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Rugby sevens

Kenya scores a try against Tonga during the 2006 Commonwealth Games
Highest governing body	International Rugby Board
Nickname(s)	The Borders Game,[1] The Scottish Game/Code,[1] the Abbreviated Code,[1] the "Short Game", Seven-a-side, Sevens, 7's or 7s and VIIs.
First played	1883
Characteristics
Contact	Full Contact
Team members	Seven
Mixed gender	Separate competitions
Categorization	Team sport, Outdoor, variant of rugby union
Equipment	Rugby ball
Olympic	2016 onwards

Rugby sevens, also known as seven-a-side or VIIs, is a variant of rugby union in which teams are made up of seven players, instead of the usual 15, with shorter matches. Rugby sevens is administered by the International Rugby Board (IRB), the body responsible for rugby union worldwide. The game originated in Melrose, Scotland, where the Melrose Sevens tournament is still played annually. The game is popular at all levels, with amateur and club tournaments generally held in the summer months. Sevens is one of the most well distributed forms of rugby, and is popular in parts of Africa, Asia, Europe, and the Americas, and especially in the South Pacific.^[2]

Notable international competitions include the IRB Sevens World Series and the Rugby World Cup Sevens. Rugby sevens is also played at some multi-sport events such as the Commonwealth Games, taking place four times (1998 - Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 2002 - Manchester, England, 2006 - Melbourne, Australia, and 2010 - Delhi, India), each time the gold medal being won by New Zealand.

Rugby sevens is now recognised as an Olympic sport and will make its debut in the 2016 Summer Olympics. This follows a vote by the executive board of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) to include the sport. That decision was backed at the 121st International Olympic Committee Session in Copenhagen on October 9, 2009.^[3]

Overview[link]

March Past of Hong Kong Sevens 2008

Rugby sevens is sanctioned by the IRB, and is played under substantially the same laws and on a field of the same dimensions as the 15-player game. While a normal rugby union match lasts at least 80 minutes, a normal sevens match consists of two halves of seven minutes with a one-minute half-time break. The final of a competition can be played over two halves of ten minutes each, with a half-time break of two minutes. (In the IRB Sevens World Series, only the Cup final, which determines the overall winner of an event, is played with 10-minute halves; all finals for lower-level trophies are played with 7-minute halves.^[4]) This allows rugby tournaments to be completed in a day or a weekend. However, sevens scores are generally comparable to union scores; scoring occurs much more frequently in sevens, since the defenders are more spaced out.

Many sevens tournaments have a competition for a cup, a plate, a bowl, and a shield, allowing many teams of different standards to avoid leaving empty handed.

Sevens tournaments are traditionally known for having more of a relaxed atmosphere than fifteen-a-side games, and are often known as "festivals". As The Encyclopedia of Rugby Union Football (1976) puts it, they gained their "popularity as an end of season diversion from the dourer and sterner stuff that provides the bulk of a normal season's watching."^[5]

Fans frequently attend in fancy dress, and entertainment is put on for them.

The Hong Kong Sevens tournament has been especially important in popularising the game in Asia, and rugby sevens has been important as a form of international rugby "evangelism", hence is perhaps the most widely played form of the game, with tournaments in places as far apart as Bogota and Bangkok, Kuala Lumpur and Kenya, Singapore and Scandinavia, as well as the countries in which rugby union is well known.^[6]

Playing area[link]

Sevens is played on a standard rugby union playing field as defined in the International Rugby Board's handbook. The field measures up to 100 metres (330 ft) long and 70 metres (230 ft) wide.^[7][8] On each goal line are H-shaped goal posts.

Teams and positions[link]

Teams are composed of three forwards, one scrum half and three backs.

Scrums are composed of just three players from each team. Because of the speedy nature of the game, good sevens players are often backs or loose forwards in fifteens rugby.

• Blue: Forwards
  • 1 - Prop
  • 2 - Prop
  • 4 - Hooker
• Red: Backwards
  • 3 - Scrum half
  • 5 - Fly-half
  • 6 - Centre
  • 7 - Winger/fullback

Variations to the Laws of the Game[link]

A sevens scrum

There are several variations in laws which apply to Rugby Sevens,^[9] primarily to speed up the game and to account for the reduced number of players. The main changes can be summarised as follows:

• Seven players per team on field (instead of 15).
• Five substitutes, with only three interchanges (instead of 7 and 7).
• Seven minute halves, though ten minute halves are allowed in the final of a competition (instead of forty minute halves).
• One minute half-time, two minutes in finals (instead of ten minutes).
• Matches drawn after regulation are continued into Extra Time, in 5-minute periods.
• All conversion attempts must be drop-kicked (instead of having the option to place-kick).
• Conversions must be taken within 40 seconds of scoring a try (instead of 60 seconds).
• Three player scrums (instead of eight players).
• Kick-offs: in sevens, the team which has just scored kicks off, rather than the conceding team, as in fifteen-a-side.
• Yellow cards net a 2-minute suspension (instead of 10 minutes).
  • Suspensions are more severe in Sevens than in Fifteens. The team plays a man down for 1/7 of the match instead of 1/8, and losing 1 man out of 7 opens up more space than 1 man out of 15.
• Referees decide on advantage quickly (where one play usually ends advantage, not true in fifteens).
• In major competitions, there are additional officials present (in-goal touch judges) to judge success of kicks at goals and hence the game is not delayed waiting for touch judges to move into position to judge conversion attempts.

History[link]

Nestling beneath the shadow of the Eildon Hills, the Greenyards at Melrose in Scotland is the original home of rugby sevens

Rugby sevens was initially conceived by Ned Haig and David Sanderson, who were butchers from Melrose, Scotland as a fund-raising event for his local club, Melrose RFC, in 1883. The first ever sevens match was played at the Greenyards, the Melrose ground, where it was well received. Two years later, Tynedale was the first non-Scottish club to win one of the Borders Sevens titles at Gala in 1885.^[10]

Despite sevens' popularity in the Borders, it did not catch on elsewhere until after WWI, in the 1920s and 30s.^[11] The first sevens tournament outside Scotland was the Percy Park Sevens at North Shields in north east England in 1921.^[10] Because it was near from the Scottish Borders, it attracted interest from the code's birthplace, and the final was contested between Selkirk (who won) and Melrose RFC (who were runners up).^[10] In 1926, England's major tournament, the Middlesex Sevens was set up by Dr J.A. Russell-Cargill, a London based Scot.^[10]

One of the key events in the spread of sevens to England was the Middlesex Sevens, which had some formidable figures on its subcommittee such as Wavell Wakefield and Bill Ramsay.^[11] The Middlesex Sevens were also a great fundraiser for charity, and in 1926, they raised £1,600 for King Edward Hospital, at a time when standard admission was a shilling, and stand seats cost five shillings.^[11]

A 1927 description of the game at the Middlesex Sevens (also for King Edward Hospital) gives an idea of the novelty of the game to English people:

"You see the field is so open that if a man gets away with the ball a full sized gallop is required to catch him and very often it... wasn't there."^[12]

Whereas the Scottish Borders were a rural area, with a population in the tens of thousands, albeit near Edinburgh and Newcastle-upon-Tyne, the Middlesex Sevens were more or less in the suburbs of London, a densely populated area and transport hub, which was home to millions. As a result 10,000 spectators attended the second Middlesex tournament.^[12] And while the Border Sevens had honed the skills of players in the Scottish rugby heartland, the Middlesex Sevens did likewise for London rugby, with locally based players such as the aforementioned Wavell Wakefield, Carl Aarvold (later Recorder of the City of London) of Blackheath FC, Wick Powell of London Welsh RFC, and John Tallent, who would later become chairman of the Four Home Unions Tours Committee.^[11] They rubbed shoulders with various invitation sides such as Sale RFC in 1936, which included such players as Wilf Wooller and Claud Davey of Wales and Ken Fyfe of Scotland amongst their backs; and in 1939, Cardiff RFC, which included players such as Wilf Wooller again, and Les Spence and "Wendy" Davis.^[11]

The first ever officially sanctioned international tournament occurred at Murrayfield as part of the "Scottish Rugby Union's Celebration of Rugby" centenary celebrations in 1973.

Due to the success of the format, the ongoing Hong Kong Sevens was launched three years later. In 1993, the Rugby World Cup Sevens, in which the Melrose Cup is contested, was launched. Three of the best known sevens competitions are the Hong Kong Sevens, Wellington Sevens, and the Dubai Sevens which now make up part of the IRB Sevens World Series.

The Scottish connection continued in the foundation of the Hong Kong Sevens in the 1970s, founded largely by expats such as "Tokkie" Smith, and in England, London Scottish RFC was strongly involved in the Middlesex Sevens from the start. The Hong Kong Sevens were ahead of their time, and an influential force in the modernisation of rugby union, for example, the Hong Kong Sevens were one of the first rugby union tournaments to attract major sponsorship, when the airline Cathay Pacific sponsored the 1976 tournament.^[13] They also provided a level of cosmopolitan international competition, which tended not to exist in rugby before the first Rugby World Cup in 1987,^[14] especially since Hong Kong was not seen as one of the "Big Eight", and other than some involvement with France, the British Commonwealth teams tended to be notoriously clannish. By 1986, the Hong Kong Sevens were held up as a positive example to others:

"This Seven-a-Side international tournament is without a doubt the most spectacular, exotic, best organized Rugby competition of its kind in the world, and it has consistently produced the highest standard of Sevens Rugby seen anywhere.

"I was not surprised on my first visit to see quality play from the Australian, New Zealand, Fijian, and British players, but I was staggered at the amazingly high quality play produced by countries I never even knew played Rugby. South Korea and Western Samoa were every bit as good as Japan and Tonga. Indonesia, Thailand and Singapore found their lack of sheer size and bulk an insuperable handicap, but against each other they displayed a range of running and handling skills which demanded unqualified praise. Papua New Guinea, Sri Lanka and the Solomon Islands were inevitably outgunned by the teams from the major Rugby-playing nations but they still have a remarkably high level of skill which promises well for the future of the game.

"The week of the Hong Kong tournament allows 24 Rugby-playing nations to intermingle for several days, and the huge cross-fertilisation of ideas can only be beneficial in the long term for the emerging nations. After the first day of the play when the top eight seeded teams meet the smaller fish in a pool system, the second day is divided into three different competitions... The strength of this great tournament is that on the opening day the most famous players in the world share a pitch with unknown opponents from countries where Rugby is a minority sport... While tournaments like the Hong Kong Sevens continue to be played, Rugby administrators can be confident that the game will continue to thrive in over 100 countries worldwide."^[14]

However, despite this apparent diversity, some of the same old problems which had dogged international rugby were still manifest in the Hong Kong Sevens in the 1980s - for example, in a photograph of the Hong Kong vs Bahrain game at the tournament in 1984, the teams do not appear to include anyone who is ethnically Arabian or Chinese, instead both teams are quite clearly of northern European ethnic origin.^[15]

Rugby sevens continues to be popular in the Scottish Borders, where the ten most prestigious of these tournaments make up a league competition known as the "Radio Borders Kings of the Sevens".^[16] Sevens has also taken strong root in the South Sea island nations of Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa, as well as the African nation of Kenya.

In many minor rugby nations, such as the case of rugby union in Poland, development, has tended to concentrate on rugby sevens as a means of introducing the sport to people.^[17] Rugby sevens has become popular in places such as Hong Kong, Singapore and Dubai, which are not so successful in the full fifteen-a-side code. In addition, four of the 12 current "core teams" that compete in all legs of the IRB Sevens World Series represent nations that are not within the recognised top tier of the 15-man game—Fiji, Kenya, Samoa, and the USA.

In honour of the role of Melrose RFC in the creation of rugby sevens, the club was inducted along with Haig to the IRB Hall of Fame in 2008.^[18]

Future concerns[link]

Although sevens has proven a commercial and competitive success^{[citation needed]}, some within the rugby community have expressed concern that sevens is starting to become divorced from the 15-man game. One such voice is former Wales international and current pundit John Taylor, who wrote in 2010 that sevens

A number of administrative issues related to differences between the structures of international rugby union and the Olympic movement remain to be sorted out before the 2016 Olympic Games.

One issue is the status of Ireland, more specifically Northern Ireland. The International Rugby Board recognises the Irish Rugby Football Union as the sport's governing body for the entire island of Ireland. By contrast, the International Olympic Committee recognises the British Olympic Association as the governing body of the UK Olympic team, which usually includes athletes from Northern Ireland which is part of the UK, while the Olympic Council of Ireland usually fields teams representing all of Ireland in case of sports organised on an all-Ireland basis. The sport's various governing bodies have not yet stated clearly whether a Northern Irish sevens player would be eligible to play for a Great British team or an Irish team, or, if good enough, would be given the choice.^[20][21]

The issue of a combined British team, specifically for the 2012 Games in London, has proven highly contentious in association football, with the four Home Nations wary of any action that could undermine the separate status they currently have within FIFA. However, this issue is apparently less of a problem in rugby union. In April 2011, IRB chief executive Mike Miller endorsed the concept of a combined British sevens team for the 2016 Olympics and beyond, stating

Statistics[link]

Players in bold were active in the 2010–11 IRB Sevens World Series.

Top try-scorers (>99 tries)

Player	Nationality	Tries
Santiago Gomez Cora	Argentina	230
Ben Gollings	England	220
Fabian Juries	South Africa	179
Mikaele Pesamino	Samoa	158
Uale Mai	Samoa	136
Collins Injera	Kenya	124
Nasoni Roko	Fiji	123
Karl Te Nana	New Zealand	113
Humphrey Kayange	Kenya	112
Amasio Valence	New Zealand	112
Tafai Ioasa	New Zealand	111
Alafoti Faosiliva	Samoa	108
Peter Miller	Australia	107
Dave Moonlight	Canada	107
Richard Haughton	England	106
William Ryder	Fiji	105
Marius Schoeman	South Africa	103
Rob Thirlby	England	101
Zar Lawrence	New Zealand	100

Major tournaments[link]

Argentina at San Diego 2008 Rugby Seven Tournament

Sailosi Tagicakibau with the winners cup at the Bournemouth Sevens

• Rugby World Cup Sevens — Sponsored by the IRB, and held every four years, this is the highest prize in the Sevens version of rugby union. However, due to the upcoming introduction of sevens to the Olympics in 2016, the next edition in 2013 will be the last.
• IRB Sevens World Series: New Zealand has been by far the dominant force in the IRB World Sevens Series, winning nine out of the 12 seasons. However, in recent years, several other teams have successfully challenged New Zealand's dominance. Fiji, long a power in sevens, were winners in 2005-06; South Africa won in 2008–09; and Samoa claimed the 2009–10 crown. Other strong contenders in recent years have included England, Australia, and Argentina, all of whom have won an event within the last three seasons.^[23]

Commonwealth Games[link]

Rugby sevens has been played at four Commonwealth Games since its first appearance, at the 1998 Commonwealth Games, in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Appearing in the 2002 (Manchester), 2006 (Melbourne) and 2010 Games (Delhi), it is now considered a "Core" sport by the Commonwealth Games Federation, necessitating its appearance at all future games, including the 2014 Games (Glasgow). The New Zealand team has won the gold medal on each occasion. It is one of the two male-only sports at the Commonwealth Games, the other being boxing.

Summer Olympics[link]

On 9 October 2009, the IOC voted to include rugby sevens and golf on the program for the 2016 Olympic Games in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The other 26 sports were also confirmed with a large majority of the votes.^[24] The 2016 Summer Olympic program is scheduled to feature 28 sports and a total of 38 disciplines. There were two open spots for sports and initially seven sports began the bidding for inclusion in the 2016 program.

Other multisport tournaments[link]

Rugby sevens is also played at various multisport competitions including the Asian Games, Pacific Games, and Pan American Games. Rugby union was formerly played at the World Games, but this is due to cease as it is now an Olympic sport.

FIRA-AER European Sevens[link]

Portugal playing Romania in 2008

2005 FIRA-AER European Sevens[link]

Portugal defeated Russia 28-26 to the Grand Final of the 2005 FIRA European Sevens in Moscow to retain the trophy they have won for the last three years. Spain won the Plate with a 25-14 win over Germany, whilst Lithuania claimed the Bowl. Portugal topped their group on day one, recording four victories and a 7-7 draw, against Italy. In Pool B, Russia delighted the home fans with five wins out of five, including a 33-7 victory over France. They followed that up on day two by defeating Italy 17-0 in the Cup semi-finals, whilst Portugal beat France 22-7.

2011 Sevens Grand Prix Series[link]

This new format of European Championship was created this year. Based on the IRB Sevens World Series, it is composed of 4 tournaments. After its final win in Bucharest, Portugal is the winner of the competition. England, for its entry in the European Championship, had a great start (victories on the two first stages in Lyon and Moscow) but finally finished second of the competition. Spain is third while Russia take the fourth place after winning in Bucharest.

Next year, Germany and Scotland will enter the competition. Romania and Moldova will be playing in Division A

Women's Rugby sevens[link]

A women's rugby sevens game in the USA

Women's rugby sevens has been dominated by New Zealand, with either the New Zealand team (1999–2001) or Aotearoa Maori Women’s Rugby sevens team (playing as New Zealand) [4] winning the annual Hong Kong Sevens tournament from 1997 until 2007. The United States won the Hong Kong Sevens in 2008 by defeating Canada in the final (New Zealand failed to send a team).

The inaugural Women’s Rugby World Cup Sevens tournament took place in Dubai together with the men’s tournament during the first weekend of March 2009. England defeated Canada 12-0 in the Bowl final while Australia edged New Zealand 15-10 in extra-time to become the first to win the Women's Rugby World Cup.

The IRB will organise its first official women's sevens tournament outside of the World Cup as part of the 2011 Dubai Sevens. This is part of a plan to launch a full IRB International Women's Sevens Series for 2012–13.^[25]

Women's rugby sevens was included in the IRB's successful bid to reintroduce rugby to the Olympics in 2016. It is also bidding for inclusion in the Commonwealth Games in 2018.

See also[link]

• American Flag Rugby
• Rugby sevens at the 2010 Commonwealth Games
• Rugby tens
• Seven-a-side football

References[link]

Printed sources[link]

• Bath, Richard (ed.) The Complete Book of Rugby (Seven Oaks Ltd, 1997 ISBN 1-86200-013-1)
• Bath, Richard (ed.) The Scotland Rugby Miscellany (Vision Sports Publishing Ltd, 2007 ISBN 1-905326-24-6)
• Jones, J.R. Encyclopedia of Rugby Union Football (Robert Hale, London, 1976 ISBN 0-7091-5394-5)
• McLaren, Bill Talking of Rugby (1991, Stanley Paul, London ISBN 0-09-173875-X)
• Massie, Allan A Portrait of Scottish Rugby (Polygon, Edinburgh; ISBN 0-904919-84-6)
• Richards, Huw (2007). A Game for Hooligans: The History of Rugby Union. Edinburgh: Mainstream Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84596-255-5. 
• Starmer-Smith, Nigel (ed) Rugby - A Way of Life, An Illustrated History of Rugby (Lennard Books, 1986 ISBN 0-7126-2662-X)
• Stubbs, Ray (2009). The Sports Book. Dorling Kindersley. ISBN 978-1-4053-3697-0. 

Footnotes[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Rugby Sevens

• IRB (union) Sevens official website
• Argentinian support for Rugby's campaign in Olympics Games (Spanish)
• The RugbyRugby Guide- Coaching 7s
• Ultimate Rugby Sevens
• Rugby Sevens - History & Tournaments
• Guide to playing training and coaching sevens rugby
• 2009 Refereeing Sevens Handbook
• A Brief History of Seven a Side Rugby

Tournament sites[link]

• Dubai Sevens
• Edinburgh Sevens
• Hong Kong Sevens
• Istanbul Rugby Sevens
• Melrose Sevens
• Rhino Mendip Sevens
• NZ Sevens
• (Spanish) Punta del Este Sevens
• USA Sevens
• Braidholm 7s (Glasgow, Scotland)
• [5] (Noosa, Queensland, Australia)

Coordinates: 22°16′42″N 114°09′32″E / 22.27833°N 114.15889°E / 22.27833; 114.15889

Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China[note 1] 中華人民共和國香港特別行政區
Flag Emblem
Anthem: March of the Volunteers 《義勇軍進行曲》
View at night from Victoria Peak
Official language(s)		Chinese, English[note 2]
Spoken languages		Cantonese, English
Writing systems		Traditional Chinese, English alphabet
Demonym		Hong Konger
Government		Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China
-	Chief Executive	Donald Tsang
-	Chief Executive-elect	CY Leung
-	Chief Justice	Geoffrey Ma
-	President of the Legislative Council	Jasper Tsang
Legislature		Legislative Council
Establishment
-	Treaty of Nanking	29 August 1842
-	Japanese occupation	25 December 1941 – 15 August 1945
-	Conveyance from British sovereignty to Chinese sovereignty	1 July 1997
Area
-	Total	1,104 km2 (179th) 426 sq mi
-	Water (%)	4.58 (50 km²; 19 mi²)[3]
Population
-	2010 census	7,061,200[4]
-	Density	6,480[5]/km2 (4th) 16,576/sq mi
GDP (PPP)		2011 estimate
-	Total	$351.119 billion[6]
-	Per capita	$49,137[6]
GDP (nominal)		2011 estimate
-	Total	$243.302 billion[6]
-	Per capita	$34,049[6]
Gini (2007)		43.4[7]
HDI (2011)		0.898[8] (very high) (13th)
Currency		Hong Kong dollar (HKD)
Time zone		HKT (UTC+8)
Date formats		yyyy年m月d日 (Chinese) dd-mm-yyyy (English)
Drives on the		left
ISO 3166 code		HK
Internet TLD		.hk and .香港
Calling code		+852

Hong Kong
Chinese	香港
Cantonese Jyutping	Hoeng1gong2
Cantonese Yale	Hēunggóng
Hanyu Pinyin	Xiānggǎng
Literal meaning	Fragrant harbour
Transcriptions Hakka - Romanization Hiông-kóng Mandarin - Hanyu Pinyin Xiānggǎng - Wade–Giles Hsiang1-kang3 - IPA [ɕjáŋkàŋ] Min - Hokkien POJ Hiong-kang Wu - Romanization shian平kaon上 Cantonese (Yue) - Jyutping Hoeng1gong2 - IPA [hœ̂ːŋkɔ̌ːŋ] - Yale Romanization Hēunggóng
Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
Traditional Chinese	香港特別行政區 (or 香港特區)
Simplified Chinese	香港特别行政区 (or 香港特区)
Transcriptions Hakka - Romanization Hiông-kóng Thi̍t-phe̍t Hàng-tsṳn-khî Mandarin - Hanyu Pinyin Xiānggǎng Tèbié Xíngzhèngqū Min - Hokkien POJ Hiong-kang Te̍k-pia̍t Hêng-chèng-khu Wu - Romanization shian平kaon上 deh入bih入 ghan平tsen去chiu平 Cantonese (Yue) - Jyutping Hoeng1gong2 Dak6bit6 Hang4zing3 Keoi1

This article contains Chinese text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Chinese characters.

Full view of Kowloon and Hong Kong. The old Kai Tak Airport can be seen on the left.

The Lei Cheng Uk Han Tomb Museum located in northwest Kowloon was built in 1969 after the tomb's discovery in 1955.

Hong Kong^{[note 3]} (Chinese: 香港) is one of two special administrative regions (SARs) of the People's Republic of China (PRC), the other being Macau. A city-state^[9] situated on China's south coast and enclosed by the Pearl River Delta and South China Sea,^[10] it is known for its expansive skyline and deep natural harbour. With a land mass of 1,104 km² (426 sq mi) and a population of seven million people, Hong Kong is one of the most densely populated areas in the world.^[11] Hong Kong's population is 95 percent ethnic Chinese and 5 percent from other groups.^[12] Hong Kong's Han Chinese majority originate mainly from the cities of Guangzhou and Taishan in the neighbouring Guangdong province.^[13]

Hong Kong became a colony of the British Empire after the First Opium War (1839–42). Originally confined to Hong Kong Island, the colony's boundaries were extended in stages to the Kowloon Peninsula in 1860 and then the New Territories in 1898. It was occupied by Japan during the Pacific War, after which the British resumed control until 1997, when China resumed sovereignty.^[14][15] The region espoused minimum government intervention under the ethos of positive non-interventionism during the colonial era.^[16] The time period greatly influenced the current culture of Hong Kong, often described as "East meets West",^[17] and the educational system, which used to loosely follow the system in England^[18] until reforms implemented in 2009.^[19]

Under the principle of "one country, two systems", Hong Kong has a different political system from mainland China.^[20] Hong Kong's independent judiciary functions under the common law framework.^[21][22] Hong Kong Basic Law, its constitutional document, stipulates that Hong Kong shall have a "high degree of autonomy" in all matters except foreign relations and military defence, governs its political system.^[23][24] Although it has a burgeoning multi-party system, a small-circle electorate^{[clarification needed]} controls half of its legislature. The Chief Executive of Hong Kong, the head of government, is selected by a Selection Committee / Election Committee with 400 to 1200 members, during the first 20 years.^{[25] [26][27] [28]}

As one of the world's leading international financial centres, Hong Kong has a major capitalist service economy characterised by low taxation and free trade, and the currency, Hong Kong dollar, is the eighth most traded currency in the world.^[29] The lack of space caused demand for denser constructions, which developed the city to a centre for modern architecture and the world's most vertical city.^[30][31] Hong Kong has one of the highest per capita income in the world.^[6] The dense space also led to a highly developed transportation network with public transport travelling rate exceeding 90 percent,^[32] the highest in the world.^[33] Hong Kong has numerous high international rankings in various aspects. For instance, its economic freedom, financial and economic competitiveness, quality of life, corruption perception, Human Development Index, etc., are all ranked highly.^{[34][35][36][37][38][39][40]} According to both UN and WHO estimates, Hong Kong has the second longest life expectancy of any country in the world. ^[41][42]

Etymology[link]

The name "Hong Kong" is an approximate phonetic rendering of the pronunciation of the spoken Cantonese or Hakka name "香港", meaning "fragrant harbour".^[43] Before 1842, the name referred to a small inlet – now Aberdeen Harbour or 香港仔 hoeng¹ gong² zai² "Little Hong Kong" – between the Aberdeen Island and the south side of Hong Kong Island, which was one of the first points of contact between British sailors and local fishermen.^[44]

The reference to fragrance may refer to the harbour waters sweetened by the fresh water estuarine influx of the Pearl River, or to the incense from factories lining the coast to the north of Kowloon, which was stored around Aberdeen Harbour for export before the development of Victoria Harbour.^[43] In 1842, the Treaty of Nanking was signed, and the name Hong Kong was first recorded on official documents to encompass the entirety of the island.^[45]

History[link]

Pre-colonial[link]

Archaeological studies support a human presence in the Chek Lap Kok area from 35,000 to 39,000 years ago, and in Sai Kung Peninsula from 6,000 years ago.^[46][47][48] Wong Tei Tung and Three Fathoms Cove are the two earliest sites of human habitation in the Paleolithic period. It is believed the Three Fathom Cove was a river valley settlement and Wong Tei Tung was a lithic manufacturing site. Excavated Neolithic artefacts suggest cultural differences from the Longshan culture in northern China and settlement by the Che people prior to the migration of the Baiyue.^[49][50] Eight petroglyphs were discovered on surrounding islands, which dated to the Shang Dynasty in China.^[51]

In 214 BC, Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of China, conquered the Baiyue tribes in Jiaozhi (modern Liangguang region) and incorporated the territory into imperial China for the first time. Modern Hong Kong is located in Nanhai commandery (modern Nanhai District) and near the ancient capital city Pun Yue.^[52][53][54] The area was consolidated under the kingdom of Nanyue, founded by general Zhao Tuo in 204 BC after the Qin Dynasty collapsed.^[55] When the kingdom was conquered by Emperor Wu of Han in 111 BC, the land was assigned to the Jiaozhi commandery under the Han Dynasty. Archaeological evidence indicates the population increased and early salt production flourished in this time period. Lei Cheng Uk Han Tomb in the Kowloon Peninsula is believed to have been built during the Han Dynasty.^[56]

During the Tang Dynasty period, the Guangdong region flourished as a regional trading center. In 736, Emperor Xuanzong of Tang established a military town in Tuen Mun to defend the coastal area in the region.^[57] The first village school, Li Ying College, was established around 1075 in the New Territories under the Northern Song Dynasty.^[58] During the Mongol invasion in 1276, the Southern Song Dynasty court moved to Fujian, then to Lantau Island and later to Sung Wong Toi (modern Kowloon City), but the child Emperor Bing of Song committed suicide by drowning with his officials after being defeated in the Battle of Yamen. Hau Wong, an official of the emperor is still worshipped in Hong Kong today.^[59]

The earliest recorded European visitor was Jorge Álvares, a Portuguese explorer who arrived in 1513.^[60][61] After establishing settlements in the region, Portuguese merchants began trading in southern China. At the same time, they invaded and built up military fortifications in Tuen Mun. Military clashes between China and Portugal led to the expulsion of the Portuguese. In the mid-16th century, the Haijin order banned maritime activities and prevented contact with foreigners; it also restricted local sea activity.^[59] In 1661–69, the territory was affected by the Great Clearance ordered by Kangxi Emperor, which required the evacuation of the coastal areas of Guangdong. It is recorded that about 16,000 persons from Xin'an County were driven inland, and 1,648 of those who left are said to have returned when the evacuation was rescinded in 1669.^[62] What is now the territory of Hong Kong became largely wasteland during the ban.^[63] In 1685, Kangxi became the first emperor to open limited trading with foreigners, which started with the Canton territory. He also imposed strict terms for trades such as requiring foreign traders to live in restricted areas, staying only for the trading seasons, banning firearms, and trading with silver only.^[64] The East India Company made the first sea venture to China in 1699, and the region's trade with British merchants developed rapidly soon after. In 1711, the company established its first trading post in Canton. By 1773, the British reached a landmark 1,000 chests of opium in Canton with China consuming 2,000 chests annually by 1799.^[64]

British colonial era[link]

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  Flag of the British colony of Hong Kong(used in between 1870-1876)

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  Flag of the British colony of Hong Kong(used in between 1876-1910)

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  Flag of the British colony of Hong Kong(used in between 1910-1959)

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  Flag of the British colony of Hong Kong (Unofficial Red ensign for Hong Kong used in between 1959 to prior the Handover of Hong Kong to the PRC in 1997)

General Post Office in Central,City of Victoria, 1911

The Queen's Pier in front of City Hall in Edinburgh Place.

Victoria City in the 1890s.

View of Hong Kong Island from Kowloon (published 1843)

In 1839, the refusal by Qing Dynasty authorities to import opium resulted in the First Opium War between China and Britain. Hong Kong Island was occupied by British forces on 20 January 1841 and was initially ceded under the Convention of Chuenpee as part of a ceasefire agreement between Captain Charles Elliot and Governor Qishan, but the agreement was never ratified due to a dispute between high ranking officials in both governments.^[65] It was not until 29 August 1842 that the island was formally ceded in perpetuity to the United Kingdom under the Treaty of Nanking. The British established a crown colony with the founding of Victoria City the following year.^[66]

Under British rule, the population of Hong Kong island had increased from 7,450 Chinese residents, mostly fishermen, in 1841 to over 115,000 Chinese and 8,754 Europeans in Hong Kong (including Kowloon) in 1870.^[67]

In 1860, after China's defeat in the Second Opium War, the Kowloon Peninsula and Stonecutter's Island were ceded in perpetuity to Britain under the Convention of Peking.

In 1894, the deadly Third Pandemic of bubonic plague spread from China to Hong Kong, causing 50,000–100,000 deaths.^[68]

In 1898, under the terms of the Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory, Britain obtained a 99-year lease of Lantau Island and the adjacent northern lands, which became known as the New Territories.^[69] Hong Kong's territory has remained unchanged to the present.^[70][71]

During the first half of the 20th century, Hong Kong was a free port, serving as an entrepôt of the British Empire. The British introduced an education system based on their own model, while the local Chinese population had little contact with the European community of wealthy tai-pans settled near Victoria Peak.^[69]

Japanese invasion[link]

In conjunction with its military campaign, the Empire of Japan invaded Hong Kong on 8 December 1941.^[72] The Battle of Hong Kong ended with British and Canadian defenders surrendering control of the colony to Japan on 25 December.^[73] During the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong, civilians suffered widespread food shortages, rationing, and hyper-inflation due to forced exchange of currency for military notes. Through a policy of enforced repatriation of the unemployed to the mainland throughout the period, because of the scarcity of food, the population of Hong Kong had dwindled from 1.6 million in 1941 to 600,000 in 1945, when the United Kingdom resumed control of the colony.^[74]

Cold war era[link]

Granted by the College of Arms on 21 January 1959, the Blue Ensign colonial flag and coat of arms of Hong Kong were used by British Hong Kong during 1959–1997.

Hong Kong's population recovered quickly as a wave of migrants from China arrived for refuge from the ongoing Chinese Civil War. When the PRC was proclaimed in 1949, more migrants fled to Hong Kong for fear of persecution by the Communist Party.^[69] Many corporations in Shanghai and Guangzhou shifted their operations to Hong Kong.^[69]

In the 1950s, Hong Kong's rapid industrialization was driven by textile exports and other expanded manufacturing industries. As the population grew and labour costs remained low, living standards rose steadily. ^[75] The construction of Shek Kip Mei Estate in 1953 followed a massive slum fire, and marked the beginning of the public housing estate programme designed to cope with the huge influx of immigrants. Trade in Hong Kong accelerated even further when Shenzhen, immediately north of Hong Kong, became a special economic zone of the PRC, and Hong Kong was established as the main source of foreign investment in China.^[76] The manufacturing competitiveness gradually declined in Hong Kong due to the development of the manufacturing industry in southern China beginning in the early 1980s. By contrast, the service industry in Hong Kong experienced high rates of growth in the 1980s and 1990s after absorbing workers released from the manufacturing industry.^[77]

Development of Hong Kong Island in 1986

Throughout the British colonial era, Hong Kong was industrialized and improved in all aspects from its economy to its health care system. Many health facilities were built for its citizens, for example the Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Hong Kong, the Queen Mary Hospital, Hong Kong, the Princess Margaret Hospital, Hong Kong and the Prince of Wales Hospital. Many changes happened during this era shaped the future of Hong Kong. In the year 1983, when the United Kingdom reclassified Hong Kong from a British crown colony to a dependent territory, the governments of the United Kingdom and China were already discussing the issue of Hong Kong's sovereignty due to the impending expiry (within two decades) of the lease of the New Territories. In 1984, the Sino-British Joint Declaration – an agreement to transfer sovereignty to the People's Republic of China in 1997 – was signed.^[69] It stipulated that Hong Kong would be governed as a special administrative region, retaining its laws and a high degree of autonomy for at least 50 years after the transfer. The Hong Kong Basic Law, which is based on the English law would serve as the constitutional document after the transfer, was ratified in 1990.^[69]

Since 1997[link]

File:British new style passport.jpg

Left:Old British passports issued to Hong Kong citizens. Right:The British National (Overseas) passport issued to residents of Hong Kong prior 1997, holders are British nationals and Commonwealth citizens, but not British Citizens.

On 1 July 1997, the transfer of sovereignty from United Kingdom to the PRC occurred, officially ending 156 years of British colonial rule. Hong Kong became China's first special administrative region, and Tung Chee Hwa took office as the first Chief Executive of Hong Kong. That same year, Hong Kong suffered an economic double blow from the Asian financial crisis and the H5N1 avian influenza.^[69] In 2003, Hong Kong was gravely affected by the outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS).^[78][79] The World Health Organization reported 1,755 infected and 299 deaths in Hong Kong.^[80] An estimated 380 million Hong Kong dollars (US$48.9 million) in contracts were lost as a result of the epidemic.^[81]

On 10 March 2005, Tung Chee Hwa announced his resignation as Chief Executive due to "health problems".^[82] Donald Tsang, the Chief Secretary for Administration at the time, entered the 2005 election unopposed and became the second Chief Executive of Hong Kong on 21 June 2005.^[83] In 2007, Tsang won the Chief Executive election and continued his second term in office.^[84]

In 2009, Hong Kong hosted the fifth East Asian Games, in which nine national teams competed. It was the first and largest international multi-sport event ever held in the territory.^[85] Today, Hong Kong continues to serve as an important global financial centre, but faces uncertainty over its future due to the growing mainland China economy, and its relationship with the PRC government in areas such as democratic reform and universal suffrage.^[86]

Governance[link]

The Legislative Council Building in Central became the home to Legislative Council of Hong Kong in 1985.

In accordance with the Sino-British Joint Declaration, and the underlying principle of one country, two systems, Hong Kong has a "high degree of autonomy as a special administrative region in all areas except defence and foreign affairs."^{[note 4]} The declaration stipulates that the region maintain its capitalist economic system and guarantees the rights and freedoms of its people for at least 50 years beyond the 1997 handover.^{[note 5]} The guarantees over the territory's autonomy and the individual rights and freedoms are enshrined in a constitution, the Hong Kong Basic Law(formed based on the Common law of England), which outlines the system of governance of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, but which is subject to the interpretation of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (NPCSC).^[87][88]

The primary pillars of government are the Executive Council, the civil service, the Legislative Council, and the Judiciary. The Executive Council is headed by the Chief Executive who is elected by the Election Committee and then appointed by the Central People's Government.^[89][90] The civil service is a politically neutral body that implements policies and provides government services, where public servants are appointed based on meritocracy.^[26][91] The Legislative Council has 60 members, half of whom are directly elected by universal suffrage by permanent residents of Hong Kong according to five geographical constituencies. The other half, known as functional constituencies, are directly elected by a smaller electorate, which consists of corporate bodies and persons from various stipulated functional sectors. The entire council is headed by the President of the Legislative Council who serves as the speaker.^[92][93] Judges are appointed by the Chief Executive on the recommendation of an independent commission.^[21][94]