The Nephilim^{[pronunciation?]} (plural) are the offspring of the "sons of God" and the "daughters of men" in Genesis 6:4, or giants who inhabit Canaan in Numbers 13:33. A similar word with different vowel-sounds is used in Ezekiel 32:27 to refer to dead Philistine warriors.

Etymology[link]

This subject also relates to the etymology and meaning of the phrase "sons of God" as well as the fallen ones.

"Nephilim" (נְפִילִים) probably derives from the Hebrew root npl (נָפַל), "to fall" which also includes "to cause to fall" and "to kill, to ruin". The Brown-Driver-Briggs Lexicon gives the meaning as "giants"^[1] Robert Baker Girdlestone^[2] argued the word comes from the Hiphil causative stem. Adam Clarke took it as passive, "fallen", "apostates". Ronald Hendel states that it is a passive form "ones who have fallen", equivalent grammatically to paqid "one who is appointed" (i.e. overseer), asir, "one who is bound", (i.e. prisoner) etc.^[3][4]

In the Hebrew Bible[link]

(Translations according to New International Version. Note that translations frequently differ. In the King James Version of the Bible, "Nephilim" is translated as "giants" in the following examples.)

The term "Nephilim" occurs just twice in the Hebrew Bible, both in the Torah. The first is Genesis 6:1-4, immediately before the story of Noah's ark:

1. When men began to increase in number on the earth and daughters were born to them,

2. The sons of God saw that the daughters of men were beautiful, and they married any of them they chose.

3. Then the LORD said, "My Spirit will not contend with man forever, for he is mortal; his days will be a hundred and twenty years."

4. The Nephilim were on the earth in those days—and also afterward—when the sons of God went to the daughters of men and had children by them. They were the heroes of old, men of renown.

The second is Numbers 13:32-33, where the Hebrew spies report that they have seen fearsome giants in Canaan:

32. And they spread among the Israelites a bad report about the land they had explored. They said, "The land we explored devours those living in it. All the people we saw there are of great size.

33. We saw the Nephilim there (the descendants of Anak come from the Nephilim). We seemed like grasshoppers in our own eyes, and we looked the same to them."

Ezekiel's "mighty fallen": nephilim as ancient warriors[link]

Ezekiel 32:27 speaks of "the fallen mighty (gibborim nophlim, גִּבֹּורִים נֹפְלִים) of the uncircumcised, which are gone down (yardu, יָרְדֽוּ) to the grave with their weapons of war"; a change to the vowels would produce the reading gibborim nephilim.^[5][6][7]

Numbers and Amos: Nephilim as giants[link]

In Amos 2:9, while not using the word "nephilim", Yahweh reminds the prophet that he "destroyed the Amorites before you, whose height was as the height of cedar trees".^[8] Genesis 6:4 says "the nephilim were on the earth in those days (before the Flood), and also after", and most later compositions and translations, including the Septuagint, therefore understand the nephilim to be giants.^[8]

Ambiguity in Genesis 6:4[link]

The nature of the nephilim is complicated by the ambiguity of Genesis 6:4, "the sons of God joined with the daughters of mankind, who bore them children - they were the ancient warriors, the men of renown", which leaves it unclear whether they are the "sons of God" or their offspring who are the "ancient warriors". Richard Hess in The Anchor Bible Dictionary takes it as read that the nephilim are the offspring,^[9] as does P. W. Coxon in Dictionary of deities and demons in the Bible^[10]

Arguments from culture and mythology[link]

In Aramaic culture, the later term niyphelah refers to the Constellation of Orion, and thus nephilim to the offspring of Orion in mythology.^[11] However Brown-Driver-Briggs Lexicon notes this as a "dubious etymology" and "all very precarious".^[12]

J. C. Greenfield mentions that "it has been proposed that the tale of the Nephilim, alluded to in Genesis 6 is based on some of the negative aspects of the apkallu tradition".^[13] The apkallu (sages) were seven in number, legendary culture-heroes from before the Flood, of human descent, but possessing extraordinary wisdom from the gods, and one of the seven apkallu, Adapa, was therefore called "son of Ea", despite his human origin.^[14] The tradition of the Seven Sages became widespread in the 2nd and 1st millennia. However the seven apkallu do not fall, nor have offspring, and are not sons of the fallen.

Genesis 6 - two interpretations[link]

There are effectively two views^[15] regarding the identity of the Nephilim, which follow on from alternative views about the identity of the sons of God:

• Offspring of Seth — The Qumran (Dead Sea Scroll) fragment 4Q417 (4QInstruction) contains the earliest known reference to the phrase "children of Seth", stating that God has condemned them for their rebellion. Other early references to the offspring of Seth rebelling from God and mingling with the daughters of Cain, are found in rabbi Shimon bar Yochai, Augustine of Hippo, Julius Africanus, and the Letters attributed to St. Clement. It is also the view expressed in the modern canonical Amharic Ethiopian Orthodox Bible.

• Offspring of angels — A number of early sources refer to the "sons of heaven" as "Angels". The earliest such references^[16] seem to be in the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Greek, and Aramaic Enochic literature, and in certain Ge'ez manuscripts of 1 Enoch (mss A-Q) and Jubilees^[17] used by western scholars in modern editions of the Old Testament Pseudepigrapha.^[18] Also some Christian apologists shared this opinion, like Tertullian and especially Lactantius. However, "Angels" in this context has sometimes been considered to be a sarcastic epithet for the offspring of Seth who rebelled^{[citation needed]} (see above). The earliest statement in a secondary commentary explicitly interpreting this to mean that angelic beings mated with humans, can be traced to the rabbinical Targum Pseudo-Jonathan, and it has since become especially commonplace in modern-day Christian commentaries.

The fallen angels interpretation[link]

The New American Bible commentary draws a parallel to the Epistle of Jude and the statements set forth in Genesis, suggesting that the Epistle refers implicitly to the paternity of Nephilim as heavenly beings who came to earth and had sexual intercourse with women.^[19] The footnotes of the Jerusalem Bible suggest that the Biblical author intended the Nephilim to be an "anecdote of a superhuman race".^[20] Genesis 6:4 implies that the Nephilim have inhabited the earth in at least two different time periods—in antediluvian times "and afterward." If the Nephilim were supernatural beings themselves, or at least the progeny of supernatural beings, there is a theory that the "giants of Canaan" in Book of Numbers 13:33 were the direct descendants of the antediluvian Nephilim, or were fathered by the same supernatural parents.^{[citation needed]}

Some Christian commentators have argued against this view,^[21] citing Jesus' statement that angels do not marry.^[22] Others believe that Jesus was only referring to angels in heaven.^[23]

Evidence in favour of the "fallen angels" interpretation includes the fact that the phrase "the sons of God" (Hebrew, בְּנֵי הָֽאֱלֹהִים; literally "sons of the gods") is used just two times outside of Genesis chapter 6. In both instances (namely, Job 1:6 and Job 2:1) the phrase explicitly references angels. This is supported by the Septuagint version of the Codex Alexandrinus, which, in Genesis 6:2, renders the phrase "angels of God".^{[citation needed]}

In Second Temple Judaism[link]

The story of the Nephilim is chronicled more fully in the Book of Enoch. The Greek, Aramaic, and main Ge'ez manuscripts of 1 Enoch and Jubilees obtained in the 19th century and held in the British Museum and Vatican Library, connect the origin of the Nephilim with the fallen angels, and in particular with the egrḗgoroi (watchers). Samyaza, an angel of high rank, is described as leading a rebel sect of angels in a descent to earth to have sexual intercourse with human females:

And it came to pass when the children of men had multiplied that in those days were born unto them beautiful and comely daughters. And the angels, the children of the heaven, saw and lusted after them, and said to one another: 'Come, let us choose us wives from among the children of men and beget us children.' And Semjaza, who was their leader, said unto them: 'I fear ye will not indeed agree to do this deed, and I alone shall have to pay the penalty of a great sin.' And they all answered him and said: 'Let us all swear an oath, and all bind ourselves by mutual imprecations not to abandon this plan but to do this thing.' Then sware they all together and bound themselves by mutual imprecations upon it. And they were in all two hundred; who descended in the days of Jared on the summit of Mount Hermon, and they called it Mount Hermon, because they had sworn and bound themselves by mutual imprecations upon it...

—^[24]

According to these texts, the fallen angels who begat the Nephilim were cast into Tartarus (Greek Enoch 20:2),^[25] a place of 'total darkness'. However, Jubilees also states that God granted ten percent of the disembodied spirits of the Nephilim to remain after the flood, as demons, to try to lead the human race astray (through idolatry, the occult, etc.) until the final Judgment.

In addition to Enoch, the Book of Jubilees (7:21–25) also states that ridding the Earth of these Nephilim was one of God's purposes for flooding the Earth in Noah's time. These works describe the Nephilim as being evil giants.

Targum Pseudo-Jonathan identifies the Nephilim as Shemihaza and the angels in the name list from 1 Enoch.^[26] b Yoma 67, PRE22 and 1 QapGen ar ii 1 also identify the Nephilim as the angels that fell.

There are also allusions to these descendants in the Catholic deuterocanonical books of Judith, Sirach 16:7, Baruch 3:26–28, and Wisdom of Solomon 14:6, and in the non-deuterocanonical 3 Maccabees 2:4.

In the New Testament Epistle of Jude 14-15 cites from 1 Enoch 1:9, which many scholars believe is based on Deuteronomy 33:2.^[27][28][29] To most commentators this confirms that the author of Jude regarded the Enochic interpretations of Genesis 6 as correct, however others^[30] have questioned this.

The descendants of Seth and Cain interpretation[link]

Despite the apparent prevalence of Enochic interpretations such as 1 Enoch, Jubilees, Philo,^[31] in Second Temple Judaism, and at Qumran (e.g. Ogias the Giant), orthodox Judaism has always taken a consistent line against the idea that Genesis 6 refers to angels or that angels could intermarry with men. Shimon bar Yochai pronounced a curse on anyone teaching this idea. Rashi and Nachmanides followed this. Pseudo-Philo, Biblical Antiquities 3:1-3 may also imply that the "sons of God" were human.^[32] Consequently, most Jewish commentaries and translations describe the Nephilim as being from the offspring of "sons of nobles", rather than from "sons of God" or "sons of angels".^[33] This is also the rendering suggested in the Targum Onqelos, Symmachus and the Samaritan Targum which read "sons of the rulers", where Targum Neophyti reads "sons of the judges".

Likewise, a long-held view among some Christians is that the "sons of God" who fathered the Nephilim spoken of in the text, were in fact the formerly righteous descendants of Seth who rebelled, while the "daughters of men" were the unrighteous descendants of Cain, and the Nephilim the offspring of their union.^[34] This view dates to at least the 3rd century AD, with references throughout the Clementine literature,^[35] as well as in Sextus Julius Africanus,^[36] Ephrem the Syrian^[37] and others (see below, "In other texts"). Holders of this view^[38] have looked for support in Jesus' statement that "in the days before the flood they (humans) were marrying and giving in marriage"^[39]

Some individuals and groups, including St. Augustine, John Chrysostom, and John Calvin, take the view of Genesis 6:2 that the "Angels" who fathered the Nephilim referred to certain human males from the lineage of Seth, who were called sons of God probably in reference to their being formerly in a covenantal relationship with Yahweh (cf. Deuteronomy 14:1; 32:5); according to these sources, these men had begun to pursue bodily interests, and so took wives of the daughters of men, e.g., those who were descended from Cain or from any people who did not worship God.

This also is the view of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church,^[40] supported by their own Ge'ez manuscripts and Amharic translation of the Haile Selassie Bible - where the canonical books of 1 Enoch and Jubilees differ from western academic editions.^[41] The "Sons of Seth view" is also the view presented in a few extra-Biblical, yet ancient works, including Clementine literature, the 3rd century Cave of Treasures, and the ca. 6th Century Ge'ez work The Conflict of Adam and Eve with Satan. In these sources, these offspring of Seth were said to have disobeyed God, by breeding with the Cainites and producing wicked children "who were all unlike", thus angering God into bringing about the Deluge, as in the Conflict:

Certain wise men of old wrote concerning them, and say in their [sacred] books, that angels came down from heaven, and mingled with the daughters of Cain, who bare unto them these giants. But these [wise men] err in what they say. God forbid such a thing, that angels who are spirits, should be found committing sin with human beings. Never, that cannot be. And if such a thing were of the nature of angels, or Satans, that fell, they would not leave one woman on earth, undefiled... But many men say, that angels came down from heaven, and joined themselves to women, and had children by them. This cannot be true. But they were children of Seth, who were of the children of Adam, that dwelt on the mountain, high up, while they preserved their virginity, their innocence and their glory like angels; and were then called 'angels of God.' But when they transgressed and mingled with the children of Cain, and begat children, ill-informed men said, that angels had come down from heaven, and mingled with the daughters of men, who bear them giants.

Related terms[link]

In the Hebrew Bible, there are a number of other words that, like "Nephilim", are sometimes translated as "giants":

• Emim — the fearful ones
• Rephaim — the dead ones
• Anakim — the [long]-necked ones

Anakim (or Anakites) are the descendants of Anak, and dwelt in the south of Canaan, in the neighbourhood of Hebron. In the days of Abraham, they inhabited the region later known as Edom and Moab, east of the Jordan river. They are mentioned during the report of the spies about the inhabitants of the land of Canaan. The Book of Joshua states that Joshua finally expelled them from the land, excepting a remnant that found a refuge in the cities of Gaza, Gath, and Ashdod. The Philistine giant Goliath, whom David^[42] later encountered, was supposedly a descendant of the Anakim.^{[citation needed]}

The land, through which we have gone to spy it out, is a land that devours its inhabitants, and all the people that we saw in it are of great height. And there we saw the Nephilim (the sons of Anak, who come from the Nephilim), and we seemed to ourselves like grasshoppers, and so we seemed to them.

—Numbers 13:32–33, English Standard Version

Popular culture[link]

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2012)

• Ayn Rand's novel Atlas Shrugged, is known in Hebrew translation as "Mered HaNephilim" (מרד הנפילים, literally: the revolt/rebellion of the Nephilim)
• Ancient astronauts theorists believe that the "sons of God" in Genesis 6:2, but not those after the flood, are actually Extraterrestrials.
• In the CW TV series Supernatural, the angels match the description of Nephilim, in the sense that the angel Castiel describes his true form being "the size of your Chrysler Building" dwarfing humans in his true form. All other angels in the show are gigantic, which is why they need to possess humans to communicate with them.
• In the film The Devil's Tomb, Nephilim are portrayed as corrupted, fallen angels.
• The Nephilim figure prominently in the Madeleine L'Engle novel Many Waters, primarily in an antagonistic role.
• The Nephilim are featured in the Mortal Instruments and Infernal Devices book series by Cassandra Clare as the offspring of angels and humans also known as "shadowhunters".
• Episode 17 of the 5th season the television series The X-Files, entitled "All Souls", featured a plot involving Nephilim.
• Author Richard Kadrey's "Sandman Slim" series feature a main character by the name of Stark (aka Sandman Slim) who discovers his magic and healing ability are the result of being a Nephilim.
• In the video game El Shaddai: Ascension of the Metatron, the Nephilim are depicted as semi-humanoid, blob-like creatures that enjoy frolicking through the Tower of Babel. This belies their true nature, as the Nephilim are slowly consuming one another, growing more monstrous and threatening to consume the world. Enoch, the main character, must return the creatures to oblivion by purifying the souls of the Fallen Angels that parented them.
• Fields of the Nephilim are a semi active goth rock band formed in 1984.
• Author Zecharia Sitchin wrote that the Nephilim were ancient astronauts from the planet Nibiru.
• In the novel Angelology by Danielle Trussoni, Nephilim appear as the antagonists to a group of Angelologists, people who study angels, and the battle between the two groups is to gain control of a powerful, sacred object.
• In the debut novel of author Jason Jowett Versistasis, the Nephalim are time-travelling individuals, integral members of a collective, engaging on alien planets, in possession of host consciousnesses and breeding with the population.
• In the Fallen novels by Lauren Kate, a Nephilim is any person with angel DNA. The Nephilim featured in the novels attend Shoreline school near Mendocino, California, and have not yet made their final choice between good and evil.
• In the mythology based game God of War III, Kratos kills Poseidon, leading to a flood that destroys all that is known to ancient Greece, similar to the flood that killed the Nephilim.
• In the post-apocalyptic video game Darksiders, the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (referred to as War, Death, Fury, and Strife) are shown to be Nephilim and are the last of their kind after the Nephilim suffered devastating casualties during a war between Heaven and Hell centuries prior to the main storyline. The Nephilim are portrayed as tall, muscular demigods capable of incredible power, such as shapeshifting into giant demons and possessing incredible advanced weaponry.
• In Magic: The Gathering's Ravnica block, the Nephilim are a group of giant monstrosities that wreak havoc on the titular plane. They are the symbols of Ravnica's past and were sealed away prior to the main storyline, but returned after consuming a dragon's corpse. Three of them are killed by Niv-Mizzet and Rakdos the Defiler.
• In the books by Becca Fitzpatrick, Hush, Hush, Crescendo and Silence, fallen angels, Nephils and Nephilim are mentioned, as the main characters and conflicts form around these terms.
• In Thomas Sniegoski's book series The Fallen and the mini-series based on the books, Nephilim are referred to as the children of fallen angels and human women, who are eventually responsible for protecting the world from impending darkness.
• In Tom Egeland's book Gospel of Lucifer, Nephilim are referred to as mysterious extraterrestrials who came to the earth over 5000 years ago, to help us advance as societies by teaching us maths, physics and technology.
• The rock band AFI's 5th album The Art of Drowning features a song called "The Nephilim"
• The UBI Soft MMORPG had a playable race called "Nephilim"
• The second and third Prophecy movies deal with fallen angels and one of the Nephilim.^{[citation needed]}
• The silicon-based vampiric creatures in the Tim Powers fantasy/horror novel The Stress of Her Regard are referred to as nephilim.
• In the Exile computer game series and its successor the Avernum computer game series produced by Spiderweb Software the Nephilim are a cave dwelling half-human half-feline race, the most common antagonists in the early games.
• Nephilim is mentioned in the novel Forbidden by Syrie James and her son Ryan M. James
• In the video game Diablo III, the term Nephalem is used to describe the extremely powerful offspring of commingling Angels and Demons, who created the world as a sanctuary from the Eternal Conflict.
• In Bryan Davis's novel series Dragons in Our Midst and Oracles of Fire, the Nephillim were offsprings of fallen angels, known as Watchers, and human women. They were large in stature and evil in nature.

See also[link]

References[link]

External links[link]

• Jewish Encyclopedia: Fall of Angels
• Catholic Encyclopedia: Angels

This article incorporates text from Easton's Bible Dictionary (1897), a publication now in the public domain.

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2010)

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Sons of God (B'nai HaElohim, בני האלהים) is a phrase used in Levantine Bronze and Iron Age texts to describe the "divine council" of the major gods.^{[citation needed]}

The term "sons of God"[link]

In the pantheon of 2nd millennium Ugarit the El, the father-god and head of the pantheon, and the 70 "sons of El", make up a "Divine Council" which deliberates over major decisions. In the 1st millennium the El had been demoted and each of the "sons of El" was held to have been given a "nation" as his charge: Chemosh, for example, was the god of Moab. Yahweh, not originally included in the Ugaritic pantheon, was the God of Judah and of Israel. In the Book of Genesis, Yahweh is seen as the single deity, with "sons of elohim" as his assistants.

By the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC further hypotheses were developed to explain this passage in Genesis. One hypothesis was that the sons of God were the descendants of Seth, the pure line of Adam, and the "daughters of men" as the descendants of Cain.^{[citation needed]}

In the Hebrew Bible the phrase "sons of God" occurs:

• Gen 6:2 b'ney ha-Elohim (בְנֵי־הָֽאֱלֹהִים) sons of the God.
• Job 1:6 b'ney ha-Elohim (בְּנֵי הָאֱלֹהִים) sons of the God.
• Job 38:7 b'ney elohiym (בְּנֵי אֱלֹהִֽים) without the definite article - sons of gods.^[1]
• Psalm 29:1 b'ney elim (בְּנֵי אֵלִים ) without the definite article - sons of elim.

Bronze Age Canaanite origins[link]

In Ugaritic one cognate phrase is bn 'il.^[2] This may occur in the Ugaritic Baal cycle.^[3] Scharbert assigns the text to later editorial activity,^[4] whereas Westermann claims that the text of Genesis 6 is based on an Ugaritic urtext.^[5]

• KTU² 1.40 demonstrates the use of bn il to mean "sons of gods".^[6]
• KTU² 1.65 (which may be a scribal exercise) uses bn il three times in succession: il bn il / dr bn il / mphrt bn il "El, the sons of gods, the circle of the sons of gods / the totality of the sons of gods."^[7]

The phrase bn ilm "sons of the gods" is also attested in Ugaritic texts.^{[8][9][10][11][12]} As is the phrase phr bn ilm "assembly of the sons of the gods".^[13]

History of interpretation of Genesis 6[link]

Second Temple Judaism[link]

In 1 Enoch and Book of Jubilees the Genesis 6 text was developed into a complicated mythology of fallen angels. The 3rd century BC Book of Enoch turns the "sons of God" into fallen angels, referred to as Watchers, who came to earth and had children with human women, resulting in a race of half-angel, half-human beings known as the "Giants" (Nephilim).^{[citation needed]} The view is found in Philo^[14] and in Josephus Antiquities 1:73 (or 1:3.1).^[15]

In the 1st century, CE Rabbi Shimeon ben Yochai pronounced a curse on any Jew teaching the Enochite interpretation^{[citation needed]}, and later, Trypho the Jew^[16] rejected the interpretation. This was followed by Rashi and Nachmanides. Some commentators^[17] on Luke 20:34-36 believe that Jesus was also familiar with the Enochic interpretation, and can be counted with Shimeon ben Yochai, since Jesus rejected that angels could marry and in the same passage equated the "sons of God" with humans.

Early Christianity[link]

The pseudepigraphic Epistle of Barnabas 4:3 appears to accept the Enochic version.^[18] As do Justin Martyr, Eusebius, Clement of Alexandria, Origen and Commodianus.^[19]

Against this first Julius Africanus, then Augustine in City of God, argued that the sons of God were the descendants of Seth, the pure line of Adam, and the "daughters of men" as the descendants of Cain.^[20]

Some manuscripts of the Septuagint have emendations to read "sons of God" as "angels" in Genesis 6. Codex Vaticanus contains "angels" originally. In Codex Alexandrinus "sons of God" has been erased and replaced by "angels".^[21] The Peshitta reads "sons of God".^[22] The 5th century Christian work Conflict of Adam and Eve with Satan follows this view.

Popular culture[link]

• Sons of God - A short video trilogy by British independent film producers Jaffa Entertainment, 2010.^[23]
• Sons of God MC - A Christian motorcycle club which is loosely affiliated with the Hells Angels in North America.^[24]

See also[link]

• Watcher (angel)
• Nephilim
• Son of God

References[link]

External links[link]

• Catholic Encyclopedia: Son of God
• Jewish Encyclopedia: Son of God

Robert K. Crane
Robert K. Crane circa 1960.
Born	(1919-12-20)20 December 1919 Palmyra, New Jersey, United States
Died	31 October 2010(2010-10-31) (aged 90) Williston, Tennessee, USA
Nationality	U.S.
Fields	Biochemistry
Institutions	Washington University in St. Louis Chicago Medical School Rutgers Medical School of the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey
Alma mater	Washington College
Known for	Cotransport
Notable awards	American Gastroenterological Association Distinguished Achievement Award (1969) Dr. Harold Lamport Award, New York Academy of Sciences (1977)

Robert Kellogg Crane (December 20, 1919 – October 31, 2010) was an American biochemist best known for his discovery of sodium-glucose cotransport.

Biography[link]

Crane was born on December 20, 1919 in Palmyra, New Jersey, to Wilbur Fiske Crane, architect and engineer, and Mary Elisabeth Crane. He is the grandson of Stephen Crane's brother Wilbur.^[1]

He received a B.S. from Washington College in 1942. After serving in the Navy during World War II, Crane studied in biochemistry with Eric Ball at Harvard from 1946 to 1949, then spent a year with Fritz Lipmann at Harvard Medical School, and received a Ph.D. in Medical Sciences in 1950. He then joined Carl Cori’s Department of Biological Chemistry at Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, where he began his long interest in glucose metabolism and worked until 1962. After that, he was professor and chairman of the department of Biochemistry at the Chicago Medical School until 1966 and then became professor and chairman of the department of Physiology and Biophysics at Rutgers Medical School (now known as Robert Wood Johnson Medical School) of the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey until 1986. He received a Sc.D. from Washington College in 1982.^[2]

Discovery of cotransport[link]

In the 1950s, Crane played a central role in establishing that glucose transport into the cell was the first step in glucose metabolism and its control. He demonstrated that neither the phosphorylation-dephosphorylation nor other covalent reactions accounted for glucose transport in the intestine.

Model of cotransport coupling of glucose transport to an Na+ pump by an Na+ circuit. Redrawn from Crane et al.^[2][3]

In August 1960, in Prague, Crane presented for the first time his discovery of the sodium-glucose cotransport as the mechanism for intestinal glucose absorption.^[3] Cotransport was the first ever proposal of flux coupling in biology and was the most important event concerning carbohydrate absorption in the 20th century.^[4][5]

Application in oral rehydration therapy[link]

Crane’s discovery of cotransport led directly to the development of oral rehydration therapy.^[6][7] This treatment counter-balances the loss of water and electrolytes caused by cholera via a glucose containing salt solution that accelerates water and electrolyte absorption. This is possible because cholera does not interfere with sodium-glucose cotransport.^[8][9]

Oral rehydration therapy saves the lives of millions of cholera patients in underdeveloped countries since the 1980s.^[10] In 1978, The Lancet wrote : “the discovery that sodium transport and glucose transport are coupled in the small intestine, so that glucose accelerates absorption of solute and water, was potentially the most important medical advance this century.”^[11]

Applications in pharmaceutical drugs[link]

Crane’s discovery is also used in block buster drugs, such as the SSRI Prozac, which treat depression by inhibiting the Na/serotonin cotransporters in the brain.

Furthermore, major pharmaceutical companies are developing inhibitors of the Na/glucose cotransporters to treat diabetes and obesity.^[12]

Awards and honors[link]

• First Place, Southeast Regional Scholarship Competition, Lehigh University, 1938.
• Kent County Scholar, Washington College, 1941-42.
• Atomic Energy Commission Predoctoral Fellow, 1948-49.
• Fellow, American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1957.
• Headmaster's Alumni Medal, St. Andrew's School, 1963.
• Alumni Award, Washington College, 1963.
• Fellow, American Institute of Chemists, 1968.
• Distinguished Achievement Award, American Gastroenterological Association, 1969.^[13]
• Sir Arthur Hurst Memorial Lectureship, British Society of Gastroenterology, 1969.^[14]
• Gastrointestinal Section Lectureship, American Physiological Society, 1971.^[15][16]
• Fellow, New York Academy of Sciences, 1976.
• Dr. Harold Lamport Award, New York Academy of Sciences, 1977.
• Doctor of Science (honoris causa), Washington College, 1982.
• Honorary Chairman, International Symposium on the 25th Anniversary of the Gradient Hypothesis, Aussois, France, 18, 19 and 20 September 1985.^[17]

Selected bibliography[link]

• Robert K. Crane and Anna K. Keltch. “Dinitrocresol and phosphate stimulation of the oxygen consumption of a cell-free oxidative system obtained from sea urchin eggs”. The Journal of General Physiology 32, 1949, pp. 503-509.
• Robert K. Crane and Eric G. Ball. “Factors affecting the fixation of C1402 by animal tissues.“ Journal of Biological Chemistry 188, 1951, pp. 819-832.
• Robert K. Crane and Eric G. Ball. “Relationship of C1402 fixation to carbohydrate metabolism in retina.“ Journal of Biological Chemistry 189, 1951, pp. 269-276.
• Robert K. Crane and Fritz Lipmann. “The relationship of mitochondrial phosphate to aerobic phosphate bond generation”. Journal of Biological Chemistry 201, 1953, pp. 245-246.
• Robert K. Crane and Fritz Lipmann. “The effect of arsenate on aerobic phosphorylation”. Journal of Biological Chemistry 201, 1953, pp. 235-243.
• Robert K. Crane and Alberto Sols. “The association of hexokinase with particulate fractions of brain and other tissue homogenates”. Journal of Biological Chemistry 203, 1953, pp. 273-292.
• Alberto Sols and Robert K. Crane. “The inhibition of brain hexokinase by adenosinediphosphate and sulfhydryl reagents“. Journal of Biological Chemistry 206, 1954, pp. 925-936.
• Robert K. Crane and Alberto Sols. “The non-competitive inhibition of brain hexokinase by glucose 6-phosphate and related compounds”. Journal of Biological Chemistry 210, 1954, pp. 597-606.
• Alberto Sols and Robert K. Crane. “Substrate specificity of brain hexokinase”. Journal of Biological Chemistry 210, 1954, pp. 581-595.
• Robert K. Crane, Richard A. Field and Carl F. Cori. “Studies of tissue permeability I. The penetration of sugars into Ehrlich ascites tumor cells“. Journal of Biological Chemistry 224, 1957, pp. 649-662.
• Robert K. Crane and T. Hastings Wilson. “In vitro method for the study of the rate of intestinal absorption of sugars”. Journal of Applied Physiology, Vol. 12, 1958, pp. 145–146.
• Stephen M. Krane and Robert K. Crane. “The accumulation of D-galactose against a concentration gradient by slices of rabbit kidney cortex“. Journal of Biological Chemistry 234, 1959, pp. 211-216.
• Robert K. Crane. “Intestinal absorption of sugars”. Physiological Reviews, Vol. 40, 1960, pp. 789–825.
• Robert K. Crane, D. Miller and I. Bihler. “The restrictions on possible mechanisms of intestinal transport of sugars”. In: Membrane Transport and Metabolism. Proceedings of a Symposium held in Prague, August 22–27, 1960. Edited by A. Kleinzeller and A. Kotyk. Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, 1961, pp. 439–449.
• D. Miller and Robert K. Crane. “The digestive function of epithelium of the small intestine. 1. An intracellular locus of disaccharide and sugar phosphate ester hydrolysis”. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 52, 1961, pp. 281–293.
• Robert K. Crane. “Hypothesis for mechanism of intestinal active transport of sugars” Federation Proc. 21, 1962, pp. 891–895.
• David Miller and Robert K. Crane. “The digestion of carbohydrates in the small intestine“. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 12, 1963, pp. 220-227.
• Alexander Eichholz and Robert K. Crane. “Studies on the organization of the brush border in intestinal epithelial cells I. Tris density gradient disruption of isolated hamster brush borders and separation of fractions” Journal of Cell Biology 26, 1965, pp. 687-691.
• Jane Overton, Alexander Eichholz and Robert K. Crane. ”Studies on the organization of the brush border in intestinal epithelial cells II. Fine structure of fractions of tris-disrupted hamster brush borders“ Journal of Cell Biology 26, 1965, pp. 693-706.
• Robert K. Crane. “Structural and functional organization of an epithelial cell brush border”. Intracellular Transport, Symp. Intnl. Soc. Cell BioI. Vol. 5, B. Warren, Ed., Academic Press, 1966, pp. 71–102.
• Alexander Eichholz, K.E. Howell and Robert K. Crane. “Studies on the organization of the brush border in intestinal epithelial cells VI. Glucose binding to isolated intestinal brush borders and their subfractions”. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 193, 1969, pp. 179–192.
• Robert K. Crane. “A perspective of digestive-absorptive function“. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 22, 1969, pp. 242-249.
• Robert K. Crane. “Speculations about mechanism: The ecstasy of transport”. 21st annual meeting of the Gastrointestinal Section, American Physiological Society, 1971, pp. 1–16.
• Alexander Eichholz and Robert K. Crane. “Isolation of plasma membranes from intestinal brush borders in Methods in Enzymology”. Vol. 31, part A, Biomembranes, S. Fleischer and L. Packer, Eds., Academic Press, 1974, pp. 123–134.
• Robert K. Crane. “The gradient hypothesis and other models of carrier-mediated active transport”. Reviews of Physiology, Biochemistry and Pharmacology, Vol. 78, 1977, pp. 99–159.
• Robert K. Crane. “Digestion and absorption: water-soluble organics”. International review of physiology, Gastrointestinal physiology II, Vol. 12, Robert K. Crane, Ed., University Park Press, 1977, pp. 325–365.
• Robert K. Crane. “Intestinal structure and function related to toxicity“. Environmental Health Perspectives 33, 1979, pp. 3-8.
• Robert K. Crane. “The road to ion-coupled membrane processes.” Comprehensive Biochemistry. Vol 35: Selected Topics in the History of Biochemistry, Personal Recollections l. (Neuberger, A., van Deenen, L. L. M. and Semenga, G., Eds.), Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1983, pp. 43–69.
• Robert K. Crane. “Questions”. In : the proceedings of an International symposium on 25 years of Research on the Brush Border Membrane and Na+ gradient-coupled transport, Editors: Francisco Alvarado and others, INSERM symposium, No. 26, Elsevier-North Holland, Amsterdam, 1986, pp. 431–438.
• Robert K. Crane. “Robert Kellogg Crane: A Scientist Remembers”. IUBMB Life, Volume 62, Issue 8, August 2010, pp. 642–645.

Further reading[link]

• C. A. Pasternak. “A Glance Back Over 30 Years”. Bioscience Reports, Vol. 13, No. 4, 1993, pp. 183-190.
• Robert Joseph Paton Williams. “The History of Proton-Driven ATP Formation”. Bioscience Reports, Vol. 13, No. 4, 1993, pp.193, 200-201, 203, 207.
• Daphne A Christie, E M. Tansey (eds). “Intestinal absorption”. Wellcome Witnesses to Twentieth Century Medicine, Vol. 8, The Wellcome Trust, London, 2000, pp. 17-35.
• Stephen M. Kavica, Eric J. Frehmb and Alan S. Segalc. “Case Studies in Cholera: Lessons in Medical History and Science”. Yale Journal Of Biology And Medicine, Vol. 72, Issue 6, 1999, p. 404.

See also[link]

• Cotransport
• Cotransporter
• Sodium-glucose transport proteins
• Glucose transporter
• Oral rehydration therapy

References[link]

External links[link]

• Video interview of Robert K. Crane by Martin Frank, Ph.D., on November 17, 2009, for the American Physiological Society's Living History of Physiology Project. In this interview Crane describes his training, career and professional interactions.
• "For Living History" by Robert K. Crane : article for the American Physiological Society's Living History of Physiology Project.
• List of published works of Robert K. Crane for the American Physiological Society's Living History of Physiology Project.

Patrick Heron (30 January 1920 – 20 March 1999)^[2] was an English painter, writer and designer, based in St. Ives, Cornwall.

Early life[link]

Born at Headingley, Leeds in Yorkshire in 1920, he was the son of Thomas Milner Heron^[3] and Eulalie 'Jack' Heron (née Davies), the first of four children (Michael, Joanna and Giles). His father was a clothes manufacturer, pacifist, socialist and leading member of the Leeds Arts Club. In 1925 the Heron family moved to West Cornwall where T M Heron took over the running of Crysede and four years later the family moved to Welwyn Garden City where Tom founded the firm Cresta Silks and was to become the original mind behind Utility Clothing during the war.^[4][5] It was here at his new school that Patrick Heron met his future wife Delia Reiss, daughter of Celia and Dick Reiss (R.L.Reiss,^[6] co-founder of Welwyn Garden City).

Becoming a painter[link]

He attended St. George's School in Harpenden and on a school visit to the National Gallery, London in 1933 saw paintings by Paul Cézanne for the first time. He immediately began to paint in a Cézanne-influenced style. Shortly after this he was asked to make designs for Cresta Silks and continued to design for Cresta until 1951. When he was 17 he attended The Slade School of Art for two days a week,^[7] returning to the West Country to draw the landscape. In World War II he registered as a conscientious objector and worked as an agricultural labourer for three years, then at the Leach Pottery at St Ives in 1944–45, where he met Ben Nicholson, Barbara Hepworth and many other leading artists of the St Ives School^[8]. He had just seen Matisse's The Red Studio, exhibited at the Redfern Gallery, London and soon after this completed what he later considered to be his first mature work, The Piano in 1943.^[1][9]

Early influences[link]

The George Braque exhibition at the Tate Gallery in 1946 deeply impressed him and he wrote an essay on Braque for The New English Weekly. Then up to 1953 he spent time in Europe visiting Paris, Provence and Italy. Heron visited Braque in his Paris studio and presented him with the New English Weekly article. His first one-man exhibition was at the Redfern Gallery in London in 1947. In 1953 he organised, wrote the catalogue and exhibited in Space in Colour,^[10] an exhibition of ten contemporary artists, at Hanover Gallery, London. Following this he exhibited twelve paintings at the Il Bienal di São Paulo, Brazil. The same year he began teaching at Central School of Arts and Crafts in London and continued there until 1956. In 1956 he saw, and praised highly the American Abstract Expressionists who showed their work for the first time in England at the Tate Gallery. He was inspired by this group of eight painters, their confidence and the large scale and flatness.

A development towards abstraction had been evident in his paintings, for example, Square Leaves (1952) and Winter Harbour (1955) The effect on Heron of the New York painters, together with his move to live at Eagles Nest, overlooking the cliffs at Zennor, that year was a pivotal point in the transformation into his now characteristic language of interlinking forms; his balancing of colour and space. Heron's deepest influences were Braque, Matisse and Bonnard and he was connected first of all to the pure abstraction of European lineage, represented by Naum Gabo and Pierre Soulages.

"Heron used that most rare and uncanny of gifts: the ability to invent an imagery that was unmistakenly his own, and yet which connects immediately with the natural world as we perceive it, and transforms our vision of it. Like those of his acknowledged masters, Braque, Matisse and Bonnard, his paintings are at once evocations and celebrations of the visible, discoveries of what he called 'the reality of the eye' ".^[11]

Heron's writing on art and art education[link]

Patrick Heron's writing about art began when in 1945 he was invited by Philip Mairet, the editor of The New English Weekly to contribute to the journal. His first published article was on Ben Nicholson, followed by essays on Picasso, Klee, Cézanne and Braque.^[12] Two years later he became art critic of the New Statesman until 1950. He became London correspondent to Arts Digest, New York (later renamed Arts(NY)). The Changing Forms of Art, a selection of his criticism was published in 1955.^[13] A further selection of writings, edited by Mel Gooding, was published in 1998 to coincide with his Tate Gallery retrospective exhibition^[14]

In 1966, 1968 and 1970 he published a series of articles in Studio International questioning the perceived ascendancy of American artists. His final essay on the subject was in a closely worded article of some 14,000 words published over a period of three days in The Guardian in October 1974.

He defended the independence and autonomy of the English Art Schools, resisting their integration into the polytechnic system. The publication of his article 'Murder of the art schools' in The Guardian in 1971 precipitated an enormous correspondence over a period of six weeks. The article was reprinted in Patrick Heron on Art and Education, published by Bretton Hall Wakefield to coincide with presentation of Honorary Fellowship of Bretton Hall, University of Leeds and a one man show of gouaches.^[1][11][15]

Later life[link]

In 1947 Heron began a series of portraits of T.S.Eliot. The final cubist version, painted in 1949, was acquired by the National Portrait Gallery in 1966.^[16] His daughter Katharine was born early in 1947, followed by Susanna in 1949. The summer of 1947 was spent in St. Ives (as were consecutive summers until 1956 when the family moved permanently from London to Cornwall) followed by his first London exhibition at Redfern Gallery in October.^[1][11] Heron's writings were admired by American art critic Clement Greenberg who sought him out in London in 1954. The friendship they formed eventually disintegrated when they disagreed as judges of the John Moores Prize Exhibition in 1965.^[1][11]

In April 1956 the family moved from London to Eagles Nest in west Cornwall, and in June he exhibited 'Tachiste Garden Paintings' at Redfern Gallery. The following year his first Stripe paintings were exhibited in a group exhibition at the Redfern Gallery 'Metavisual, Taschiste, Abstract' (exhibition title invented by Delia Heron).^[1][11] Towards the end of the next decade Alan Bowness wrote: "I can think of few more disconcerting pictures shown in England in the last twenty years than Patrick Heron's striped paintings of 1957."^[17][18]

"Heron's Garden Paintings of 1956 mark a singular achievement within British Art of the period. With these canvases Heron found a route towards abstraction, not of a given motif, but instead formed from the formal balance achieved between the visual reality of what he saw in the garden at Eagles Nest and the pictorial reality of what he painted. The resulting paintings were executed at a remove from an idea of a representational subject and so freed Heron to deal directly with a pictorial reality.^[19]

In 1958, he moved to Ben Nicholson’s former studio at Porthmeor, St Ives, and two years later he held his first exhibitions in New York at the Bertha Schaefer Gallery and at the newly arrived Waddington Galleries in London."The American critical response was enthusiastic and perceptive. Dennison, in Arts (April 1960) was struck by the subtlety and richness of his colour and ....He was able to discern a crucial distinction " Where Rothko arrives at an impersonal and yet lyrical grandeur, Heron develops a personal image.." ......For Stuart Preston of the new York Times, Heron was ' balancing [his specific, squarish shapes] in compositions of momentary equilibrium. Their state of suspended animation gives his pictures their extraordinary lightness despite the positive existence of his forms.'^[20]

He visited Australia in 1967 and 1973, exhibiting at the Bonython Gallery, Sydney. He delivered the Power lecture in Contemporary Art entitled The Shape of Colour. ”He wrote ‘There is no shape that is not conveyed to you by colour, and there is no colour that can present itself to you without involving shape. If there is no shape then the colour would be right across your retina’ “.^[18]

In 1978 he delivered the William Doty Lectures in Fine Arts at University of Texas in Austin entitled 'The Colour of Colour' coinciding with a presentation of over 30 large canvases from the previous twelve years This was the culmination of the ‘wobbly hard-edge’ period, works filled with intense fields of unadulterated colour and spatial brushwork “with an immediacy of sensational impact ... only possible in the actual relation of spectator to painting”.^[20]

On the same visit Patrick and Delia Heron were made honorary citizens of Texas by order of the Secretary of State.

Delia died quite suddenly and unexpectedly at Eagles Nest in 1979. For some years Patrick was unable to paint. He returned to drawing and slowly a foundation for the later Garden paintings emerged (see ‘Red Garden Painting : June 3–5, 1985’ illustrated above, completed in time for the retrospective at the Barbican the same year).^[21]

In 1989 he returned to Sydney as artist in residence at the Art Gallery of New South Wales. Over a period of 16 weeks he produced six large paintings and forty six gouaches creating "...the final great breakout into the freely executed paintings inspired by his new acquaintance with the Botanical Gardens of Sydney and, once more, his abiding love, the garden at Eagles Nest." ^[22]

In 1994 his Exhibition "Big Paintings" was held at Camden Arts Centre. Heron's largest and most ambitious paintings were 15–22 ft long.^[1]

"One major change that came about in Heron’s painting as a result of his time in Sydney, was a greater awareness of the white primed canvas as a colour space in its own right. ...the Sydney Garden Paintings gave Heron the licence to create works that were seemingly quickly wrought and sparsley painted – which even appear at first to be incomplete or negligent. Ones expectations of what should be are affronted. Nevertheless, this reaction belies a complexity that the artist worked through in his last paintings ... and reached a highpoint ... in 1998”.^[19]

"His last paintings were full-on, risky, filled with bright squiggles, painterly flurries and cartoon doodles. They should have been chaotic and absurd, but they were instead open and vital, eye-rocking and beautiful. Heron's retrospective was ravishing, and had the vitality of a much younger artist."^[23]

He continued painting until the day before he died. He died peacefully at his home in Zennor, Cornwall, on 20 March 1999 at the age of 79. He was survived by both his daughters, Katharine Heron, now an architect,^[24] and Susanna Heron, a sculptor.^[25][26][27]

On 24 May 2004, the Momart warehouse fire destroyed a number of Heron’s most important works.

Patrick Heron's paintings are in public collections worldwide.

Retrospective exhibitions[link]

He held retrospective exhibitions of his work at Wakefield City Art Gallery Hepworth Wakefield (Paintings and Drawings, 5 April – 3 May 1952), the Museum of Modern Art, Oxford in 1968, the Whitechapel Art Gallery in 1972 and at the Barbican Art Gallery in 1985. A major retrospective exhibition of his work was held at Tate Britain in 1998 selected by David Sylvester.^[1][11]

Awards and honours[link]

Heron won the Grand Prize at the John Moores Prize Exhibition in Liverpool in 1959 and the silver medal at the São Paulo Art Biennial in 1965. In 1978 Patrick and Delia Heron were made Honorary Citizens of Texas by Order of the Secretary of State. He was awarded an Hon. D.Litt. in 1982 by the University of Exeter and in 1986 an Hon. D.Litt.by the University of Kent at Canterbury, by Chancellor Jo Grimond whose portrait he had painted for The Scottish National Portrait Gallery. In 1987 he was awarded an Honorary Doctorate by the Royal College of Art and In 1989 he was made an honorary Ph.D., CNAA by Winchester School of Art, in 1992 an Honorary Fellow of RIBA and in 1996 an Honorary Fellow of Bretton Hall, University of Leeds. He turned down a Knighthood under Margaret Thatcher and declined to become an RA.^[18] He was a Trustee of the Tate Gallery from 1980–1987.^[1][11]

Public works and collaborations[link]

Patrick Heron made several Public Works, in 1992 he designed the coloured glass window for Tate St.Ives and in 1996 a site specific outdoor installation at Stag Place 'Big Painting Sculpture' in collaboration with his son in law Julian Feary of Feary and Heron Architects.^[28]

Works in public collections[link]

Thirty-eight paintings by Patrick heron are held in public collections in Britain.^[29]

Paintings in Tate collection can be seen online at Tate Collection Online^[30] and at the National Portrait Gallery.^[31]

Public collections (British)[link]

Aberdeen Art Gallery; Cecil Higgins Art Gallery, Bedford; C.E.M.A., Belfast; Bristol City Art Gallery; Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge; Eliot College, University of Kent, Canterbury; National Museum of Wales, Cardiff; Bishop Otter College, Chichester; Towner Art Gallery, Eastbourne; Scottish National Portrait Gallery, Edinburgh; Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art, Edinburgh; Exeter Art Gallery; Cornwall House, Exeter University; Abbot Hall Art Gallery, Kendal; Leeds City Art Gallery; Leicestershire Education Committee, Leicester; Arts Council of Great Britain, London; Barclays Bank Collection, London; British Broadcasting Corporation, London; British Council, London; British Museum, London; Contemporary Art Society, London; Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation, London; National Portrait Gallery, London;^[32] Shell-Mex Limited, London; Peter Stuyvesant Foundation, London; Tate Gallery, London;^[30] Victoria & Albert Museum, London; Granada Television, Manchester; National Westminster Bank Contemporary Art Collection, Manchester; Manchester City Art Gallery (Rutherston Collection); Hatton Art Gallery, Newcastle University; Norwich Castle Museum; Oldham Art Gallery; Merton College, Oxford; Pembroke College, Oxford; New College, Oxford; St John’s College, Oxford; Nuffield College, Oxford; Plymouth City Art Gallery; Southampton Art Gallery; University of Stirling; Wakefield City Art Gallery; University of Warwick.

Public collections (international)[link]

University of Galway, Ireland; Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation, Lisbon; Boymans-van Beuningen Museum, Rotterdam; Peter Stuyvesant Foundation, Amsterdam; Art Gallery of Western Australia, Perth; Power Gallery of Contemporary Art, Sydney University; Queensland Art Gallery, Brisbane; Art Gallery of South Australia, Adelaide; Art Gallery of New South Wales, Sydney; Art Gallery of Ontario, Toronto; London Art Gallery, Ontario; Montreal Museum of Fine Arts; Musée d’Art Contemporain de Montreal; Vancouver Art Gallery; Setagaya Art Museum, Tokyo; Ohnishi Museum, Kogawa Prefecture; Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, New York; Brooklyn Museum, New York; Carnegie Institute, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; Mint Museum of Art, Charlotte, North Carolina; Museum of Art, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor; Smith College Museum of Art, Northampton, Massachusetts; Art Museum, University of Texas at Austin; Toledo Museum of Art, Ohio; Frederick R Weisman Foundation, Los Angeles; Yale Center for British Art, New Haven, Connecticut.

Photographs of Patrick Heron[link]

The wrong portrait of Patrick Heron was published in Adrian Clark's book (British and Irish Art 1945-1951: From War to Festival, Hogarth Arts, 2010).^[33] Portraits of the artist Patrick Heron can be found at the National Portrait Gallery.^[34][35]

See also[link]

• List of St. Ives artists

References[link]

External links[link]

• Artcyclopedia entry
• Tate Biography
• artcornwall.org on-line journal for art and artists in Cornwall
• http://www.guardian.co.uk/news/1999/mar/22/guardianobituaries.michaelmcnay
• http://www.waddington-galleries.com/artists/heron/
• http://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/person/mp09379/patrick-heron
• http://www.bridgemanart.com/search.aspx?key=patrick%20heron&filter=CBPOIHV&sl=gb
• http://robinsimononart.blogspot.com/2010/09/patrick-heron-which-patrick-heron.html">the British art blog: Patrick Heron? Which Patrick Heron?