A Statue of the Hindu deity Shiva.

A Statue of the Buddha.

A Statue of the Jain deity Bahubali.

A rare Tanjore-style painting from the late 19th century depicting the ten Sikh Gurus with Bhai Bala and Bhai Mardana.

Indian religions or Dharmic religions is a classification for religions that originated in the Indian subcontinent; namely Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism.^[1] These religions are also classified as Eastern religions. Although Indian religions are connected through the history of India, they constitute a wide range of religious communities and Indian religions are not confined to the Indian subcontinent.^[1]

The documented history of Indian religions begins with historical Vedic religion, the religious practices of the early Indo-Aryans, which were collected and later redacted into the Samhitas (usually known as the Vedas), four canonical collections of hymns or mantras composed in archaic Sanskrit. These texts are the central shruti (revealed) texts of Hinduism. The period of the composition, redaction and commentary of these texts is known as the Vedic period, which lasted from roughly 2000 to 1500 BCE.

The late Vedic period (9th to 6th centuries BCE) marks the beginning of the Upanisadic or Vedantic period.^[2][3] This period heralded the beginning of much of what became classical Hinduism, with the composition of the Upanishads, later the Sanskrit epics, still later followed by the Puranas.

Indian philosophy is a confluence of Śramaṇic (self-reliant) and Vedic streams that co-exist and influence each other.^[4] Jainism and Buddhism belong to the sramana tradition. Jainism was established by a lineage of 24 enlightened beings culminating with Parsva (9th century BCE) and Mahavira (6th century BCE).^[5] Buddhism was historically founded by Siddhartha Gautama, a Kshatriya prince-turned-ascetic, and was spread beyond India through missionaries. It later experienced a decline in India, but survived in Nepal and Sri Lanka, and remains more widespread in Southeast and East Asia.

Certain scholarship holds that the practices, emblems and architecture now commonly associated with the Hindu pantheon and Jainism may go back as far as Late Harappan times to the period 2000–1500 BCE.^[6][7]

Hinduism is divided into numerous denominations, primarily Shaivism, Shaktism, Vaishnavism, Smarta and much smaller groups like the conservative Shrauta. Hindu reform movements are more recent. About 90% of Hindus reside in the Republic of India, accounting for 83% of its population.^[8]

Sikhism was founded in the 15th century on the teachings of Guru Nanak and the nine successive Sikh Gurus in Northern India.^[9] The vast majority of its adherents originate in the Punjab region.

Common traits[link]

Aum

Map showing the prevalence of Abrahamic (pink) and Dharmic religions (yellow) in each country.

Sometimes summarised as Dharmic religions or dharmic traditions (though subtleties in the meaning of Dharma or dhamma differs according to the religion), Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism share certain key concepts, which are interpreted differently by different groups and individuals.^[10][11][12]

Common traits can also be observed in both the ritual and the literary sphere. For example, the head-anointing ritual of abhiseka is of importance in three of these distinct traditions, excluding Sikhism (in Buddhism it is found within Vajrayana). Other noteworthy rituals are the cremation of the dead, the wearing of vermilion on the head by married women, and various marital rituals. In literature, many classical narratives and purana have Hindu, Buddhist or Jain versions.^[13] All four traditions have notions of karma, dharma, samsara, moksha and various forms of Yoga. Of course, these terms may be perceived differently by different religions. For instance, for a Hindu, dharma is his duty. For a Jain, dharma is righteousness, his conduct. For a Buddhist, dharma is usually taken to be the Buddha's teachings. Similarly, for a Hindu, yoga is the cessation of all thoughts/activities of the mind.^[14] For Jains, Yoga is the sum of all physical, verbal and mental activities.

Rama is a heroic figure in all of these religions. In Hinduism he is the God-incarnate in the form of a princely king; in Buddhism, he is a Bodhisattva-incarnate; in Jainism, he is the perfect human being. Among the Buddhist Ramayanas are: Vessantarajataka,^[15] Reamker, Ramakien, Phra Lak Phra Lam, Hikayat Seri Rama etc. There also exists the Khamti Ramayana among the Khamti tribe of Asom wherein Rama is an Avatar of a Bodhisattva who incarnates to punish the demon king Ravana (B.Datta 1993). The Tai Ramayana is another book retelling the divine story in Asom.

Prehistory[link]

"Priest King" of Indus Valley Civilization

Evidence attesting to prehistoric religion in the Indian subcontinent derives from scattered Mesolithic rock paintings such as at Bhimbetka, depicting dances and rituals. Neolithic agriculturalists inhabiting the Indus River Valley buried their dead in a manner suggestive of spiritual practices that incorporated notions of an afterlife and belief in magic.^[16] Other South Asian Stone Age sites, such as the Bhimbetka rock shelters in central Madhya Pradesh and the Kupgal petroglyphs of eastern Karnataka, contain rock art portraying religious rites and evidence of possible ritualised music.^[17] The Harappan people of the Indus Valley Civilization, which lasted from 3300–1300 BCE (mature period, 2600-1900 BCE) and was centered around the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra river valleys, may have worshiped an important mother goddess symbolising fertility,^[18] a concept that has recently been challenged.^[19] Excavations of Indus Valley Civilization sites show small tablets with animals and altars, indicating rituals associated with animal sacrifice.

Vedic tradition[link]

Vedic period[link]

The Vedic Period is most significant for the composition of the four Vedas, Brahmanas and the older Upanishads (both presented as discussions on the rituals, mantras and concepts found in the four Vedas), which today are some of the most important canonical texts of Hinduism, and are the codification of much of what developed into the core beliefs of Hinduism.

The Vedas reflect the liturgy and ritual of Late Bronze Age to Early Iron Age Indo-Aryan speaking peoples in India. Religious practices were dominated by the Vedic priesthood administering domestic rituals/rites and solemn sacrifices. The Brahmanas, Aranyakas and some of the older Upanishads (such as BAU, ChU, JUB) are also placed in this period. Many elements of Vedic religion reach back to early Bronze Age Proto-Indo-Iranian times. The Vedic period is held to have ended around 500 BCE.

Akshardham the largest Hindu temple in the world.

Tirumala Venkateswara Temple the most visited and richest Hindu temple in the world.

Specific rituals and sacrifices of the Vedic religion include:

• The Soma cult described in the Rigveda, descended from a common Indo-Iranian practice.
• Fire rituals, also a common Indo-Iranian practice (See Zoroastrianism):
  • The Agnihotra or oblation to Agni.
  • The Agnistoma or Soma sacrifice (including animal sacrifice) .
  • The Agnicayana, the sophisticated ritual of piling the Uttara fire altar.
• The Darsapaurnamasa, the fortnightly New and Full Moon sacrifice
• The Caturmasya or seasonal sacrifices (every four months)
• a large number of sacrifices for special wishes (Kāmyeṣṭi)
• The Ashvamedha or horse sacrifice.
• The Purushamedha, or sacrifice of a man, imitating that of the cosmic Purusha and Ashvamedha
• The rites referred to in the Atharvaveda are concerned with medicine and healing practices, as well as some charms and sorcery (white and black magic).
• The domestic (grihya) rituals deal with the rites of passage from conception to death and beyond.

Vedanta[link]

Hindu Swastika

The period of Vedanta (Sanskrit : end of Vedas), typically thought to have begun around 600 BCE, marked the end of the evolution of the main Vedic texts; it also accompanied the transformation of the semi-nomadic nature of the Indo-Aryan tribes to agriculture-based polities, as they increasingly formed permanent settlements in the Indo-Gangetic plain and other parts of Northern India. This period was foreshadowed by the Brahmanas that interpreted the four canonical Vedas in various fashions, which finally led to the Upanishads. While the ritualistic status of the four Vedas remained undiminished, the early Upanishads mainly relate to spiritual insights. At this time, the concepts of reincarnation, samsara, karma, and moksha began to be accepted in ancient India within the sphere of the priestly establishment i.e. the Brahmana class. Some scholars think that these new concepts developed by aborigines outside the caste system,^[20] others detect Sramana or even Ksatriya influence. These concepts were eventually accepted by Brahmin orthodoxy, and were to form much of the core philosophies of the later epics and Hinduism, as well as, against a different philosophical and religious background, in Buddhism and Jainism.

Astika and Nastika categorization[link]

Astika and nastika are sometimes used to categorise Indian religions. Those religions that believe that God is the central actor in this world are termed as astika. Those religions that do not believe that God is the prime mover and actor are classified as nastika religions. From this point of view the Vedic religion (and Hinduism) is an astika religion, whereas Buddhism and Jainism are nastika religions.

Another definition of the terms astika and nastika, followed by Adi Shankara, classifies religions and persons as astika and nastika according to whether they accept the authority of the main Hindu texts, the Vedas, as supreme revealed scriptures, or not. By this definition, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Purva Mimamsa and Vedanta are classified as astika schools, while Charvaka is classified as a nastika school. By this definition, both Buddhism and Jainism are classified as nastika religions since they do not accept the authority of the Vedas.

Shramana (self-reliant) tradition[link]

80px] Statue of a standing Bodhisattva.

A statue of Mahavira.

The Vedic religion of Iron Age India co-existed and closely interacted with the parallel non-Vedic shramana traditions.^{[4][21][22][23]} These were not direct outgrowths of Vedism, but separate movements that influenced it and were influenced by it.^[24] The shramanas were wandering ascetics. Buddhism and Jainism are a continuation of the Shramana tradition, and the early Upanishadic movement was influenced by it.^{[25][26][27][28][29][30]} The 24th Tirthankara of Jainism, Mahavira (599–527 BCE), stressed five vows, including ahimsa (non-violence), satya (truthfulness), asteya (non-stealing) and aparigraha (non-attachment). A previous Tirthankara, Parshva, is also accepted as a historical figure from early in the shramana tradition.

Gautama Buddha, who was called an "awakened one" (Buddha), was born into the Shakya clan living at Kapilavastu and Lumbini in what is now southern Nepal. The Buddha was born at Lumbini, as emperor Asoka's Lumbini pillar records, just before the kingdom of Magadha (which traditionally is said to have lasted from 546–324 BCE) rose to power. The Shakyas claimed Angirasa and Gautama Maharishi lineage,^[31] via descent from the royal lineage of Ayodhya.

The Ajivikas and Samkhyas, both of which did not survive, also belonged to the shramana tradition.

Rise and spread of Jainism and Buddhism[link]

Mahabodhi Temple, Bodh Gaya, Bihar.

Both Jainism and Buddhism spread throughout India during the period of the Magadha empire. Scholars Jeffrey Brodd and Gregory Sobolewski write that "Jainism shares many of the basic doctrines of Hinduism and Buddhism."^[32] and scholar James Bird writes, "But when primitive Buddhism originated from Hindu schools of philosophy, it differed as widely from that of later times, as did the Brahmanism of the Vedas from that of the Puranas and Tantras."^[33]

Palitana temples

Buddhism in India spread during the reign of Ashoka of the Maurya Empire, who patronised Buddhist teachings and unified the Indian subcontinent in the 3rd century BCE. He sent missionaries abroad, allowing Buddhism to spread across Asia.^[34] Jainism began its golden period during the reign of Emperor Kharavela of Kalinga in the 2nd century BCE.

Both Jainism and Indian Buddhism declined following the rise of Puranic Hinduism during the Gupta dynasty. Buddhism continued to have a significant presence in some regions of India until the 12th century.

Jainism continues to be an influential religion and Jain communities live in Indian states Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Jains authored several classical books in different Indian languages for a considerable period of time.

Period after 200 BCE[link]

After 200 CE several schools of thought were formally codified in Indian philosophy, including Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimāṃsā and Advaita Vedanta.^[35] Hinduism, otherwise a highly polytheistic, pantheistic or monotheistic religion, also tolerated atheistic schools. The thoroughly materialistic and anti-religious philosophical Cārvāka school that originated around the 6th century BCE is the most explicitly atheistic school of Indian philosophy. Cārvāka is classified as a nāstika ("heterodox") system; it is not included among the six schools of Hinduism generally regarded as orthodox. It is noteworthy as evidence of a materialistic movement within Hinduism.^[36] Our understanding of Cārvāka philosophy is fragmentary, based largely on criticism of the ideas by other schools, and it is no longer a living tradition.^[37] Other Indian philosophies generally regarded as atheistic include Samkhya and Mimāṃsā.

Between 400 CE and 1000 CE Hinduism expanded as the decline of Buddhism in India continued.^[38] Buddhism subsequently became effectively extinct in India but survived in Nepal and Sri Lanka.

There were several Buddhistic kings who worshiped Vishnu, such as the Gupta Empire, Pala Empire, Malla Empire, Somavanshi, and Sattvahana.^[39] Buddhism survived followed by Hindus. National Geographic^[40] edition reads, "The flow between faiths was such that for hundreds of years, almost all Buddhist temples, including the ones at Ajanta, were built under the rule and patronage of Hindu kings."

Post-Vedic development of Hinduism[link]

A Statue of Lord Vishnu.

The end of the Vedantic period around the 2nd century AD spawned a number of branches that furthered Vedantic philosophy, and which ended up being seminaries in their own right. The output generated by these specialized tributaries was automatically considered a part of the Hindu or even Indian philosophy. Prominent amongst these developers were Yoga, Dvaita, Advaita and the medieval Bhakti movement. The modern day popular movements were the ones founded by Swami Vivekananda, Sri Aurobindo, Raja Ram Mohan Roy among others.

The Golden Temple of Mahalakshmi at Vellore.

In the latter Vedantic period, several texts were also composed as summaries/attachments to the Upanishads. These texts collectively called as Puranas allowed for a divine and mythical interpretation of the world, not unlike the ancient Hellenic or Roman religions. Legends and epics with a multitude of gods and goddesses with human-like characteristics were composed. Two of Hinduism's most revered epics, the Mahabharata and Ramayana were compositions of this period. Devotion to particular deities was reflected from the composition of texts composed to their worship. For example the Ganapati Purana was written for devotion to Ganapati (or Ganesh). Popular deities of this era were Shiva, Vishnu, Durga, Surya, Skanda, and Ganesh (including the forms/incarnations of these deities.)

Bhakti Movement[link]

The Bhakti Movement began with the emphasis on the worship of God, regardless of one's status - whether priestly or laypeople, men or women, higher social status or lower social status.

The movements were mainly centered around the forms of Vishnu (Rama and Krishna) and Shiva. There were however popular devotees of this era of Durga.

Vaishnavism[link]

The most well-known devotees are the Alwars from southern India. The most popular Vaishnava teacher of the south was Ramanuja, while of the north it was Ramananda.

Several important icons were women. For example, within the Mahanubhava sect, the women outnumbered the men,^[41] and administration was many times composed mainly of women.^[42] Mirabai is the most popular female saint in India.

Sri Vallabha Acharya (1479–1531) is a very important figure from this era. He founded the Shuddha Advaita (Pure Non-dualism) school of Vedanta thought.

Shaivism[link]

The most well-known devotees are the Nayanars from southern India. The most popular Shaiva teacher of the south was Basava, while of the north it was Gorakhnath.

Female saints include figures like Akkamadevi, Lalleshvari and Molla.

Recent groups[link]

The largest religious gathering ever held on Earth, the 2001 Maha Kumbh Mela held in Prayag attracted around 70 million Hindus from around the world.

The modern era has given rise to dozens of Hindu saints with international influence. For example, Brahma Baba established the Brahma Kumaris, one of the largest new Hindu religious movements which teaches the discipline of Raja Yoga to millions. Representing traditional Gaudiya Vaishnavism, Prabhupada founded the Hare Krishna movement, another organization with a global reach. In late 18th century India, Swaminarayan founded the Swaminarayan Sampraday. Anandamurti, founder of the Ananda Marga, has also influenced many worldwide. Through the international influence of all of these new Hindu denominations, many Hindu practices such as yoga, meditation, mantra, divination, and vegetarianism have been adopted by new converts.

Sikhism[link]

Harmandir Sahib or The Golden Temple of the Sikhs.

Sikhism originated in fifteenth century Northern India with the teachings of Nanak and nine successive gurus. The principal belief in Sikhism is faith in Vāhigurū— represented by the sacred symbol of ēk ōaṅkār [meaning one god]. Sikhism's traditions and teachings are distinctly associated with the history, society and culture of the Punjab. Adherents of Sikhism are known as Sikhs (students or disciples) and number over 23 million across the world.

Ravidassia Religion[link]

The Ravidassia religion is a monotheistic religion based on the teachings of the 14th century Indian guru Ravidass, revered as a satguru and prophet by his followers. Ravidass, a Chamar Dalit ("untouchable") by birth, taught monotheistic spirituality and a message of equality and emancipation from the Indian caste system.

Status in the Republic of India[link]

In a judicial reminder, the Indian Supreme Court observed Sikhism and Jainism to be sub-sects or special faiths within the larger Hindu fold,^[43] and that Jainism is a denomination within the Hindu fold.^[44] Although the government of British India counted Jains in India as a major religious community right from the first Census conducted in 1873, after independence in 1947 Sikhs and Jains were not treated as national minorities.^[45] In 2005 the Supreme Court of India declined to issue a writ of Mandamus granting Jains the status of a religious minority throughout India. The Court however left it to the respective states to decide on the minority status of Jain religion.^[46][47]

However, some individual states have over the past few decades differed on whether Jains, Buddhists and Sikhs are religious minorities or not, by either pronouncing judgments or passing legislation. One example is the judgment passed by the Supreme Court in 2006, in a case pertaining to the state of Uttar Pradesh, which declared Jainism to be indisputably distinct from Hinduism, but mentioned that, "The question as to whether the Jains are part of the Hindu religion is open to debate.^[48] However, the Supreme Court also noted various court cases that have held Jainism to be a distinct religion.

Another example is the Gujarat Freedom of Religion Bill, that is an amendment to a legislation that sought to define Jains and Buddhists as denominations within Hinduism.^[49] Ultimately on July 31, 2007, finding it not in conformity with the concept of freedom of religion as embodied in Article 25 (1) of the Constitution, Governor Naval Kishore Sharma returned back the Gujarat Freedom of Religion (Amendment) Bill, 2006 citing the widespread protests by the Jains^[50] as well as Supreme Court's extrajudicial observation that Jainism is a "special religion formed on the basis of quintessence of Hindu religion by the Supreme Court"^[51]

See also[link]

Notes[link]

References[link]

• Chatterjee, S; Datta, D (1984), An Introduction to Indian Philosophy (8th ed.), University of Calcutta, ASIN: B0007BFXK4 
• Fowler, JD (1997), Hinduism: Beliefs and Practices, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 1-898723-60-5, http://books.google.com/books?id=RmGKHu20hA0C 
• Heehs, P (2002), Indian Religions: A Historical Reader of Spiritual Expression and Experience, New York: New York University Press, ISBN 0-8147-3650-5 
• Oberlies, T (1998), Die Religion des Rgveda, Wien 

• Radhakrishnan, S; Moore, CA (1967), A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-01958-4 
• Rinehart, R (2004), Contemporary Hinduism: Ritual, Culture, and Practice, ABC-Clio, ISBN 1-57607-905-8 

External links[link]

Statistics

• "Census of India 2001: Data on religion". Government of India (Office of the Registrar General). http://www.censusindia.gov.in/. Retrieved 2007-05-28. 

Constitution and law

• "Constitution of India". Government of India (Ministry of Law and Justice). http://indiacode.nic.in/coiweb/welcome.html. Retrieved 2007-05-28. 

Reports

• "International Religious Freedom Report 2006: India". United States Department of State. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71440.htm. Retrieved 2007-05-28. 

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Rajiv Malhotra, born September 1950, is an Indian-American author, philanthropist, public speaker and writer on current affairs, world religions and cross-cultural encounters. He is the founder of the Infinity Foundation.^[1][2][3] He is also a former telecommunication entrepreneur. After a career in the software, computer, and telecom industries Malhotra took an early retirement to pursue philanthropic and educational activities.^[4] He founded the Infinity foundation in 1995.^[4]

Prema A. Kurien considers him to be at "...the forefront of American Hindu effort to challenge the Eurocentricism in the academia."^[5] He has been considered by Hinnells to lead the traditional Hindu criticism of Wendy Doniger's methodology for the examination of Hinduism^[6]

His criticism of American academia[link]

He considers that a positive stance on India has been underrepresented in American academia, this was derived from programmes staffed by Westerners, their "Indian - American Sepoys" and Indian Americans wanting to be white - whom he describes as "career opportunists" and "Uncle Toms" who in their desire to become even marginal members of the Western Grand Narrative sneer at Indian culture in the same manner as colonialists once did. Academia according to him promoted "a perscective on India using worldviews which are hostile to India's interests", and that "...Indian American donors were hoodwinked into thinking that they were supporting India through their monetary contributions to such programmes". He has claimed that American scholarship has undermined India by encouraging paradigms that oppose its unity and integrity, with scholars playing crirical roles, often under the garb of 'human rights' in channeling foreign intellectual and material support to exacerbate India's internal cleavages. He has accused the academia of abetting the Talibanisation of India, which would also lead to the Talibanisation of other Asian countries.^[7]

Appropriation of Indian symbols by the West and U-turn theory[link]

Malhotra states that by 1900 Aryanisation had been firmly established in German academic circles, German thinkers first glorified India as their cradle, then did a U-Turn and asserted German nationalism - its purity and the lower status of Indians. Despite the extent of German study of India, India's influence is barely mentioned in contemporary western texts on European History. According to him the use of Swastika has been symbolic of this appropriation.^[8]

Infinity Foundation[link]

The Infinity Foundation is an organization based in New Jersey promoting Indic studies.^[9] According to Prema Kurien, since 2003 it is one the most prominent and active Indic studies organization in the United States.^[4] The foundation defines "Indic traditions" as to include Buddhism, Sikhism, Jainism, Hinduism.^[10]

The Foundation has given more than 400 grants for research, education and community work.^[1] The Infinity foundation has provided small grants to major universities in support of programs including visiting professorship in Indic studies at Harvard University, Yoga and Hindi classes at Rutgers University, the research and teaching of nondualistic philosophies at University of Hawaii, Global Renaissance Institute and a Center for Buddhist studies at Columbia University, a program in religion and science at University of California, and endowment for the Center for Advanced Study of India at University of Pennsylvania, lectures at the Center for Consciousness Studies at University of Arizona.^[11] The foundation has provided funding for journals like Education about Asia,^[11] International Journal of Hindu Studies^[12] and in the establishment of Mahatma Gandhi Center for Global Non-violence at James Madison University.^[12]

Criticism[link]

Martha C. Nussbaum describes him as a multimillionaire who is the mastermind of US based denigration of American scholars of history of religion.^[13]

Publications[link]

• Malhotra, Rajiv (2005). "India and Globalization". In Nagendra Rao. Globalization, pre modern India. Daya Books. 
• _____________ (2007). "The axis of neo-colonialism". Indian Journals 11 (3). ISSN 0971-8052. http://www.indianjournals.com/ijor.aspx?target=ijor:wa&volume=11&issue=3&article=003. 
• _____________ (2009). "American Exceptionalism and the Myth of the Frontiers". In Rajani Kannepalli Kanth. The Challenge of Eurocentrism: Global Perspectives, Policy, and Prospects. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-61227-3. 
• Malhotra, Rajiv , Aravindan Neelakandan (2011). Breaking India: Western Interventions in Dravidian and Dalit Faultlines. 
• Malhotra, Rajiv , (2011). Being Different. 

Notes[link]

References[link]

• Prothero, Stephen (2006), A Nation of Religions: The Politics of Pluralism in Multireligious America, The University of North Carolina Press, ISBN 978-0-8078-5770-0 
• Campbell, James T. (2007), Race, Nation, and Empire in American History (EasyRead Large Bold ed.), The University of North Carolina Press 
• Kurien, Prema A. (2007), A place at the multicultural table: the development of an American Hinduism, Rutgers University Press, ISBN 978-0-8135-4056-6, http://books.google.co.in/books?id=ONMxZc5_saYC 
• Bloch, Esther (2010), Rethinking Religion in India: The Colonial Construction of Hinduism, Routledge, pp. 208, ISBN 978-0-415-54890-8 
• Martha C. Nussbaum (15 October 2008). The Clash Within: Democracy, Religious Violence, and India's Future. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-03059-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=WS_0saaC-jkC&pg=PA214. Retrieved 22 January 2012. 
• Mittal, Sushil (2006). Religions of South Asia: an introduction. Gene R. Thursby. Routledge. 
• John R. Hinnells (2010). The Routledge companion to the study of religion. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-47328-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=RyuJ_BfJki8C&pg=PA52. Retrieved 22 January 2012. 
• Peter Wilberg (April 2008). Heidegger, Phenomenology and Indian Thought. New Gnosis Publications. ISBN 978-1-904519-08-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=rWE0HcgTmGAC&pg=PA49. Retrieved 22 January 2012. 

External links[link]

• rajivmalhotra.com
• List of articles
• Was the US Senate Attack on Hinduism an isolated Instance?
• Panel Discussion held at the Annual Meeting of the American Academy of Religion in Denver, Nov 17, 2001
• Outlook India
• Rediff

Kanwar Rai Singh  pronunciation (help·info) (born 24 February 1922, Darkati, Punjab) was an Indian cricketer who played in one Test in 1948.

Rai Singh was a surprising selection for the Indian tour of Australia in 1947-48. The BCCI President Anthony de Mello personally selected the team and D. B. Deodhar, one of the selectors, threatened to resign protesting some of the choices.^{[citation needed]} Rai Singh had little success in the first class matches that he played in the tour.

Rai Singh was a right-handed batsman and a captain in the Patiala army.

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Davinder Singh Sachdev (Punjabi: ਦਵਿੰਦਰ ਸਿੰਘ ਸਚਦੇਵ) (born 1 August 1957) is one of Singapore's foremost trial and appellate lawyer, having attained the title of Senior Counsel in 1997, and having been described by Asia Pacific Legal 500 2009/2010 as being "without peer at the bar". ^[1] Davinder successfully represented Singapore Press Holdings in the high profile suit brought by Mr TT Durai, former Chief Executive Officer of the National Kidney Foundation, for defamation in relation to an article written by one of their correspondents, describing, among other things, that Mr Durai had asked for installation of a "gold-plated tap" in his office.

Davinder Singh is a Sikh and as of end 2009, a divorcee with two sons. He received his education from Saint Michael's School, Saint Joseph's Institution, National Junior College and National University of Singapore. He is the Chief Executive Officer of Drew & Napier.

He was elected as Member of Parliament in 1988 and formerly an MP for Bishan-Toa Payoh GRC.

Davinder withdrew from the 2006 general elections.^[2]

Trivia[link]

• Davinder Singh was part of the famous NUS law school moot team which won the Philip C Jessup International Law moot competition in 1982, a first for NUS. The other members of the team included V K Rajah, Jimmy Yim, and Steven Chong, all of whom are Senior Counsel.

References[link]

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