Look up Jaan or jaan in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Jaan may refer to:

• Jaan (given name)
• Jaan (album), an Indian pop album by Sonu Nigam
• Jaan (film), a 1996 Bollywood action film directed by Raj Kanwar
• Johnny Jaan (born 1957), photographer
• Gauhar Jaan (1873–1930), Indian singer and dancer

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Ajay Devgan
Born	Vishal Devgan[1] (1969-04-02) 2 April 1969 (age 43) New Delhi, India
Residence	Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
Other names	Ajay Devgan[2]
Occupation	Film actor, Director, Producer
Years active	1991–present
Spouse	Kajol (m.1999–present; 2 children)
Website
ajaydevgn.com

Ajay Devgan (Hindi: अजय देवगन), born Vishal Devgan on 2 April 1969,^[1] is an Indian film actor, director, and producer.^[1] He made his film debut with Phool Aur Kaante in 1991 and received a Filmfare Award for Best Male Debut for his performance in the film.^[3][4] He then starred in films such as Jigar (1992), Dilwale (1994), Suhaag (1994), Naajayaz (1995), Diljale (1996) and Ishq (1997). In 1999, Devgan received his first National Film Award for Best Actor for his performance in Mahesh Bhatt's drama Zakhm. Some of his later films of the decade are Pyaar To Hona Hi Tha, Hum Dil De Chuke Sanam and Kachche Dhaage.

In the early 2000s, he starred in Lajja (2001) and Company (2002). In 2003, he won his second National Film Award for Best Actor for his portrayal of Bhagat Singh in Rajkumar Santoshi's biopic The Legend of Bhagat Singh. Throughout his career he has given many critically and commercially successful films including Raincoat (2004), Yuva (2004), Omkara (2006), Golmaal: Fun Unlimited (2006), Golmaal Returns (2008), All the Best: Fun Begins (2009), Once Upon a Time in Mumbaai (2010), Golmaal 3 (2010), Raajneeti (2010), and Singham (2011). Having done so, he has established himself as one of the leading actors of Bollywood. In 2008, he debuted as a film director with his starrer U Me Aur Hum which proved to be an moderate success at the box office. He then established the production house, Ajay Devgn Films.

Biography[link]

Devgan was born in Mumbai to Veena and Veeru Devgan.Originally from Amritsar, Punjab ^[5] members of the Devgan family are all related to the Hindi Film industry in Bombay. His father, Veeru Devgan, is a well-known stunt choreographer, and his mother Veena Devgan, a film producer. Devgan's brother, Anil, is a Hindi film director. Ajay Devgan is an alumnus of the Silver Beach High School in Juhu and Mithibai College. On 24 February 1999, he married Hindi film actress Kajol. The couple have two children. Their daughter Nysa was born on the 20th of April 2003 and their son Yug was born on the 13th of September 2010.^[6] In August 2009, Devgan changed his last name to Devgn on the request of his family.^[7][8] He became the first Bollywood personality to acquire a private jet for transport to shooting locations, promotions and personal trips.^[9]

Career[link]

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1990s[link]

Ajay Devgan made his debute as an actor in Phool Aur Kaante in 1991. The film grossed 11,000,000 Indian rupees () and earned him a Filmfare Award for Best Male Newcomer. In 1992, he starred in Jigar alongside Karisma Kapoor, which grossed 7,00,00,000.^[10] In 1993, he worked with director Deepak Bahry in the action film Ek Hi Raasta,^[11] and with Deepak Pawar in Platform. In 1994, Devgn worked in Harry Baweja's Dilwale, Suhaag and Vijaypath.^[12] In 1995, he appeared in Mahesh Bhatt's Naajayaz, for which he was nominated as a Best Actor by Filmfare.^[13] In 1996, he continued with Diljale".^[14] and romantic comedies, such as Ishq in 1997.^[15] In 1998, he starred in Major Saab, Pyaar To Hona Hi Thaand Mahesh Bhatt's Zakhm. Zakhm won Devgn several awards for his performance, including the National Film Award for Best Actor and the Star Screen Award for Best Actor^{[citation needed][16]} Devgn's 1999 work included Sanjay Leela Bhansali's Hum Dil De Chuke Sanam as well as Hindustan Ki Kasam and Kachche Dhaage.^[17]

2000s[link]

In 2000, he worked in Harry Baweja's Deewane. In this film, he essayed a double role, one as a thief and the other as a police officer. The film flopped at the box office.^[18] The same year, Devgn starred in his first home production Raju Chacha opposite wife Kajol. The film also bombed at the box office.^[18]

In 2001, he starred in Yeh Raaste Hain Pyaar Ke with Madhuri Dixit and Preity Zinta. This film was an average grosser at the box office.^[19] His next release Lajja, alongside Manisha Koirala, Madhuri Dixit, Jackie Shroff and Anil Kapoor, earned him a nomination for the "Filmfare Best Supporting Actor Award". The film did not perform as expected at the box office.^[19] He then worked in Mahesh Manjrekar's Tera Mera Saath Rahen.

In 2002, he featured in Ram Gopal Varma's fictional expose of Mumbai underworld Company. He was nominated for the Filmfare Best Actor Award and won the Filmfare Critics Award for Best Actor. The film fared well at the box office.^{[clarification needed][20]} His next release was Hum Kisi Se Kum Nahin alongside Amitabh Bachchan, Sanjay Dutt and Aishwarya Rai.^[20]

The same year, he also starred in Rajkumar Santoshi's biopic The Legend of Bhagat Singh.^[21] in the title role. The film didn't fare well at the box office.^{[clarification needed][20]} However, he won his second National Film Award for Best Actor for his performance. He then starred in Anees Bazmee's Deewangee. The film was partially inspired by William Diehl's English language novel Primal Fear and earned Devgn several awards for his negative role including, "Filmfare Best Villain Award", "Star Screen Award for Best Villain" and "Zee Cine Award for Best Actor in a Negative Role". This film was a success at the box office.^[20]

In 2003, he starred in Ram Gopal Verma's Bhoot opposite Urmila Matondkar. The film was appreciated critically & performed very well at the box office.^[22] He then starred in action thriller Qayamat: City Under Threat opposite debutante Neha Dhupia which was huge commercial success.^[22] He then worked in Milan Luthria's romantic film Chori Chori opposite Rani Mukherji and Sonali Bendre. This film did not succeed at the box office.^[22]

In that same year he featured in Prakash Jha's Gangaajal, for which he was nominated for the Filmfare Best Actor Award. He then worked in Rohit Shetty's directional debut Zameen^[23] and J. P. Dutta's war film LOC Kargil.

In 2004 he was cast alongside Amitabh Bachchan, Aishwarya Rai and Akshay Kumar in Rajkumar Santoshi's Khakee. Later that year he appeared in director Indra Kumar's Masti: Sanam Teri Kasamand also starred in the critically acclaimed movies Yuva^[24][25][26] and Rituparno Ghosh's Raincoat.^[27]. He was also seen in a cameo appearance in Taarzan: The Wonder Car.

2005 was less successful for him as he starred in a series of flop movies like Insan, Blackmail, Main Aisa Hi Hoon, Tango Charlie and Shikhar whilst Kaal and Apaharan succeeded at the Box Office. For his performance in Apaharan Devgn was nominated for the National Film Award for Best Actor and Filmfare Best Actor Award. His villanous performance in Kaal also earned him a nomination for the Filmfare Best Villain Award^[28]

2006 was a remarkable year in his career as he starred Golmaal and Omkara, which were to both prove enormously significant in his decade long career. Omkara, were Devgn was cast in the title role, was both a critical and commercial success^[29][30][31] and Golmaal proved to be a sleeper hit. The latter film was soon to be followed by two super hit sequels Golmaal Returns and Golmaal 3. In the same year he also featured in a short documentary about the Mumbai floods of 2005 named The Awakening.^[32]

2007 was again disappointing for him as he starred only in 2 movies, directorAnubhav Sinha's action thriller Cash and Ram Gopal Varma Ki Aag which was a remake of the 1975 classic] Sholay. Both films received extremely poor reception both at the box office and from critics,^[33] and is currently placed at number 14 on the bottom 100 movies on Imdb.

In 2008 he worked with Rajkumar Santoshi and was cast with Pankaj Kapoor and Vidya Balan in Halla Bol.^[34] He then starred in director Rohit Shetty's third film Sunday, before directing his first movie with wife Kajol and himself in lead roles. The film, titled U, Me aur Hum, was an average success.^[34] He also had a cameo appearance in his brother Anil Devgan's film Haal–e–dil. He starred with long-time friend Sanjay Dutt and actress Manisha Koirala in Afzal Khan's Mehbooba. He then re-teamed with Rohit Shetty for the sequel of his hit film Golmaal: Fun Unlimited, Golmaal Returns which was a blockbuster hit.^[34]

In 2009 he produced his third film All the Best also directed by Rohit Shetty. The film did good business and was a semi-hit.^[35] Later in the year he starred in Vipul Shah's London Dreams with Salman Khan and Tamil film star Asin. The film was declared a flop.^[35]

2010s[link]

In the beginning of 2010 he worked with actors Amitabh Bachchan and Ben Kingsley in Leena Yadav's Teen Patti. He also starred in the comedy Atithi Tum Kab Jaoge? alongside Paresh Rawal and Konkona Sen Sharma which was a success. He followed this with Prakash Jha's Raajneeti and Milan Luthria's Once Upon a Time in Mumbai. Both movies were among the top grossers of 2010.^[36] He was then seen alongside Akshaye Khanna in Priyadarshan's rough adaptation of Mississippi Burning, Aakrosh. Devgn teamed up with Rohit Shetty for the fifth time withGolmaal 3. The movie was a super hit and the fourth highest grossing movie in Bollywood history. Devgn later lent his voice to the animated film Toonpur Ka Super Hero.

In 2011 he teamed up with Emraan Hashmi for Madhur Bhandarkar's comedy Dil Toh Baccha Hai Ji which also starred Omi Vaidya. The film was a moderate success. He was a narrator in Yamla Pagla Deewana and also did a cameo role in the 2011 Salman Khan-starrer Ready. Devgn's next film, Singham, proved to be a milestone for him. The film grossed 100 crores net in India, making it the 7th film to do so, and was a blockbuster worldwide. ^[37]

Awards and honours[link]

Among other awards and nominations, Devgan has won two National Film Awards and three Filmfare Awards.

Filmography[link]

Actor[link]

Producer[link]

Director[link]

References[link]

External links[link]

• Ajay Devgn at the Internet Movie Database
• Ajay Devgn's Official Site

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Ajay Devgan

Twinkle Khanna
Born	Tina Jatin Khanna (1974-12-29) December 29, 1974 (age 37) Pune, Maharashtra, India
Other names	Twinkle Kumar
Occupation	Actress, Interior Designer, Producer
Years active	1995–2001
Height	5 ft 4 in (1.63 m)
Spouse	Akshay Kumar (2001–present)
Children	Aarav Bhatia
Parents	Rajesh Khanna Dimple Kapadia

Twinkle Khanna (Punjabi: ਟਵਿੰਕਲ ਖੰਨਾ; born Tina Jatin Khanna on 29 December 1974)^[1] is an Indian film actress who has acted in Bollywood and Telugu films. She is the wife of popular Bollywood actor Akshay Kumar and the daughter of established actors, Dimple Kapadia and Rajesh Khanna. After leaving film industry in 2001, she ventured into interior designing and is now the co-owner of The White Window store.

Career[link]

Khanna made her debut opposite Bobby Deol in Barsaat (1995). The film did well at the box office, and she received the Filmfare Best Debut Award for her performance. After an eye surgery for a slight cross-eye condition, Khanna went on to do many films which got her good reviews and recognition from the audience. She has acted with some of the renowned actors in the industry, including Shahrukh Khan, Aamir Khan, Salman Khan, Sanjay Dutt, Akshay Kumar, Saif Ali Khan, and Govinda.

Her notable film roles include the girl next door in Jab Pyaar Kisise Hota Hai (1998) with Salman Khan, the undercover spy along with Shahrukh Khan in Baadshah (1999) and the village belle in Mela (2000) with Aamir Khan. She paired with Venkatesh in the year 1999 in a Telugu film, Seenu. Film director, Karan Johar admitted in an interview that Khanna was in his mind for the role of Tina in Kuch Kuch Hota Hai, but she refused it and thus Rani Mukerji was signed.

Khanna left the industry after her marriage to Akshay Kumar in 2001, citing that she did not enjoy the acting profession anymore. Her last film was Love Ke Liye Kuchh Bhi Karega (2001), which was an average grosser at the box office.^[2]

In 2002, Khanna opened her own interior design store in Crawford Market, Mumbai called The White Window, in partnership with her longtime friend Gurlein Manchanda. Since then, the store has received a prestigious Elle Decor International Design Award (from Indian edition of Elle Decor magazine). She has opened up another branch of the flagship store elsewhere in Mumbai and plans to expand throughout India.^[3]

Khanna did the interiors for actress Rani Mukerji's new house in 2006.^[4] Khanna also produced the films Tees Maar Khan and Patiala House.

Personal life[link]

Khanna is the daughter of Dimple Kapadia and Rajesh Khanna. Her sister is Rinke Khanna. Her aunt is Simple Kapadia. Khanna was born into a Punjabi and Gujarati family. She married actor, Akshay Kumar in 2001 and together they have a son, Aarav Bhatia. She retired from the film industry after her marriage and ventured into interior designing.

Filmography[link]

Producer[link]

• 2010: Khatta Meetha
• 2010: Tees Maar Khan
• 2011: Patiala House
• 2011: Thank You

See also[link]

• List of Indian film actresses

References[link]

External links[link]

• Twinkle Khanna at the Internet Movie Database

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Twinkle Khanna

Swaminarayan
Swaminarayan under a Neem tree in Gadhada
Born	3 April 1781[1] Chhapaiya, Uttar Pradesh, India
Died	1 June 1830 Gadhada, Gujarat, India
Birth name	Ghanshyam Pande
Titles/honours	Venerated as an Avatar of Narayana, from the Nara Narayana deity pair or an avatar of Purushottama Narayana - the Supreme Being, in the Swaminarayan Faith
Founder of	Swaminarayan Sampraday
Sect associated	Vaishnavism
Guru	Ramanand Swami

Swaminarayan (Gujarati: સ્વામિનારાયણ, Devanagari: स्वामीनारायण, IAST: Svāmīnārāyaṇa) (3 April 1781 – 1 June 1830), also known as Sahajanand Swami, is the central figure in a modern sect of Hinduism known as the Swaminarayan Faith, a form of Vaishnavism.^[2] Within the faith, Swaminarayan is equated with the Supreme Being, Purushottama, or is venerated as an incarnation of Narayana from the Nara-Narayana deity pair.

Swaminarayan was born Ghanshyam Pande in Chhapaiya, Uttar Pradesh, India in 1781. In 1792, he began a seven year pilgrimage across India, adopting the name Nilkanth Varni. He settled in the state of Gujarat around 1799. In 1800, he was initiated into the Uddhav Sampraday by his guru, Ramanand Swami, and was given the name Sahajanand Swami. In 1802, his guru handed over the leadership of the Uddhav Sampraday to him before his death. Sahajanand Swami held a gathering and taught the Swaminarayan mantra. From this point onwards, he was known as Swaminarayan and regarded as an incarnation of God by his followers. The Uddhav Sampraday became known as the Swaminarayan Sampraday.

Swaminarayan developed a good relationship with the British Imperial Government. He had followers not only from Hindu denominations, but also from Islam and Zoroastrianism. He built six temples in his lifetime and appointed 500 paramhansas to spread his philosophy. In 1826, Swaminarayan wrote the Shikshapatri, a book of social principles. He died on 1 June 1830 and was cremated according to Hindu rites in Gadhada, Gujarat. Before his death, Swaminarayan appointed his nephews as acharyas to head the two dioceses of Swaminarayan Sampraday.

Swaminarayan is also remembered within the faith for undertaking reforms for women and the poor, performing yagnas or fire sacrifices on a large scale as well as performing miracles. He has, however, been criticised by religious leaders such as Swami Dayananda who questioned the acceptance of Swaminarayan as God. Swaminarayan had an estimated 1.8 million followers when he died. Currently, his following is estimated between 5 and 20 million.

Childhood as Ghanshyam[link]

Dharmadev teaching Ghanshyam from Hindu shastras

Swaminarayan was born on 3 April 1781 (Chaitra Sud 9, Samvat 1837) in Chhapaiya, Uttar Pradesh, a village near Ayodhya, in a Hindi speaking region in India.^[1] Born in the Brahmin or priest caste of Sarvariya, Swaminarayan was named Ghanshyam Pande by his parents, Hariprasad Pande (father, also known as Dharmadev) and Premvati Pande (mother, also known as Bhaktimata and Murtidevi).^[1] The birth of Swaminarayan coincided with the Hindu festival of Rama Navami, celebrating the birth of Rama. The ninth lunar day in the fortnight of waxing moon in the Hindu month of Chaitra (March–April), is celebrated as both Rama Navami and Swaminarayan Jayanti by Swaminarayan followers. This celebration also marks the beginning of a ritual calendar for the followers.^[3] Swaminarayan had an elder brother, Rampratap Pande, and a younger brother, Ichcharam Pande.^[4] He is said to have mastered Hindu scriptures including the Vedas, the Upanishads, the Puranas, the Ramayana, and the Mahabharata by the age of seven.^[5]

Travels as Nilkanth Varni[link]

Nilkanth Varni during his travels

After the death of his parents, Ghanshyam Pande left his home on 29 June 1792 (Ashadh Sud 10, Samvat 1849) at the age of 11.^[6] He took the name Nilkanth Varni while on his journey. Nilkanth Varni travelled across India and parts of Nepal in search of an ashram, or hermitage, that practised what he considered a correct understanding of Vedanta, Samkhya, Yoga, and Pancaratra, the four primary schools of Hindu philosophy.^[7] To find such an ashram, Nilkanth Varni asked the following five questions on the basic Vaishnava Vedanta categories:^[8]

• What is Jiva?
• What is Ishvara?
• What is Maya?
• What is Brahman?
• What is Para Brahman?

While on his journey, Nilkanth Varni mastered Astanga yoga (eightfold yoga) in a span of 9 months under the guidance of an aged yogic master named Gopal Yogi.^[9] In Nepal, it is said that he met King Rana Bahadur Shah and cured him of his stomach illness. As a result, the king freed all the ascetics he had imprisoned.^[10] Nilkanth Varni visited the Jagannath Temple in Puri as well as temples in Badrinath, Rameshwaram, Nashik, Dwarka and Pandharpur.^[6]

In 1799, after a seven year journey, Nilkanth's travels as a yogi eventually concluded in Loj, a village in the Junagadh district of Gujarat. In Loj, Nilkanth Varni met Muktanand Swami, a senior disciple of Ramanand Swami. Muktanand Swami, who was twenty-two years older than Nilkanth, answered the five questions to Nilkanth's satisfaction.^[11] Nilkanth decided to stay for the opportunity to meet Ramanand Swami, whom he met a few months after his arrival in Gujarat.^[12]

Leadership as Sahajanand Swami[link]

Traditional iconographical portrait of Swaminarayan

According to the sect, Nilkanth's understanding of the metaphysical and epistemological concepts of the pancha-tattvas (five eternal elements), together with his mental and physical discipline, inspired senior sadhus of Ramanand Swami.^[13]

Nilkanth Varni received sannyasa initiation from Ramanand Swami on 20 October 1800, and with it was granted the names Sahajanand Swami and Narayan Muni to signify his new status.^[14]

At the age of 21, Sahajanand Swami was appointed successor to Ramanand Swami as the leader of the Uddhav Sampraday^[14] by Ramanand Swami, prior to his death. The Uddhav Sampraday henceforth came to be known as the Swaminarayan Sampraday.^[15] According to sources he proclaimed the worship of one sole deity, Krishna or Narayana.^[16] Krishna was considered by him his own ista devata. In contrast with the Vaishnava sect known as the Radha-vallabha Sampradaya,^[17] he had a more puritanical approach, rather than the theological views of Krishna that are strongly capricious in character and imagery. While being a worshipper of Krishna, Swaminarayan rejected licentious elements in Krishnology in favor of worship in the mood of majesty, alike to earlier Vaisnava teachers, Ramanuja and Yamunacarya.^[18]

Sahajanand Swami was later known as Swaminarayan after the mantra he taught at a gathering, in Faneni, a fortnight after the death of Ramanand Swami.^[19] He gave his followers a new mantra, known as the Swaminarayan mantra, to repeat in their rituals: Swaminarayan.^[14] When chanting this mantra, some devotees went into samadhi (a form of meditation)^{[15][n 1]} This act is also called maha-samadhi ("great samadhi") and claimed that they could see their personal gods, even though they had no knowledge of Astanga Yoga.^[9][20][21] Swaminarayan also became known by the names Ghanshyam Maharaj, Shreeji Maharaj, Hari Krishna Maharaj and Shri Hari. As early as 1804, Swaminarayan, who was reported to have performed miracles, was described as a manifestation of God in the first work written by a disciple, Nishkulanand Swami.^[14][22] This work, the Yama Danda, was the first piece of literature written within the Swaminarayan sect.^[23]

Swaminarayan encouraged his followers to combine devotion and dharma to lead a pious life. Using Hindu texts and rituals to form the base of his organisation, Swaminarayan founded what in later centuries would become a global organisation with strong Gujarati roots.^[24] He was particularly strict on the separation of sexes in temples.^[25] Swaminarayan was against the consumption of meat, alcohol or drugs, adultery, suicide, animal sacrifices, criminal activities and the appeasement of ghosts and tantric rituals.^{[2][26][27][28]} Alcohol consumption was forbidden by him even for medicinal purposes.^[29] Many of his followers took vows before becoming his disciple. He stated that four elements need to be conquered for ultimate salvation: dharma, bhakti (devotion), gnana (knowledge) and vairagya (detachment).^[30] Doctrinally, Swaminarayan was close to eleventh century philosopher Ramanuja and was critical of Shankaracharya's concept of advaita, or monistic non-dualism. Swaminarayan's ontology maintained that the supreme being is not formless and that God always has a divine form.^[31]

Reforms[link]

Reforms for women and the poor[link]

After assuming the leadership of the Sampraday, Swaminarayan worked to assist the poor by distributing food and drinking water.^[32] He undertook several social service projects and opened almshouses for the poor. Swaminarayan organized food and water relief to people during times of drought.^[33]

According to author Raymond Brady Williams, "Swaminarayan is an early representative of the practice of advocacy of women's rights without personal involvement with women".^[34] To counter the practice of sati (self-immolation by a widow on her husband’s funeral pyre), Swaminarayan argued that, as human life was given by God it could be taken only by God, and that sati had no Vedic sanction. He went to the extent to call sati nothing but suicide. Swaminarayan offered parents help with dowry expenses to discourage female infanticide, calling infanticide a sin.^[35][36]

At that time, influential and wealthy individuals educated their girls through private and personal tuition. Male followers of Swaminarayan made arrangements to educate their female family members. The literacy rate among females began to increase, and they were able to give discourses on spiritual subjects. Within the faith, Swaminarayan is considered a pioneer of education of females in India.^{[35][36][37][38][39]}

Animal Sacrifices and Yagnas[link]

Swaminarayan was against animal sacrifices as carried out by Brahmin priests during Vedic rituals, such as yajnas (fire sacrifices), influenced by the Kaula and Vama Marg cults.^[40] The priests consumed "sanctified" prasad in the form of meat of these animals. To solve this problem, Swaminarayan conducted several large scale yajnas involving priests from Varanasi. These did not have animal sacrifices and were conducted in strict accordance with Vedic scriptures. Swaminarayan was successful in reinstating ahimsa through several such large scale yajnas. Swaminarayan stressed lacto vegetarianism among his followers and forbade meat consumption.^{[29][39][41][42]}

Disciples of Swaminarayan composed devotional poems which are widely sung by the tradition during festivals.^[43][44] Swaminarayan introduced fasting and devotion among followers.^[45] He conducted the festivals of Vasant Panchami, Holi, and Janmashtami with organization of the traditional folk dance raas.^[9]

Caste system and moksha[link]

Some suggest that Swaminarayan worked towards ending the caste system, allowing everyone into the Swaminarayan Sampraday. However partaking in the consumption food of lower castes and caste pollution was not supported by him.^[29] A political officer in Gujarat, Mr. Williamson reported to Bishop Herber that Swaminarayan had "Destroyed the yoke of caste."^[34] He instructed his paramhansas to collect alms from all sections of society and appointed people from the lower strata of society as his personal attendants. He ate along with lower castes. Members of the lower castes were attracted to the movement as it improved their social status.^[2][39] It is said that Swaminarayan dispelled the myth that moksha (liberation) was not attainable by everyone.^[46] He taught that the soul is neither male nor female and that everyone was equal in the eyes of God.^[2][47]

Temples and ascetics[link]

Swaminarayan ordered the construction of several Hindu temples and installed the images of various deities such as Nara-Narayana, Laxminarayan, Radha Krishna, Radha Ramana and Revati-Baldevji. The images in the temples built by Swaminarayan provide evidence of the priority of Krishna.^[48][49]

The first temple Swaminarayan constructed was in Ahmedabad in 1822, with the land for construction gifted by the British Imperial Government.^[50][51] Following a request of devotees from Bhuj, Swaminarayan asked his follower Vaishnavananand Swami to build a temple there. Following planning, construction commenced in 1822, and the temple was built within a year.^[50] A temple in Vadtal followed in 1824,^[50] a temple in Dholera in 1826,^[50] a temple in Junagadh in 1828^[50] and a temple in Gadhada, also in 1828.^[50] By the time of his death, Swaminarayan had also ordered construction of temples in Muli, Dholka and Jetalpur.^[52]

From early on, ascetics have played a major role in the Swaminarayan faith. They contribute towards growth and development of the movement, encouraging people to follow a pious and religious life.^[53] Tradition maintains that Swaminarayan initiated 500 ascetics as paramhansas in a single night. Paramhansa is a title of honor sometimes applied to Hindu spiritual teachers who are regarded as having attained enlightenment. Paramhansas were the highest order of sannyasi in the sect.^[54] Prominent paramhansas initiated by Swaminarayan include Muktanand Swami, Gunatitanand Swami, Gopalanand Swami, Brahmanand Swami, Premanand Swami, Nishkulanand Swami, and Nityanand Swami.^[55]

Texts[link]

Illustration of Swaminarayan writing the Shiskhapatri

Swaminarayan propagated general Hindu texts.^[24] He held the Bhagavata Purana in high authority.^[56] However, there are many texts that were written by Swaminarayan or his followers that are regarded as shastras or scriptures within the Swaminarayan faith. Notable scriptures throughout the sect include the Shikshapatri and the Vachanamrut. Other important works and scriptures include the Satsangi Jeevan, Swaminarayan's authorized biography, the Muktanand Kavya, the Nishkulanand Kavya and the Bhakta Chintamani.^[57]

Shikshapatri[link]

Swaminarayan wrote the Shikshapatri on 11 February 1826.^[58] While the original Sanskrit manuscript is not available, it was translated into Gujarati by Nityanand Swami under the direction of Swaminarayan and is revered in the sect.^[29] The Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency summarised it as a book of social laws that his followers should follow.^[59] A commentary on the practice and understanding of dharma, it is a small booklet containing 212 Sanskrit verses, outlining the basic tenets that Swaminarayan believed his followers should uphold in order to live a well-disciplined and moral life.^[57]

Vachanamrut[link]

Swaminarayan's philosophical, social and practical teachings are contained in the Vachanamrut, a collection of dialogues recorded by five followers from his spoken words. The Vachanamrut is the scripture most commonly used in the Swaminarayan sect. It contains views on dharma (moral conduct), jnana (understanding of the nature of the self), vairagya (detachment from material pleasure), and bhakti (pure, selfless devotion to God), the four essentials Hindu scriptures describe as necessary for a jiva (soul) to attain moksha (salvation).^[60]

Relations with other religions and the British Government[link]

In 1822, The first Swaminarayan Mandir was constructed on the land granted by the British Imperial Government in Ahmedabad.

Swaminarayan strived to maintain good relationships with people of other religions, sometimes meeting prominent leaders. His followers cut across religious boundaries, including people of Muslim and Parsi backgrounds.^[9][61] Swaminarayan's personal attendants included Khoja Muslims.^[9] In Kathiawad, many Muslims wore kanthi necklaces given by Swaminarayan.^[62] He also had a meeting with Reginald Heber, Lord Bishop of Calcutta and a leader of Christians in India at the time.^[48] Bishop Heber mentions in his account of the meeting that about two hundred disciples of Swaminarayan accompanied him as his bodyguards mounted on horses carried Matchlocks and swords. Bishop Heber himself had about a hundred horse guards accompanying him (fifty horses and fifty muskets) and mentioned that it was humiliating for him to see two religious leaders meeting at the head of two small armies, his being the smaller contingent.^[63][64] As a result of the meeting, both leaders gained mutual respect for one another.^[64]

Swaminarayan enjoyed a good relationship with the British Imperial Government. The first temple he built, in Ahmedabad, was built on 5,000 acres (20 km²) of land gifted by the government. The British officers gave it a 101 gun salute when it was opened.^[51][52] It was in an 1825 meeting with Reginald Heber that Swaminarayan is said to have intimated that he was a manifestation of God Supreme.^[48] In 1830, Swaminarayan had a meeting with Sir John Malcolm, Governor of Bombay (1827 to 1830). According to Malcolm, Swaminarayan had helped bring some stability to a lawless region.^[65] During the meeting with Malcolm, Swaminarayan gifted him a copy of the Shikshapatri. This copy of the Shikshapatri is currently housed at the Bodleian Library at University of Oxford.^[66] Swaminarayan also encouraged the British Governor James Walker to implement strong measures to stop the practice of sati.

Death and succession[link]

Madan Mohan and Radha (centre and right) with Swaminarayan in the form of Hari Krishna (left), installed by Swaminarayan on the central altar in Dholera (1826)

In 1830, Swaminarayan gathered his followers and announced his departure. He later died on 1 June 1830 (Jeth sud 10, Samvat 1886),^[52] and it is believed by followers that, at the time of his death, Swaminarayan left Earth for Akshardham, his abode.^[9][67] He was cremated according to Hindu rites at Lakshmi Wadi in Gadhada.^[68]

Prior to his death, Swaminarayan decided to establish a line of acharyas or preceptors, as his successors.^[69] He established two gadis (seats of leadership). One seat was established at Ahmedabad (Nar Narayan Dev Gadi) and the other one at Vadtal (Laxmi Narayan Dev Gadi) on November 21, 1825. Swaminarayan appointed an acharya to each of these gadis to pass on his message to others and to preserve his fellowship, the Swaminarayan Sampraday. These acharyas came from his immediate family. He formally adopted a son from his brothers and appointed them to the office of acharya. Ayodhyaprasad, the son of Swaminarayan's elder brother Rampratap and Raghuvira, the son of his younger brother Ichcharam, were appointed acharyas of the Ahmedabad Gadi and the Vadtal Gadi respectively.^[70] Swaminarayan decreed that the office should be hereditary so that acharyas would maintain a direct line of blood descent from his family.^[71] The administrative division of his followers into two territorial dioceses is set forth in minute detail in a document written by Swaminarayan called Desh Vibhaag Lekh.^[8] The current acharyas of the Swaminarayan Sampraday are Acharya Shree Koshalendraprasad Pande, of the Ahmedabad Gadi, and Acharya Shree Rakeshprasad Pande, of the Vadtal Gadi.^[72][73]

Decades after his death, several divisions occurred with different understandings of succession. This included the establishment of Bochasanwasi Shri Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha (BAPS), the founder of which left the Vadtal Gadi in 1905, and Maninagar Swaminarayan Gadi Sansthan, the founder of which left the Ahmedabad Gadi in the 1940s. The followers of BAPS hold Gunatitanand Swami as the spiritual successor to Swaminarayan, asserting that on several occasions Swaminarayan revealed to devotees that Gunatitanand Swami was Aksharbrahm manifest. Followers of BAPS believe that the acharyas were given administrative leadership of the faith while Gunatitanand Swami was given spiritual leadership by Swaminarayan.^[74] The current leader of BAPS is Shastri Narayanswarupdas. The followers of the Maninagar Swaminarayan Gadi Sansthan hold Gopalanand Swami as the successor to Swaminarayan.^[75][76]

Following and manifestation belief[link]

Nara Narayana installed by Swaminarayan in the first Swaminarayan Temple, Ahmedabad.

According to the biographer Raymond Williams, when Swaminarayan died, he had a following of 1.8 million people. In 2001, Swaminarayan centres existed on four continents, and the congregation was recorded to be five million, the majority in the homeland of Gujarat.^[77][78][79] The newspaper Indian Express estimated members of the Swaminarayan faith to number over 20 million (2 crore) worldwide in 2007.^[80]

In his discourses recorded in the Vachanamrut, Swaminarayan mentions that humans would not be able to withstand meeting god in his divine form, hence God takes human form (simultaneously living in his abode) so people can approach, understand and love him in the form of an Avatar.^[30] While no detailed statistical information is available, most of the followers of Swaminarayan share a belief that Swaminarayan is the complete manifestation of Narayana or Purushottam Narayana - the Supreme Being and superior to other avatars.^[14] A Swaminarayan sectarian legend tells how Narayana from the Nara Narayana pair, was cursed by sage Durvasa to incarnate on the Earth as Swaminarayan.^[81]

Some of Swaminarayan's followers believe he was an incarnation of god Krishna.^[30] The images and stories of Swaminarayan and Krishna have coincided in the liturgy of the sect. The story of the birth of Swaminarayan parallels that of Krishna's birth from the scripture Bhagavata Purana.^[14] Swaminarayan himself is said to have intimated that he was a manifestation of God in a meeting with Reginald Heber, the Lord Bishop of Calcutta, in 1825.^[48]

Notes and references[link]

Notes

References