocacy of a violent general strike, spent two weeks in jail, was deported to Italy, set free there, and returned to Switzerland.[18] In 1904, after having been arrested again in Lausanne for falsifying his papers, he returned to Italy to take advantage of an amnesty for desertion of which he had been convicted in absentia.[17]
He subsequently volunteered for military service in the Italian Army. After serving for two years in the military (from January 1905 until September 1906), he returned to teaching.[19]
Political journalist and socialist[link]
In February 1908, Mussolini once again left Italy, this time to take the job as the secretary of the labor party in the Italian-speaking city of Trento, which at the time was under control of Austria-Hungary. He also did office work for the local Socialist Party, and edited its newspaper L'Avvenire del Lavoratore (The Future of the Worker). Returning to Italy, he spent a brief time in Milan, and then in 1910 he returned to his hometown of Forli, where he edited the weekly Lotta di classe (The Class Struggle).
During this time, he published Il Trentino veduto da un Socialista (Trentino as seen by a Socialist) in the radical periodical La Voce.[20] He also wrote several essays about German literature, some stories, and one novel: L'amante del Cardinale: Claudia Particella, romanzo storico (The Cardinal's Mistress). This novel he co-wrote with Santi Corvaja, and was published as a serial book in the Trento newspaper Il Popolo. It was released in installments from 20 January to 11 May 1910[21] The novel was bitterly anticlerical, and years later was withdrawn from circulation after Mussolini made a truce with the Vatican.[10]
By now, he was considered to be one of Italy's most prominent Socialists. In September 1911, Mussolini participated in a riot, led by Socialists, against the Italian war in Libya. He bitterly denounced Italy's "imperialist war" to capture the Libyan capital city of Tripoli, an action that earned him a five-month jail term.[22] After his release he helped expel from the ranks of the Socialist party two "revisionists" who had supported the war, Ivanoe Bonomi, and Leonida Bissolati. As a result, he was rewarded the editorship of the Socialist Party newspaper Avanti! Under his leadership, its circulation soon rose from 20,000 to 100,000.[23]
In 1913, he published Giovanni Hus, il veridico (Jan Hus, true prophet), an historical and political biography about the life and mission of the Czech ecclesiastic reformer Jan Hus, and his militant followers, the Hussites. During this socialist period of his life Mussolini sometimes used the pen name "Vero Eretico" (sincere misbeliever).
While Mussolini was associated with socialism, he also was supportive of figures who opposed egalitarianism. For instance Mussolini was influenced by Nietszche's anti-Christian ideas and negation of God's existence.[24] Mussolini saw Nietzsche as similar to Jean-Marie Guyau, who advocated a philosophy of action. [24] Mussolini's use of Nietzsche made him a highly unorthodox socialist, due to Nietzsche's promotion of elitism and anti-egalitarian views. [24] Mussolini felt that socialism had faltered due to the failures of Marxist determinism and social democratic reformism, and believed that Nietzsche's ideas would strengthen socialism. [24] While associated with socialism, Mussolini's writings eventually indicated that he had abandoned Marxism and egalitarianism in favour of Nietzsche's übermensch concept and anti-egalitarianism. [24]
Expulsion from the Italian Socialist Party[link]
With the outbreak of World War I a number of socialist parties initially supported the war when it began in August 1914.[25] Once the war began, Austrian, British, French, German, and Russian socialists followed the rising nationalist current by supporting their country's intervention in the war. [26] The outbreak of the war had resulted in a surge of Italian nationalism and the war supported by a variety of political factions. One of the most prominent and popular Italian nationalist supporters of the war was Gabriele d'Annunzio who promoted Italian irredentism and helped sway the Italian public to support intervention in the war. [27] The Italian Liberal Party under the leadership of Paolo Boselli promoted intervention in the war on the side of the Allies and utilized the Società Dante Alighieri to promote Italian nationalism. [28] [29] Italian socialists were divided on whether to support the war or oppose it. [30] Prior to Mussolini taking a position on the war, a number of revolutionary syndicalists had announced their support of intervention, including Alceste De Ambris, Filippo Corridoni, and Angelo Oliviero Olivetti. [31] The Italian Socialist Party decided to oppose the war after anti-militarist protestors had been killed, resulting in a general strike called Red Week. [32]
Mussolini initially held official support for the party's decision and, in an August 1914 article, Mussolini wrote "Down with the War. We remain neutral."[33] However, he saw the war as an opportunity, both for his own ambitions as well as those of socialists and Italians.[33] He was influenced by anti-Austrian Italian nationalist sentiments, believing that the war offered Italians in Austria-Hungary the chance to liberate themselves from rule of the Habsburgs.[33] He eventually decided to declare support for the war by appealing to the need for socialists to overthrow the Hohenzollern and Habsburg monarchies in Germany and Austria-Hungary whom he claimed had consistently repressed socialism.[33] He further justified his position by denouncing the Central Powers for being reactionary powers; for pursuing imperialist designs against Belgium and Serbia as well as historically against Denmark, France, and against Italians, since hundreds of thousands of Italians were under Habsburg rule. [31] He claimed that the fall of Hohenzollern and Habsburg monarchies and the repression of "reactionary" Turkey would create conditions beneficial for the working class. [31] While he was supportive of the Entente powers, Mussolini responded to the conservative nature of Tsarist Russia by claiming that the mobilization required for the war would undermine Russia's reactionary authoritarianism and the war would bring Russia to social revolution. [31] He claimed that for Italy the war would complete the process of Risorgimento by uniting the Italians in Austria-Hungary into Italy and by allowing the common people of Italy to be participating members of the Italian nation in what would be Italy's first national war. [31] Thus he claimed that the vast social changes that the war could offer meant that it should be supported as a revolutionary war. [31]
As Mussolini's support for the intervention solidified, he became in conflict with socialists who opposed the war. He attacked the opponents of the war and claimed that those proletarians who supported pacifism were out of step with the proletarians who had joined the rising interventionist vanguard that was preparing Italy for a revolutionary war. [34] He began to criticize the Italian Socialist Party and socialism itself for having failed to recognize the national problems that had led to the outbreak of the war. [34] He was expelled from the party due to his support of intervention.
The following excerpts are from a police report prepared by the Inspector-General of Public Security in Milan, G. Gasti, that describe his background and his position on the First World War that resulted in his ouster from the Italian Socialist Party.
The Inspector General wrote:
- Regarding Mussolini
- Professor Benito Mussolini, ... 38, revolutionary socialist, has a police record; elementary school teacher qualified to teach in secondary schools; former first secretary of the Chambers in Cesena, Forli, and Ravenna; after 1912 editor of the newspaper Avanti! to which he gave a violent suggestive and intransigent orientation. In October 1914, finding himself in opposition to the directorate of the Italian Socialist party because he advocated a kind of active neutrality on the part of Italy in the War of the Nations against the party's tendency of absolute neutrality, he withdrew on the twentieth of that month from the directorate of Avanti! Then on the fifteenth of November [1914], thereafter, he initiated publication of the newspaper Il Popolo d'Italia, in which he supported – in sharp contrast to Avanti! and amid bitter polemics against that newspaper and its chief backers – the thesis of Italian intervention in the war against the militarism of the Central Empires. For this reason he was accused of moral and political unworthiness and the party thereupon decided to expel him... Thereafter he ... undertook a very active campaign in behalf of Italian intervention, participating in demonstrations in the piazzas and writing quite violent articles in Popolo d'Italia...[23]
In his summary, the Inspector also notes:
- He was the ideal editor of Avanti! for the Socialists. In that line of work he was greatly esteemed and beloved. Some of his former comrades and admirers still confess that there was no one who understood better how to interpret the spirit of the proletariat and there was no one who did not observe his apostasy with sorrow. This came about not for reasons of self-interest or money. He was a sincere and passionate advocate, first of vigilant and armed neutrality, and later of war; and he did not believe that he was compromising with his personal and political honesty by making use of every means – no matter where they came from or wherever he might obtain them – to pay for his newspaper, his program and his line of action. This was his initial line. It is difficult to say to what extent his socialist convictions (which he never either openly or privately abjure) may have been sacrificed in the course of the indispensable financial deals which were necessary for the continuation of the struggle in which he was engaged... But assuming these modifications did take place ... he always wanted to give the appearance of still being a socialist, and he fooled himself into thinking that this was the case.[35]
Beginning of Fascism and service in World War I[link]
After being ousted by the Italian Socialist Party for his support of Italian intervention, Mussolini made a radical transformation, ending his support for class conflict and joining in support of revolutionary nationalism transcending class lines. [34] He formed the interventionist newspaper Il Popolo d'Italia and the Fasci Rivoluzionari d'Azione Internazionalista ("Revolutionary Fasci for International Action") in October 1914. [29] His nationalist support of intervention enabled him to raise funds from Ansaldo (an armaments firm) and other companies to create Il Popolo d'Italia to convince socialists and revolutionaries to support the war.[36] Further funding for Mussolini's Fascists during the war came from the French sources beginning in May 1915. [37] A major source of this funding from France is believed to have probably been from French socialists who sent support to dissident socialists who wanted Italian intervention on France's side. [37]
On 5 December 1914, Mussolini denounced orthodox socialism for having failed to recognize that the war had brought about national identity and loyalty as being of greater significance than class distinction. [34] His transformation was fully demonstrated in a speech he made in which he acknowledged the nation as an entity, a notion that he had previously rejected prior to the war, saying:
- The nation has not disappeared. We used to believe that the concept was totally without substance. Instead we see the nation arise as a palpitating reality before us! ... Class cannot destroy the nation. Class reveals itself as a collection of interests—but the nation is a history of sentiments, traditions, language, culture, and race. Class can become an integral part of the nation, but the one cannot eclipse the other. [38]
- The class struggle is a vain formula, without effect and consequence wherever one finds a people that has not integrated itself into its proper linguistic and racial confines—where the national problem has not been definitely resolved. In such circumstances the class movement finds itself impaired by an inauspicious historic climate. [39]
Mussolini continued to promote the need of a revolutionary vanguard elite to lead society, but he no longer advocated a proletarian vanguard but instead a vanguard led by dynamic and revolutionary people of any social class. [39]
Though he denounced orthodox socialism and class conflict, he maintained at the time that he was a nationalist socialist and a supporter of the legacy of nationalist socialists in Italy's history, such as Giuseppe Garibaldi, Giuseppe Mazzini, and Carlo Pisacane. [40] As for the Italian Socialist Party and its support of orthodox socialism, he claimed that his failure as a member of the party to revitalize and transform it to recognize the contemporary reality revealed the hopelessness of orthodox socialism as outdated and a failure. [40] This perception of the failure of orthodox socialism in the light of the outbreak of World War I was not solely held by Mussolini, other pro-interventionist Italian socialists such as Filippo Corridoni and Sergio Panunzio had also denounced classical Marxism in favour of intervention. [41]
These basic political views and principles formed the basis of Mussolini's newly formed political movement, the Fasci Rivoluzionari d'Azione Internazionalista in 1914, who called themselves Fascisti (Fascists). [42] At this time, the Fascists did not have an integrated set of policies and the movement was very small, ineffective in its attempts to hold mass meetings, and was regularly harassed by government authorities and orthodox socialists. [43] Antagonism between the interventionists, including the Fascists, versus the anti-interventionist orthodox socialists resulted in violence between the Fascists and socialists. [44] The opposition and attacks by the anti-interventionist revolutionary socialists against the Fascists and other interventionists were so violent that even democratic socialists who opposed the war such as Anna Kuliscioff said that the Italian Socialist Party had gone too far in a campaign of silencing the freedom of speech of supporters of the war. [44] These early hostilities between the Fascists and the revolutionary socialists shaped Mussolini's conception of the nature of Fascism in its support of political violence. [44]
Mussolini became an ally with the irredentist politician and journalist Cesare Battisti, and like him he entered the Army and served in the war. "He was sent to the zone of operations where he was seriously injured by the explosion of a grenade."[23]
The Inspector General continues:
- He was promoted to the rank of corporal "for merit in war". The promotion was recommended because of his exemplary conduct and fighting quality, his mental calmness and lack of concern for discomfort, his zeal and regularity in carrying out his assignments, where he was always first in every task involving labor and fortitude.[23]
Mussolini's military experience is told in his work Diario Di Guerra. Overall, he totalled about nine months of active, front-line trench warfare. During this time, he contracted paratyphoid fever.[45] His military exploits ended in 1917 when he was wounded accidentally by the explosion of a mortar bomb in his trench. He was left with at least 40 shards of metal in his body[45] He was discharged from the hospital in August 1917 and resumed his editor-in-chief position at his new paper, Il Popolo d'Italia. He wrote there positive articles about Czechoslovak Legions in Italy.
On 25 December 1915, in Trevalglio, he contracted a marriage with his fellow countrywoman Rachele Guidi, who had already born him a daughter, Edda, at Forli in 1910. In 1915, he had a son with Ida Dalser, a woman born in Sopramonte, a village near Trento.[11][12][46] He legally recognized this son on 11 January 1916.
Creation of Fascism[link]
Main articles: Fascism and Italian Fascism
By the time Mussolini returned from Allied service in World War I, he had decided that socialism as a doctrine had largely been a failure. In 1917, Mussolini got his start in politics with the help of a £100 weekly wage from MI5, the British Security Service; this help was authorised by Sir Samuel Hoare.[47] In early 1918, Mussolini called for the emergence of a man "ruthless and energetic enough to make a clean sweep" to revive the Italian nation.[48] Much later in life Mussolini said he felt by 1919 "Socialism as a doctrine was already dead; it continued to exist only as a grudge".[49] On 23 March 1919, Mussolini reformed the Milan fascio as the Fasci Italiani di Combattimento (Italian Combat Squad), consisting of 200 members.[50]
An important factor in fascism gaining support in its earliest stages was the fact that it claimed to oppose discrimination based on social class and was strongly opposed to all forms of class war.[51][52] Fascism instead supported nationalist sentiments such as a strong unity, regardless of class, in the hopes of raising Italy up to the levels of its great Roman past. The ideological basis for fascism came from a number of sources. Mussolini utilized works of Plato, Georges Sorel, Nietzsche, and the socialist and economic ideas of Vilfredo Pareto, to create fascism. Mussolini admired The Republic, which he often read for inspiration.[53] The Republic held a number of ideas that fascism promoted such as rule by an elite promoting the state as the ultimate end, opposition to democracy, protecting the class system and promoting class collaboration, rejection of egalitarianism, promoting the militarization of a nation by creating a class of warriors, demanding that citizens perform civic duties in the interest of the state, and utilizing state intervention in education to promote the creation of warriors and future rulers of the state.[54] The Republic differed from fascism in that it did not promote aggressive war but only defensive war, unlike fascism it promoted very communist-like views on property, and Plato was an idealist focused on achieving justice and morality while Mussolini and fascism were realist, focused on achieving political goals.[55]
The basic underlying idea behind Mussolini’s foreign policy was that of spazio vitale (vital space), a concept in Fascism that was analogous to lebensraum in German National Socialism.[56] The concept of spazio vitale was first announced in 1919 when the entire Mediterranean was claimed as Italy’s exclusive sphere of influence, which was justified under the grounds that Italy was suffering from overpopulation, and so needed to colonize other areas of the Mediterranean inhabited by what were alleged to be less developed peoples. [57] Borrowing the idea first developed by Enrico Corradini before 1914 of the natural conflict between "plutocratic" nations like Britain and "proletarian" nations like Italy, Mussolini claimed that Italy's principle problem was that it was "plutocratic" countries like Britain that were blocking Italy from achieving the necessary spazio vitale that would let the Italian economy grow. [58] Mussolini equated a nation’s potential for economic growth with territorial size, thus in his view the problem of poverty in Italy could only be solved by winning the necessary spazio vitale. [59] Through biological racism was less prominent in Fascism than National Socialism, right from the start there was a strong racist undercurrent to the spazio vitale concept, in which Mussolini asserted there was a “natural law” for stronger peoples to subject and dominate “inferior” peoples such as the “barbaric” Slavic peoples of Yugoslavia as Mussolini claimed in a September 1920 speech. [60] In the same way, Mussolini argued that Italy was right to follow an imperalist policy in Africa because all black people were "inferior" to whites. [60] Mussolini claimed that the world was divided into a hierarchy of races (stirpe), through this was justified more on cultural than on biological grounds, and that history was nothing more than a Darwinian struggle for power and territory between various "racial masses".[60] The very fact that Italy was suffering from overpopulation was seen as proving the cultural and spirtual vitality of the Italians, who were thus justified in seeking to colonize lands that Mussolini argued on a historical basis belonged to Italy anyway, which was the heir to the Roman Empire. [60] In Mussolini's thinking, demography was destiny; nations with rising populations were nations destined to conquer, and nations with falling populations were decaying powers that deserved to die. [60] Hence, the importance of natalism to Mussolini, since only by increasing the Italian birth rate could Italy's future as a great power that would win its spazio vitale be assured. [60] For Mussolini, the Italian population had to reach 60 million in order to enable Italy to fight a major war, and hence his relentless demands for Italian women to have more children to reach the magic number of 60 million. [60]
Mussolini and the fascists managed to be simultaneously revolutionary and traditionalist;[61][62] because this was vastly different to anything else in the political climate of the time, it is sometimes described as "The Third Way".[63] The Fascisti, led by one of Mussolini's close confidants, Dino Grandi, formed armed squads of war veterans called Blackshirts (or squadristi) with the goal of restoring order to the streets of Italy with a strong hand. The blackshirts clashed with communists, socialists, and anarchists at parades and demonstrations; all of these factions were also involved in clashes against each other. The government rarely interfered with the blackshirts' actions, owing in part to a looming threat and widespread fear of a communist revolution. The Fascisti grew so rapidly that within two years, it transformed itself into the National Fascist Party at a congress in Rome. Also in 1921, Mussolini was elected to the Chamber of Deputies for the first time.[12] In the meantime, from about 1911 until 1938, Mussolini had various affairs with the Jewish author and academic Margherita Sarfatti, called the "Jewish Mother of Fascism" at the time.[64]
March on Rome and early years in power[link]
Further information: March on Rome
The March on Rome was a coup d'état by which Mussolini's National Fascist Party came to power in Italy and ousted Prime Minister Luigi Facta. The "march" took place in 1922 between 27–29 October. On 28 October King Victor Emmanuel III who according to the Statuto Albertino had both the executive and the Supreme military power, refused Facta's request to declare martial law, which led to Facta's resignation. The King then handed over power to Mussolini by inviting him to form a new government. Mussolini was supported by the military, the business class, and the liberal right-wing.
As Prime Minister, the first years of Mussolini's rule were characterized by a right-wing coalition government composed of Fascists, nationalists, liberals, and two Catholic clerics from the Popular Party. The Fascists made up a small minority in his original governments. Mussolini's domestic goal was the eventual establishment of a totalitarian state with himself as supreme leader (Il Duce) a message that was articulated by the Fascist newspaper Il Popolo, which was now edited by Mussolini's brother, Arnaldo. To that end, Mussolini obtained from the legislature dictatorial powers for one year (legal under the Italian constitution of the time). He favored the complete restoration of state authority, with the integration of the Fasci di Combattimento into the armed forces (the foundation in January 1923 of the Milizia Volontaria per la Sicurezza Nazionale) and the progressive identification of the party with the state. In political and social economy, he passed legislation that favored the wealthy industrial and agrarian classes (privatisations, liberalisations of rent laws and dismantlement of the unions).[12]
In 1923, Mussolini sent Italian forces to invade Corfu during the "Corfu Incident." In the end, the League of Nations proved powerless and Greece was forced to comply with Italian demands. Writing of Mussolini's foreign policy, the American historian Gerhard Weinberg stated:
"If the new regime Benito Mussolini installed in 1922 on the ruins of the old glorified war as a sign of vitality and repudiated pacifism as a form of decay, the lesson drawn from the terrible battles against Austria on the Isonzo river-in which the Italians fought far better than popular imagination often allows-was that the tremendous material and technical preparations needed for modern war were simply beyond the contemporary capacity of the country. This was almost certainly a correct perception, but, given the ideology of Fascism with its emphasis on the moral benefits of war, it did not lead to the conclusion that an Italy without a big stick had best speak very, very softly. On the contrary, the new regime drew the opposite conclusion. Noisy eloquence and rabid journalism might be substitued for serious preparations for war, a procedure that was harmless enough if no one took any of it seriously, but a certain road to disaster once some outside and Mussolini inside the country came to believe that the "eight million bayonets" of the Duce's imagination actually existed."[65]
Acerbo Law[link]
In June 1923, the government passed the Acerbo Law, which transformed Italy into a single national constituency. It also granted a two-thirds majority of the seats in Parliament to the party or group of parties which had obtained at least 25% of the votes.[citation needed] This law was applied in the elections of 6 April 1924. The "national alliance", consisting of Fascists, most of the old Liberals and others, won 64% of the vote largely by means of violence and voter intimidation.[citation needed] These tactics were especially prevalent in the south.
Squadristi violence[link]
The assassination of the socialist deputy Giacomo Matteotti, who had requested the annulment of the elections because of the irregularities committed,[66] provoked a momentary crisis of the Mussolini government. The murderer, a squadrista named Amerigo Dumini, reported to Mussolini soon after the murder.[citation needed] Mussolini ordered a cover-up, but witnesses saw the car used to transport Matteotti's body parked outside Matteotti's residence, which linked Dumini to the murder. The Matteotti crisis provoked cries for justice against the murder of an outspoken critic of Fascist violence.[citation needed]
Mussolini later confessed that a few resolute men could have altered public opinion and started a coup that would have swept fascism away. Dumini was imprisoned for two years. On his release Dumini allegedly told other people that Mussolini was responsible, for which he served further prison time. For the next 15 years, Dumini received an income from Mussolini, the Fascist Party, and other sources.[citation needed]
The opposition parties responded weakly or were generally unresponsive. Many of the socialists, liberals, and moderates boycotted Parliament in the Aventine Secession, hoping to force Victor Emmanuel to dismiss Mussolini. Despite the leadership of communists such as Antonio Gramsci, socialists such as Pietro Nenni, and liberals such as Piero Gobetti and Giovanni Amendola, a mass antifascist movement never crystallized.[citation needed] The king, fearful of violence from the Fascist squadristi, kept Mussolini in office.[citation needed] Because of the boycott of Parliament, Mussolini could pass any legislation unopposed. The political violence of the squadristi had worked, for there was no popular demonstration against the murder of Matteotti. Within his own party, Mussolini faced doubts and dissension during these critical weeks.[citation needed]
On 31 December 1924, MVSN consuls met with Mussolini and gave him an ultimatum—crush the opposition or they would do so without him. Fearing a revolt by his own militants, Mussolini decided to drop all trappings of democracy.[67] On 3 January 1925, Mussolini made a truculent speech before the Chamber in which he took responsibility for squadristi violence (though he did not mention the assassination of Matteotti).[citation needed]
He promised a crackdown on dissenters. Before his speech, MVSN detachments beat up the opposition and prevented opposition newspapers from publishing. Mussolini correctly predicted that as soon as public opinion saw him firmly in control the "fence-sitters", the silent majority, and the "place-hunters" would all place themselves behind him.[citation needed]
Building a dictatorship[link]
Assassination attempts[link]
Mussolini's influence in propaganda was such that he had surprisingly little opposition to suppress. Nonetheless, he was "slightly wounded in the nose" when he was shot on 7 April 1926 by Violet Gibson, an Irish woman and daughter of Baron Ashbourne, who was subsequently deported after her arrest.[68] On 31 October 1926, 15-year-old Anteo Zamboni attempted to shoot Mussolini in Bologna. Zamboni was lynched on the spot.[69][70] Mussolini also survived a failed assassination attempt in Rome by anarchist Gino Lucetti,[71] and a planned attempt by the Italian anarchist Michele Schirru,[72] which ended with Schirru's capture and execution.[73]
Police state[link]
 |
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2010) |
File:Benito Mussolini Face.jpg
A young Mussolini in his early years in power.
At various times after 1922, Mussolini personally took over the ministries of the interior, foreign affairs, colonies, corporations, defense, and public works. Sometimes he held as many as seven departments simultaneously, as well as the premiership. He was also head of the all-powerful Fascist Party and the armed local fascist militia, the MVSN or "Blackshirts", who terrorised incipient resistances in the cities and provinces. He would later form the OVRA, an institutionalised secret police that carried official state support. In this way he succeeded in keeping power in his own hands and preventing the emergence of any rival.
Between 1925 and 1927, Mussolini progressively dismantled virtually all constitutional and conventional restraints on his power, thereby building a police state. A law passed on Christmas Eve 1925 changed Mussolini's formal title from "president of the Council of Ministers" to "head of the government". He was no longer responsible to Parliament and could only be removed by the king. While the Italian constitution stated that ministers were only responsible to the sovereign, in practice it had become all but impossible to govern against the express will of Parliament. The Christmas Eve law ended this practice, and also made Mussolini the only person competent to determine the body's agenda. Local autonomy was abolished, and podestàs appointed by the Italian Senate replaced elected mayors and councils.
All other parties were outlawed following Zamboni's assassination attempt in 1926, though in practice Italy had been a one-party state since Mussolini's 1925 speech. In the same year, an electoral law abolished parliamentary elections. Instead, the Grand Council of Fascism selected a single list of candidates to be approved by plebiscite. The Grand Council had been created five years earlier as a party body but was "constitutionalised" and became the highest constitutional authority in the state. On paper, the Grand Council had the power to recommend Mussolini's removal from office, and was thus theoretically the only check on his power. Only Mussolini could summon the Grand Council and determine its agenda. To gain control of the South, especially Sicily, he appointed Cesare Mori as a Prefect of the city of Palermo, with the charge of eradicating the Mafia at any price. In the telegram, Mussolini wrote to Mori:
- "Your Excellency has carte blanche; the authority of the State must absolutely, I repeat absolutely, be re-established in Sicily. If the laws still in force hinder you, this will be no problem, as we will draw up new laws."[74]
He did not hesitate laying siege to towns, using torture, and holding women and children as hostages to oblige suspects to give themselves up. These harsh methods earned him the nickname of "Iron Prefect". In 1927 Mori's inquiries brought evidence of collusion between the Mafia and the Fascist establishment, and he was dismissed for length of service in 1929, at which time the number of murders in the Palermo Province had decreased from some 200 to 23. Mussolini nominated Mori as a senator, and fascist propaganda claimed that the Mafia had been defeated.[75][citation needed]
Economic policy[link]
|
|
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2010) |
Main article: Economy of Italy under Fascism, 1922-1943
Mussolini launched several public construction programs and government initiatives throughout Italy to combat economic setbacks or unemployment levels. His earliest, and one of the best known, was the "Battle for Wheat", by which 5,000 new farms were established and five new agricultural towns (among them Littoria and Sabaudia) on land reclaimed by draining the Pontine Marshes. In Sardinia, a model agricultural town was founded and named Mussolinia, but has long since been renamed Arborea. This town was the first of what Mussolini hoped would have been thousands of new agricultural settlements across the country. The Battle for Wheat diverted valuable resources to wheat production away from other more economically viable crops. Landowners grew wheat on unsuitable soil using all the advances of modern science, and although the wheat harvest increased, prices rose, consumption fell and high tariffs were imposed.[76] The tariffs promoted widespread inefficiencies and the government subsidies given to farmers pushed the country further into debt.
Mussolini also initiated the "Battle for Land", a policy based on land reclamation outlined in 1928. The initiative had a mixed success; while projects such as the draining of the Pontine Marsh in 1935 for agriculture were good for propaganda purposes, provided work for the unemployed and allowed for great land owners to control subsidies, other areas in the Battle for Land were not very successful. This program was inconsistent with the Battle for Wheat (small plots of land were inappropriately allocated for large-scale wheat production), and the Pontine Marsh was lost during World War II. Fewer than 10,000 peasants resettled on the redistributed land, and peasant poverty remained high. The Battle for Land initiative was abandoned in 1940.
| Corporatism |
|---|
|
People
Aristotle · Émile Durkheim · Ibn Khaldūn · John Stuart Mill · Plato · Paul the Apostle · Ferdinand Tönnies · Benito Mussolini
|
|
Related articles
|
| Politics portal |
He also combated an economic recession by introducing the "Gold for the Fatherland" initiative, by encouraging the public to voluntarily donate gold jewellery such as necklaces and wedding rings to government officials in exchange for steel wristbands bearing the words "Gold for the Fatherland". Even Rachele Mussolini donated her own wedding ring. The collected gold was then melted down and turned into gold bars, which were then distributed to the national banks.
Mussolini pushed for government control of business: by 1935, Mussolini claimed that three quarters of Italian businesses were under state control. That same year, he issued several edicts to further control the economy, including forcing all banks, businesses, and private citizens to give up all their foreign-issued stocks and bonds to the Bank of Italy. In 1938, he also instituted wage and price controls.[77][citation needed] He also attempted to turn Italy into a self-sufficient autarky, instituting high barriers on trade with most countries except Germany.
In 1943 he proposed the theory of economic socialization.
Government[link]
Main article: Italian Fascism
 |
This unreferenced section requires citations to ensure verifiability. |
File:Benito mussolini28.jpg
After taking power, Mussolini was often seen in military uniform.
Mussolini's foremost priority was the subjugation of the minds of the Italian people and the use of propaganda to do so. Press, radio, education, films—all were carefully supervised to create the illusion that fascism was the doctrine of the twentieth century, replacing liberalism and democracy.[citation needed] A lavish cult of personality centered on Mussolini was promoted by the regime.
.svg)
The principles of this doctrine were laid down in the article on fascism, written by Giovanni Gentile and signed by Mussolini that appeared in 1932 in the Enciclopedia Italiana. In 1929, a concordat with the Vatican was signed, the Lateran treaties, by which the Italian state was at last recognised by the Roman Catholic Church, and the independence of Vatican City was recognised by the Italian state.
The 1929 treaty included a legal provision whereby the Italian government would protect the honor and dignity of the Pope by prosecuting offenders.[78] In 1927, Mussolini was re-baptised by a Roman Catholic priest in an attempt to assuage certain Catholic opposition, who were still critical.[citation needed] After 1929, Mussolini, with his anti-Communist doctrines, convinced many Catholics to actively support him. In the encyclical Non abbiamo bisogno, Pope Pius XI attacked the Fascist regime for its policy against the Catholic Action and certain tendencies to overrule Catholic education morals.[citation needed]
The law codes of the parliamentary system were rewritten under Mussolini. All teachers in schools and universities had to swear an oath to defend the fascist regime. Newspaper editors were all personally chosen by Mussolini and no one who did not possess a certificate of approval from the fascist party could practice journalism. These certificates were issued in secret; Mussolini thus skillfully created the illusion of a "free press". The trade unions were also deprived of any independence and were integrated into what was called the "corporative" system. The aim (never completely achieved), inspired by medieval guilds, was to place all Italians in various professional organizations or "corporations", all of which were under clandestine governmental control.
Large sums of money were spent on highly visible public works, and on international prestige projects such as the Blue Riband ocean liner SS Rex and aeronautical achievements such as the world's fastest seaplane the Macchi M.C.72 and the transatlantic flying boat cruise of Italo Balbo, who was greeted with much fanfare in the United States when he landed in Chicago.
Role of education and youth organizations[link]
|
This unreferenced section requires citations to ensure verifiability. |
Nationalists in the years after the war thought of themselves as combating the both liberal and domineering institutions created by cabinets such as those of Giovanni Giolitti, including traditional schooling. Futurism, a revolutionary cultural movement which would serve as a catalyst for Fascism, argued for "a school for physical courage and patriotism", as expressed by Filippo Tommaso Marinetti in 1919. Marinetti expressed his disdain for "the by now prehistoric and troglodyte Ancient Greek and Latin courses", arguing for their replacement with exercise modelled on those of the Arditi soldiers ("[learning] to advance on hands and knees in front of razing machine gun fire; to wait open-eyed for a crossbeam to move sideways over their heads etc."). It was in those years that the first Fascist youth wings were formed Avanguardia Giovanile Fascista (Fascist Youth Vanguards) in 1919, and Gruppi Universitari Fascisti (Fascist University Groups), in 1922.
After the March on Rome that brought Benito Mussolini to power, the Fascists started considering ways to ideologize the Italian society, with an accent on schools. Mussolini assigned former ardito and deputy-secretary for Education Renato Ricci the task of "reorganizing the youth from a moral and physical point of view". Ricci sought inspiration with Robert Baden-Powell, the founder of Scouting, meeting with him in England, as well as with Bauhaus artists in Germany. The Opera Nazionale Balilla was created through Mussolini's decree of 3 April 1926, and was led by Ricci for the following eleven years. It included children between the ages of 8 and 18, grouped as the Balilla and the Avanguardisti.
According to Mussolini: "Fascist education is moral, physical, social, and military: it aims to create a complete and harmoniously developed human, a fascist one according to our views". Mussolini structured this process taking in view the emotional side of childhood: "Childhood and adolescence alike ... cannot be fed solely by concerts, theories, and abstract teaching. The truth we aim to teach them should appeal foremost to their fantasy, to their hearts, and only then to their minds".
The "educational value set through action and example" was to replace the established approaches. Fascism opposed its version of idealism to prevalent rationalism, and used the Opera Nazionale Balilla to circumvent educational tradition by imposing the collective and hierarchy, as well as Mussolini's own personality cult.
Foreign policy[link]
|
This unreferenced section requires citations to ensure verifiability. |
In foreign policy, Mussolini soon shifted from the anti-imperialism of his lead-up to power to an extreme form of aggressive nationalism. He dreamt of making Italy a nation that was "great, respected, and feared" throughout Europe, and indeed the world. An early example was his bombardment of Corfu in 1923. Soon after he succeeded in setting up a puppet regime in Albania and in ruthlessly consolidating Italian power in Libya, which had been loosely a colony since 1912. It was his dream to make the Mediterranean mare nostrum ("our sea" in Latin), and he established a large naval base on the Greek island of Leros to enforce a strategic hold on the eastern Mediterranean.
His first steps into foreign policy seemed to portray him as a "statesman", for he participated in the Locarno Treaties of 1925 and the attempted Four Power Pact of 1933 was Mussolini's brainchild. Following the Stresa Front against Germany in 1935, Mussolini's policy took a dramatic turning point and revealed itself once again to be that of an aggressive nature. This domino effect of war began with the Second Italo-Abyssinian War. He also disagreed with Hitler's treaties with the Soviet Union.[better source needed]
Conquest of Ethiopia[link]
Main article: Second Italo-Abyssinian War
File:Mussolini standing on a tank.jpg
Il Duce standing on top of a tank.
In an effort to create an Italian Empire – or as supporters called it, the New Roman Empire[79] – Italy set its sights on Ethiopia with an invasion that was carried out rapidly. Italy's forces were far superior to the Abyssinian forces, especially in regards to air power, and they were soon victorious. Emperor Haile Selassie was forced to flee the country, with Italy entering the capital Addis Ababa to proclaim an empire by May 1936, making Ethiopia part of Italian East Africa.[80]
Although all of the major European powers of the time had also colonised parts of Africa and committed atrocities in their colonies, the Scramble for Africa had finished by the beginning of the twentieth century. The international mood was now against colonialist expansion and Italy's actions were condemned. Retroactively, Italy was criticised for its use of mustard gas and phosgene against its enemies and also for its zero tolerance approach to enemy guerrillas, allegedly authorised by Mussolini.[80]
When Rodolfo Graziani the viceroy of Ethiopia was nearly assassinated at an official ceremony, with the guerrilla bomb exploding among the people there, a very stronghanded reaction followed against the guerrillas, including those who were prisoners according to the International Red Cross.[80] The IRC also alleged that Italy bombed their tents in areas of guerrillas military encampment; though Italy denied it had intended to, insisting that the rebels were targeted.[80] It was not until the East African Campaign's conclusion in 1941 that Italy lost its East African territories, after taking on a fourteen nation allied force.
Spanish Civil War[link]
Main articles: Spanish Civil War and Foreign Involvement and Corpo Truppe Volontarie
Italian military help to Nationalists against the anti-clerical and anti-Catholic atrocities committed by the Republican side worked well in Italian propaganda targeting Catholics. On 27 July 1936 the first squadron of Italian airplanes sent by Benito Mussolini arrived in Spain.[81] This active intervention in 1936–1939 on the side of Franco in the Spanish Civil War ended any possibility of reconciliation with France and Britain. As a result, his relationship with Adolf Hitler became closer, and he chose to accept the German annexation of Austria in 1938 and the dismemberment of Czechoslovakia in 1939. At the Munich Conference in September 1938, he posed as a moderate working for European peace, helping Nazi Germany seize control of the Sudetenland. His "axis" with Germany was confirmed when he made the "Pact of Steel" with Hitler in May 1939, as the previous "Rome-Berlin Axis" of 1936 had been unofficial. Members of TIGR, a Slovene anti-fascist group, plotted to kill Mussolini in Kobarid in 1938, but their attempt was unsuccessful.
Axis[link]
Rome-Berlin relations[link]
Main articles: Rome-Berlin Axis and Pact of Steel
File:Hitler and Mussolini June 1940.jpg
Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler in Munich, June 1940.
The relationship between Mussolini and Adolf Hitler was a contentious one early on. While Hitler cited Mussolini as an influence and expressed privately great admiration for him,[82] Mussolini had little regard for Hitler, especially after the Nazis had assassinated his friend and ally, Engelbert Dollfuss the Austrofascist dictator of Austria in 1934.
With the assassination of Dollfuss, Mussolini attempted to distance himself from Hitler by rejecting much of the racialism (particularly Nordicism and Germanicism) and anti-Semitism espoused by the German radical. Mussolini during this period rejected biological racism, at least in the Nazi sense, and instead emphasized "Italianizing" the parts of the Italian Empire he had desired to build.[83] He declared that the ideas of Eugenics and the racially charged concept of an Aryan nation were not possible.[83]
Mussolini was particularly sensitive to German accusations that the Italians were a mongrelized race. He retaliated by mockingly referring to the Germans' own lack of racial purity on several occasions. When discussing the Nazi decree that the German people must carry a passport with either Aryan or Jewish racial affiliation marked on it, in the summer of 1934, Mussolini wondered how they would designate membership in the "Germanic race":
| “ | But which race? Does there exist a German race? Has it ever existed? Will it ever exist? Reality, myth, or hoax of the theorists?
Ah well, we respond, a Germanic race does not exist. Various movements. Curiosity. Stupor. We repeat. Does not exist. We don't say so. Scientists say so. Hitler says so. |
” |
|
—Benito Mussolini, 1934.[84] |
||
When German-Jewish journalist Emil Ludwig asked about his views on race, Mussolini exclaimed:
| “ | Race! It is a feeling, not a reality: ninety-five percent, at least, is a feeling. Nothing will ever make me believe that biologically pure races can be shown to exist today. Amusingly enough, not one of those who have proclaimed the "nobility" of the Teutonic race was himself a Teuton. Gobineau was a Frenchman, Chamberlain, an Englishman; Woltmann, a Jew; Lapouge, another Frenchman. | ” |
|
—Benito Mussolini, 1933.[85] |
||
In a speech given in Bari, he reiterated his attitude toward German racism:
| “ | Thirty centuries of history allow us to look with supreme pity on certain doctrines which are preached beyond the Alps by the descendants of those who were illiterate when Rome had Caesar, Virgil and Augustus. | ” |
Mussolini's rejection of both racialism and the importance of race in 1934 during the height of his antagonism towards Hitler contradicted his own earlier statements about race, such as in 1928 in which he emphasized the importance of race:
| “ | [When the] city dies, the nation — deprived of the young life-blood of new generations — is now made up of people who are old and degenerate and cannot defend itself against a younger people which launches an attack on the now unguarded frontiers [...] This will happen, and not just to cities and nations, but on an infinitely greater scale: the whole White race, the Western race can be submerged by other coloured races which are multiplying at a rate unknown in our race. | ” |
|
—Benito Mussolini, 1928.[88] |
||
Though Italian Fascism variated its official positions on race from the 1920s to 1934, ideologically Italian fascism did not originally discriminate against the Italian Jewish community: Mussolini recognised that a small contingent had lived there "since the days of the Kings of Rome" and should "remain undisturbed".[89] There were even some Jews in the National Fascist Party, such as Ettore Ovazza who in 1935 founded the Jewish Fascist paper La Nostra Bandiera ("Our Flag").[90]
By 1938, the enormous influence Hitler now had over Mussolini became clear with the introduction of the Manifesto of Race. The Manifesto, which was closely modeled on the Nazi Nuremberg laws,[67] stripped Jews of their Italian citizenship and with it any position in the government or professions. The German influence on Italian policy upset the established balance in Fascist Italy and proved highly unpopular to most Italians, to the extent that Pope Pius XII sent a letter to Mussolini protesting against the new laws.[citation needed]
It has been widely speculated that Mussolini's reasoning to adopt the Manifesto of Race in 1938 was merely tactical, in order to strengthen Italy's relations with Germany. In December 1943, Mussolini made a confession to Bruno Spampanato that seems to indicate that he regretted the Manifesto of Race, as Mussolini put it:
| “ | The Racial Manifesto could have been avoided. It dealt with the scientific abstruseness of a few teachers and journalists, a conscientious German essay translated into bad Italian. It is far from what I have said, written and signed on the subject. I suggest that you consult the old issues of Il Popolo d'Italia. For this reason I am far from accepting (Alfred) Rosenberg's myth. | ” |
|
—Benito Mussolini, 1943.[91] |
||
Mussolini also reached out to the Muslims in his empire and in the predominantly Arab countries of the Middle East. In 1937, the Muslims of Libya presented Mussolini with the "Sword of Islam" while Fascist propaganda pronounced him as the "Protector of Islam."[92]
Munich Conference, war looming[link]
Main articles: Munich Agreement and Italian invasion of Albania
By the late 1930s, Mussolini's obsession with demography led him to conclude that Britain and France were finished as powers, and that it was Germany and Italy who were destined to rule Europe if for no other reason than their demographic strength.[93] Mussolini stated his belief that declining birth rates in France were "absolutely horrifying" and that the British Empire was doomed because one-quarter of the British population was over 50. [94] As such, Mussolini believed that an alliance with Germany was preferable to an alignment with Britain and France as it was better to be allied with the strong instead of the weak. [95] The only things that held Mussolini back from full alignment with Berlin were his awareness of Italian economic and military weaknesses, which required further time to rearm and his desire to use the Easter Accords of April 1938 as a way of splitting Britain from France. [96] A military alliance with Germany as opposed to the already existing looser political alliance with the Reich under the Anti-Comintern Pact (which had no military commitments) would end any chance of Britain implementing the Easter Accords. [97] The Easter Accords in turn was intended by Mussolini to allow Italy to take on France alone by sufficiently improving Anglo-Italian relations that London would presumably remain neutral in the event of a Franco-Italian war. [97] In turn, the Easter Accords were intended by Britain to win Italy away from Germany.
Mussolini had imperial designs on Tunisia, and had some support in that country.[98] In January 1939, the British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain visited Rome, during which visit, Mussolini learned that through Britain very much wanted better relations with Italy, and was prepared to make concessions, that Britain would not sever all ties with France for the sake of an improved Anglo-Italian relationship. [99] With that, Mussolini grew more interested in the German offer of a military alliance, which first been made in May 1938. [99] The new course was not without its critics. On 21 March 1939, during a meeting of the Fascist Grand Council, Italo Balbo accused Mussolini of "licking Hitler's boots", blasted the Duce's pro-German foreign policy as leading Italy to disaster, and noted that the "opening to Britain" still existed and it was not inevitable that Italy had to ally with Germany. [100] Through many gerarchi like Balbo were not keen on closer relations with Berlin, Mussolini's control of the foreign-policy machinery meant this dissidence counted for little. [100] In April 1939, Mussolini ordered the Italy invaded Albania. Italy defeated Albania within just five days forcing king Zog to flee, setting up a period of Albania under Italy. Until May 1939, the Axis had not been entirely official, but during that month the Pact of Steel treaty was signed outlining the "friendship and alliance" between Germany and Italy, signed by each of its foreign ministers.[101] The Pact of Steel was an offensive and defensive military alliance, through Mussolini had signed the treaty only after receiving a promise from the Germans that there would be no war for the next three years. Italy's king Victor Emanuel III was also wary of the pact, favouring the more traditional Italian allies like France, and fearful of the implications of an offensive military alliance, which in effect meant surrendering control over questions of war and peace to Hitler.[102]
Hitler was intent on invading Poland, though Galeazzo Ciano warned this would likely lead to war with the Allies. Hitler dismissed Ciano's comment, predicting that instead that Britain and the other Western countries would back down, and he suggested that Italy should invade Yugoslavia.[103] The offer was tempting to Mussolini, but at that stage world war would be a disaster for Italy as the armaments situation from building the Italian Empire thus far was lean. Most significantly, Victor Emmanuel had demanded neutrality in the dispute.[103] Thus when World War II in Europe began on 1 September 1939 with the German invasion of Poland eliciting the response of the United Kingdom and France declaring war on Germany, Italy did not become involved in the conflict.[103]
War declared[link]
Main article: Military history of Italy during World War II
As World War II began, Ciano and Viscount Halifax were holding secret phone conversations. The British wanted Italy on their side against Germany as it had been in World War I.[103] French government opinion was more geared towards action against Italy; they were eager to attack Italy in Libya. In September 1939, France swung to the opposite extreme, offering to discuss issues with Italy, but as the French were unwilling to discuss Corsica, Nice and Savoy, Mussolini did not answer.[103]
| “ | So long as the Duce lives, one can rest assured that Italy will seize every opportunity to achieve its imperialistic aims. | ” |
|
—Adolf Hitler, late November 1939[103] |
||
Convinced that the war would soon be over, with a German victory looking likely at that point, Mussolini decided to enter the war on the Axis side. Accordingly, Italy declared war on Britain and France on 10 June 1940.[104] Italy joined the Germans in the Battle of France, fighting the fortified Alpine Line at the border. Just eleven days later, France surrendered to the Axis powers. Included in Italian-controlled France was most of Nice and other southeastern counties.[104] Meanwhile in Africa, Mussolini's Italian East Africa forces attacked the British in their Sudan, Kenya and British Somaliland colonies, in what would become known as the East African Campaign.[105] British Somaliland was conquered and became part of Italian East Africa on 3 August 1940, and there were Italian advances in Sudan and Kenya.[106]
Just over a month later, the Italian Tenth Army commanded by General Rodolfo Graziani crossed from Italian Libya into Egypt where British forces were located; this would become the Western Desert Campaign. Advances were successful, but the Italians stopped at Sidi Barrani waiting for logistic supplies to catch up. During 25 October 1940, Mussolini sent the Italian Air Corps to Belgium, where the air force took part in the Battle of Britain for around two months.[107] In October, Mussolini also sent Italian forces into Greece starting the Greco-Italian War. After initial success, this backfired as the Greek counterattack proved relentless, resulting in Italy losing one quarter of Albania. Germany soon committed forces to the Balkans to fight the gathering Allies.[better source needed]
Events in Africa had changed by early 1941 as Operation Compass had forced the Italians back into Libya, causing high losses in the Italian Army.[108] Also in the East African Campaign, an attack was mounted against Italian forces. Despite putting up a resistance, they were overwhelmed at the Battle of Keren, and the Italian defense started to crumble with a final defeat in the Battle of Gondar. When addressing the Italian public on the events, he was completely open about the situation saying, "We call bread bread and wine wine, and when the enemy wins a battle it is useless and ridiculous to seek, as the English do in their incomparable hypocrisy, to deny or diminish it."[109] Part of his comment was in relation to earlier success the Italians had in Africa, before being defeated by an Allied force later. In danger of losing the control of all Italian possessions in North Africa, Germany finally sent the Afrika Korps to support Italy. Meanwhile Operation Marita took place in Yugoslavia to end the Greco-Italian War, resulting in an Axis victory and the Occupation of Greece by Italy and Germany.[110] With the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Mussolini declared war on the Soviet Union in June 1941 and sent an army to fight there. Mussolini first learned of Barbarossa after it began on 22 June 1941, and was not asked by Hitler to involve himself. [111] Mussolini took the initiative in ordering an Italian Army Corps to head to the Eastern Front, where he hoped that Italy might score an easy victory to restore the Fascist regime’s lustre which had been damaged by defeats in Greece and North Africa; Mussolini told the Council of Ministers of 5 July that his only worry was that Germany might defeat the Soviet Union before the Italians arrived. [112] At a meeting with Hitler in August, Mussolini offered and Hitler accepted the commitment of further Italian troops to the Soviet Union. [113] The heavy losses suffered by the Italians on the Eastern Front, where service was extremely unpopular owing to the widespread view that this was not Italy's fight did much to damage Mussolini's prestige with the Italian people. [113] After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, he declared war on the United States on 11 December 1941.[better source needed] An interesting evidence regarding Mussolini's response to the attack on Pearl Harbor comes from the diary of his Foreign Minister Ciano:
"A night telephone call from Ribbentrop. He is overjoyed about the Japanese attack on America. He is so happy about it that I am happy with him, though I am not too sure about the final advantages of what has happened. One thing is now certain, that America will enter the conflict and that the conflict will be so long that she will be able to realize all her potential forces. This morning I told this to the King who had been pleased about the event. He ended by admitting that, in the long run, I may be right. Mussolini was happy, too. For a long time he has favored a definite clarification of relations between America and the Axis".[114]
Dismissed and arrested[link]
File:Pbadoglio.jpg
Marshal Pietro Badoglio succeeded Mussolini as Prime Minister.
By early 1942, Italy's position in the war became more and more untenable. After the defeat at El Alamein at the end of 1942, the Axis troops had to retreat to where they were finally defeated in the Tunisia Campaign in the spring of 1943. Also at the Eastern Front were major setbacks and the war had come to the nation's very doorstep with the Allied invasion of Sicily.[115] The Italian home front was also in bad shape as the Allied bombings were taking their toll. Factories all over Italy were brought to a virtual standstill due to a lack of raw materials, as well as coal and oil. Additionally, there was a chronic shortage of food, and what food was available was being sold at nearly confiscatory prices. Mussolini's once-ubiquitous propaganda machine lost its grip on the people; a large number of Italians turned to Vatican Radio or Radio London for more accurate news coverage. Discontent came to a head in March 1943 with a wave of labor strikes in the industrial north—the first large-scale strikes since 1925.[116] Also in March, some of the major factories in Milan and Turin stopped production to secure evacuation allowances for workers' families. The physical German presence in Italy had sharply turned public opinion against Mussolini; for example, when the Allies invaded Sicily, the majority of the public there welcomed them as liberators.[117]
Earlier in April 1943, Mussolini had begged Hitler to make a separate peace with Stalin and send German troops to the west to guard against an expected Allied invasion of Italy. Mussolini feared that with the losses in Tunisia and North Africa, the next logical step for Dwight Eisenhower's armies would be to come across the Mediterranean and attack the Italian peninsula. Within a few days of the Allied landings on Sicily in July 1943, it was obvious Mussolini's army was on the brink of collapse. This led Hitler to summon Mussolini to a meeting in northern Italy on 19 July 1943. By this time, Mussolini was so shaken from stress that he could no longer stand Hitler's boasting. His mood darkened further when that same day, the Allies bombed Rome—the first time that city had ever been the target of enemy bombing.[118]
|
|
Italian radio statement announcing the dismissal of Mussolini, 25 July 1943.
|
| Problems listening to this file? See media help. | |
Some prominent members of the Italian Fascist government had turned against Mussolini by this point. Among them were his confidant Dino Grandi and Mussolini's son-in-law Galeazzo Ciano. With several of his colleagues close to revolt, Mussolini was forced to summon the Grand Council of Fascism on 24 July 1943: the first time that body had met since the start of the war. When he announced that the Germans were thinking of evacuating the south, Grandi launched a blistering attack on him.[115] Grandi moved a resolution asking the king to resume his full constitutional powers, in effect, a vote of no confidence in Mussolini. This motion carried by a 19–7 margin. Despite this sharp rebuke, Mussolini showed up for work the next day as usual. He allegedly viewed the Grand Council as merely an advisory body and did not think the vote would have any substantive effect.[116] That afternoon, he was summoned to the royal palace by King Victor Emmanuel III, who had been planning to oust Mussolini earlier. When Mussolini tried to tell the king about the meeting, Victor Emmanuel cut him off and told him that he was being replaced by Marshal Pietro Badoglio.[116] After Mussolini left the palace, he was arrested by Carabinieri on the king's orders.[119]
By this time, discontent with Mussolini was such that when the news of his ouster was announced on the radio, there was no resistance.[116] In an effort to conceal his location from the Germans, Mussolini was moved around the country before being sent to Campo Imperatore, a mountain resort in Abruzzo where he was completely isolated.[115] Given the large Nazi presence in Italy, Badoglio announced that "the war continues at the side of our Germanic ally" in the hopes that chaos and Nazi retaliation against civilians could be avoided.[115] Even as Badoglio was keeping up the appearance of loyalty to the Axis, he dissolved the Fascist Party two days after taking over. Also, his government was negotiating an Armistice with the Allies, which was signed on 3 September 1943. Its announcement five days later threw Italy into chaos, a civil war of sorts. Badoglio and the king fled Rome, leaving the Italian Army without orders. Immediately after the Italian surrender was announced, German troops started taking over the Italian Peninsula by force as part of Operation Achse and occupied Rome on 10 September.[120] After a period of anarchy, Italy finally declared war on Nazi Germany on 13 October 1943 from Malta; thousands of troops were supplied to fight against the Germans, others refused to switch sides and had joined the Germans. The Badoglio government held a social truce with the leftist partisans for the sake of Italy and to rid the land of the Nazis.[121]
Italian Social Republic[link]
Main article: Italian Social Republic
Only two months after Mussolini had been dismissed and arrested, he was rescued from his prison at the Hotel Campo Imperatore in the Gran Sasso raid by a special Fallschirmjäger unit on 12 September 1943; present was Otto Skorzeny.[119] The rescue saved Mussolini from being turned over to the Allies, as per the armistice.[121] Hitler had made plans to arrest the king, Crown Prince Umberto, Badoglio, and the rest of the government and restore Mussolini to power in Rome, but the government's escape south likely foiled those plans.[118]
Three days following his rescue in the Gran Sasso raid, Mussolini was taken to Germany for a meeting with Hitler in Rastenberg at his East Prussian headquarters. Despite public professions of support, Hitler was clearly shocked by Mussolini's disheveled and haggard appearance as well as his unwillingness to go after the men in Rome who overthrew him. At this time, Mussolini was in very poor health which was the result of severe stress because of Italy's bleak war situation and he wanted to retire from politics altogether.[citation needed] Hitler firmly told him that unless he agreed to return to Italy and set up a new fascist state, the Germans would destroy Milan, Genoa and Turin.[citation needed] Feeling that he had to do what he could to blunt the edges of Nazi repression, Mussolini agreed to set up a new regime, the Italian Social Republic,[115] informally known as the Salò Republic because of its administration from the town of Salò where he settled in just 11 days after his rescue by the Germans. Mussolini's new regime faced numerous territorial losses: in addition to losing the Italian lands held by the Allies and Badoglio's government, the provinces of Bolzano, Belluno and Trento were placed under German administration in the Operational Zone of the Alpine Foothills, while the provinces of Udine, Gorizia, Trieste, Pola (now Pula), Fiume (now Rijeka) and Ljubljana (Lubiana) were incorporated into the German Operational Zone of the Adriatic Littoral.[122] In addition, the German army occupied the Dalmatian provinces of Split (Spalato) and Kotor (Cattaro), which were subsequently annexed by the Croatian fascist regime. Italy's gains in Greece and Albania were also lost to Germany, with the exception of the Italian Aegean Islands, which remained nominally under RSI rule.[123] Mussolini opposed any territorial reductions of the Italian state and told his associates "I am not here to renounce even a square meter of state territory. We will go back to war for this. And we will rebel against anyone for this. Where the Italian flag flew, the Italian flag will return. And where it has not been lowered, now that I am here, no one will have it lowered. I have said these things to the Führer".[124]
For two years, Mussolini lived in Gargnano on Lake Garda in Lombardy during this period. Although he insisted in public that he was in full control, he himself knew that he was little more than a puppet ruler under the protection of his German liberators—for all intents and purposes, the Gauleiter of Lombardy.[118] After yielding to pressures from Hitler and the remaining loyal fascists who formed the government of the Republic of Salo, Mussolini helped orchestrate a series of executions of some of the fascist leaders who had betrayed him at the last meeting of the Fascist Grand Council. One of those executed included his son-in-law, Galeazzo Ciano. As Head of State and Minister of Foreign Affairs for the Italian Social Republic, Mussolini used much of his time to write his memoirs. Along with his autobiographical writings of 1928, these writings would be combined and published by Da Capo Press as My Rise and Fall. In an interview in January 1945, a few months before he was captured and executed by Italian anti-fascist partisans, he stated flatly: "Seven years ago, I was an interesting person. Now, I am little more then a corpse." He continued:
| “ | Yes, madam, I am finished. My star has fallen. I have no fight left in me. I work and I try, yet know that all is but a farce... I await the end of the tragedy and – strangely detached from everything – I do not feel any more an actor. I feel I am the last of spectators. | ” |
|
—Benito Mussolini, interviewed in early 1945 by Madeleine Mollier.[125] |
||
Death[link]
Mussolini and his mistress Clara Petacci were stopped by communist partisans Valerio and Bellini and identified by the Political Commissar of the partisans' 52nd Garibaldi Brigade, Urbano Lazzaro, on 27 April 1945, near the village of Dongo (Lake Como), as they headed for Switzerland to board a plane to escape to Spain. During this time Claretta's brother even posed as a Spanish consul.[126] Mussolini had been traveling with retreating German forces and was apprehended while attempting to escape recognition by wearing a German military uniform.[citation needed] After several unsuccessful attempts to take them to Como they were brought to Mezzegra. They spent their last night in the house of the De Maria family.
The next day, Mussolini and Petacci were both summarily executed, along with most of the members of their 15-man train, primarily ministers and officials of the Italian Social Republic. The shootings took place in the small village of Giulino di Mezzegra. According to the official version of events, the shootings were conducted by Colonnello Valerio, whose real name was Walter Audisio. Audisio was the communist partisan commander who was reportedly given the order to kill Mussolini by the National Liberation Committee. When Audisio entered the room where Mussolini and the other fascists were being held, he reportedly announced, "I have come to rescue you!... Do you have any weapons?" He then had them loaded into transports and driven a short distance. Audisio ordered, "Get down"; Petacci hugged Mussolini and refused to move away from him when they were taken to an empty space. Shots were fired and Petacci fell down. Just then Mussolini opened his jacket and screamed, "Shoot me in the chest!" Audisio complied and shot him in the chest. Mussolini fell but did not die and was breathing heavily. Audisio went near and he shot one more bullet in his chest. Mussolini's face looked as if he had significant pain. Audisio said to his driver, "Look at his face, the emotions on his face don't suit him." The other members of Mussolini's entourage were also executed before a firing squad later that same day towards nightfall.[127]
Mussolini's body[link]
On 29 April 1945, the bodies of Mussolini, Petacci, and the other executed Fascists were loaded into a moving van and trucked south to Milan. There, at 3:00 am, they were dumped on the ground in the old Piazzale Loreto. The piazza had been renamed "Piazza Quindici Martiri" in honor of 15 anti-Fascists recently executed there.[128]
After being shot, kicked, and spat upon, the bodies were hung upside down on meathooks from the roof of an Esso gas station.[129] The bodies were then stoned by civilians from below. This was done both to discourage any Fascists from continuing the fight and as an act of revenge for the hanging of many partisans in the same place by Axis authorities. The corpse of the deposed leader became subject to ridicule and abuse. Fascist loyalist Achille Starace was captured and sentenced to death and then taken to the Piazzale Loreto and shown the body of Mussolini. Starace, who once said of Mussolini "He is a god,"[130] saluted what was left of his leader just before he was shot. The body of Starace was subsequently strung up next to the body of Mussolini.
After his death and the display of his corpse in Milan, Mussolini was buried in an unmarked grave in the Musocco cemetery, to the north of the city. On Easter Sunday 1946 his body was located and dug up by Domenico Leccisi and two other neo-Fascists. Making off with their hero, they left a message on the open grave: "Finally, O Duce, you are with us. We will cover you with roses, but the smell of your virtue will overpower the smell of those roses."[citation needed]
On the loose for months—and a cause of great anxiety to the new Italian democracy—the Duce's body was finally "recaptured" in August, hidden in a small trunk at the Certosa di Pavia, just outside Milan. Two Fransciscan brothers were subsequently charged with concealing the corpse, though it was discovered on further investigation that it had been constantly on the move. Unsure what to do, the authorities held the remains in a kind of political limbo for 10 years, before agreeing to allow them to be re-interred at Predappio in Romagna, his birth place, after a campaign headed by Leccisi and the Movimento Sociale Italiano.[citation needed]
Leccisi, a fascist deputy, went on to write his autobiography, With Mussolini Before and After Piazzale Loreto. Adone Zoli, the prime minister of the day, contacted Donna Rachele, the former dictator's widow, to tell her he was returning the remains, as he needed the support of the far-right in parliament, including Leccisi himself. In Predappio the dictator was buried in a crypt (the only posthumous honour granted to Mussolini). His tomb is flanked by marble fasces, and a large idealised marble bust of himself sits above the tomb.[131]
Personal life[link]
Mussolini was first married to Ida Dalser in Trento in 1914.[46] The couple had a son one year later and named him Benito Albino Mussolini. In December 1915, Mussolini married Rachele Guidi, his mistress since 1910, and with his following political ascendency the information about his first marriage was suppressed and both his first wife and son were later persecuted.[46] With Rachele, Mussolini had two daughters, Edda (1910–1995) and Anna Maria (Forlì, Villa Carpena, 3 September 1929 – Rome, 25 April 1968), married in Ravenna on 11 June 1960 to Nando Pucci Negri, and three sons Vittorio (1916–1997), Bruno (1918–1941), and Romano (1927–2006). Mussolini had a number of mistresses among them Margherita Sarfatti and his final companion, Clara Petacci. Furthermore, Mussolini had innumerable brief sexual encounters with female supporters as reported by his biographer Nicholas Farrell.[132]
Religious beliefs[link]
Atheism and anti-clericalism[link]
Mussolini was raised by a devoutly Catholic mother[133] and an anti-clerical father.[134] His mother Rosa had him baptized into the Roman Catholic Church, and took her children to services every Sunday. His father never attended.[133] Mussolini regarded his time at a religious boarding school as punishment, compared the experience to hell, and "once refused to go to morning mass and had to be dragged there by force".[135]
Mussolini would become anti-clerical like his father. As a young man, he "proclaimed himself to be an atheist and several times tried to shock an audience by calling on God to strike him dead."[134] He denounced socialists who were tolerant of religion, or who had their children baptized. He believed that science had proven there was no God, and that the historical Jesus was ignorant and mad. He considered religion a disease of the psyche, and accused Christianity of promoting resignation and cowardice.[134]
Mussolini was an admirer of Friedrich Nietzsche. According to Denis Mack Smith, "In Nietzsche he found justification for his crusade against the Christian virtues of humility, resignation, charity, and goodness."[136] He valued Nietzsche's concept of the superman, "The supreme egoist who defied both God and the masses, who despised egalitarianism and democracy, who believed in the weakest going to the wall and pushing them if they did not go fast enough."[136]
Mussolini made vitriolic attacks against Christianity and the Catholic Church, "which he accompanied with provocative and blasphemous remarks about the consecrated host and about a love affair between Christ and Mary Magdalen."[137] He believed that socialists who were Christian or who accepted religious marriage should be expelled from the party. He denounced the Catholic Church for "its authoritarianism and refusal to allow freedom of thought..." Mussolini's newspaper, La Lotta di Classe, reportedly had an anti-Christian editorial stance.[137]
Lateran Pact[link]
Despite making such attacks, Mussolini would try to win popular support by appeasing the Catholic majority in Italy. In 1924, Mussolini saw that three of his children were given communion. In 1925, he had a priest perform a religious marriage ceremony for himself and his wife Rachele, whom he had married in a civil ceremony 10 years earlier.[138] On 11 February 1929, he signed a concordat and treaty with the Roman Catholic Church.[139] Under the Lateran Pact, Vatican City was granted independent statehood and placed under Church law—rather than Italian law—and the Catholic religion was recognized as Italy's state religion.[140] The Church also regained authority over marriage, Catholicism could be taught in all secondary schools, birth control and freemasonry were banned, and the clergy received subsidies from the state, and was exempted from taxation.[141][142] Pope Pius XI praised Mussolini, and the official Catholic newspaper pronounced "Italy has been given back to God and God to Italy."[140]
After this conciliation, he claimed the Church was subordinate to the State, and "referred to Catholicism as, in origin, a minor sect that had spread beyond Palestine only because grafted onto the organization of the Roman empire."[139] After the concordat, "he confiscated more issues of Catholic newspapers in the next three months than in the previous seven years."[139] Mussolini reportedly came close to being excommunicated from the Catholic Church around this time.[139]
Mussolini publicly reconciled with the Pope Pius XI in 1932, but "took care to exclude from the newspapers any photography of himself kneeling or showing deference to the Pope."[139] He wanted to persuade Catholics that "[f]ascism was Catholic and he himself a believer who spent some of each day in prayer..."[139] The Pope began referring to Mussolini as "a man sent by Providence."[137][139] Despite Mussolini's efforts to appear pious, by order of his party, pronouns referring to him "had to be capitalized like those referring to God..."[139]
In 1938 Mussolini began reasserting his anti-clericalism. He would sometimes refer to himself as an "outright disbeliever," and once told his cabinet that "Islam was perhaps a more effective religion than Christianity" and that the "papacy was a malignant tumor in the body of Italy and must 'be rooted out once and for all', because there was no room in Rome for both the Pope and himself."[143] He would publicly back down from these anti-clerical statements, but continued making similar statements in private.
After his fall from power in 1943, Mussolini began speaking "more about God and the obligations of conscience", although "he still had little use for the priests and sacraments of the Church,".[144] He also began drawing parallels between himself and Jesus Christ.[144] Mussolini's widow, Rachele, stated that her husband had remained "basically irreligious until the later years of his life.[145] Mussolini was given a Catholic funeral in 1957.[146]
Legacy[link]
Mussolini was survived by his wife, Rachele Mussolini, two sons, Vittorio and Romano Mussolini, and his daughters Edda, the widow of Count Ciano, and Anna Maria. A third son, Bruno, was killed in an air accident while flying a P108 bomber on a test mission, on 7 August 1941.[147] His oldest son, Benito Albino Mussolini, from his marriage with Ida Dalser, was ordered to stop declaring that Mussolini was his father and in 1935 forcibly committed to an asylum in Milan, where he was murdered on 26 August 1942 after repeated coma-inducing injections.[46] Actress Sophia Loren's sister, Anna Maria Scicolone, was formerly married to Romano Mussolini, Mussolini's son. Mussolini's granddaughter Alessandra Mussolini was a member of the European Parliament for the far right party Alternativa Sociale and currently serves in the Chamber of Deputies as a member of the ruling People of Freedom. Other relatives of Edda (Castrianni) moved to England after World War II.[citation needed]
Mussolini's National Fascist Party was banned in the postwar Constitution of Italy, but a number of successor neo-fascist parties emerged to carry on its legacy. Historically, the strongest neo-fascist party was MSI (Movimento Sociale Italiano), which was declared dissolved in 1995 and replaced by the National Alliance, which distanced itself from Fascism (its leader Gianfranco Fini once declared that Fascism was "an absolute evil"). These parties were united under Silvio Berlusconi's House of Freedoms coalition and in 2009 a broad based group of right-wing parties, including Gianfranco Fini's National Alliance and Alessandra Mussolini's Azione Sociale, were merged to create The People of Freedom party led by Prime Minister Berlusconi.
In popular culture[link]
Charlie Chaplin's 1940 film The Great Dictator satirizes Mussolini as "Benzino Napaloni", portrayed by Jack Oakie. In the Three Stooges' I'll Never Heil Again, Cy Schindell plays "Chizzolini", from the then topical insult of "chisler".
More serious biographical depictions include a look at the last few days of Mussolini's life in Carlo Lizzani's movie Mussolini: Ultimo atto (Mussolini: The last act, 1974) starring Rod Steiger and George C. Scott's portrayal in the 1985 television mini-series Mussolini: The Untold Story.
Another 1985 movie was Mussolini and I, in which Bob Hoskins plays the dictator (with Susan Sarandon as his daughter Edda and Anthony Hopkins as Count Ciano). Actor Antonio Banderas also played the title role in Benito in 1993, which covered his life from his school teacher days to the beginning of World War I, before his rise as dictator. Mussolini is also depicted in the films Tea with Mussolini, Lion of the Desert (also with Steiger) and the award-winning Italian film Vincere.
A comic strip ran in the British comic The Beano entitled Musso the Wop. This strip which ran from 1940 to 1943 featured Mussolini as an arrogant buffoon.[148]
See also[link]
 |
Biography portal |
 |
Fascism portal |
 |
History portal |
 |
Europe portal |
 |
Italy portal |
 |
Politics portal |
 |
World War II portal |
- Fascism
- Fascist manifesto
- Italian Fascism
- List of people on the cover of Time magazine (1920s) – on 6 August 1923 and 12 July 1926
References[link]
- ^ Image Description: Propaganda poster of Benito Mussolini, with caption "His Excellency Benito Mussolini, Head of Government, Leader of Fascism, and Founder of the Empire...".
- ^ Hakim, Joy (1995). A History of Us: War, Peace and all that Jazz. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509514-6.
- ^ John Dickie. Cosa Nostra: A History Of The Sicilian Mafia. Hampshire, England, UK; New York, New York, USA: PALGRAVE MACMILLAN, 2004. Pp. 150-159.
- ^ Martin Blinkhorn. Mussolini And Fascist Italy. Third edition. New York, New York, USA: Routledge, 2006. Pp. 53.
- ^ MacGregor Knox. Mussolini unleashed, 1939-1941: Politics and Strategy in Fascist Italy's Last War. Edition of 1999. Cambridge, England, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Pp. 122-123.
- ^ MacGregor Knox. Mussolini unleashed, 1939-1941: Politics and Strategy in Fascist Italy's Last War. Edition of 1999. Cambridge, England, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Pp. 122-123.
- ^ MacGregor Knox. Mussolini unleashed, 1939-1941: Politics and Strategy in Fascist Italy's Last War. Edition of 1999. Cambridge, England, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Pp. 122-127.
- ^ Viganò, Marino (2001), "Un'analisi accurata della presunta fuga in Svizzera" (in Italian), Nuova Storia Contemporanea 3
- ^ "1945: Italian partisans kill Mussolini". http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/28/newsid_3564000/3564529.stm. Retrieved 17 October 2011.
- ^ a b c d Mediterranean Fascism 1919–1945 Edited by Charles F. Delzel, Harper Rowe 1970, page 3
- ^ a b c "Benito Mussolini". Grolier.com. 8 January 2008. http://www.grolier.com/wwii/wwii_mussolini.html. [dead link]
- ^ a b c d Living History 2; Chapter 2: Italy under Fascism. ISBN 1-84536-028-1
- ^ "Alessandro Mussolini". GeneAll.net. 8 January 2008. http://www.geneall.net/I/per_page.php?id=283037.
- ^ Gregor 1979, p. 29.
- ^ a b Gregor 1979, p. 31.
- ^ Mediterranean Fascism by Charles F. Delzel page 96
- ^ a b Mauro Cerutti: Benito Mussolini in .php German, .php French and .php Italian in the online Historical Dictionary of Switzerland.
- ^ Haugen, Brenda (2007). Benito Mussolini. Compass Point Books. ISBN 978-0-7565-1892-9. http://books.google.com/?id=rleP5CVe070C&pg=PA24.
- ^ "Mussolini: il duce". ThinkQuest.org. 24 October 2009. http://library.thinkquest.org/19592/Persons/mussolin.htm.
- ^ "The Life of Benito Mussolini" by Margherita G. Sarfatti, p. 156
- ^ taken from WorldCat's entry for this book's title.
- ^ Mediterranean Fascism 1919–1945 Edited by Charles F. Delzel, Harper Rowe 1970, bottom of page 3
- ^ a b c d Mediterranean Fascism 1919–1945 Edited by Charles F. Delzel, Harper Rowe 1970, page 4
- ^ a b c d e Golomb 2002, p. 249.
- ^ Tucker 2005, p. 1001.
- ^ Tucker 2005, p. 884.
- ^ Tucker 2005, p. 335.
- ^ Tucker 2005, p. 219.
- ^ a b Tucker 2005, p. 826.
- ^ Tucker 2005, p. 209.
- ^ a b c d e f Gregor 1979, p. 189.
- ^ Tucker 2005, p. 596.
- ^ a b c d Emile Ludwig. Nine Etched in Life. Ayer Company Publishers, 1934 (original), 1969. p. 321.
- ^ a b c d Gregor 1979, p. 191.
- ^ Mediterranean Fascism 1919–1945 Edited by Charles F. Delzel, Harper Rowe 1970, page 6.
- ^ Dennis Mack Smith. 1997. Modern Italy; A Political History. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press. p. 284.
- ^ a b Gregor 1979, p. 200.
- ^ Gregor 1979, pp. 191-192.
- ^ a b Gregor 1979, p. 192.
- ^ a b Gregor 1979, p. 193.
- ^ Gregor 1979, p. 195.
- ^ Gregor 1979, pp. 193, 195.
- ^ Gregor 1979, pp. 195-196.
- ^ a b c Gregor 1979, p. 196.
- ^ a b Mussolini: A Study In Power, Ivone Kirkpatrick, Hawthorne Books, 1964. ISBN 0-8371-8400-2
- ^ a b c d Owen, Richard (13 January 2005). "Power-mad Mussolini sacrificed wife and son". The Times (UK). http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article411675.ece. Retrieved 14 May 2009.
- ^ Kington, Tom (13 October 2009). "Recruited by MI5: the name's Mussolini. Benito Mussolini – Documents reveal Italian dictator got start in politics in 1917 with help of £100 weekly wage from MI5". Guardian (UK). http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/oct/13/benito-mussolini-recruited-mi5-italy. Retrieved 14 October 2009.
- ^ "The Rise of Benito Mussolini". 8 January 2008. http://history.sandiego.edu/gen/ww2timeline/Prelude05.html.
- ^ "We're all fascists now". Salon.com. 8 January 2008. http://www.salon.com/news/feature/2008/01/11/goldberg/print.html.
- ^ "The Rise of Benito Mussolini". http://history.sandiego.edu/gen/ww2timeline/Prelude05.html.
- ^ Giovanni Gentile; Benito Mussolini (1932). "La Dottrina del fascismo [The Doctrine of Fascism]" (in Italian). Lit Gloss, University of Buffalo. Section I.8.. http://litgloss.buffalo.edu/mussolini/text.shtml. Retrieved 21 March 2011. "So fascism is against socialism, which stiffens the historical movement in the class struggle and ignores the unity of the state that the classes merged into one economic and moral reality, and similarly, it is against the class unionism. (Google Translate from: Perciò il fascismo è contro il socialismo che irrigidisce il movimento storico nella lotta di classe e ignora l'unità statale che le classi fonde in una sola realtà economica e morale; e analogamente, è contro il sindacalismo classista.)" [citation needed]
- ^ Vox Day (28 June 2004). "Flunking Fascism 101". VoxDay.net. http://voxday.net/archive/2004/062804.html. Retrieved 21 March 2011. [citation needed]
- ^ Moseley 2004, p. 39.
- ^ Sharma, Urmila. Western Political Thought. Atlantic Publishers and Distributors (P) Ltd, 1998. p. 66.
- ^ Sharma, Urmila. Western Political Thought. Atlantic Publishers and Distributors (P) Ltd, 1998. pp. 66–67.
- ^ Kallis 2002, pp. 48-51.
- ^ Kallis 2002, pp. 50-51.
- ^ Kallis 2002, pp. 48-50.
- ^ Kallis 2002, p. 50.
- ^ a b c d e f g Kallis 2002, p. 52.
- ^ Roland Sarti (8 January 2008). "Fascist Modernization in Italy: Traditional or Revolutionary". The American Historical Review 75 (4): 1029–1045. DOI:10.2307/1852268. JSTOR 1852268.
- ^ "Mussolini's Italy". Appstate.edu. 8 January 2008. http://www.appstate.edu/~brantzrw/history3134/mussolini.html. [dead link]
- ^ Macdonald, Hamish (1999). Mussolini and Italian Fascism. Nelson Thornes. ISBN 0-7487-3386-8. http://books.google.com/?id=221W9vKkWrcC&pg=PT17&lpg=PT17&dq=%22third+way%22+mussolini.
- ^ "Ha'aretz Newspaper, Israel, 'The Jewish Mother of Fascism". Haaretz. Israel. Archived from the original on 17 June 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080617050824/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/pages/ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=735492. Retrieved 13 March 2009. [dead link]
- ^ Weinberg 2005, p. 18.
- ^ Speech of the 30th of May 1924 the last speech of Matteotti, from it.wikisource
- ^ a b Paxton, Robert (2004). The Anatomy of Fascism. New York City: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 1-4000-4094-9.
- ^ The Times, Thursday, 8 April 1926; p. 12; Issue 44240; column A
- ^ Cannistraro, Philip (March 1996). "Mussolini, Sacco-Vanzetti, and the Anarchists: The Transatlantic Context". The Journal of Modern History (The University of Chicago Press) 68 (1): 55. DOI:10.1086/245285. JSTOR 2124332.
- ^ "Father inspired Zamboni. But Parent of Mussolini's Assailant Long Ago Gave Up Anarchism. Blood Shed in Riots throughout Italy". The New York Times. 3 November 1926. http://www.proquest.com. Retrieved 6 September 2008. [dead link]
- ^ "The attempted assassination of Mussolini in Rome". Libcom.org. 10 September 2006. http://libcom.org/history/1926-attempted-assassination-mussolini. Retrieved 13 March 2009.
- ^ Andrew (3 March 2005). "Remembering the Anarchist Resistance to fascism". Anarkismo.net. http://www.anarkismo.net/newswire.php?story_id=87. Retrieved 6 November 2010.
- ^ Melchior Seele (11 September 2006). "1931: The murder of Michael Schirru". Libcom.org. http://www.libcom.org/history/articles/murder-michael-schirru. Retrieved 13 March 2009.
- ^ Arrigo Petacco, L'uomo della provvidenza: Mussolini, ascesa e caduta di un mito, Milano, Mondadori, 2004, p. 190
- ^ Göran Hägg: Mussolini, en studie i makt
- ^ Clark, Martin, Modern Italy, Pearson Longman, 2008, p.322
- ^ The Vampire Economy: Italy, Germany, and the US, Jeffrey Herbener, Mises Institute, 13 October 2005
- ^ Comic escapes prosecution for insulting pope (Oddly Enough) Reuters, (Friday 19 September 2008 1:15 pm EDT) By Phil Stewart
- ^ "A Brief History of Italy: From the Etruscans to today". LifeinItaly.com. 8 January 2008. http://www.lifeinitaly.com/history/. [dead link]
- ^ a b c d "Ethiopia 1935–36". icrc.org. 8 January 2008. http://www.icrc.org/Web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/htmlall/5RUHGM?OpenDocument&View=defaultBody&style=custo_print.
- ^ Speech delivered by Premier Benito Mussolini. Rome, Italy, 23 February 1941
- ^ "If the Duce were to die, it would be a great misfortune for Italy. As I walked with him in the gardens of the Villa Borghese, I could easily compare his profile with that of the Roman busts, and I realised he was one of the Caesars. There's no doubt at all that Mussolini is the heir of the great men of that period." Hitler's Table Talk
- ^ a b Cannistraro, P. V. (April 1972). "Mussolini's Cultural Revolution: Fascist or Nationalist?". Journal of Contemporary History (SAGE Journals Online) 7 (3): 115–139. DOI:10.1177/002200947200700308. http://jch.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/7/3/115. Retrieved 23 March 2011. (Subscription required)
- ^ Gillette, Aaron (2002). Racial Theories in Fascist Italy. Routledge. p. 45. ISBN 0-415-25292-X. http://books.google.com/?id=6Y8XRZAdv9IC&pg=PA45&lpg=PA42&dq=mussolini+thoughts+on+race.
- ^ Gillette, Aaron (2002). Racial Theories in Fascist Italy. Routledge. p. 44. ISBN 0-415-25292-X. http://books.google.com/?id=6Y8XRZAdv9IC&pg=PA44&lpg=PA44&dq=mussolini+thoughts+on+race.
- ^ Institute of Jewish Affairs (2007). Hitler's ten-year war on the Jews. Kessinger Publishing. p. 283. ISBN 1-4325-9942-9. http://books.google.com/?id=vCA4AAAAIAAJ&q=%22Thirty+centuries+of+history+allow+us+to+look+with+supreme+pity%22.
- ^ Video clip from the speech
- ^ Griffen, Roger (ed.). Fascism. Oxford University Press, 1995. Pp. 59.
- ^ Hollander, Ethan J (1997) (PDF). Italian Fascism and the Jews. University of California. ISBN 0-8039-4648-1. http://weber.ucsd.edu/~ejhollan/Haaretz%20-%20Ital%20fascism%20-%20English.PDF.
- ^ Peter Egill Brownfeld (Fall 2003). "The Italian Holocaust: The Story of an Assimilated Jewish Community". The American Council for Judaism. http://www.acjna.org/acjna/articles_detail.aspx?id=300. Retrieved 23 March 2011. "Ovazza started a Jewish fascist newspaper, "La Nostra Bandiera" (Our Flag) in an effort to show that the Jews were among the regime's most loyal followers."
- ^ Gillette, Aaron (2002). Racial Theories in Fascist Italy. Routledge. p. 95. ISBN 0-415-25292-X. http://books.google.com/?id=6Y8XRZAdv9IC&pg=PA95&lpg=PA95&dq=mussolini+thoughts+on+race.
- ^ Arielli, Nir (9 June 2010). Fascist Italy and the Middle East, 1933–40. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 92–99. ISBN 978-0-230-23160-3.
- ^ Stang 1999, p. 172.
- ^ Stang 1999.
- ^ Stang 1999, pp. 172-174.
- ^ Stang 1999, pp. 173-174.
- ^ a b Stang 1999, pp. 174-175.
- ^ Lowe, CJ (1967). Italian Foreign Policy 1870–1940. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-26597-5. http://books.google.com/?id=5Cfuax6XHF0C&pg=PA11&lpg=PA11&dq=irredentism.
- ^ a b Kallis 2002, p. 153.
- ^ a b Kallis 2002, p. 97.
- ^ "The Italo-German Alliance, May 22, 1939". astro.temple.edu. 8 January 2008. http://astro.temple.edu/~rimmerma/Italo_German_alliance_1939.htm.
- ^ "Victor Emanuel III". Questia.com. 8 January 2008. http://www.questia.com/library/encyclopedia/victor_emmanuel_iii.jsp.
- ^ a b c d e f Knox, MacGregor (1986). Mussolini Unleashed, 1939–1941: Politics and Strategy in Fascist Italy's Last War. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-33835-2. http://books.google.com/?id=_PwCu_D-HiUC&pg=PA44&lpg=PA44&dq=mussolini+non-belligerent.
- ^ a b "Italy Declares War". ThinkQuest.org. 8 January 2008. http://library.thinkquest.org/CR0212881/italdewa.html.
- ^ Samson, Anne (1967). Britain, South Africa and East African Campaign: International Library of Colonial History. I B Tauris & Co Ltd. ISBN 0-415-26597-5. http://www.amazon.co.uk/dp/1845110404.
- ^ "1940 World War II Timeline". WorldWarIIHistory.info. 8 January 2008. http://www.worldwariihistory.info/1940.html.
- ^ Mollo, Andrew (1987). The Armed Forces of World War II. I B Tauris & Co Ltd. ISBN 978-0-517-54478-5. http://www.amazon.com/dp/0517544784.
- ^ "World War II: Operation Compass". About.com. 8 January 2008. http://militaryhistory.about.com/od/worldwarii/p/compass.htm.
- ^ "Speech Delivered by Premier Benito Mussolini". IlBiblio.org. 8 January 2008. http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/policy/1941/410223a.html.
- ^ "The Invasion and Battle for Greece (Operation Marita)". Feldgrau.com. 8 January 2008. http://www.feldgrau.com/greecewar.html.
- ^ Weinberg 2005, p. 276.
- ^ Weinberg 2005, pp. 276-277.
- ^ a b Weinberg 2005, p. 277.
- ^ Trial of German Major War Criminals, vol. 3, p. 398.
- ^ a b c d e Moseley 2004.
- ^ a b c d Whittam, John (2005). Fascist Italy. Manchester University Press. ISBN 0-7190-4004-3. http://books.google.com/?id=hHgMm6APG_0C&dq=%22Vatican+Radio%22+%22Radio+London%22+fascist.
- ^ "Modern era". BestofSicily.com. 8 January 2008. http://www.bestofsicily.com/history3.htm.
- ^ a b c Shirer, William (1960). The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich. New York City: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-72868-7.
- ^ a b Annussek, Greg (2005). Hitler's Raid to Save Mussolini. Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0-306-81396-2. http://www.amazon.com/dp/0306813963.
- ^ Moseley(2004), p. 23
- ^ a b Moseley, Ray (2004). Mussolini: The Last 600 Days of Il Duce. Taylor Trade. ISBN 1-58979-095-2. http://books.google.com/?id=UmxaWvOL_IgC&pg=PA7&lpg=PA7&dq=Campo+Imperatore+abruzzo+mussolini.
- ^ A copy of an existing document is available online. It reads
"In addition to my (...) order of the commander of the Greater German Reich in Italy and the organisation of the occupied Italian area from 10 September 1943 I determine:
The supreme commanders in the Operational Zone Adriatic Coast consisting of the provinces of Friaul, Görz, Triest, Istrien, Fiume, Quarnero, Laibach, and in the Prealpine Operations Zone consisting of the provinces of Bozen, Trient and Belluno receive the fundamental instructions for their activity from me.
Führer's headquarters, 10 September 1943.
The Führer Gen. Adolf Hitler".
See second document at
http://www.karawankengrenze.at/ferenc/document/show/id/317?symfony=ad81b9f2cd1e66a7c973073ed0532df1 - ^ Nicola Cospito; Hans Werner Neulen (1992). Salò-Berlino: l'alleanza difficile. La Repubblica Sociale Italiana nei documenti segreti del Terzo Reich. Mursia. p. 128. ISBN 88-425-1285-0.
- ^ Moseley (2004), p. 26.
- ^ "The twilight of Italian fascism". EnterStageRight.com. 8 January 2008. http://www.enterstageright.com/archive/articles/0105/0105mussolini.htm.
- ^ Toland, John. (1966). The Last 100 Days Random House, p. 504, OCLC 294225
- ^ "Benito Mussolini". Celebritymorgue.com. 28 April 1945. http://www.celebritymorgue.com/benito-mussolini/. Retrieved 13 March 2009.
- ^ Time Magazine, 7 May 1945
- ^ Video: Beaten Nazis Sign Historic Surrender, 1945/05/14 (1945). Universal Newsreel. 1945. http://www.archive.org/details/1945-05-14_Beaten_Nazis_Sign_Historic_Surrender. Retrieved February 20, 2012.
- ^ Quoted in "Mussolini: A New Life", p. 276 by Nicholas Burgess Farrell – 2004
- ^ "The tomb". findagrave.com. http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=pv&GRid=11638&PIpi=91458.
- ^ Peter York. Dictator Style. Chronicle Books, San Francisco (2006), ISBN 0-8118-5314-4. pp. 17–18.
- ^ a b D.M. Smith 1982, p. 1
- ^ a b c D.M. Smith 1982, p. 8
- ^ D.M. Smith 1982, pp. 2–3
- ^ a b D.M. Smith 1982, p. 12
- ^ a b c D.M. Smith 1982, p. 15
- ^ Rachele Mussolini 1974, p. 129
- ^ a b c d e f g h D.M. Smith 1982, p. 162-163
- ^ a b Roberts, Jeremy (2006). Benito Mussolini. Minneapolis, MN: Twenty-First Century Books, p. 60.
- ^ Neville, Peter (2004). Mussolini: Routledge Historical Biographies. New York: Psychology Press, p. 84.
- ^ Townley, Edward (2002). Mussolini and Italy. New York: Heinemann Press, p. 49.
- ^ D.M. Smith 1982, pp. 222–223
- ^ a b D.M. Smith 1982, p. 311
- ^ Rachele Mussolini 1974, p. 131
- ^ Rachele Mussolini 1974, p. 135
- ^ Jim Heddlesten. "Commando Supremo: Events of 1941". Comandosupremo.com. http://www.comandosupremo.com/1941.html. Retrieved 13 March 2009.
- ^ The History of the Beano. Dundee, Scotland: D.C. Thomson & Co. Ltd.. 2008. pp. 77–78. ISBN 978-1-902407-73-9.
Bibliography[link]
- 2007. Mussolini's Cities: Internal Colonialism in Italy, 1930–1939, Cambria Press.
- Bosworth, R.J.B. 2002. Mussolini. London, Hodder.
- Bosworth, R.J.B. 2006. "Mussolini's Italy: Life Under the Dictatorship 1915–1945". London, Allen Lane.
- Corvaja, Santi. 2001. Hitler and Mussolini. The Secret Meetings. Enigma. ISBN 1-929631-00-6
- Daldin, Rudolph S. The Last Centurion. http://www.benito-mussolini.com ISBN 0-921447-34-5
- Renzo De Felice. 1995. Mussolini. Torino: Einaudi.
- Golomb, Jacob; Wistrich, Robert S. 2002. Nietzsche, godfather of fascism?: on the uses and abuses of a philosophy. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
- Farrell, Nicholas. 2003. Mussolini: A New Life. London: Phoenix Press, ISBN 1-84212-123-5.
- Garibaldi, Luciano. 2004. Mussolini. The Secrets of his Death. Enigma. ISBN 1-929631-23-5
- Hibbert, Christopher. Il Duce.
- Kallis, Aristotle. 2000. Fascist Ideology. London: Routledge.
- Lowe, Norman. Italy, 1918–1945: the first appearance of fascism. In Mastering Modern World History.
- Morris, Terry; Murphy, Derrick. Europe 1870–1991.
- Moseley, Ray. 2004. Mussolini: The Last 600 Days of Il Duce. Dallas: Taylor Trade Publishing.
- Mussolini, Rachelle. 1977 [1974]. Mussolini: An Intimate Biography. Pocket Books. Originally published by William Morrow, ISBN 0-671-81272-6, Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 74-1129
- O'Brien, Paul. 2004. Mussolini in the First World War: The Journalist, the Soldier, the Fascist. Oxford: Berg Publishers.
- Painter, Borden W. Jr., 2005. Mussolini's Rome: rebuilding the Eternal City,
- Petacco, Arrigo (ed.). 1998. L'archivio segreto di Mussolini. Mondadori. ISBN 88-04-44914-4
- Smith, Denis Mack. 1982. Mussolini: A biography, Borzoi Book published by Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. ISBN 0-394-50694-4
- Sternhell, Zeev; Sznajder, Mario; Asheri, Maia (1999). [The birth of Fascist ideology, from cultural rebellion to political revolution]. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
- Stang, G. Bruce (1999). "War and peace: Mussolini’s road to Munich". In Lukes, Igor; Goldstein, Erik. The Munich crisis 1938: prelude to World War II. London: Frank Cass. pp. 160-190.
- Tucker, Spencer. 2005. Encyclopedia of World War I: a political, social, and military history. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO.
- Weinberg, Gerhard. 2005. A World in arms. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Writings of Mussolini[link]
- Giovanni Hus, il Veridico(Jan Hus, True prophet), Rome (1913). Published in America as John Hus (New York: Albert and Charles Boni, 1929). Republished by the Italian Book Co., NY (1939) as John Hus, the Veracious.
- The Cardinal's Mistress (trans. Hiram Motherwell, New York: Albert and Charles Boni, 1928)
- There is an essay on "The Doctrine of Fascism" written by Benito Mussolini that appeared in the 1932 edition of the Enciclopedia Italiana, and excerpts can be read at Doctrine of Fascism. There are also links to the complete text.
- La Mia Vita ("My Life"), Mussolini's autobiography written upon request of the American Ambassador in Rome (Child). Mussolini, at first not interested, decided to dictate the story of his life to Arnaldo Mussolini, his brother. The story covers the period up to 1929, includes Mussolini's personal thoughts on Italian politics and the reasons that motivated his new revolutionary idea. It covers the march on Rome and the beginning of the dictatorship and includes some of his most famous speeches in the Italian Parliament (Oct 1924, Jan 1925).
- Vita di Arnaldo, Milano, Il Popolo d'Italia, 1932.
- Scritti e discorsi di Benito Mussolini, 12 voll., Milano, Hoepli, 1934-1940.
- Parlo con Bruno, Milano, Il Popolo d'Italia, 1941.
- Storia di un anno. Il tempo del bastone e della carota, Milano, Mondadori, 1944.
- From 1951 to 1962 Edoardo and Duilio Susmel worked for the publisher "La Fenice" in order to print opera omnia (the complete works) of Mussolini in 35 volumes.
External links[link]
| Find more about Benito Mussolini on Wikipedia's sister projects: | |
 |
Definitions and translations from Wiktionary |
 |
Images and media from Commons |
 |
Learning resources from Wikiversity |
 |
News stories from Wikinews |
 |
Quotations from Wikiquote |
 |
Source texts from Wikisource |
 |
Textbooks from Wikibooks |
- Benito Mussolini in pictures
- Comando Supremo: Benito Mussolini
- Did Mussolini really make the trains run on time?
- Is Mussolini quote on corporatism accurate?
- Benito Mussolini Speeches
- Michael Schirru's failed attempt on Mussolini's life
- Il Duce 'sought Hitler ban' September 2003 BBC News
- Mussolini shaking hands with King George V. of England, 1923, The Illustrated London News
- Mussolini's Piazza Augusto Imperatore
- Time Magazine, 5 April 1937 (5 April 1937). "Islam, Duce, and Duke.". http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,757543,00.html. Retrieved 19 August 2009.
- Time Magazine, 7 May 1945 (7 May 1945). "Death in Milan.". http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,797481-1,00.html. Retrieved 20 August 2009.
Related information[link]
| Political offices | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by Luigi Facta |
Prime Minister of Italy 1922 – 1943 |
Succeeded by Pietro Badoglio |
| Preceded by Carlo Schanzer |
Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs 1922 – 1929 |
Succeeded by Dino Grandi |
| Preceded by Dino Grandi |
Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs 1932 – 1936 |
Succeeded by Galeazzo Ciano |
| Preceded by Galeazzo Ciano |
Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs 1943 |
Succeeded by Raffaele Guariglia |
| Preceded by Paolino Taddei |
Italian Minister of the Interior 1922 – 1924 |
Succeeded by Luigi Federzoni |
| Preceded by Luigi Federzoni |
Italian Minister of the Interior 1926 – 1943 |
Succeeded by Bruno Fornaciari |
| Preceded by New Title |
Head of State of the Italian Social Republic 1943 – 1945 |
Succeeded by End Title |
| Preceded by New Title |
Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Italian Social Republic 1943 – 1945 |
Succeeded by End Title |
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
||||||||
.svg)
|
||||||||||
.svg){kind=small}
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Mussolini, Benito Amilcare Andrea |
| Alternative names | Mussolini, Benito |
| Short description | Prime-Minister and fascist dictator of Italy |
| Date of birth | (1883-07-29)29 July 1883 |
| Place of birth | Dovia di Predappio, Italy |
| Date of death | 28 April 1945(1945-04-28) |
| Place of death | Giulino di Mezzegra, Italy |
http://wn.com/Benito_Mussolini
Related pages:
http://de.wn.com/Benito Mussolini
http://es.wn.com/Benito Mussolini
http://ru.wn.com/Муссолини, Бенито
http://cs.wn.com/Benito Mussolini
http://pt.wn.com/Benito Mussolini
http://pl.wn.com/Benito Mussolini
http://hi.wn.com/बेनिटो मुसोलिनी
http://it.wn.com/Benito Mussolini
http://id.wn.com/Benito Mussolini
http://nl.wn.com/Benito Mussolini
http://fr.wn.com/Benito Mussolini
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
