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Baghdad
Baghdad (, , ) is the capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is coterminous. Having a population estimated between 7 and 7.5 million, it is the largest city in Iraq and the second largest city in the Arab World (after Cairo, Egypt).
http://wn.com/Baghdad -
Iraq
Iraq ( or , Arabic: ), officially the Republic of Iraq (Arabic:
http://wn.com/Iraq -
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK, or Britain) is a country and sovereign state located off the northwestern coast of continental Europe. It is an island nation, spanning an archipelago including Great Britain, the northeastern part of the island of Ireland, and many smaller islands. Northern Ireland is the only part of the UK with a land border with another sovereign state, sharing it with the Republic of Ireland. Apart from this land border, the UK is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea, the English Channel and the Irish Sea. Great Britain is linked to continental Europe by the Channel Tunnel.
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Al-Kindi
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Alexis Carrel
Alexis Carrel (June 28, 1873 – November 5, 1944) was a French surgeon, biologist and eugenicist, who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1912.
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Eli Lilly
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First World War
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Henry Drysdale Dakin
Henry Drysdale Dakin FRS (1880 - 1952) was an English chemist.
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Ibn Sina
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Oliver Leaman
Oliver Leaman is a Professor of Philosophy and Zantker Professor of Judaic Studies. He has been teaching at the University of Kentucky since August 2000, and is particularly interested in Islamic, Jewish and Eastern philosophy." . He has got his Ph.D. from Cambridge University in 1979.
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Theodoric Borgognoni
http://wn.com/Theodoric_Borgognoni
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How Pharmaceuticals Are Made
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:05
- Updated: 29 Apr 2012
A promo reel from some pharmaceutical company gets the remix treatment set to music from Sesame Street's crayon factory piece. The source video can be seen @: www.youtube.com Music by Richard Harvey (thanks to viewers of Maestrojosh87 for the info). Thank you 10000 plus viewers as of March 2010 for watching. Thank you 20000 plus viewers as of January 2012 for watching.
http://wn.com/How_Pharmaceuticals_Are_Made
TEDxCanberra - Thomas Pogge - Reimagining pharmaceutical innovation
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 18:10
- Updated: 10 Nov 2012
By reforming harmful supranational regulations, Thomas Pogge is developing a complement to the patent system to stimulate pharmaceutical innovations that would be accessible, without delay, to poor and affluent patients alike around the world. In this talk at TEDxCanberra 2011, ANU and Yale academic and ethicist, Professor Thomas Pogge outlines an idea that could revolutionise health outcomes and distribution of pharmaceuticals in both the developed and developing world. In the spirit of ideas worth spreading, TEDx is a program of local, self-organized events that bring people together to share a TED-like experience. At a TEDx event, TEDTalks video and live speakers combine to spark deep discussion and connection in a small group. These local, self-organized events are branded TEDx, where x = independently organized TED event. The TED Conference provides general guidance for the TEDx program, but individual TEDx events are self-organized.* (*Subject to certain rules and regulations).
http://wn.com/TEDxCanberra_Thomas_Pogge_Reimagining_pharmaceutical_innovation
Taj Pharmaceuticals Group - India's largest generics pharmaceutical manufacturing company.
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:53
- Updated: 15 Oct 2012
Taj Pharmaceuticals Limited is a Indian global health-care manufacturing company that operates worldwide under three divisions: Active Pharmaceuticals Ingredients Agro and Chemicals based in Asia-Pacific region. One of the largest Pharmaceuticals and Active Pharmaceuticals Ingredients manufacturers in India Taj [Taj Group] (API),Indian Manufacturer. Taj Pharmaceuticals Group Taj Pharmaceuticals Limited is known as a pharmaceuticals manufacturing company found and based in India. The company manufacturer's pharmaceuticals formulations and API for India and other countries. The company was established in 1995 as an enterprise and in 2004 became a public limited company. As per Mumbai pharmaxil and Chemixil association the company manufacturers and exports to countries like Iran, Iraq and Asia Pacific. In recent EU-Indonesia Business Dialogue (EIBD) conference Taj Pharma Group was listed amongst top 10 pharmaceutical companies in EU by 2008 sales. The Group sales 16234 ($M) making the company 12 ranked in EU by 2008 sales. Founded as a company for finished formulation marketing and Export and then entered Api and Agro business in 2004 and 2007 respectively.Taj Pharmaceuticals Limited announced the purchase of Mulberry chemicals (MulChem) wholly-owned US subsidiary from REVIB, Administration (DEA) as a narcotic raw material manufacturer. The founder of Taj Pharmaceuticals, Dr. RK Singh, is known as entrepreneur who was convinced that the future belonged to branded ...
http://wn.com/Taj_Pharmaceuticals_Group_India's_largest_generics_pharmaceutical_manufacturing_company
Pharmaceuticals Industry In India
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 12:58
- Updated: 22 Oct 2012
India is the world's 3rd largest pharmaceutical producer, Cardiovascular pharmaceuticals market in India is the second largest contributor to domestic pharmaceutical, Oncology pharmaceuticals market in India, a leading segment of the overall pharmaceuticals, The Indian pharmaceutical industry is the world's fourth-largest by volume and is likely to lead the manufacturing sector of India. The earliest pharmaceutical ...
http://wn.com/Pharmaceuticals_Industry_In_India
Video: Teva Parenteral Pharmaceuticals
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 14:23
- Updated: 02 Oct 2012
Client: Teva Parenteral Pharmaceuticals Title: "The Essential Piece" Objective: Build a sense of common purpose and camaraderie among the company employees. Background: Teva is the global leader in generic pharmaceuticals.
http://wn.com/Video_Teva_Parenteral_Pharmaceuticals
Ali Yurukoglu: What's Behind Pharmaceutical Shortages?
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:01
- Updated: 09 Nov 2012
Ali Yurukoglu, an assistant professor of economics, discusses his investigation into the recent rise of shortages of sterile injectable pharmaceuticals, in particular the interplay between pricing, drug availability, Medicare, and efforts to reduce health care expenditures. Learn more about Ali Yurukoglu www.gsb.stanford.edu Learn more about health care innovations www.gsb.stanford.edu
http://wn.com/Ali_Yurukoglu_What's_Behind_Pharmaceutical_Shortages?
Homart Pharmaceuticals 20th Anniversary, Grand Opening and Gala dinner
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:04
- Updated: 12 Nov 2012
Video by Seventh Box Productions www.seventhbox.com.au
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Shaigan Pharmaceuticals (Pvt) Ltd.
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 11:47
- Updated: 07 Apr 2012
Introductory Documentary film about Shaigan Pharmaceuticals (Pvt) Ltd. Rawalpindi
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Dr. Drew Received $$$ from Pharmaceutical Companies
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:37
- Updated: 16 Sep 2012
--Dr. Drew Pinsky, known TV psychiatrist, has been taking drug company money to mention different drugs in a positive light in the media. --On the Bonus Show: Starbucks in a funeral home, Russia considers burying Lenin, anti-Islamic black metal, more. How do you get the Bonus Show? Become a member: www.davidpakman.com If you liked this clip of The David Pakman Show, please do us a big favor and share it with your friends... and hit that "like" button! www.davidpakman.com Become a Member feeds.feedburner.com Like Us on Facebook: www.facebook.com Follow Us on Twitter: www.twitter.com Get TDPS Gear: www.davidpakman.com 24/7 Voicemail Line: (219)-2DAVIDP Subscribe to The David Pakman Show for more: www.youtube.com Broadcast on July 12, 2012
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CEOLIVE InvestorInsight™ Series Featuring Tonix Pharmaceuticals (TNXP)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 16:40
- Updated: 28 Aug 2012
CEOLIVE Investor Insight Interview featuring Dr. Seth Lederman, president of Tonix Pharmaceuticals, ticker symbol TNXP. Tonix Pharmaceuticals (TNXP) is a specialty pharmaceutical company developing innovative, non‐addictive products for chronic pain syndromes such as fibromyalgia and post traumatic stress disorder.
http://wn.com/CEOLIVE_InvestorInsight™_Series_Featuring_Tonix_Pharmaceuticals_TNXP
Elmyr Pharmaceutical Ad - Featuring Brent Hinds of Mastodon
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:05
- Updated: 11 Nov 2012
newmerica.tv presents Elmyr's newest advertisement starring Brent Hinds of Mastodon and Tom Cheshire. Check out the blooper reel - http
http://wn.com/Elmyr_Pharmaceutical_Ad_Featuring_Brent_Hinds_of_Mastodon
Palestine pharmaceuticals pay the price
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:40
- Updated: 05 Aug 2012
Pharmacists in occupied East Jerusalem have had their medicines confiscated by the Israeli Government. Pharmacare ships to the EU - including Germany, Belgium, and Spain. But now it is having problems selling its medication to locations just 30 minutes down the road. Some have also had to pay fines for selling products made in the Palestinian Territories. The Israeli Ministry of Health says the products do not meet their standards. Al Jazeera's Melissa Chan reports from the occupied West Bank. Source, credit to Aljazeera- www.aljazeera.com FAIR USE NOTICE: This video has been posted to further advance our understanding of environmental, political, human rights, economic, Technological, democratic, scientific, and social justice issues which constitutes a "fair use" of any such copyrighted material as provided for in section 107 of the US Copyright Law. In accordance with Title 17 USC Section 107 for research and educational purposes.
http://wn.com/Palestine_pharmaceuticals_pay_the_price
Michael Marshall - Pharmaceuticals.
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:32
- Updated: 23 Oct 2012
Music video by Michael Marshall performing Pharmaceuticals. (C) 2012 King Empire Music. Follow Michael Marshall on twitter @MlchaelMarshall. Pharmaceuticals was produced by @JehfSlaps www.michaelmarshallmusic.com for updates and new music.
http://wn.com/Michael_Marshall_Pharmaceuticals
Tonix Pharmaceuticals (TNXP) Executive Spotlight 9/19/12
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:35
- Updated: 06 Oct 2012
Tonix Pharmaceuticals' (TNXP) CEO Seth Lederman talks about recent success in their Phase 2 Trials of Fibromyalgia Drug TNX-102.
http://wn.com/Tonix_Pharmaceuticals_TNXP_Executive_Spotlight_9_19_12
Interview with Dr. J. Joseph Kim, CEO, Inovio Pharmaceuticals, Inc
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 19:11
- Updated: 11 Oct 2012
In this video interview with Inovio's president and CEO, Dr. J. Joseph Kim, biotech analyst David Moskowitz discusses how the firm is engaged in the discovery, development, and delivery of a new generation of vaccines, called DNA vaccines, focused on cancers and infectious diseases.
http://wn.com/Interview_with_Dr_J_Joseph_Kim,_CEO,_Inovio_Pharmaceuticals,_Inc
Ex-Pharmaceutical Rep. Speaks Out
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:51
- Updated: 12 Nov 2012
Be My Friend - www.myspace.com Gwen Olsen is a woman who use to be a pharmaceutical sales rep for 15 years until her niece killed herself while taking antidepressants. Gwen has more... written a book called, "Confessions of an Rx Drug Pusher" www.gwenolsen.com http www.myspace.com
http://wn.com/Ex-Pharmaceutical_Rep_Speaks_Out
Lincoln Pharmaceuticals 2011
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:36
- Updated: 13 Nov 2012
Corporate Film for a leading pharmaceutical company of Gujarat.
http://wn.com/Lincoln_Pharmaceuticals_2011
Let's Play Spy Fiction p.2 - Legitimate Pharmaceuticals
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 62:34
- Updated: 12 Nov 2012
A pharmaceutical company that's developing biochemical weapons, you say...
http://wn.com/Let's_Play_Spy_Fiction_p2_Legitimate_Pharmaceuticals
Pharmaceuticals pump US full of drugs
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:28
- Updated: 01 Nov 2012
The American drug trade is a multi-billion-dollar business, and is only getting bigger. Meanwhile the industry has been accused of illegally pushing medicine onto the market, often endangering the lives of patients. Dr. Darcy Smith says the problem is that when the average American family sits down and watches TV, they trust the pharmaceutical commercials they are seeing and the claims they make are accurate.
http://wn.com/Pharmaceuticals_pump_US_full_of_drugs
Graffiti - Pfizer commercial
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:31
- Updated: 07 Nov 2012
There is more than a medication!
http://wn.com/Graffiti_Pfizer_commercial
Cannabis: Alternative Treatment to Pharmaceuticals
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:18
- Updated: 08 Nov 2012
This 20/20 clip features the use of cannabis as a treatment for autism. Interviewed is expert Dr. Grinspoon who is an Associate Professor Emeritus of Psychiatry at Harvard Medical School. Grinspoon was senior psychiatrist at the Massachusetts Mental Health Center in Boston for 40 years. When Grinspoon began studying marijuana in 1967, his intention was to "define scientifically the nature and degree of those dangers" but as he reviewed the existing literature on the subject Grinspoon reached the conclusion he and the general public had been misinformed and misled. Hester-Perez made her decision to try giving her 10-year-old son, Joey Perez, medical marijuana after his weight had become dangerously low due to his unwillingness to eat. She said that at the time she began the approach, he weighed only 46 pounds. "The marijuana balanced my son," said Hester-Perez, noting that she has never used marijuana herself. "My son had self-injurious behaviors. He was extremely aggressive, he would run out of our house... he was a danger to himself and others." Source: WIKIPedia/20/20
http://wn.com/Cannabis_Alternative_Treatment_to_Pharmaceuticals
Development and Delivery of Pharmaceutical Products (CMC) - MaRS Best Practices
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 67:46
- Updated: 22 Oct 2012
Moving from drug discovery to drug development requires a particular skillset usually not yet honed by start-ups. This phase of the development process is highly regulated and critical. Let Dr. Colin Minchom take you through the aspects of the Chemistry, Manufacturing and Control (CMC) portion of the drug development process. Watch this video to learn about the pharmaceutical product development which includes objectives of formulation, cost-effective strategies to reach key milestones and more. MaRS -- Building Canada's next generation of global technology companies. marsdd.com
http://wn.com/Development_and_Delivery_of_Pharmaceutical_Products_CMC_MaRS_Best_Practices
Pharmaceutical Drug Commercial Spoof
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:52
- Updated: 09 Nov 2012
FoodMattersMovie.com presents this animated spoof on the pharmaceutical drug commercials by Big Pharma - Enjoy! A bit of comical relief on a not-so-funny issue of the powerful programming and influence that ultimately has become the #3 killer in the world today - pharmaceutical drugs in the miracle of "modern medicine". Food Matters Movie giving away a VERY SPECIAL GIFT PACKAGE - May 5th until they are all gone. How would you like to get your choice of your favorite nutritional products PAID FOR every month (up to $500/month)?! All details at: www.FoodMattersMovie.com
http://wn.com/Pharmaceutical_Drug_Commercial_Spoof
Photo: AP / Lefteris Pitarakis
12 Nov 2012
As the Euro group of finance ministers meet in Brussels on Monday to decide whether to grant Greece a further tranche of aid that could prevent imminent financial catastrophe for Greece, one economist...
Photo: AP / Mohammad Hussain
11 Nov 2012
Article by WN.com Correspondent Dallas Darling Acts of terror that strikes fear in the hearts and minds of people, such as unexpected and secretive deadly drone strikes, are always wars against hope....
Photo: AP / Mónica G. Prieto
12 Nov 2012
NATO is ready to help member state Turkey as the 20-month conflict in Syria is increasingly spilling across the border, the alliance's chief Anders Fogh Rasmussen has said. "Turkey can rely on NATO...
Photo: US Army / by Pfc. Cameron Boyd
11 Nov 2012
KABUL (Reuters) - Pakistan hopes to persuade Afghan insurgent groups, including the lethal Haqqani network, to pursue peace but worries resistance from political factions opposed to the Taliban could...
Photo: US DoD / DOD
11 Nov 2012
WINDSOR Castle All-Age School in Portland has been given a leg up in its efforts to recover from the ravages of Hurricane Sandy on October 24. The Digicel Foundation is to provide the school with half...
Seeking Alpha
Executives Spiro Rombotis --...(size: 0.2Kb)
Otago Daily Times
The most vulnerable are among the 40 per cent of people still paying for prescription medicine when they should be exempt, a university study has found. After paying for 20 prescription items in a year, individuals and families should be excluded from paying for further medicine, said the...(size: 1.9Kb)
StreetInsider
Tweet OKLAHOMA CITY, OK -- (Marketwire) -- 11/13/12 -- Cytovance� Biologics, Inc., a leading full-service contract manufacturer of mammalian and microbial biologics, announces an agreement with Selexys Pharmaceuticals, Corp. to produce its lead asset, the SelG1 monoclonal antibody (mAb) for a Phase...(size: 2.8Kb)
Concern over medical test A STAFF REPORTER The Bengal JEE board chairman on Monday expressed ...
13 Nov 2012
The Telegraph India
The Bengal JEE board chairman on Monday...(size: 0.3Kb)
Insurance Newsnet
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Indian Express
A city gynaecologist has been ordered by Delhi State Consumer Commission to pay Rs 5.1 lakh compensation for negligently terminating a 13-week-old pregnancy of a woman, damaging her uterus and necessitating its removal. The commission asked Dr R R...(size: 1.6Kb)
Ali Sowe Set for Chievo Medical
13 Nov 2012
All Africa
[Foroyaa]Ali Sowe is...(size: 0.1Kb)
Innovative medical textiles eliminates bacteria
13 Nov 2012
PhysOrg
The researchers said the technique creates fully sterile antimicrobial textiles that help keep hospital-acquired infections at bay. One of the biggest challenges facing hospitals are nosocomial infections, which are infections not present and without evidence of incubation at the time of admission....(size: 2.3Kb)
Buffalo News
Niagara Falls Memorial Medical Center on Monday dedicated a new surgical suite to house its robotic surgery program. The $3 million project expanded the patient recovery area, updated and redecorated the family waiting area and supported technology upgrades, including purchase of a $1.7 million...(size: 2.2Kb)
Report slams medication maker
13 Nov 2012
Boston Herald
Nauseating details from a month-long FDA inspection released yesterday allege that Westboro-based Ameridose failed to adequately investigate a variety of complaints of adverse reactions to their medications, just as state lawmakers prepare to grill Patrick administration bigwigs about their failed...(size: 3.2Kb)
Yahoo Daily News
HealthEconomics.Com Was Cited as Top Influential Industry Leader at Major Pharma Health Economics Meeting in Berlin, Germany. Ponte Vedra Beach, FL (PRWEB) November 12, 2012 HealthEconomics.Com, a top news and information website providing resources related to healthcare value, pharmacuetical...(size: 8.6Kb)
The Telegraph India
Guwahati, Nov. 12: A huge...(size: 0.2Kb)
Palm Beach Post
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"Medication" redirects here. For other uses, see Medication (disambiguation).
"Medicines" redirects here. For other uses, see Medicine (disambiguation).
A pharmaceutical drug, also referred to as medicine, medication or medicament, can be loosely defined as any chemical substance intended for use in the medical diagnosis, cure, treatment, or prevention of disease.[1][2]
Classification[link]
Medications can be classified in various ways,[3] such as by chemical properties, mode or route of administration, biological system affected, or therapeutic effects. An elaborate and widely used classification system is the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System (ATC system). The World Health Organization keeps a list of essential medicines.
A sampling of classes of medicine includes:
- Antipyretics: reducing fever (pyrexia/pyresis)
- Analgesics: reducing pain (painkillers)
- Antimalarial drugs: treating malaria
- Antibiotics: inhibiting germ growth
- Antiseptics: prevention of germ growth near burns, cuts and wounds
[edit] Types of medications (type of pharmacotherapy)
For the gastrointestinal tract (digestive system)[link]
- Upper digestive tract: antacids, reflux suppressants, antiflatulents, antidopaminergics, proton pump inhibitors (PPIs), H2-receptor antagonists, cytoprotectants, prostaglandin analogues
- Lower digestive tract: laxatives, antispasmodics, antidiarrhoeals, bile acid sequestrants, opioid
[edit] For the cardiovascular system
- General: β-receptor blockers ("beta blockers"), calcium channel blockers, diuretics, cardiac glycosides, antiarrhythmics, nitrate, antianginals, vasoconstrictors, vasodilators, peripheral activators
- Affecting blood pressure (antihypertensive drugs): ACE inhibitors, angiotensin receptor blockers, α blockers, calcium channel blockers
- Coagulation: anticoagulants, heparin, antiplatelet drugs, fibrinolytics, anti-hemophilic factors, haemostatic drugs
- Atherosclerosis/cholesterol inhibitors: hypolipidaemic agents, statins.
For the central nervous system[link]
See also: Psychiatric medication and Psychoactive drug
Drugs affecting the central nervous system include: hypnotics, anaesthetics, antipsychotics, antidepressants (including tricyclic antidepressants, monoamine oxidase inhibitors, lithium salts, and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)), antiemetics, anticonvulsants/antiepileptics, anxiolytics, barbiturates, movement disorder (e.g., Parkinson's disease) drugs, stimulants (including amphetamines), benzodiazepines, cyclopyrrolones, dopamine antagonists, antihistamines, cholinergics, anticholinergics, emetics, cannabinoids, and 5-HT (serotonin) antagonists.
For pain and consciousness (analgesic drugs)[link]
See also: Analgesic
The main classes of painkillers are NSAIDs, opioids and various orphans such as paracetamol.
For musculo-skeletal disorders[link]
The main categories of drugs for musculoskeletal disorders are: NSAIDs (including COX-2 selective inhibitors), muscle relaxants, neuromuscular drugs, and anticholinesterases.
[edit] For the eye
- General: adrenergic neurone blocker, astringent, ocular lubricant
- Diagnostic: topical anesthetics, sympathomimetics, parasympatholytics, mydriatics, cycloplegics
- Anti-bacterial: antibiotics, topical antibiotics, sulfa drugs, aminoglycosides, fluoroquinolones
- Antiviral drug:
- Anti-fungal: imidazoles, polyenes
- Anti-inflammatory: NSAIDs, corticosteroids
- Anti-allergy: mast cell inhibitors
- Anti-glaucoma: adrenergic agonists, beta-blockers, carbonic anhydrase inhibitors/hyperosmotics, cholinergics, miotics, parasympathomimetics, prostaglandin agonists/prostaglandin inhibitors. nitroglycerin
[edit] For the ear, nose and oropharynx
sympathomimetics, antihistamines, anticholinergics, NSAIDs, steroids, antiseptics, local anesthetics, antifungals, cerumenolyti
[edit] For the respiratory system
bronchodilators, NSAIDs, anti-allergics, antitussives, mucolytics, decongestants
corticosteroids, Beta2-adrenergic agonists, anticholinergics, steroids
[edit] For endocrine problems
androgens, antiandrogens, gonadotropin, corticosteroids, human growth hormone, insulin, antidiabetics (sulfonylureas, biguanides/metformin, thiazolidinediones, insulin), thyroid hormones, antithyroid drugs, calcitonin, diphosponate, vasopressin analogues
[edit] For the reproductive system or urinary system
antifungal, alkalising agents, quinolones, antibiotics, cholinergics, anticholinergics, anticholinesterases, antispasmodics, 5-alpha reductase inhibitor, selective alpha-1 blockers, sildenafils, fertility medications
[edit] For contraception
[edit] For obstetrics and gynecology
NSAIDs, anticholinergics, haemostatic drugs, antifibrinolytics, Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT), bone regulators, beta-receptor agonists, follicle stimulating hormone, luteinising hormone, LHRH
gamolenic acid, gonadotropin release inhibitor, progestogen, dopamine agonists, oestrogen, prostaglandins, gonadorelin, clomiphene, tamoxifen, Diethylstilbestrol
[edit] For the skin
emollients, anti-pruritics, antifungals, disinfectants, scabicides, pediculicides, tar products, vitamin A derivatives, vitamin D analogues, keratolytics, abrasives, systemic antibiotics, topical antibiotics, hormones, desloughing agents, exudate absorbents, fibrinolytics, proteolytics, sunscreens, antiperspirants, corticosteroids
[edit] For infections and infestations
antibiotics, antifungals, antileprotics, antituberculous drugs, antimalarials, anthelmintics, amoebicides, antivirals, antiprotozoals
[edit] For the immune system
vaccines, immunoglobulins, immunosuppressants, interferons, monoclonal antibodies
[edit] For allergic disorders
anti-allergics, antihistamines, NSAIDs
[edit] For nutrition
tonics, electrolytes and mineral preparations (including iron preparations and magnesium preparations), parenteral nutritional supplements, vitamins, anti-obesity drugs, anabolic drugs, haematopoietic drugs, food product drugs
[edit] For neoplastic disorders
cytotoxic drugs, therapeutic antibodies, sex hormones, aromatase inhibitors, somatostatin inhibitors, recombinant interleukins, G-CSF, erythropoietin
[edit] For diagnostics
[edit] For euthanasia
See also: Barbiturate#Other non-therapeutical uses and barbituates
An euthanaticum is used for euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide.
Euthanasia is not permitted by law in many countries, and consequently medicines will not be licensed for this use in those countries.
Administration[link]
Administration is the delivery of a pharmaceutical drug to a patient.
It can be performed in various dosage forms such as pills, tablets, or capsules.
There are also many variations in the routes of administration, including intravenous (into the blood through a vein) and oral administration (through the mouth).
They can be administered all at once as a bolus, at frequent intervals or continuously. Frequencies are often abbreviated from Latin, such as every 8 hours reading Q8H from Quaque VIII Hora.
Legal considerations[link]
Depending upon the jurisdiction, medications may be divided into over-the-counter drugs (OTC) which may be available without special restrictions, and prescription only medicine (POM), which must be prescribed by a licensed medical practitioner. The precise distinction between OTC and prescription depends on the legal jurisdiction. A third category, behind-the-counter medications (BTMs), is implemented in some jurisdictions. BTMs do not require a prescription, but must be kept in the dispensary, not visible to the public, and only be sold by a pharmacist or pharmacy technician. Doctors may also prescribe prescription drugs for off-label use - purposes which the drugs were not originally approved for by the regulatory agency. The Classification of Pharmaco-Therapeutic Referrals helps guide the referral process between pharmacists and doctors.
The International Narcotics Control Board of the United Nations imposes a world law of prohibition of certain medications. They publish a lengthy list of chemicals and plants whose trade and consumption (where applicable) is forbidden. OTC medications are sold without restriction as they are considered safe enough that most people will not hurt themselves accidentally by taking it as instructed. Many countries, such as the United Kingdom have a third category of pharmacy medicines which can only be sold in registered pharmacies, by or under the supervision of a pharmacist.
For patented medications, countries may have certain mandatory licensing programs which compel, in certain situations, a medication's owner to contract with other agents to manufacture the drug. Such programs may deal with the contingency of a lack of medication in the event of a serious epidemic of disease, or may be part of efforts to ensure that disease treating drugs, such as AIDS drugs, are available to countries which cannot afford the drug owner's price.
Prescription practice[link]
Drugs which are prescription only are regulated as such because they can impose adverse effects and should not be used unless necessary. Medical guidelines and clinical trials required for approval are used to help inform doctors' prescription of these drugs, but errors can happen. Reasons to not prescribe drugs such as interactions or side effects are called contraindications.
Errors include overprescription and polypharmacy, misprescription, contraindication and lack of detail in dosage and administrations instructions. In 2000 the definition of a prescription error was studied using a Delphi method conference; the conference was motivated by ambiguity in the what a prescription error and a need to use a uniform definition in studies.[4]
Development[link]
Main article: Drug development
Drug development is the process by which a drug is created. Drugs can be extracted from natural products (pharmacognosy) or synthesized through chemical processes. The drug's active ingredient will be combined with a "vehicle" such as a capsule, cream, or liquid which will be administered through a particular route of administration. Child-resistant packaging will likely be used in the ultimate package sold to the consumer.
Blockbuster drug[link]
A blockbuster drug is a drug generating more than $1 billion of revenue for its owner each year.[5][when?]
A report from URCH Publishing estimated that about one third of the pharma market by value is accounted for by blockbusters. About 125 products are blockbusters. The top seller was Lipitor, a cholesterol-lowering medication marketed by Pfizer with sales of $12.5 billion.
In 2009 there were a total of seven new blockbuster drugs, with combined sales of $9.8 billion.
Beyond this purely arbitrary financial consideration,
-
- "In the pharmaceutical industry, a blockbuster drug is one that achieves acceptance by prescribing physicians as a therapeutic standard for, most commonly, a highly prevalent chronic (rather than acute) condition. Patients often take the medicines for long periods."[6]
The birth control pill Enovid was the first modern drug taken by those not ill for a highly prevalent chronic condition. The focus on highly profitable drugs for chronic conditions and resulting de-emphasis of one-time acute treatment drugs has led to occasional shortages of antibiotics or vaccines, such as the influenza vaccine shortage in the United States.
Leading blockbuster drugs[link]
| Drug | Trade name | Indication | Company | Sales[7] ($billion/year)* |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Atorvastatin | Lipitor | hypercholesterolemia | Pfizer | 12.5 |
| Clopidogrel | Plavix | atherosclerosis | Bristol-Myers Squibb Sanofi |
9.1 |
| Fluticasone/salmeterol | Seretide | asthma | GlaxoSmithKline | 8.7 |
| Esomeprazole | Nexium | acid reflux disease | AstraZeneca | 8.3 |
| Rosuvastatin | Crestor | hypercholesterolemia | AstraZeneca | 7.4 |
| Quetiapine | Seroquel | bipolar disorder schizophrenia |
AstraZeneca | 7.2 |
| Adalimumab | Humira | rheumatoid arthritis | Abbott | 6.6 |
| Etanercept | Enbrel | rheumatoid arthritis | Amgen Pfizer |
6.5 |
| Infliximab | Remicade | Crohn's disease rheumatoid arthritis |
Johnson & Johnson | 6.4 |
| Olanzapine | Zyprexa | schizophrenia | Eli Lilly | 6.2 |
*Sales are for the 12 months preceding June 30, 2011.
Environmental impact[link]
Since the 1990s water contamination by pharmaceuticals has been an environmental issue of concern.[8] Most pharmaceuticals are deposited in the environment through human consumption and excretion, and are often filtered ineffectively by wastewater treatment plants which are not designed to manage them. Once in the water they can have diverse, subtle effects on organisms, although research is limited. Pharmaceuticals may also be deposited in the environment through improper disposal, runoff from sludge fertilizer and reclaimed wastewater irrigation, and leaky sewage.[8] In 2009 an investigative report by Associated Press concluded that U.S. manufacturers had legally released 271 million pounds of drugs into the environment, 92% of which was the antiseptics phenol and hydrogen peroxide. It could not distinguish between drugs released by manufacturers as opposed to the pharmaceutical industry. It also found that an estimated 250 million pounds of pharmaceuticals and contaminated packaging were discarded by hospitals and long-term care facilities.[9]
Pharmacoenvironmentology is a branch of pharmacology and a form of pharmacovigilance which deals entry of chemicals or drugs into the environment after elimination from humans and animals post-therapy. It deals specifically with those pharmacological agents that have impact on the environment via elimination through living organisms subsequent to pharmacotherapy, while Ecopharmacology is concerned with the entry of chemicals or drugs into the environment through any route and at any concentration disturbing the balance of ecology (ecosystem), as a consequence. Ecopharmacology is a broad term that includes studies of “PPCPs” irrespective of doses and route of entry into environment.[10][11][12]
Ecopharmacovigilance is the science and activities associated with the detection, evaluation, understanding and prevention of adverse effects of pharmaceuticals in the environment. This is close to the WHO definition of pharmacovigilance, the science aiming to capture any adverse effects of pharmaceuticals in humans after use.[13]
The term Environmental Persistent Pharmaceutical Pollutants (EPPP) was suggested in the 2010 nomination of pharmaceuticals and environment as an emerging issue to Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management (SAICM) by the International Society of Doctors for the Environment (ISDE).
History[link]
Ancient pharmacology[link]
Using plants and plant substances to treat all kinds of diseases and medical conditions is believed to date back to prehistoric medicine.
The Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus, the oldest known medical text of any kind, dates to about 1800 BC and represents the first documented use of any kind of medication.[14][15] It and other medical papyri describe Ancient Egyptian medical practices, such as using honey to treat infections.
Ancient Babylonian medicine demonstrate the use of prescriptions in the first half of the 2nd millennium BC. Medicinal creams and pills were employed as treatments.[16]
On the Indian subcontinent, the Atharvaveda, a sacred text of Hinduism whose core dates from the 2nd millennium BC, although the hymns recorded in it are believed to be older, is the first Indic text dealing with medicine. It describes plant-based medications to counter diseases.[17] The earliest foundations of ayurveda were built on a synthesis of selected ancient herbal practices, together with a massive addition of theoretical conceptualizations, new nosologies and new therapies dating from about 400 BC onwards.[18] The student of Āyurveda was expected to know ten arts that were indispensable in the preparation and application of his medicines: distillation, operative skills, cooking, horticulture, metallurgy, sugar manufacture, pharmacy, analysis and separation of minerals, compounding of metals, and preparation of alkalis.
The Hippocratic Oath for physicians, attributed to 5th century BC Greece, refers to the existence of "deadly drugs", and ancient Greek physicians imported medications from Egypt and elsewhere.[19]
The first drugstores were created in Baghdad in the 8th century AD. The injection syringe was invented by Ammar ibn Ali al-Mawsili in 9th century Iraq. Al-Kindi's 9th century AD book, De Gradibus, developed a mathematical scale to quantify the strength of drugs.[20]
The Canon of Medicine by Ibn Sina (Avicenna), who is considered the father of modern medicine,[21] reported 800 tested drugs at the time of its completion in 1025 AD.[citation needed] Ibn Sina's contributions include the separation of medicine from pharmacology, which was important to the development of the pharmaceutical sciences.[22] Islamic medicine knew of at least 2,000 medicinal and chemical substances.[23]
Medieval pharmacology[link]
Medieval medicine saw advances in surgery, but few truly effective drugs existed, beyond opium and quinine. Folklore cures and potentially poisonous metal-based compounds were popular treatments. Theodoric Borgognoni, (1205–1296), one of the most significant surgeons of the medieval period, responsible for introducing and promoting important surgical advances including basic antiseptic practice and the use of anaesthetics. Garcia de Orta described some herbal treatments that were used.
Modern pharmacology[link]
For most of the 19th century, drugs were not highly effective, leading Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr. to famously comment in 1842 that "if all medicines in the world were thrown into the sea, it would be all the better for mankind and all the worse for the fishes".[24]:21
During the First World War, Alexis Carrel and Henry Dakin developed the Carrel-Dakin method of treating wounds with an irrigation, Dakin's solution, a germicide which helped prevent gangrene.
In the inter-war period, the first anti-bacterial agents such as the sulpha antibiotics were developed. The Second World War saw the introduction of widespread and effective antimicrobial therapy with the development and mass production of penicillin antibiotics, made possible by the pressures of the war and the collaboration of British scientists with the American pharmaceutical industry.
Medicines commonly used by the late 1920s included aspirin, codeine, and morphine for pain; digitalis, nitroglycerin, and quinine for heart disorders, and insulin for diabetes. Other drugs included antitoxins, a few biological vaccines, and a few synthetic drugs. In the 1930s antibiotics emerged: first sulfa drugs, then penicillin and other antibiotics. Drugs increasingly became "the center of medical practice".[24]:22 In the 1950s other drugs emerged including corticosteroids for inflammation, rauwolfia alkloids as tranqulizers and antihypertensives, antihistamines for nasal allergies, xanthines for asthma, and typical antipsychotics for psychosis.[24]:23-24 As of 2008, thousands of approved drugs have been developed. Increasingly, biotechnology is used to discover biopharmaceuticals.[24] Recently, multi-disciplinary approaches have yielded a wealth of new data on the development of novel antibiotics and antibacterials and on the use of biological agents for antibacterial therapy.[25]
In the 1950s new psychiatric drugs, notably the antipsychotic chlorpromazine, were designed in laboratories and slowly came into preferred use. Although often accepted as an advance in some ways, there was some opposition, due to serious adverse effects such as tardive dyskinesia. Patients often opposed psychiatry and refused or stopped taking the drugs when not subject to psychiatric control.
Governments have been heavily involved in the regulation of drug development and drug sales. In the U.S., the Elixir Sulfanilamide disaster led to the establishment of the Food and Drug Administration, and the 1938 Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act required manufacturers to file new drugs with the FDA. The 1951 Humphrey-Durham Amendment required certain drugs to be sold by prescription. In 1962 a subsequent amendment required new drugs to be tested for efficacy and safety in clinical trials.[24]:24-26
Until the 1970s, drug prices were not a major concern for doctors and patients. As more drugs became prescribed for chronic illnesses, however, costs became burdensome, and by the 1970s nearly every U.S. state required or encouraged the substitution of generic drugs for higher-priced brand names. This also led to the 2006 U.S. law, Medicare Part D, which offers Medicare coverage for drugs.[24]:28-29
As of 2008, the United States is the leader in medical research, including pharmaceutical development. U.S. drug prices are among the highest in the world, and drug innovation is correspondingly high. In 2000 U.S. based firms developed 29 of the 75 top-selling drugs; firms from the second-largest market, Japan, developed eight, and the United Kingdom contributed 10. France, which imposes price controls, developed three. Throughout the 1990s outcomes were similar.[24]:30-31
See also[link]
- Compliance
- Environmental Persistent Pharmaceutical Pollutants (EPPPs)
- Food Technology
- Herbalism
- History of pharmacy
- Inverse benefit law
- List of drugs
- List of pharmaceutical companies
- List of World Health Organization Essential Medicines
- Medical prescription
- Medicinal chemistry
- Medicine
- Nocebo
- Patient safety
- Pharmaceutical company
- Pharmacology
- Pharmacy Automation - The Tablet Counter
- Pharmacy
- Pharmakeia
- Placebo
- Poison
- Prescription drug
- Risk factors in pregnancy
- Small molecule
- Use of biotechnology in pharmaceutical manufacturing
- Vaccine
References[link]
- ^ US Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, SEC. 210., (g)(1)(B). Accessed 17 August 2008.
- ^ Directive 2004/27/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 31 March 2004 amending Directive 2001/83/EC on the Community code relating to medicinal products for human use. Article 1. Published March 31, 2004. Accessed 17 August 2008.
- ^ www.epgonline.org database of prescription pharmaceutical products including drug classifications [1]
- ^ Dean B, Barber N, Schachter M (December 2000). "What is a prescribing error?". Qual Health Care 9 (4): 232–7. DOI:10.1136/qhc.9.4.232. PMC 1743540. PMID 11101708. //www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1743540.
- ^ ""Blockbuster medicine" is defined as being one which achieves annual revenues of over US$ 1 billion at global level." in European Commission, Pharmaceutical Sector Inquiry, Preliminary Report (DG Competition Staff Working Paper), 28 November 2008, page 17 (pdf, 1.95 MB).
- ^ Finkelstein, Temin "Reasonable Rx: Solving the Drug Price Crisis" 11 January 2008
- ^ "Before the Storm". Chemical & Engineering News 89 (49): 12–18. 2011.
- ^ a b Doerr-MacEwen NA, Haight ME (November 2006). "Expert stakeholders' views on the management of human pharmaceuticals in the environment". Environ Manage 38 (5): 853–66. DOI:10.1007/s00267-005-0306-z. PMID 16955232.
- ^ Donn J. (2009). Tons of Released Drugs Taint U.S. Water. AP.
- ^ Rahman, SZ; Khan RA, Gupta V, Misbah Uddin (2008). "Chapter 2: Pharmacoenvironmentology – Ahead of Pharmacovigilance". In Rahman SZ, Shahid M & Gupta A. An Introduction to Environmental Pharmacology (1th [sic?] ed.). Aligarh, India: Ibn Sina Academy. pp. 35–52. ISBN 978-81-906070-4-9.
- ^ Rahman, SZ; Khan, RA; Gupta, V; Uddin, Misbah (July 2007). "Pharmacoenvironmentology–A Component of Pharmacovigilance". Environmental Health 6 (20): 20. DOI:10.1186/1476-069X-6-20. PMC 1947975. PMID 17650313. http://www.ehjournal.net/content/6/1/20.
- ^ Ilene Sue Ruhoy, Christian G. Daughton. Beyond the medicine cabinet: An analysis of where and why medications accumulate. Environment International 2008, Vol. 34 (8): 1157-1169
- ^ Ecopharmacovigilance (AstraZeneca)
- ^ Griffith, F. Ll. The Petrie Papyri: Hieratic Papyri from Kahun and Gurob
- ^ The Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus
- ^ H. F. J. Horstmanshoff, Marten Stol, Cornelis Tilburg (2004), Magic and Rationality in Ancient Near Eastern and Graeco-Roman Medicine, p. 99, Brill Publishers, ISBN 90-04-13666-5.
- ^ See Atharvaveda XIX.34.9
- ^ Kenneth G. Zysk, Asceticism and Healing in Ancient India: Medicine in the Buddhist Monastery, Oxford University Press, rev. ed. (1998) ISBN 0-19-505956-5.
- ^ Heinrich Von Staden, Herophilus: The Art of Medicine in Early Alexandria (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), pp. 1-26.
- ^ Felix Klein-Frank (2001), Al-Kindi, in Oliver Leaman and Hossein Nasr, History of Islamic Philosophy, p. 172. Routledge, London.
- ^ Cas Lek Cesk (1980). "The father of medicine, Avicenna, in our science and culture: Abu Ali ibn Sina (980-1037)", Becka J. 119 (1), p. 17-23.
- ^ Bashar Saad, Hassan Azaizeh, Omar Said (October 2005). "Tradition and Perspectives of Arab Herbal Medicine: A Review", Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 2 (4), p. 475-479 [476]. Oxford University Press.
- ^ Information taken from the abstract of Hadzović, S (1997). "[Pharmacy and the great contribution of Arab-Islamic science to its development] (Article in Croatian)". Medicinski arhiv 51 (1–2): 47–50. ISSN 0350-199X. PMID 9324574.
- ^ a b c d e f g Finkelstein S, Temin P (2008). Reasonable Rx: Solving the drug price crisis. FT Press.
- ^ Miller, AA; Miller, PF (editor) (2011). Emerging Trends in Antibacterial Discovery: Answering the Call to Arms. Caister Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-904455-89-9.
External links[link]
- WHO Model List of Essential Medicines
- New Medicines Database | PHRMA
- Informations and Leaflets of approved pharmaceutical drugs | Diagnosia
- SuperCYP: Database for Drug-Cytochrome- and Drug-Drug-interactions
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This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
