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Kali
The goddess Kali
goddess of Time, Change
Devanagari	काली
Sanskrit Transliteration	Kālī
Tamil script	காளி
Bengali script	কালী
Affiliation	Devi, Mahavidya
Abode	Cremation grounds
Mantra	Om Krīm Kālyai Namaḥ, Om Kapālinaye Namah, Om Hrim Shrim Krim Parameshvari Kalike Svaha
Weapon	Schimitar
Consort	Shiva
Mount	Jackal

Kālī (Sanskrit: काली, IPA: [kɑːliː]; Bengali: কালী; Punjabi: ਕਾਲੀ; Tamil: காளி; Telugu: కాళికాదేవి; Kannada: ಕಾಳಿ ಮಾತೆ), also known as Kālikā (Sanskrit: कालिका, Bengali: কালিকা), is the Hindu goddess associated with empowerment, shakti. The name Kali comes from kāla, which means black, time, death, lord of death, Shiva. Kali means "the black one". Since Shiva is called Kāla—the eternal time—Kālī, his consort, also means "Time" or "Death" (as in time has come). Hence, Kāli is considered the goddess of time and change. Although sometimes presented as dark and violent, her earliest incarnation as a figure of annihilation still has some influence. Various Shakta Hindu cosmologies, as well as Shākta Tantric beliefs, worship her as the ultimate reality or Brahman. She is also revered as Bhavatārini (literally "redeemer of the universe"). Comparatively recent devotional movements largely conceive Kāli as a benevolent mother goddess.^[1]

Kālī is represented as the consort of Lord Shiva, on whose body she is often seen standing. She is associated with many other Hindu goddesses like Durga, Bhadrakali, Sati, Rudrani, Parvati and Chamunda. She is the foremost among the Dasa Mahavidyas, ten fierce Tantric goddesses.^[2]

Etymology[link]

A murthi of Maa kali in a temple in Goa.

Kālī is the feminine form of kāla ("black, dark coloured").^[3] Kāla primarily means "time" but also means "black" in honor of being the first creation before light itself. Kālī means "the black one" and refers to her being the entity of "time" or "beyond time." Kāli is strongly associated with Shiva, and Shaivas derive the masculine Kāla (an epithet of Shiva) to come from her feminine name. A nineteenth-century Sanskrit dictionary, the Shabdakalpadrum, states: कालः शिवः । तस्य पत्नीति - काली । kālaḥ śivaḥ । tasya patnīti kālī - "Shiva is Kāla, thus, his consort is Kāli" referring to Devi Parvathi being a manifestation of Devi MahaKali.

Other names include Kālarātri ("black night"), as described above, and Kālikā ("relating to time"). Coburn notes that the name Kālī can be used as a proper name, or as a description of color.^[4]

Kāli's association with darkness stands in contrast to her consort, Shiva, who manifested after her in creation, and who symbolises the rest of creation after Time is created. In his supreme awareness of Maya, his body is covered by the white ashes of the cremation ground (Sanskrit: śmaśāna) where he meditates, and with which Kāli is also associated, as śmaśāna-kālī. It is said that aspirants who wish to offer Bhakthi should approach under the proper guidance of a Siddha or equivalent. Chanting her mantras from anywhere would cause unknown effects.

Origins[link]

Hugh Urban notes that although the word Kālī appears as early as the Atharva Veda, the first use of it as a proper name is in the Kathaka Grhya Sutra (19.7).^[5] Kali is the name of one of the seven tongues of Agni, the [Rigvedic] God of Fire, in the Mundaka Upanishad (2:4), but it is unlikely that this refers to the goddess. The first appearance of Kāli in her present form is in the Sauptika Parvan of the Mahabharata (10.8.64). She is called Kālarātri (literally, "black night") and appears to the Pandava soldiers in dreams, until finally she appears amidst the fighting during an attack by Drona's son Ashwatthama. She most famously appears in the sixth century Devi Mahatmyam as one of the shaktis of Mahadevi, and defeats the demon Raktabija ("Bloodseed"). The tenth-century Kalika Purana venerates Kāli as the ultimate reality or Brahman.

According to David Kinsley, Kāli is first mentioned in Hinduism as a distinct goddess around 600 CE, and these texts "usually place her on the periphery of Hindu society or on the battlefield."^[6] She is often regarded as the Shakti of Shiva, and is closely associated with him in various Puranas. The Kalika Purana depicts her as the "Adi Shakti" (Fundamental Power) and "Para Prakriti" or beyond nature.

Tantra[link]

Kali Yantra

Goddesses play an important role in the study and practice of Tantra Yoga, and are affirmed to be as central to discerning the nature of reality as are the male deities. Although Parvati is often said to be the recipient and student of Shiva's wisdom in the form of Tantras, it is Kāli who seems to dominate much of the Tantric iconography, texts, and rituals.^[7] In many sources Kāli is praised as the highest reality or greatest of all deities. The Nirvana-tantra says the gods Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva all arise from her like bubbles in the sea, ceaselessly arising and passing away, leaving their original source unchanged. The Niruttara-tantra and the Picchila-tantra declare all of Kāli's mantras to be the greatest and the Yogini-tantra, Kamakhya-tantra and the Niruttara-tantra all proclaim Kāli vidyas (manifestations of Mahadevi, or "divinity itself"). They declare her to be an essence of her own form (svarupa) of the Mahadevi.^[8]

In the Mahanirvana-tantra, Kāli is one of the epithets for the primordial sakti, and in one passage Shiva praises her:

At the dissolution of things, it is Kāla [Time] Who will devour all, and by reason of this He is called Mahākāla [an epithet of Lord Shiva], and since Thou devourest Mahākāla Himself, it is Thou who art the Supreme Primordial Kālika. Because Thou devourest Kāla, Thou art Kāli, the original form of all things, and because Thou art the Origin of and devourest all things Thou art called the Adya [the Primordial One]. Re-assuming after Dissolution Thine own form, dark and formless, Thou alone remainest as One ineffable and inconceivable. Though having a form, yet art Thou formless; though Thyself without beginning, multiform by the power of Maya, Thou art the Beginning of all, Creatrix, Protectress, and Destructress that Thou art.^[7]

The figure of Kāli conveys death, destruction, and the consuming aspects of reality. As such, she is also a "forbidden thing", or even death itself. In the Pancatattva ritual, the sadhaka boldly seeks to confront Kali, and thereby assimilates and transforms her into a vehicle of salvation.^[9] This is clear in the work of the Karpuradi-stotra,^[10] a short praise Kāli describing the Pancatattva ritual unto her, performed on cremation grounds. (Samahana-sadhana)

He, O Mahākāli who in the cremation-ground, naked, and with dishevelled hair, intently meditates upon Thee and recites Thy mantra, and with each recitation makes offering to Thee of a thousand Akanda flowers with seed, becomes without any effort a Lord of the earth. 0h Kāli, whoever on Tuesday at midnight, having uttered Thy mantra, makes offering even but once with devotion to Thee of a hair of his Shakti [his energy/female companion] in the cremation-ground, becomes a great poet, a Lord of the earth, and ever goes mounted upon an elephant.^[9]

The Karpuradi-stotra clearly indicates that Kāli is more than a terrible, vicious, slayer of demons who serves Durga or Shiva. Here, she is identified as the supreme mistress of the universe, associated with the five elements. In union with Lord Shiva, who is said to be her spouse, she creates and destroys worlds. Her appearance also takes a different turn, befitting her role as ruler of the world and object of meditation.^[11] In contrast to her terrible aspects, she takes on hints of a more benign dimension. She is described as young and beautiful, has a gentle smile, and makes gestures with her two right hands to dispel any fear and offer boons. The more positive features exposed offer the distillation of divine wrath into a goddess of salvation, who rids the sadhaka of fear. Here, Kali appears as a symbol of triumph over death.^[12]

Bengali tradition[link]

Kali Puja festival in Kolkata.

Kali is also a central figure in late medieval Bengali devotional literature, with such devotees as Ramprasad Sen (1718–75). With the exception of being associated with Parvati as Shiva's consort, Kāli is rarely pictured in Hindu mythology and iconography as a motherly figure until Bengali devotions beginning in the early eighteenth century. Even in Bengāli tradition her appearance and habits change little, if at all.^[13]

The Tantric approach to Kāli is to display courage by confronting her on cremation grounds in the dead of night, despite her terrible appearance. In contrast, the Bengali devotee appropriates Kāli's teachings adopting the attitude of a child, coming to love her unreservedly. In both cases, the goal of the devotee is to become reconciled with death and to learn acceptance of the way that things are. These themes are well addressed in Rāmprasād's work.^[14]

Tha Bhavatarini form of Kali worshiped at Dakshineswar Kali Temple, Kolkata.

Rāmprasād comments in many of his other songs that Kāli is indifferent to his wellbeing, causes him to suffer, brings his worldly desires to nothing and his worldly goods to ruin. He also states that she does not behave like a mother should and that she ignores his pleas:

Can mercy be found in the heart of her who was born of the stone? [a reference to Kali as the daughter of Himalaya]

Were she not merciless, would she kick the breast of her lord?

Men call you merciful, but there is no trace of mercy in you, Mother.

You have cut off the heads of the children of others, and these you wear as a garland around your neck.

It matters not how much I call you "Mother, Mother." You hear me, but you will not listen.^[15]

To be a child of Kāli, Rāmprasād asserts, is to be denied of earthly delights and pleasures. Kāli is said to refrain from giving that which is expected. To the devotee, it is perhaps her very refusal to do so that enables her devotees to reflect on dimensions of themselves and of reality that go beyond the material world.^[15][16]

A significant portion of Bengali devotional music features Kāli as its central theme and is known as Shyama Sangeet ("Music of the Night"). Mostly sung by male vocalists, today even women have taken to this form of music. One of the finest singers of Shyāma Sāngeet is Pannalal Bhattacharya.

In Bengal, Kāli is venerated in the festival Kali Puja - the new moon day of Ashwin month which coincides with Diwali festival.

In a unique form of Kāli worship, Shantipur worships Kāli in the form of a hand painted image of the deity known as Poteshwari (meaning the deity drawn on a piece of cloth).

Mythology[link]

Slayer of Raktabija[link]

In Kāli's most famous myth, Durga and her assistants, the Matrikas, wound the demon Raktabija, in various ways and with a variety of weapons in an attempt to destroy him. They soon find that they have worsened the situation for with every drop of blood that is spilt from Raktabija he reproduces a clone of himself. The battlefield becomes increasingly filled with his duplicates.^[17] Durga, in need of help, summons Kāli to combat the demons. It is said, in some versions, that Goddess Durga actually assumes the form of Goddess Kāli at this time.

The Devi Mahatmyam describes:

Out of the surface of her (Durga's) forehead, fierce with frown, issued suddenly Kali of terrible countenance, armed with a sword and noose. Bearing the strange khatvanga (skull-topped staff ), decorated with a garland of skulls, clad in a tiger's skin, very appalling owing to her emaciated flesh, with gaping mouth, fearful with her tongue lolling out, having deep reddish eyes, filling the regions of the sky with her roars, falling upon impetuously and slaughtering the great asuras in that army, she devoured those hordes of the foes of the devas.^[18]

Kali destroys Raktabija by sucking the blood from his body and putting the many Raktabija duplicates in her gaping mouth. Pleased with her victory, Kali then dances on the field of battle, stepping on the corpses of the slain. Her consort Shiva lies among the dead beneath her feet, a representation of Kali commonly seen in her iconography as Daksinakali.^[19]

In the Devi Mahatmya version of this story, Kali is also described as a Matrika and as a Shakti or power of Devi. She is given the epithet Cāṃuṇḍā (Chamunda), i.e. the slayer of the demons Chanda and Munda.^[20] Chamunda is very often identified with Kali and is very much like her in appearance and habit.^[21]

Daksinakali[link]

Bhadrakali (A gentle form of Kali), circa 1675.
Painting; made in India, Himachal Pradesh, Basohli,
now placed in LACMA.

In her most famous pose as Daksinakali, it is said that Kali, becoming drunk on the blood of her victims on the battlefield, dances with destructive frenzy. In her fury she fails to see the body of her husband, Shiva, who lies among the corpses on the battlefield.^[22] Ultimately the cries of Shiva attract Kali's attention, calming her fury. As a sign of her shame at having disrespected her husband in such a fashion, Kali sticks out her tongue. However, some sources state that this interpretation is a later version of the symbolism of the tongue: in tantric contexts, the tongue is seen to denote the element (guna) of rajas (energy and action) controlled by sattva, spiritual and godly creatures who served as assassins.^[23]

If Kali steps with right foot and holds sword in left hand she is considered to be Dakshina Kali.^[24][25] Dakshina Kali Temple has important religious associations with Jagannath Temple and it is believed that Daksinakali is the guardian of the kitchen of the Lord Jagannath Temple. Puranic tradition says that in Puri, Lord Jagannath is regarded as Daksinakalika. Goddess Dakshinakali plays an important role in the 'Niti' of Saptapuri Amavasya.^[26]

One South Indian tradition tells of a dance contest between Shiva and Kali. After defeating the two demons Sumbha and Nisumbha, Kali takes up residence in a forest. With fierce companions she terrorizes the surrounding area. One of Shiva's devotees becomes distracted while performing austerities, and asks Shiva to rid the forest of the destructive goddess. When Shiva arrives, Kali threatens him, claiming the territory as her own. Shiva challenges Kali to a dance contest, and defeats her when she is unable to perform the energetic Tandava dance. Although in this case Kali is defeated, and is forced to control her disruptive habits, there are very few other images or other myths depicting her in such a manner.^[27]

Smashan Kali[link]

If the Kali steps out with the left foot and holds sword in her right hand, she is terrible form of Mother, the Smashan Kali of cremation ground.^[24][25] She is worshiped by tantrics, the followers of Tantra. According to them one's spiritual discipline practiced in smashan (cremation ground) brings success quickly. Sarda Devi, the consort of Ramakrishna Paramhansa worshiped Smashan Kali at Dakshineshwar.^[28]

Maternal Kali[link]

Another myth depicts the infant Shiva calming Kali. In this similar story, Kali has defeated her enemies on the battlefield and begun to dance out of control, drunk on the blood of the slain. To calm her down and to protect the stability of the world, Shiva is sent to the battlefield, as an infant, crying aloud. Seeing the child's distress, Kali ceases dancing to care for the helpless infant. She picks him up, kisses his head, and proceeds to breast feed the infant Shiva.^[29] This myth is notable because it shows Kali in her benevolent, maternal aspect, with which she is not usually identified.

Mahakali[link]

Mahakali (Sanskrit: Mahākālī, Devanagari: महाकाली), literally translated as Great Kali, is sometimes considered as a greater form of Kali, identified with the Ultimate reality of Brahman. It can also simply be used as an honorific of the Goddess Kali,^[30] signifying her greatness by the prefix "Mahā-". Mahakali, in Sanskrit, is etymologically the feminized variant of Mahakala or Great Time (which is interpreted also as Death), an epithet of the God Shiva in Hinduism. Mahakali is the presiding Goddess of the first episode of the Devi Mahatmya. Here she is depicted as Devi in her universal form as Shakti. Here Devi serves as the agent who allows the cosmic order to be restored.

Iconography[link]

Kali is portrayed mostly in two forms: the popular four-armed form and the ten-armed Mahakali form. In both of her forms, she is described as being black in color but is most often depicted as blue in popular Indian art. Her eyes are described as red with intoxication, and in absolute rage, her hair is shown disheveled, small fangs sometimes protrude out of her mouth, and her tongue is lolling. She is often shown naked or just wearing a skirt made of human arms and a garland of human heads. She is also accompanied by serpents and a jackal while standing on a seemingly dead Shiva, usually right foot forward to symbolize the more popular Dakshinamarga or right-handed path, as opposed to the more infamous and transgressive Vamamarga or left-handed path.^[31]

In the ten-armed form of Mahakali she is depicted as shining like a blue stone. She has ten faces and ten feet and three eyes. She has ornaments decked on all her limbs. There is no association with Shiva.^[32]

The Kalika Purana describes Kali as possessing a soothing dark complexion, as perfectly beautiful, riding a lion, four-armed, holding a sword and blue lotuses, her hair unrestrained, body firm and youthful.^[33]

In spite of her seemingly terrible form, Kali Ma is often considered the kindest and most loving of all the Hindu goddesses, as she is regarded by her devotees as the Mother of the whole Universe. And, because of her terrible form she is also often seen as a great protector. When the Bengali saint Ramakrishna once asked a devotee why one would prefer to worship Mother over him, this devotee rhetorically replied, "Maharaj, when they are in trouble your devotees come running to you. But, where do you run when you are in trouble?"^[34]

According to Ramakrishna, darkness is the Ultimate Mother, or Kali:

My Mother is the principle of consciousness. She is Akhanda Satchidananda; indivisible Reality, Awareness, and Bliss. The night sky between the stars is perfectly black. The waters of the ocean depths are the same; The infinite is always mysteriously dark. This inebriating darkness is my beloved Kali.

-Sri Ramakrishna

This is clear in the work of such contemporary artists as Charles Wish, and Tyeb Mehta, who sometimes take great liberties with the traditional, accepted symbolism, but still demonstrate a true reverence for the Shakta sect.

Popular form[link]

A Tamil depiction of Kali

Classic depictions of Kali share several features, as follows:

Kali's most common four armed iconographic image shows each hand carrying variously a sword, a trishul (trident), a severed head and a bowl or skull-cup (kapala) catching the blood of the severed head.

Two of these hands (usually the left) are holding a sword and a severed head. The Sword signifies Divine Knowledge and the Human Head signifies human Ego which must be slain by Divine Knowledge in order to attain Moksha. The other two hands (usually the right) are in the abhaya (fearlessness) and varada (blessing) mudras, which means her initiated devotees (or anyone worshiping her with a true heart) will be saved as she will guide them here and in the hereafter.^[35]

She has a garland consisting of human heads, variously enumerated at 108 (an auspicious number in Hinduism and the number of countable beads on a Japa Mala or rosary for repetition of Mantras) or 51, which represents Varnamala or the Garland of letters of the Sanskrit alphabet, Devanagari. Hindus believe Sanskrit is a language of dynamism, and each of these letters represents a form of energy, or a form of Kali. Therefore she is generally seen as the mother of language, and all mantras.^[36]

She is often depicted naked which symbolizes her being beyond the covering of Maya since she is pure (nirguna) being-consciousness-bliss and far above prakriti. She is shown as very dark as she is brahman in its supreme unmanifest state. She has no permanent qualities — she will continue to exist even when the universe ends. It is therefore believed that the concepts of color, light, good, bad do not apply to her — she is the pure, un-manifested energy, the Adi-shakti.^[37]

Mahakali form[link]

The Dasamukhi Mahakali

Kali is depicted in the Mahakali form as having ten heads, ten arms, and ten legs. Each of her ten hands is carrying a various implement which vary in different accounts, but each of these represent the power of one of the Devas or Hindu Gods and are often the identifying weapon or ritual item of a given Deva. The implication is that Mahakali subsumes and is responsible for the powers that these deities possess and this is in line with the interpretation that Mahakali is identical with Brahman. While not displaying ten heads, an "ekamukhi" or one headed image may be displayed with ten arms, signifying the same concept: the powers of the various Gods come only through Her grace.

Shiva in Kali iconography[link]

In both these images she is shown standing on the prone, inert or dead body of Shiva. There is a mythological story for the reason behind her standing on what appears to be Shiva's corpse, which translates as follows:

Once Kali had destroyed all the demons in battle, she began a terrific dance out of the sheer joy of victory. All the worlds or lokas began to tremble and sway under the impact of her dance. So, at the request of all the Gods, Shiva himself asked her to desist from this behavior. However, she was too intoxicated to listen. Hence, Shiva lay like a corpse among the slain demons in order to absorb the shock of the dance into himself. When Kali eventually stepped upon her husband she realized her mistake and bit her tongue in shame.^[38]

The Tantric interpretation of Kali standing on top of her husband is as follows:

The Shiv tattava (Divine Consciousness as Shiva) is inactive, while the Shakti tattava (Divine Energy as Kali) is active. Shiva, or Mahadeva represents Brahman, the Absolute pure consciousness which is beyond all names, forms and activities. Kali, on the other hand, represents the potential (and manifested) energy responsible for all names, forms and activities. She is his Shakti, or creative power, and is seen as the substance behind the entire content of all consciousness. She can never exist apart from Shiva or act independently of him, i.e., Shakti, all the matter/energy of the universe, is not distinct from Shiva, or Brahman, but is rather the dynamic power of Brahman.^[39]

While this is an advanced concept in monistic Shaktism, it also agrees with the Nondual Trika philosophy of Kashmir, popularly known as Kashmir Shaivism and associated most famously with Abhinavagupta. There is a colloquial saying that "Shiva without Shakti is Shava" which means that without the power of action (Shakti) that is Mahakali (represented as the short "i" in Devanagari) Shiva (or consciousness itself) is inactive; Shava means corpse in Sanskrit and the play on words is that all Sanskrit consonants are assumed to be followed by a short letter "a" unless otherwise noted. The short letter "i" represents the female power or Shakti that activates Creation. This is often the explanation for why She is standing on Shiva, who is either Her husband and complement in Shaktism or the Supreme Godhead in Shaivism.

To properly understand this complex Tantric symbolism it is important to remember that the meaning behind Shiva and Kali does not stray from the non-dualistic parlance of Shankara or the Upanisads. According to both the Mahanirvana and Kularnava Tantras, there are two distinct ways of perceiving the same absolute reality. The first is a transcendental plane which is often described as static, yet infinite. It is here that there is no matter, there is no universe and only consciousness exists. This form of reality is known as Shiva, the absolute Sat-Chit-Ananda — existence, knowledge and bliss. The second is an active plane, an immanent plane, the plane of matter, of Maya, i.e., where the illusion of space-time and the appearance of an actual universe does exist. This form of reality is known as Kali or Shakti, and (in its entirety) is still specified as the same Absolute Sat-Chit-Ananda. It is here in this second plane that the universe (as we commonly know it) is experienced and is described by the Tantric seer as the play of Shakti, or God as Mother Kali.^[40]

Kali and Bhairava (the terrible form of Shiva) in Union, 18th century, Nepal

From a Tantric perspective, when one meditates on reality at rest, as absolute pure consciousness (without the activities of creation, preservation or dissolution) one refers to this as Shiva or Brahman. When one meditates on reality as dynamic and creative, as the Absolute content of pure consciousness (with all the activities of creation, preservation or dissolution) one refers to it as Kali or Shakti. However, in either case the yogini or yogi is interested in one and the same reality — the only difference being in name and fluctuating aspects of appearance. It is this which is generally accepted as the meaning of Kali standing on the chest of Shiva.^[39]

Although there is often controversy surrounding the images of divine copulation, the general consensus is benign and free from any carnal impurities in its substance. In Tantra the human body is a symbol for the microcosm of the universe; therefore sexual process is responsible for the creation of the world. Although theoretically Shiva and Kali (or Shakti) are inseparable, like fire and its power to burn, in the case of creation they are often seen as having separate roles. With Shiva as male and Kali as female it is only by their union that creation may transpire. This reminds us of the prakrti and purusa doctrine of Samkhya wherein prakāśa- vimarśa has no practical value, just as without prakrti, purusa is quite inactive. This (once again) stresses the interdependencies of Shiva and Shakti and the vitality of their union.^[41]

Gopi Krishna proposed that Kali standing on the dead Shiva or Shava (Sanskrit for dead body) symbolised the helplessness of a person undergoing the changing process (psychologically and physiologically) in the body conducted by the Kundalini Shakti.^[42]

Development[link]

In the later traditions, Kali has become inextricably linked with Shiva. The unleashed form of Kali often becomes wild and uncontrollable, and only Shiva is able to tame her. This is both because she is often a transformed version of one of his consorts and because he is able to match her wildness. The ancient text of Kali Kautuvam describes her competition with Shiva in dance, from which the sacred 108 Karanas appeared. Shiva won the competition by acting the urdva tandava, one of the Karanas, by raising his feet to his head. Other texts describe Shiva appearing as a crying infant and appealing to her maternal instincts. While Shiva is said to be able to tame her, the iconography often presents her dancing on his fallen body, and there are accounts of the two of them dancing together, and driving each other to such wildness that the world comes close to unravelling.

Shiva's involvement with Tantra and Kali's dark nature have led to her becoming an important Tantric figure. To the Tantric worshippers, it was essential to face her Curse, the terror of death, as willingly as they accepted Blessings from her beautiful, nurturing, maternal aspect. For them, wisdom meant learning that no coin has only one side: as death cannot exist without life, so life cannot exist without death. Kali's role sometimes grew beyond that of a chaos—which could be confronted—to that of one who could bring wisdom, and she is given great metaphysical significance by some Tantric texts. The Nirvāna-tantra clearly presents her uncontrolled nature as the Ultimate Reality, claiming that the trimurti of Brahma, Visnu and Rudra arise and disappear from her like bubbles from the sea. Although this is an extreme case, the Yogini-tantra, Kamakhya-tantra and the Niruttara-tantra declare her the svarupa (own-being) of the Mahadevi (the great Goddess, who is in this case seen as the combination of all devis).

The final stage of development is the worshipping of Kali as the Great Mother, devoid of her usual violence. This practice is a break from the more traditional depictions. The pioneers of this tradition are the 18th century Shakta poets such as Ramprasad Sen, who show an awareness of Kali's ambivalent nature. Ramakrishna, the 19th century Bengali saint, was also a great devotee of Kali; the western popularity of whom may have contributed to the more modern, equivocal interpretations of this Goddess. Rachel McDermott's work, however, suggests that for the common, modern worshipper, Kali is not seen as fearful, and only those educated in old traditions see her as having a wrathful component. Some credit to the development of Devi must also be given to Samkhya. Commonly referred to as the Devi of delusion, Mahamaya, acting in the confines of (but not being bound by) the nature of the three gunas, takes three forms: Maha-Kali, Maha-Lakshmi and Maha-Saraswati, being her tamas-ika, rajas-ika and sattva-ika forms. In this sense, Kali is simply part of a larger whole.

Like Sir John Woodroffe and Georg Feuerstein, many Tantric scholars (as well as sincere practitioners) agree that, no matter how propitious or appalling you describe them, Shiva and Devi are simply recognizable symbols for everyday, abstract (yet tangible) concepts such as perception, knowledge, space-time, causation and the process of liberating oneself from the confines of such things. Shiva, symbolizing pure, absolute consciousness, and Devi, symbolizing the entire content of that consciousness, are ultimately one and the same—totality incarnate, a micro-macro-cosmic amalgamation of all subjects, all objects and all phenomenal relations between the "two." Like man and woman who both share many common, human traits yet at the same time they are still different and, therefore, may also be seen as complementary.^[43]

Worshippers prescribe various benign and horrific qualities to Devi simply out of practicality. They do this so they may have a variety of symbols to choose from, symbols which they can identify and relate with from the perspective of their own, ever-changing time, place and personal level of unfolding. Just like modern chemists or physicists use a variety of molecular and atomic models to describe what is unperceivable through rudimentary, sensory input, the scientists of ontology and epistemology must do the same. One of the underlying distinctions of Tantra, in comparison to other religions, is that it allows the devotee the liberty to choose from a vast array of complementary symbols and rhetoric that which suits one's evolving needs and tastes. From an aesthetic standpoint, nothing is interdict and nothing is orthodox. In this sense, the projection of some of Devi's more gentle qualities onto Kali is not sacrilege and the development of Kali really lies in the practitioner, not the murthi.

A TIME magazine article of October 27, 1947, used Kālī as a symbol and metaphor for the human suffering in British India during its partition that year.^[44]

A statue of Kali appears on the Phoenix Force cover to Night of the Thuggee (1985).

In New Age and Neopaganism[link]

An academic study of Western Kali enthusiasts noted that, "as shown in the histories of all cross-cultural religious transplants, Kali devotionalism in the West must take on its own indigenous forms if it is to adapt to its new environment."^[45] The adoption of Kali by the West has raised accusations of cultural misappropriation:

"A variety of writers and thinkers [...] have found Kali an exciting figure for reflection and exploration, notably feminists and participants in New Age spirituality who are attracted to goddess worship. [For them], Kali is a symbol of wholeness and healing, associated especially with repressed female power and sexuality. [However, such interpretations often exhibit] confusion and misrepresentation, stemming from a lack of knowledge of Hindu history among these authors, [who only rarely] draw upon materials written by scholars of the Hindu religious tradition. The majority instead rely chiefly on other popular feminist sources, almost none of which base their interpretations on a close reading of Kali's Indian background. [...] The most important issue arising from this discussion – even more important than the question of 'correct' interpretation – concerns the adoption of other people's religious symbols. [...] It is hard to import the worship of a goddess from another culture: religious associations and connotations have to be learned, imagined or intuited when the deep symbolic meanings embedded in the native culture are not available."^[46]

Notes[link]

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• Shanmukha Anantha Natha and Shri Ma Kristina Baird, Divine Initiation Shri Kali Publications (2001) ISBN 0-9582324-0-7 - Has a chapter on Mahadevi with a commentary on the Devi Mahatmyam from the Markandeya Purana.
• Swami Jagadiswarananda, tr., Devi Mahatmyam Chennai, Ramakrishna Math. ISBN 81-7120-139-3
• Devadatta Kali, In Praise of The Goddess, The Devimahatmyam and Its Meaning ISBN 0-89254-080-X
• Rachel Fell McDermott, Encountering Kali: In the Margins, at the Center, in the West (ISBN 0-520-23240-2)
• Ajit Mookerjee, Kali: The Feminine Force ISBN 0-89281-212-5
• Swami Satyananda Saraswati, Kali Puja ISBN 1-887472-64-9
• Ramprasad Sen, Grace and Mercy in Her Wild Hair: Selected Poems to the Mother Goddess ISBN 0-934252-94-7
• Avalon, Arthur (1922). Hymn to Kali: Karpuradi-Stotra. Luzac & Co., London. http://books.google.co.in/books?id=XrAIJR37dJoC&printsec=frontcover. 
• Sir John Woodroffe (a.k.a. Arthur Avalon) Hymns to the Goddess and Hymn to Kali ISBN 81-85988-16-1
• Robert E. Svoboda, Aghora, at the left hand of God ISBN 0-914732-21-8
• Dimitri Kitsikis, L'Orocc, dans l'âge de Kali ISBN 2-89040-359-9
• Lex Hixon, Mother of the Universe: Visions of the Goddess and Tantric Hymns of Enlightenment ISBN 0-8356-0702-X
• Neela Bhattacharya Saxena, In the Beginning is Desire: Tracing Kali's Footprints in Indian Literature ISBN 81-87981-61-X
• The Goddess Kali of Kolkata (ISBN 81-7476-514-X) by Shoma A. Chatterji
• Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend (ISBN 0-500-51088-1) by Anna Dallapiccola
• In Praise of The Goddess: The Devimahatmyam and Its Meaning (ISBN 0-89254-080-X) by Devadatta Kali
• Tantric Visions of the Divine Feminine: The Ten Mahavidyas (ISBN 0-520-20499-9) by David Kinsley
• Offering Flowers, Feeding Skulls: Popular Goddess Worship in West Bengal (ISBN 0-195-16791-0) by June McDaniel
• Mother of My Heart, Daughter of My Dreams: Kali and Uma in the Devotional Poetry of Bengal (ISBN 0-19-513435-4) by Rachel Fell McDermott
• Seeking Mahadevi: Constructing the Identities of the Hindu Great Goddess (ISBN 0-791-45008-2) Edited by Tracy Pintchman
• The Rise of the Goddess in the Hindu Tradition (ISBN 0-7914-2112-0) by Tracy Pintchman

External links[link]

Hinduism portal

Find more about Kali on Wikipedia's sister projects:
	Definitions and translations from Wiktionary
	Images and media from Commons
	Learning resources from Wikiversity
	News stories from Wikinews
	Quotations from Wikiquote
	Source texts from Wikisource
	Textbooks from Wikibooks

• Kali at the Open Directory Project

v t e Mahavidya Kali · Tara · Tripura Sundari · Bhuvaneshvari · Bhairavi · Chhinnamasta · Dhumavati · Bagalamukhi · Matangi · Kamalatmika Hinduism · Hindu goddess · Shaktism · Tantra

v t e Hindu deities and texts Gods Deva Ganesha Brahma Vishnu Shiva Rama Krishna Murugan Hanuman Indra Surya more Goddesses Adi parashakti Devi Saraswati Lakshmi Sati Parvati Durga Shakti Kali Sita Radha Mahavidya Navadurga Matrikas more Texts Vedas Upanishads Puranas Ramayana Mahabharata Bhagavad Gita more Hinduism Hindu mythology

Yiannis Parios (Greek: Γιάννης Πάριος) is a Greek laiko singer.

Biography[link]

Yiannis Parios was born Ioannis Varthakouris (Greek: Ιωάννης Βαρθακούρης) on the island of Paros (part of the Cyclades).

He made his first appearance as a singer in 1969. At that time no one could have imagined that his voice would one day become the most perfect expression of the word “love”.

Any attempt to analyse the “Parios Phenomenon”, his enormous appeal to the public and the hundreds of thousands of record sales (all his releases have won both gold and platinum discs), will show that his success is the result of his constant search for lyrics and music which contribute to his own growth as an artist, which promote his art and which will stand the test of time. Most of Yannis Parios’ time is spent on his work, which he approaches with dedication and respect.

His great talent, then, in conjunction with these factors explains why Parios has managed to break new ground in the love song, to gain the recognition of the general public and to have his songs on everyone’s lips. His popularity is constantly increasing and Parios is one of the very few singers who does not need a constant string of hit recordings to maintain his fame.

“Whenever a song is born”, says Yannis Parios - and this is one of his most deep-seated beliefs - ”and wherever it is sung (in France, Italy, or anywhere else), it belongs to everyone. That, really, is the reason why music exists: so that it cannot be fenced in by frontiers”.

With that consideration in mind, Yannis Parios was the first Greek singer to perform Alain Barriere’s song “Tu t’en vas” with Greek lyrics. Under its new title “Tora pia”; the song was a gigantic hit, on an unprecedented scale for the time, and it marked the beginning of a new age in which many Greek singers adapted “foreign” melodies to Greek lyrics.

Yannis Parios has worked with many of the leading Greek composers, including Greek composers, including Manos Loizos, Yorgos Hadzinasios, Stavros Xarchakos, Stamatis Spanoudakis, Yorgos Katsaros, Marios Tokas, Yannis Spanos and Alaxis Papadimitriou. He writes lyrics of his own, and often composes music, too. Quite a number of his songs have been translated and sung abroad. One of his releases holds the record for Greek sales: this was the album “Nisiotika”, released in 1982 and consisting of a collection of songs of the Aegean islands which, as an islander himself, he learnt and first sang in childhood.

Yannis Parios does not confine his appearances to Greece: he has sung at the Albert Hall, the Carnegie Hall and the largest theatres in Canada and Australia. He has also appeared on radio and TV programs with very high viewing and listening rates.

Discography[link]

• Yiannis Parios (1971)
• Ti theleis na kano (1972)
• Anthropina kai kathimerina (1973)
• Pou tha paei pou (1974)
• Erhontai stigmes (1975)
• Tora pia (1976)
• Mi fevgeis mi (1977)
• Na giati se agapisa (1978)
• Tha me thymitheis (1979)
• Se hreiazomai (1980)
• Ena gramma (1981)
• Ta nisiotika (1982)
• Otan vradiazi (1983)
• Pio kali i monaksia (1984)
• Ego kai esy (1985)
• Xarhakos-Parios (1986)
• Ola gia ton erota (1987)
• I megaliteres epityxies tou (1987)
• Pistos (1988)
• Ta erotika tou '50 (1988)
• I parastasi arxizi (1989)
• San trelo fortigo (1989)
• Ki ego mazi sou (1990)
• Epithesi agapis (1991)
• Epafi (1992)
• Ta nisiotika 2 (1992)
• Panta erotevmenos (1993)
• Vios erotikos (1994)
• Parea me ton Hari (1995)
• I monaksia mes ta matia mou (1996)
• Tipsis (1997)
• Tosa grammata (1998)
• Dose mou ligaki ourano (1999)
• Parios erotas (2000)
• O erotikos theodorakis (2001)
• Alli mia fora (2001)
• Mia varka na pas apenanti (2002)
• To kalo pou sou thelo (2003)
• Mia sinithismeni mera (2003)
• De gyrizo piso (2005)
• Ta dueta tou erota (2006)
• Pou pame meta (2008)
• Symperasma ena (2009)
• Ta kommatia ths psyxhs mou (2010)

External links[link]

• Official web site (Greek)
  • Biography (English)
• Yiannis Parios at the Internet Movie Database

This article about a Greek singer is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e

Dan Inosanto
Born	(1936-07-24) July 24, 1936 (age 75) Stockton, California, United States
Occupation	Martial arts Instructor, Actor
Spouse	Paula Inosanto, former wife Sue Inosanto
Children	Diana Lee Inosanto, Lance Arca Inosanto and Danielle Inosanto
Parents	Sebastian Inosanto, Mary Arca Inosanto

Daniel Arca Inosanto (born July 24, 1936) is a Filipino-American martial arts instructor from California who is best known as a student of the late Bruce Lee and renowned authority on Jeet Kune Do, Filipino Martial Arts, and Silat.^[1]

Martial arts[link]

Dan Inosanto teaches The Art and Philosophy of Jeet Kune Do, Filipino Martial Arts, Shoot Wrestling, Brazilian Jiu Jitsu, Muay Thai, Silat, mixed martial arts and other arts at his Marina del Rey, California school, the Inosanto Academy of Martial Arts. He received a shodan from and was an instructor for Ed Parker in American Kenpo Karate before becoming a student of Bruce Lee.^[2] Inosanto is one of three people allowed by Bruce Lee to teach his Martial Arts system (Taky Kimura and James Yimm Lee being the other two), and the only one to be given Instructorship in Bruce Lee's Jeet Kune Do of the third level.^[1] Inosanto also studied with dozens of martial arts masters elsewhere in the United States, Southeast Asia, and Europe, including Johny Lacoste (Kali, or Kamot Lihok, lit. "Hand Movement"), and Chai Sirisute (Muay Thai).^[3] After Bruce Lee's death, he has become the principal spokesperson and historian for Jeet Kune Do.^[1] He has had minor roles in a number of movies, including Bruce Lee's uncompleted last film Game of Death (1972). During this time period (1967–75), he also taught physical education at Malaga Cove Intermediate School in Palos Verdes Estates, California.

Always a student himself, he continues to train with many highly regarded martial artists. Consequently, he holds Instructor or black belt level ranks in numerous, different martial arts. In addition, he is well known for promoting the Filipino Martial Arts. He is responsible for bringing several obscure forms of the South East Asia Martial Arts into the public eye such as Silat, a hybrid combative form existing in countries as Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines.^{[citation needed]} He has recently acquired his black belt in the Machado Family style of Brazilian Jiu Jitsu. He trained Shoot wrestling under Yorinaga Nakamura. Currently he is the vice-president of Lameco International, carrying on the Eskrima the of the late Filipino martial artist Edgar Sulite.

Notable students[link]

Dan Inosanto's notable students include:

• Diana Lee Inosanto: daughter, actress, stuntwoman, writer and producer^[4][5]
• Ron Balicki: stuntman, actor, producer^[4]
• Dwight Woods: "The Jeet Kune Do Rebel"
• Chai Sirisute: founder of the Thai Boxing Association of the USA
• Todd Corvin: creator of TK Combat Techknowledgy . Expert in Savat, Jiu Jitsu, Kali, and Kickboxing. Teaches out of the "Boxing Works" gym in Hermosa Beach, CA. Is also known for training professional mixed martial artist Sean Loeffler.
• Richard Bustillo: martial arts instructor and founder of the IMB Academy in Torrance, CA
• Denzel Washington: Academy Award-winning actor, director, producer^[6]
• Chuck Norris: actor, Internet meme
• Edgar Sulite: founder and creator of Lameco Eskrima^[7]
• Larry Hartsell: deceased martial arts teacher and author^[8]
• Ron Kosakowski: Long time JKD, Kali and Kuntao instructor. owner of http://TraditionalFilipinoWeapons.com
• Jeff Imada: stuntman, actor, fight choreographer^[4][9](The Crow, Bourne series, Iron Man 2, The Green Hornet (2011), Hanna)^[10]
• Brandon Lee: deceased son of the late Bruce Lee^[5]
• Forest Whitaker: Academy Award-winning actor, producer, director, writer
• Salem Assli: Author, Professor and Technical director of French Savate in the USA. Full Instructor in Jeet Kune Do and Filipino Kali under Sifu/Guro Dan Inosanto.
• Paul Vunak: founder and creator of Progressive Fighting Systems (PFS)
• Daniel Sullivan: martial arts instructor and founder of OC Kickboxing & Mixed Martial Arts in Irvine, CA^[11]
• Burton Richardson: actor, stuntman, writer, and founder of Jeet Kune Do (JKD) Unlimited
• Erik Paulson: Shooto champion, trainer to UFC fighters and founder of Combat Submission Wrestling (CSW)^[12]
• Cass Magda: martial arts instructor and founder of the Magda Institute in Reseda, CA
• Damon Caro: actor, stunt coordinator, fight choreographer (Fight Club, 300, Bourne series, Watchmen)^[13]
• Jonathan Eusebio: actor, stunt coordinator, fight choreographer (Bourne series, Ninja Assassin, Conan the Barbarian, The Avengers)
• Justo Dieguez Serrano and Andy Norman, founders of the Keysi Fighting Method used in Batman Begins and The Dark Knight^[14]
• Chris Kent: author, stunt coordinator, JKD instructor [1]
• Cliff Lenderman: actor, martial arts instructor
• Kobe Bryant: professional basketball player
• Peter Nguyen: Legacy Jeet Kune Do head instructor, executive
• Graciela Casillas-Tortorelli^[15]
• Paul de Thouars: creator of Pentjak Silat Bukti Negara^[4]
• Ernest Emerson^[16]
• Ricky Nelson^[17]
• Steve Grody^[18]
• Jerry Poteet^[4]
• Tim Tackett^[8]
• Walt Missingham
• Kevin Seaman
• Rick Tucci^[19]
• Ricky Rillera deceased
• Dan Anderson^[20]
• Nick Sacoulas
• Jon Rister Instructor @ Rister Martial arts In Irving Texas and at TSN Tactical Training Academy in Fort Worth Texas and Special Operations Offices at DFW International Airport and Author of Wing Chun Strategy and tactics (Attack Attack Attack)
• Yorinaga Nakamura: Shoot Wrestling
• Philip Gelinas: Montreal martial artist, top ranked in multiple arts including kajukenbo and Pekiti-Tirsia kali, head of GAMMA, co-founder of the Dog Brothers

Publications[link]

• "Filipino Martial Arts as Taught by Dan Inosanto" by Dan Inosanto ISBN 0-938676-01-6
• "Absorb What Is Useful (Jeet Kune Do Guidebook Vol 2)" by Dan Inosanto ISBN 0-938676-03-2
• "Jeet kune do" by Salem Assli and Dan Inosanto ISBN 2-7027-0693-2
• "Guide to Martial Arts Training With Equipment" by Dan Inosanto ISBN 0-938676-02-4
• "Jeet Kune Do: The Art & Philosophy of Bruce Lee" by Dan Inosanto ISBN 0-938676-00-8
• "Jeet Kune Do: Conditioning and Grappling Methods" Intro by Dan Inosanto ISBN 0-9531766-5-7

Filmography[link]

Full Filmography for Dan Inosanto at the Internet Movie Database

Actor[link]

• Big Stan (2008) .... Knife Guy
• Redbelt (2008) .... Joao Moro
• Brazilian Brawl (2003) (V) .... Ruben
• Out for Justice (1991) .... Sticks
• Big Trouble in Little China (1986) (as Daniel Inosanto)
• Sharky's Machine (1981) .... Chin No. 1
• Long de ying zi (1981) (as Danny Inosanto)
• Skirmish (1981)
• Chinese stuntman (Filipino fighter)
• Game of Death (1972) (Filipino fighter) ....

Documentaries[link]

• I am Bruce Lee (2012)
• Fight Science (2006)
• Modern Warriors (2002)
• Bruce Lee: The Immortal Dragon (2002)
• Bruce Lee in G.O.D.: Shibôteki yûgi (2000)
• Bruce Lee: A Warrior's Journey (2000)
• Famous Families (1999) (The Lees: Action Speaks Louder)
• The Path of the Dragon (1998)
• E! True Hollywood Story (Brandon Lee) (1997)
• Curse of the Dragon (1993)
• Bruce Lee, the Legend (1977)
• The Warrior Within (1976)
• Life and Legend of Bruce Lee (1973)

Stunts[link]

• Escape from L.A. (1996) (stunts)
• The Green Hornet (1 episode, 1966) (fight double)

Further reading[link]

• Kelly, Perry (2000). Dan Inosanto: The Man, The Teacher, The Artist, Paladin Press. ISBN 1-58160-079-8.
• Balicki, Ron. Gold, Steven (2007). Jeet Kune Do: The Principles of a Complete Fighter, HNL Publishing. ISBN 9-531766-3-0
• Seaman, Kevin (1999), Jun Fan Gung Fu Seeking The Path Of Jeet Kune Do, S.l.: Health 'N' Life, ISBN 0-9531766-2-2

References[link]

• Dan Inosanto's Martial Arts Lineage Tree

1. ^ ^{a b c} Kelly(2000)pp.46-50
2. ^ Kelly(2000)p.24
3. ^ Kelly(2000)p.31
4. ^ ^{a b c d e} Kelly(2000)p.130
5. ^ ^{a b} Kelly(2000)p.109
6. ^ http://video.about.com/movies/Book-of-Eli-Denzel-Washington.htm
7. ^ Kelly (2000) p. 51
8. ^ ^{a b} Kelly (2000) p. 133
9. ^ Imada, Jeff (1984), The Balisong Manual, California: Unique Publications, pp. 130, ISBN 0-86568-102-3 
10. ^ http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0408001/
11. ^ http://inosanto.com/?page_id=76
12. ^ Beasley, Jerry (2001), Jeet Kune Do Experience: Understanding Bruce Lee's Ultimate Martial Art, Paladin Press, pp. 216, ISBN 1-58160-131-X 
13. ^ http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0138902/
14. ^ http://karateglasgow.com/2011/06/23/keysi-fighting-method-batman/
15. ^ Kelly(2000)p.131
16. ^ Combs, Roger (2004), "Emerson Knives", Knives Illustrated 18: 36–41, 65–69 
17. ^ Kelly(2000)p.145
18. ^ http://www.thejkdbrotherhood.com/history-of-jkd/JKD-Brotherhood/JKD-Brotherhood/dan-inosanto.html
19. ^ http://www.pamausa.com/Pages/rick.shtml
20. ^ http://andersonsmartialarts.com/the-instructors/dan-anderson/

External links[link]

• Dan Inosanto's Martial Arts Lineage Tree
• Inosanto Academy
• Dan Inosanto at the Internet Movie Database

v t e Filipino Martial Artists Venancio "Anciong" Bacon • Cacoy Canete • Adriano Directo Emperado • Emma Henry • Alvin Aguilar • Eduard Folayang • Mike Inay • Shishir Inocalla • Dan Inosanto • Beatriz Lucero Lhuillier • Gretchen Malalad • Monsour del Rosario • Shane del Rosario • Kylie Padilla • Remy Presas • Ernesto Presas • Cloud Xandrei Van Galen • Vic Vargas