An artistic portrayal of an act performed on a woman, furtively while a formal party is in progress

Oral sex is sexual activity involving the stimulation of the genitalia of a sex partner by the use of the mouth, tongue, teeth or throat. Cunnilingus refers to oral sex performed on females while fellatio refer to oral sex performed on males. Anilingus refers to oral stimulation of a person's anus. Oral stimulation of other parts of the body (as in kissing and licking) is usually not considered oral sex. People may engage in oral sex as part of foreplay before sexual intercourse, during, or as intercourse.

Practice[link]

Sexual variants[link]

Facesitting is a form of oral sex in which the receiver sits on the giver's face and pushes into it with his or her genitals. Oral sex can be performed by both partners at the same time in the so-called "sixty-nine" position.

Spitting and/or swallowing of the ejaculatory fluids or giving a pearl necklace may cause different sexual stimulations.

Autofellatio is a possible but rare variant; autocunnilingus may also be possible for women with extremely flexible spines.

An act of group sex restricted to one woman giving oral sex to several men is referred to as a gangsuck, blowbang or lineup, all derivatives of the slang expression gang bang for group sex. Bukkake and gokkun may also involve oral sex, though not necessarily.

Contraception and safe sex[link]

Oral sex may be practiced by people of all sexual orientations. In heterosexual contexts, oral sex is used by some couples as a method of contraception and may be chosen as an alternative to vaginal intercourse for this reason. Oral sex alone cannot result in pregnancy.^[1] Under any normal circumstances, there is no way for sperm from the penis to enter the uterus and Fallopian tubes to fertilize an egg; in humans, there is no connection between the gastrointestinal system and the reproductive tract.^{[nb 1]} Ingested sperm will be killed and broken down by acid in the stomach and proteins in the small intestine. The breakdown products will be absorbed as a negligible quantity of nutrients. However, the act does carry a potential risk of pregnancy if semen from the man comes in contact with the vaginal area indirectly. This can occur if the semen in the ejaculate is carried on the fingers, hands, or other body parts; and comes in contact with the vaginal area. It is therefore still necessary to exercise caution when having oral sex to prevent pregnancy.

Oral sexual activities are not necessarily effective methods of preventing sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), although some forms of STD are believed to be less easily spread in this way, and oral sex has been recommended as a form of safe sex.^[2][3][4] In the United States, no barrier methods for use during oral sex have been evaluated as effective by the Food and Drug Administration.^[5] However, a barrier protection like a condom for fellatio or dental dam for cunnilingus can offer some protection from contact when practicing oral sex.^[6] Oral contact should be limited to the protected areas. A makeshift dental dam can be made out of a condom^[7] or a latex or nitrile glove.^[8] However using a real dental dam is seen as preferable because real dental dams cover a larger area, avoid accidents caused by "slipping" outside the covered area, and avoid the risk that makeshift versions may be accidentally damaged or poked with the scissors during the cutting procedure. Plastic wrap may also be used as a barrier during oral sex, but there exists no conclusive scientific research regarding how effective it may or may not be at preventing disease transmission.^[9] Certain kinds of plastic wrap are manufactured to be microwaveable and are designed to have pores that open when heated, but there also exists no scientific research on what effect, if any, this has on disease transmission when used during oral sex.^[10] Some people complain that the thickness of the plastic dulls sensation.

A report issued in September 2005 by the National Center for Health Statistics was the basis of an article in the September 26, 2005, issue of Time magazine. The report comes from the results of a computer-administered survey of over 12,000 Americans between the ages of 15 and 44, and states that over half the teenagers questioned have had oral sex. While some headlines have interpreted this as evidence that oral sex among teenagers is "on the rise", this was the first comprehensive study of its kind to examine the matter.^[11]

Preserving virginity[link]

Among heterosexuals in particular, oral sex is often regarded as "third base" and is usually viewed as preserving male or female virginity, due to its non-procreative nature. This is especially exercised in the case of female virginity, as oral sex (which can be penetrative or non-penetrative) may leave the hymen intact. Among sexually active heterosexuals, the concept of "technical virginity", which includes oral sex, anal sex, mutual masturbation and other non-penetrative acts, is conceived as resting solely on penile-vaginal penetration.^{[12][13][14][15][16][17]} Since the early 1990s, "technical virginity" has been popular among teenagers.^[12][17] Additionally, gay males may consider oral sex to be "technical virginity" in comparison to anal penetration.^[18]

Health risks and other studies[link]

STDs[link]

Chlamydia, human papillomavirus (HPV), gonorrhea, herpes, hepatitis (multiple strains), and other sexually transmitted diseases (STDs)—including HIV—can be transmitted through oral sex.^[19] While the exact risk of transmitting HIV through oral sex is unknown, it is generally thought to be lower than other sex practices.^[20] The risks from most of these types of infections are generally considered far less than those associated with vaginal or anal sex.^[2][3][4]

If the receiving partner has wounds or open sores on their genitals, or if the giving partner has wounds or open sores on or in their mouth, or bleeding gums, this poses an increased risk of STD transmission. Brushing the teeth, flossing, undergoing dental work, or eating crunchy foods such as chips relatively soon before or after giving oral sex can also increase the risk of transmission, because all of these activities can cause small scratches in the lining of the mouth. These wounds, even when they are microscopic, increase the chances of contracting STDs that can be transmitted orally under these conditions. Such contact can also lead to more mundane infections from common bacteria and viruses found in, around, and secreted from the genital regions.

HPV and oral cancer[link]

Links have been reported between oral cancer and oral sex with HPV-infected people.^[21] In 2005, a research study at the College of Malmö in Sweden suggested that performing unprotected oral sex on a person infected with HPV might increase the risk of oral cancer. The study found that 36 percent of the cancer patients had HPV compared to only 1 percent of the healthy control group.^[22]

Another recent study suggests a correlation between oral sex and head and neck cancer. It is believed that this is due to the transmission of human papillomavirus (HPV), a virus that has been implicated in the majority of cervical cancers and which has been detected in throat cancer tissue in numerous studies. The New England Journal of Medicine study concluded that people who had one to five oral-sex partners in their lifetime had approximately a doubled risk of throat cancer compared with those who never engaged in this activity and those with more than five oral-sex partners had a 250% increased risk.^[23][24]

Miscarriage reduction[link]

Oral sex is correlated with reducing the risk of miscarriages by inducing immunological tolerance to the proteins in sperm, a process known as paternal tolerance. While any exposure to a partner's semen during sexual activity appears to decrease a woman's chances for the various immunological disorders that can occur during pregnancy, immunological tolerance could be most quickly established through oral introduction and gastrointestinal absorption of semen.^[25][26] Recognizing that some of the studies potentially included the presence of confounding factors, such as the possibility that women who regularly perform oral sex and swallow semen also engage in more frequent intercourse, the researchers also noted that, either way, "the data still overwhelmingly supports the main theory" behind all their studies—that repeated exposure to semen establishes the maternal immunological tolerance necessary for a safe and successful pregnancy.^[26][27]

Cultural attitudes[link]

Fellatio in 69 position

Cultural attitudes towards oral sex range from disgust to reverence: in Ancient Rome, fellatio was considered profoundly taboo,^[28] whereas in Chinese Taoism, cunnilingus is revered as a spiritually fulfilling practice that is believed to enhance longevity.^[29] In modern Western culture, oral sex is widely practiced among adolescents^[11] and adults.

Oral sex had been considered to be a taboo or at least frowned upon in many cultures and parts of the world.^[30] People give various reasons for this. Some say that this sexual act does not lead to procreation and is therefore not natural.^[31] Others claim that it is a humiliating and/or unclean practice (an opinion that is, at least in some cases, connected with the symbolism attached to different parts of the body).^[32] This has been more or less the case in Christian and Sub-Saharan African cultures, and Ancient Rome. Similar lines of reasoning have been espoused by some modern religious authorities in Islamic cultures^{[citation needed]}.

Cunnilingus, or oral sex performed on a woman. Drawing by Francesco Hayez

It has been observed that animals of many species engage in oral sex.^[33][34][35] The desire to explore something with our mouths is very easy to observe as an intuitive and natural impulse. It has also been suggested that there is an evolutionary advantage due to the tendency of primates, non-primates and humans to have oral sex.^[36] There is some anthropological evidence for cunnilingus as a widespread activity amongst Australian aboriginals.^[37]

In pre-Christian Ancient Rome, sexual acts were generally seen through the prism of submission and control. This is apparent in the two Latin words for the act: irrumare (to penetrate orally), and fellare (to be penetrated orally)^{[citation needed]}. Under this system, it was considered to be abhorrent for a male to perform fellatio, since that would mean that he was penetrated (controlled), whereas receiving fellatio from a woman or another man of lower social status (such as a slave or debtor) was not humiliating. The Romans regarded oral sex as being far more shameful than, for example, anal sex – known practitioners were supposed to have foul breath and were often unwelcome as guests at a dinner table.^[28]

Terminology and slang[link]

There are many words describing oral sex, including euphemisms and slang. Like all aspects of sexuality, there exists a very large number of variations on a theme, a few common ones are given here:

• Giving head – A common slang term for giving oral sex to either a man or woman is "giving head", from the term "head job" (in contrast to "hand job", manual stimulation). A play on the slang term "head" resulted in the slang term "brains", or "brain salad surgery", "domes" or "getting domes."^[38]
• Plate – A once common British rhyming slang for "fellate" that arose in the gay slang language of Polari that spread in the 1960s. The term is less common today.^{[39][dead link]}
• Cunnilingus is also sometimes referred to as "muff diving", "eating out" or "poon-job", a slang term and a cunnilingus variant of "blow job", where "poon" is short for poontang or punani.
• Additionally, in lesbian culture several common slang terms used are "carpet munching", "giving lip", "lip service" or "tipping the velvet" (a faux-"Victorian" expression invented by novelist Sarah Waters).

Additional slang terms for oral sex include "going down on" (female and male), "licking out" (female), "blow job" (male), "dome" (female and male)^[40]

See also[link]

Sexuality portal

References[link]

Notes[link]

Works cited[link]

• James N. Adams, The Latin Sexual Vocabulary (Johns Hopkins, 1990) ISBN 0-8018-2968-2
• Jacqueline Franklin, The Ultimate Kiss: Oral Lovemaking, A Sensual Guide for Couples (Los Angeles: Media Press, 2001) ISBN 0-917181-17-4

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Oral sex

Health aspects

• Discovery Health on Cunnilingus
• Oral sex and HIV (from CDC)

The male gamete (sperm) fertilizing the female gamete (egg cell)

In biology, sexual reproduction is a process of combining and mixing genetic traits, often resulting in the specialization of organisms into a male or female variety, each known as a sex. Sexual reproduction involves combining specialized cells (gametes) to form offspring that inherit traits from both parents. Gametes can be identical in form and function (known as isogametes), but in many cases an asymmetry has evolved such that two sex-specific types of gametes (heterogametes) exist: male gametes are small, motile, and optimized to transport their genetic information over a distance, while female gametes are large, non-motile and contain the nutrients necessary for the early development of the young organism.

An organism's sex is defined by the gametes it produces: males produce male gametes (spermatozoa, or sperm) while females produce female gametes (ova, or egg cells); individual organisms which produce both male and female gametes are termed hermaphroditic. Frequently, physical differences are associated with the different sexes of an organism; these sexual dimorphisms can reflect the different reproductive pressures the sexes experience.

Evolution[link]

It is considered that sexual reproduction first appeared about a billion years ago, evolved within ancestral single-celled eukaryotes.^[1] The reason for the initial evolution of sex, and the reason(s) it has survived to the present, are still matters of debate. Some of the many plausible theories include: that sex creates variation among offspring, sex helps in the spread of advantageous traits, and that sex helps in the removal of disadvantageous traits.

Sexual reproduction is a process specific to eukaryotes, organisms whose cells contain a nucleus and mitochondria. In addition to animals, plants, and fungi, other eukaryotes (e.g. the malaria parasite) also engage in sexual reproduction. Some bacteria use conjugation to transfer genetic material between cells; while not the same as sexual reproduction, this also results in the mixture of genetic traits.

What is considered defining of sexual reproduction is the difference between the gametes and the binary nature of fertilization. Multiplicity of gamete types within a species would still be considered a form of sexual reproduction. However, no third gamete is known in multicellular animals.^[2][3][4]

While the evolution of sex itself dates to the eukaryote stage, the origin of chromosomal sex determination is younger. The ZW sex-determination system is shared by birds, some fish and some crustaceans. Most mammals, but also some insects (Drosophila) and plants (Ginkgo) use XY sex-determination. X0 sex-determination is found in certain insects.

No genes are shared between the avian ZW and mammal XY chromosomes,^[5] and from a comparison between chicken and human, the Z chromosome appeared similar to the autosomal chromosome 9 in human, rather than X or Y, suggesting that the ZW and XY sex-determination systems do not share an origin, but that the sex chromosomes are derived from autosomal chromosomes of the common ancestor of birds and mammals. A paper from 2004 compared the chicken Z chromosome with platypus X chromosomes and suggested that the two systems are related.^[6]

Sexual reproduction[link]

The life cycle of sexually reproducing organisms cycles through haploid and diploid stages.

Sexual reproduction is a process where organisms form offspring that combine genetic traits from both parents. Chromosomes are passed on from one generation to the next in this process. Each cell in the offspring has half the chromosomes of the mother and half of the father.^[7] Genetic traits are contained within the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) of chromosomes – by combining one of each type of chromosomes from each parent, an organism is formed containing a doubled set of chromosomes. This double-chromosome stage is called "diploid", while the single-chromosome stage is "haploid". Diploid organisms can, in turn, form haploid cells (gametes) that randomly contain one of each of the chromosome pairs, via a process called meiosis.^[8] Meiosis also involves a stage of chromosomal crossover, in which regions of DNA are exchanged between matched types of chromosomes, to form a new pair of mixed chromosomes. Crossing over and fertilization (the recombining of single sets of chromosomes to make a new diploid) result in the new organism containing a different set of genetic traits from either parent.

In many organisms, the haploid stage has been reduced to just gametes specialized to recombine and form a new diploid organism; in others, the gametes are capable of undergoing cell division to produce multicellular haploid organisms. In either case, gametes may be externally similar, particularly in size (isogamy), or may have evolved an asymmetry such that the gametes are different in size and other aspects (anisogamy).^[9] By convention, the larger gamete (called an ovum, or egg cell) is considered female, while the smaller gamete (called a spermatozoon, or sperm cell) is considered male. An individual that produces exclusively large gametes is female, and one that produces exclusively small gametes is male. An individual that produces both types of gametes is a hermaphrodite; in some cases hermaphrodites are able to self-fertilize and produce offspring on their own, without a second organism.^[10]

Animals[link]

Hoverflies engaging in sexual intercourse

Most sexually reproducing animals spend their lives as diploid organisms, with the haploid stage reduced to single cell gametes.^[11] The gametes of animals have male and female forms—spermatozoa and egg cells. These gametes combine to form embryos which develop into a new organism.

The male gamete, a spermatozoon (produced within a testicle), is a small cell containing a single long flagellum which propels it.^[12] Spermatozoa are extremely reduced cells, lacking many cellular components that would be necessary for embryonic development. They are specialized for motility, seeking out an egg cell and fusing with it in a process called fertilization.

Female gametes are egg cells (produced within ovaries), large immobile cells that contain the nutrients and cellular components necessary for a developing embryo.^[13] Egg cells are often associated with other cells which support the development of the embryo, forming an egg. In mammals, the fertilized embryo instead develops within the female, receiving nutrition directly from its mother.

Animals are usually mobile and seek out a partner of the opposite sex for mating. Animals which live in the water can mate using external fertilization, where the eggs and sperm are released into and combine within the surrounding water.^[14] Most animals that live outside of water, however, must transfer sperm from male to female to achieve internal fertilization.

In most birds, both excretion and reproduction is done through a single posterior opening, called the cloaca—male and female birds touch cloaca to transfer sperm, a process called "cloacal kissing".^[15] In many other terrestrial animals, males use specialized sex organs to assist the transport of sperm—these male sex organs are called intromittent organs. In humans and other mammals this male organ is the penis, which enters the female reproductive tract (called the vagina) to achieve insemination—a process called sexual intercourse. The penis contains a tube through which semen (a fluid containing sperm) travels. In female mammals the vagina connects with the uterus, an organ which directly supports the development of a fertilized embryo within (a process called gestation).

Because of their motility, animal sexual behavior can involve coercive sex. Traumatic insemination, for example, is used by some insect species to inseminate females through a wound in the abdominal cavity – a process detrimental to the female's health.

Plants[link]

Flowers are the sexual organs of flowering plants, usually containing both male and female parts.

Like animals, plants have developed specialized male and female gametes.^[16] Within most familiar plants, male gametes are contained within hard coats, forming pollen. The female gametes of plants are contained within ovules; once fertilized by pollen these form seeds which, like eggs, contain the nutrients necessary for the development of the embryonic plant.

Female (left) and male (right) cones are the sex organs of pines and other conifers.

Many plants have flowers and these are the sexual organs of those plants. Flowers are usually hermaphroditic, producing both male and female gametes. The female parts, in the center of a flower, are the carpels—one or more of these may be merged to form a single pistil. Within carpels are ovules which develop into seeds after fertilization. The male parts of the flower are the stamens: these long filamentous organs are arranged between the pistil and the petals and produce pollen at their tips. When a pollen grain lands upon the top of a carpel, the tissues of the plant react to transport the grain down into the carpel to merge with an ovule, eventually forming seeds.

In pines and other conifers the sex organs are conifer cones and have male and female forms. The more familiar female cones are typically more durable, containing ovules within them. Male cones are smaller and produce pollen which is transported by wind to land in female cones. As with flowers, seeds form within the female cone after pollination.

Because plants are immobile, they depend upon passive methods for transporting pollen grains to other plants. Many plants, including conifers and grasses, produce lightweight pollen which is carried by wind to neighboring plants. Other plants have heavier, sticky pollen that is specialized for transportation by insects. The plants attract these insects with nectar-containing flowers. Insects transport the pollen as they move to other flowers, which also contain female reproductive organs, resulting in pollination.

Fungi[link]

Mushrooms are produced as part of fungal sexual reproduction

Most fungi reproduce sexually, having both a haploid and diploid stage in their life cycles. These fungi are typically isogamous, lacking male and female specialization: haploid fungi grow into contact with each other and then fuse their cells. In some of these cases the fusion is asymmetric, and the cell which donates only a nucleus (and not accompanying cellular material) could arguably be considered "male".^[17]

Some fungi, including baker's yeast, have mating types that create a duality similar to male and female roles. Yeast with the same mating type will not fuse with each other to form diploid cells, only with yeast carrying the other mating type.^[18]

Fungi produce mushrooms as part of their sexual reproduction. Within the mushroom diploid cells are formed, later dividing into haploid spores—the height of the mushroom aids the dispersal of these sexually produced offspring.

Sex helps the spread of advantageous traits through recombination. The diagrams compare evolution of allele frequency in a sexual population (top) and an asexual population (bottom). The vertical axis shows frequency and the horizontal axis shows time. The alleles a/A and b/B occur at random. The advantageous alleles A and B, arising independently, can be rapidly combined by sexual reproduction into the most advantageous combination AB. Asexual reproduction takes longer to achieve this combination, because it can only produce AB if A arises in an individual which already has B, or vice versa.

Sex determination[link]

The most basic sexual system is one in which all organisms are hermaphrodites, producing both male and female gametes—this is true of some animals (e.g. snails) and the majority of flowering plants.^[19] In many cases, however, specialization of sex has evolved such that some organisms produce only male or only female gametes. The biological cause for an organism developing into one sex or the other is called sex determination.

In the majority of species with sex specialization, organisms are either male (producing only male gametes) or female (producing only female gametes). Exceptions are common—for example, in the roundworm C. elegans the two sexes are hermaphrodite and male (a system called androdioecy).

Sometimes an organism's development is intermediate between male and female, a condition called intersex. Sometimes intersex individuals are called "hermaphrodite"; but, unlike biological hermaphrodites, intersex individuals are unusual cases and are not typically fertile in both male and female aspects.

Genetic[link]

Like humans and other mammals, the common fruit fly has an XY sex-determination system.

In genetic sex-determination systems, an organism's sex is determined by the genome it inherits. Genetic sex-determination usually depends on asymmetrically inherited sex chromosomes which carry genetic features that influence development; sex may be determined either by the presence of a sex chromosome or by how many the organism has. Genetic sex-determination, because it is determined by chromosome assortment, usually results in a 1:1 ratio of male and female offspring.

Humans and other mammals have an XY sex-determination system: the Y chromosome carries factors responsible for triggering male development. The default sex, in the absence of a Y chromosome, is female. Thus, XX mammals are female and XY are male. XY sex determination is found in other organisms, including the common fruit fly and some plants.^[19] In some cases, including in the fruit fly, it is the number of X chromosomes that determines sex rather than the presence of a Y chromosome (see below).

In birds, which have a ZW sex-determination system, the opposite is true: the W chromosome carries factors responsible for female development, and default development is male.^[20] In this case ZZ individuals are male and ZW are female. The majority of butterflies and moths also have a ZW sex-determination system. In both XY and ZW sex determination systems, the sex chromosome carrying the critical factors is often significantly smaller, carrying little more than the genes necessary for triggering the development of a given sex.^[21]

Many insects use a sex determination system based on the number of sex chromosomes. This is called X0 sex-determination—the 0 indicates the absence of the sex chromosome. All other chromosomes in these organisms are diploid, but organisms may inherit one or two X chromosomes. In field crickets, for example, insects with a single X chromosome develop as male, while those with two develop as female.^[22] In the nematode C. elegans most worms are self-fertilizing XX hermaphrodites, but occasionally abnormalities in chromosome inheritance regularly give rise to individuals with only one X chromosome—these X0 individuals are fertile males (and half their offspring are male).^[23]

Other insects, including honey bees and ants, use a haplodiploid sex-determination system.^[24] In this case diploid individuals are generally female, and haploid individuals (which develop from unfertilized eggs) are male. This sex-determination system results in highly biased sex ratios, as the sex of offspring is determined by fertilization rather than the assortment of chromosomes during meiosis.

Clownfish are initially male; the largest fish in a group becomes female.

Nongenetic[link]

For many species sex is not determined by inherited traits, but instead by environmental factors experienced during development or later in life. Many reptiles have temperature-dependent sex determination: the temperature embryos experience during their development determines the sex of the organism. In some turtles, for example, males are produced at lower incubation temperatures than females; this difference in critical temperatures can be as little as 1–2°C.

Many fish change sex over the course of their lifespan, a phenomenon called sequential hermaphroditism. In clownfish, smaller fish are male, and the dominant and largest fish in a group becomes female. In many wrasses the opposite is true—most fish are initially female and become male when they reach a certain size. Sequential hermaphrodites may produce both types of gametes over the course of their lifetime, but at any given point they are either female or male.

In some ferns the default sex is hermaphrodite, but ferns which grow in soil that has previously supported hermaphrodites are influenced by residual hormones to instead develop as male.^[25]

Sexual dimorphism[link]

Common Pheasants are sexually dimorphic in both size and appearance.

Many animals have differences between the male and female sexes in size and appearance, a phenomenon called sexual dimorphism. Sexual dimorphisms are often associated with sexual selection – the competition between individuals of one sex to mate with the opposite sex.^[26] Antlers in male deer, for example, are used in combat between males to win reproductive access to female deer. In many cases the male of a species is larger in size; in mammals species with high sexual size dimorphism tend to have highly polygynous mating systems—presumably due to selection for success in competition with other males.

Other animals, including most insects and many fish, have larger females. This may be associated with the cost of producing egg cells, which requires more nutrition than producing sperm—larger females are able to produce more eggs.^[27] Occasionally this dimorphism is extreme, with males reduced to living as parasites dependent on the female.

In birds, males often have a more colourful appearance and may have features (like the long tail of male peacocks) that would seem to put the organism at a disadvantage (e.g. bright colors would seem to make a bird more visible to predators). One proposed explanation for this is the handicap principle.^[28] This hypothesis says that, by demonstrating he can survive with such handicaps, the male is advertising his genetic fitness to females—traits that will benefit daughters as well, who will not be encumbered with such handicaps.

Sex differences in humans include, generally, a larger size and more body hair in men; women have breasts, wider hips, and a higher body fat percentage.

References[link]

Further reading[link]

External links[link]

Find more about Sex on Wikipedia's sister projects:
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	Book: Sex
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• Human Sexual Differentiation by P. C. Sizonenko
• New Scientist article on Sex chromosomes in the platypus

Cathay Pacific
國泰航空公司

275px
IATA CX ICAO CPA Callsign CATHAY
Founded	September 24 1946
Hubs	Hong Kong International Airport
Focus cities	Suvarnabhumi Airport (Bangkok) Singapore Changi Airport Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport (Taipei)
Frequent-flyer program	Asia Miles The Marco Polo Club
Airport lounge	The Arrival The Pier The Wing The Cabin G16 Lounge
Alliance	Oneworld
Subsidiaries	Air Hong Kong Dragonair
Fleet size	138 (+90 orders)
Destinations	112 incl. cargo
Company slogan	People. They make an airline.
Parent company	Swire Pacific
Headquarters	Registered office: One Pacific Place, Hong Kong Head office: Hong Kong International Airport, Chek Lap Kok, Hong Kong
Key people	Christopher Pratt (Chairman) John Slosar (CEO) Tin Loren (Executive Director) Ivan Chu (COO)
Revenue	HK$89,524 million (2010)
Operating income	HK$9,465 million (2010)
Net income	HK$14,048 million (2010)
Website	cathaypacific.com cathaypacificcargo.com

Cathay Pacific (SEHK: 0293) is the flag carrier of Hong Kong, with its head office and main hub located at Hong Kong International Airport, although the airline's registered office is on the 33rd floor of One Pacific Place. The airline's operations include scheduled passenger and cargo services to 114 destinations in 36 countries worldwide, including codeshares and joint ventures, with a fleet of wide-body aircraft, consisting of Airbus A330, Airbus A340, Boeing 747 and Boeing 777 equipment. The airline also operates fifth freedom flights from Bangkok and Taipei, its focus cities. Its wholly owned subsidiary, Dragonair, operates to 30 destinations in the Asia-Pacific region from its Hong Kong base. In 2009, Cathay Pacific and Dragonair carried nearly 23.2 million passengers and over 1.52 million tonnes of cargo and mail.

The airline was founded on September 24 1946 by American Roy C. Farrell and Australian Sydney H. de Kantzow, with each man putting up HK$1 to register the airline. The airline made the world's first non-stop transpolar flight flying over the North Pole in July 1998, and it also operated the maiden flight to arrive at the new Hong Kong International Airport. The airline celebrated its 60th anniversary in 2006; and as of October 2009^[update], its major shareholders are Swire Pacific and Air China. It is reciprocally one of the major shareholders of Air China. Cathay Pacific currently holds the title of the world's third largest airline, measured in terms of market capitalisation, according to the International Air Transport Association.^[1] In 2010, Cathay Pacific became the world's largest international cargo airline, along with main hub Hong Kong International Airport as the world's busiest airport in terms of cargo traffic.^[2]

Cathay Pacific is a founding member of the Oneworld alliance, with its subsidiary, Dragonair, as an affiliate member.

History[link]

1940s and 1950s: The early years[link]

Niki, one of the carrier's first aircraft, outside Cathay City

Cathay Pacific was founded in Hong Kong on September 24 1946 by American Roy Farrell and Australian Sydney de Kantzow.^[3] Both men were ex-air force pilots who had flown the Hump, a route over the Himalayan mountains.^[4] Each man put up HK$1 to register the airline.^[5] Although initially based in Shanghai, the two men moved to Hong Kong where they formally began Cathay Pacific.^[3] They named it Cathay, the ancient name given to China, derived from "Khitan", and Pacific because Farrell speculated that they would one day fly across the Pacific (which happened in the 1970s). The Chinese name for the company "國泰" comes from a Chinese idiom meaning "Grand and Peaceful State".^[6]

According to legend, the airline was conceived by Farrell and some foreign correspondents at the bar of the Manila Hotel.^[3] On Cathay Pacific's maiden voyage, Farrell and de Kantzow flew from Hong Kong to Manila, and later on to Shanghai.^[7] They had a single Douglas DC-3, nicknamed Betsy. The airline initially flew routes between Hong Kong, Sydney, Manila, Singapore, Shanghai, and Canton, while scheduled service was limited to Bangkok, Manila, and Singapore only.^[3]

In 1948 Butterfield & Swire (now known as Swire Group) bought 45% of Cathay Pacific, with Australian National Airways taking 35% and Farrell and de Kantzow taking 10% each.^[5] The new company began operations on 1 July 1948 and was registered as Cathay Pacific (1948) Ltd on 18 October 1948.^[8] Swire later acquired 52% of Cathay Pacific and today the airline is still 40% owned by the Swire Group through Swire Pacific Limited.^[9]

1960s, 1970s, and 1980s: Expansion[link]

This section requires expansion with: more in-depth information about these decades, especially about the 1950s and 1960s..

Lockheed L-1011 TriStar at Osaka International Airport in the old livery

The airline prospered in late 1950s and into the 1960s by buying its archrival, Hong Kong Airways, on 1 July 1959.^[10] Between 1962 and 1967, the airline recorded double digit growth on average every year and the world's first to operate international services to Fukuoka, Nagoya and Osaka in Japan.^[3] Eighteen years after the airline was founded, it carried its one millionth passenger and acquired its first jet engine aircraft Convair 880 in 1964.^[4][11] In the 1970s, Cathay Pacific installed a computerised reservation system and flight simulators. In 1979, the airline acquired its first Boeing 747 and applied for traffic rights to begin flying to London in 1980. Expansion continued into the 1980s, with nonstop service to Vancouver in 1983, with continuing service on to San Francisco in 1986 when an industry-wide boom encouraged route growth to many European and North American centres.^[11] On 15 May 1986, the airline went public and listed in the Main Board of the Hong Kong Stock Exchange.^[12]

1990s: Rebranding, renewal, and Oneworld[link]

In January 1990, Cathay Pacific and its parent company, Swire Pacific, acquired a significant shareholding in Dragonair, and a 75% stake in cargo airline Air Hong Kong in 1994.^[13][14] During the early 1990s, the airline launched a programme to upgrade its passenger service. Also, the green and white striped livery was replaced with the current "brushwing" livery.^[15] In 1994, the airline announced that it would establish its new corporate identity. It planned to implement a 23 million Hong Kong dollar (RM 7.3 million) program to update its image. The fleet was expected to have the new logo in place within four years.^[16]

Cathay Pacific's Boeing 747–400 in old livery.

Later, the airline began a US$9 billion fleet replacement program during the mid-1990s that resulted with it having one of the youngest airline fleets in the world.^[15] In 1996, CITIC Pacific increased its holdings in Cathay Pacific from 10% to 25%, while the Swire Group holding was reduced to 44% as two other Chinese companies, CNAC and CTS also bought substantial holdings.^[4]

On 1 July 1997, administration of Hong Kong was transferred from the UK to the People's Republic of China. Most of the airline's aircraft were registered in Hong Kong and bore a registration beginning with "VR". Under the terms of an agreement within the Sino-British Joint Liaison Group (JLG), all registrations were changed to the prefix "B" by December 1997, which is used by the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China (Taiwan).^[17] Cathay Pacific aircraft formerly carried a painted Union Jack on the tail but these were removed several years prior to the 1997 takeover.^[18][19]

On 21 May 1998, Cathay Pacific became the launch carrier when it took the first delivery of the Boeing 777-300, the newest member of the Boeing 777 family, at a ceremony in Everett.^[20] In February 1999, Cathay Pacific co-founded the Oneworld Alliance.^[21] The airline was hurt by the Asian financial crisis of the late 1990s, but recorded a record HK$5 billion profit in 2000.^[22]

New Hong Kong airport and transpolar flights[link]

On 5 July 1998, Hong Kong Kai Tak Airport witnessed its last commercial departing flight, Cathay Pacific Flight 251 to London Heathrow Airport, after over 73 years of operation. The next day, Cathay Pacific Flight 889, from New York John F. Kennedy International Airport, piloted by Captain Mike Lowes and First Officer Kelvin Ma, was the maiden flight to arrive at the new Hong Kong International Airport, located at Chek Lap Kok, west of Hong Kong.^[23] This flight was also the world's first non-stop transpolar flight from New York to Hong Kong. The flight, dubbed Polar One, takes approximately 16 hours to travel between Hong Kong and New York, saving about three to four hours on journey time, compared to the one stop service via Vancouver. It is Cathay Pacific's longest non-stop flight, as well as one of the longest non-stop flights by distance in the world at 8,055 mi (12,963 km).^[24]

2000s: Industrial troubles and acquisitions[link]

Cathay Pacific operated three A340-600s from 2002 to 2008.

The 2000s saw Cathay Pacific experience labour relations issues, and complete the acquisition of Dragonair. The airline operated the first commercial non-stop transpolar flight from Canada on 19 May 2000, with Cathay Pacific Flight 829 from Toronto to Hong Kong. The flight flew directly over Hudson Bay and passed within 50 nautical miles (93 km; 58 mi) of the North Pole, it took just 14 hours and 59 minutes and saved almost three hours from the normal route, which included a technical stop in Anchorage. It is Cathay Pacific's second longest non-stop flight with a distance of 7,809 mi (12,567 km).^[25]

On 28 November 2002, the airline took delivery of its first Airbus A340-600 aircraft at a ceremony at the Airbus factory in Toulouse. Cathay Pacific was the launch customer in Asia for the A340-600 and the aircraft was the first of three leased from International Lease Finance Corporation (ILFC).^[26] On 1 December 2005, Cathay Pacific announced an order for 16 Boeing 777-300ER aircraft, four on lease from ILFC, to be delivered between September 2007 and July 2010, plus options on 20 more of the type, two of which were converted to orders on 1 June 2006. The airline also ordered 3 more A330-300 the same day, with the delivery of the aircraft scheduled for 2008.^[27][28][29] On 7 August 2007, Cathay Pacific announced that it had placed an additional order for five more wide-body Boeing 777-300ER aircraft for a total price of about US$1.4 billion, increasing its commitment to a total of 23 of the aircraft type.^[30]

The 49ers – employment dispute[link]

In 2001, the Hong Kong Aircrew Officers Association (HKAOA) launched a "work to rule" campaign to further its campaign for pay improvements and changes to roster scheduling practices. The action involved pilots refusing to work flights that were not scheduled on their roster. Although this alone did not cause extensive disruption, rostered pilots began calling in sick for their flights. Combined with the work to rule campaign, the airline was unable to cover all of its scheduled flights and cancellations resulted. Cathay Pacific steadfastly refused to negotiate with the HKAOA under threat of industrial action.^[31]

Airbus A330-300 at Taipei Taoyuan International Airport

On 9 July 2001, reportedly following a comprehensive review of the employment histories of all its pilots, the company fired 49 of its 1,500 pilots. This group became known colloquially as "the 49ers". Nearly half of the fired pilots were captains, representing five percent of the total pilot group. Of the 21 officers of the HKAOA, nine were fired, including four of the seven union negotiators.^[32]

Then-HKAOA president Captain Nigel Demery took the view that "the firing was pure intimidation, a union-bust straight up, designed to be random enough to put the fear in all pilots that they might be next, no reason given".^[32] The dismissals were challenged in a number of legal proceedings, but none were reinstated. The airline later offered the 49 pilots it terminated in 2001 the chance to reapply for pilot positions with its cargo division, guaranteeing such applicants first interviews, subject to passing psychometric testing. Nineteen former employees applied and twelve were offered jobs.^[33]

Current relations between the company and the HKAOA are cordial. The replacement of Captain Demery by Captain Murray Gardner is said to have had a lot to do with this change in relationship. Captain Gardner favoured a more diplomatic and conciliatory approach to dealing with management, and workplace relations between the two groups have been largely conciliatory since 2002.^[34]

On 11 November 2009, 18 of The 49ers succeeded in the Hong Kong Court of First Instance concerning their joint claims for breach of contract, breach of the Employment Ordinance and defamation.

Judge Anselmo Reyes ruled the airline had contravened the Employment Ordinance by dismissing the pilots without a valid reason, adding that they had been sacked primarily because of union activities. He also held that remarks by then chief operating officer Philip Chen Nanlok and current chief executive Tony Tyler after the sackings were defamatory. The judge handed the pilots a victory in their long-running legal battle, with individual awards of HK$3.3 million for defamation together with a month's pay and HK$150,000 for the sackings.

Boeing 747-400 takes off.

On 24 December 2010, judges Frank Stock, Susan Kwan and Johnson Lam of the Court of Appeal overturned the judgment of the lower court to the extent that the claim for wrongful termination of contract was dismissed. The finding that Cathay Pacific wrongly sacked the 18 pilots for their union activities was upheld. The court upheld the defamation claim but reduced the damages for the defamatory comments made by Cathay Pacific management. The judges also modified the judgment awarding payment of legal costs to the pilots and instead said that they should now pay some of Cathay’s costs.^[35]

The leader of the 49er Plaintiffs, Captain John Warham, launched a book titled "The 49ers – The True Story" on 25 March 2011.^[36]

The pilots were awarded leave on 26 October 2011 to take their case to the Court of Final Appeal. The matter was heard before Hon. Mr. Justices Bokhary, Chan & Ribeiro who are all Permanent Judges of the Court of Final Appeal. The matters to be decided upon by the Court will concern wrongful termination of contract and the level of damages for defamation. The case will be heard by the Court of Final Appeal on 27 August 2012.

Acquisition and downsizing of Dragonair[link]

On 9 June 2006, the airline underwent a shareholding realignment under which Dragonair became a wholly owned subsidiary but continued to operate under its own brand. By acquiring Dragonair, this meant gaining more access to the restricted, yet rapidly growing, Mainland China market and more opportunities for sharing of resources. CNAC, and its subsidiary, Air China, acquired a 17.5 percent stake in Cathay Pacific, and the airline doubled its shareholding in Air China to 17.5 percent. CITIC Pacific reduced its shareholding to 17.5 percent and Swire Group reduced its shareholding to 40 percent.^[9][37][38]

A Dragonair Airbus A320-200

Dragonair had originally planned significant international expansion. It was already operating services to Bangkok and Tokyo, and was to have a dedicated cargo fleet of nine Boeing 747-400BCF aircraft by 2009 operating to New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, San Francisco and Columbus.^[39] It had also acquired three Airbus A330-300 aircraft to commence services to Sydney and Seoul.^[40]

Following the acquisition by Cathay Pacific, Dragonair's proposed expansion plans underwent a comprehensive route compatibility analysis with the Cathay network, in an effort to reduce duplication. Dragonair services to Bangkok and Tokyo were terminated, and new services launched to Sendai, Phuket, Manila and Kathmandu. With the merging of similar departments at the two previously separate airlines, some Dragonair staff have had their employment contracts transferred to Cathay Pacific, and others made redundant due to the efficiencies gained in the merger. This has resulted in an approximately 37 percent decrease in the number of staff contractually employed by Dragonair.^[41]

Although there has been speculation that Dragonair will cease as a brand and be fully absorbed into Cathay Pacific, this is unlikely as Dragonair enjoys significant market awareness in regional Chinese markets.^[38]

Economic challenges[link]

Boeing 777-200 at Nagoya, Japan

To celebrate the airline's 60th anniversary in 2006, a year of road shows named the "Cathay Pacific 60th Anniversary Skyshow" was held where the public could see the developments of the airline, play games, meet some of the airline's staff, and view vintage uniforms. Cathay Pacific also introduced anniversary merchandise and in-flight meals served by famous restaurants in Hong Kong in collaboration with the celebrations.^[42]

In June 2008, Cathay Pacific entered into a plea bargain with the United States Department of Justice in respect of antitrust investigations over air cargo price fixing agreements. It was fined US$60 million. The airline has subsequently set up an internal Competition Compliance Office, reporting to Chief Operating Officer John Slosar, to ensure that the Group complies with all relevant competition and antitrust laws in the jurisdiction in which it operates. The breaches for which Cathay Pacific Cargo were being investigated in the U.S. were not illegal under Hong Kong competition law.^[43][44]

Cathay Pacific Boeing 747–400 at Singapore Changi Airport

In March 2009, the airline reported a record full-year loss of HK$8.56 billion for 2008, which was also the carrier's first since the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis. The record loss included fuel-hedging losses of HK$7.6 billion and a HK$468 million charge for a price-fixing fine in the U.S. It had to scrap its final dividend. The hedging losses were a result of locking in fuel prices at higher than prevailing market price. As of the end of 2008, Cathay Pacific has hedged about half of its fuel needs until the end of 2011. The airline at the time estimated that it would face no further cash costs from the hedges if the average market price stood at US$75, enabling it recoup provisions it made in 2008.^[45]

The flattening out of fuel prices resulted in Cathay Pacific recording a paper fuel hedging gain for its half year reports for 2009. However, as a result of the global economic situation, the Group reported an operating loss. Given the current economic climate, and in line with the steps being taken by other major airlines around the world, the airline has undertaken a comprehensive review of all its routes and operations. This has resulted in frequencies being reduced to certain destinations, ad hoc cancellations on other routes, deferred capital expenditure, parked aircraft and introduced a Special Leave Scheme for staff to conserve money.^[46] According to CEO Tony Tyler, the yield from passengers was "hugely down" and the airline had lost "a lot of premium traffic". He noted that it could take 20 passengers in economy to make up for the lost revenue of one fewer first class passenger flying to New York from Hong Kong.^[47]

2010s: Current developments[link]

In 2010, the airline set another record high profit, amounting to HK$14.048 billion despite record losses set in the same decade. At the same time, Cathay Pacific had taken delivery of several new aircraft types, including the Airbus A330-300 and Boeing 777-300ER.^[48] Tony Tyler left his position as CEO at the airline on 31 March 2010 to pursue his new job at the IATA. Chief Operating Officer John Slosar had succeeded Tony Tyler as the new CEO.^[49] In addition, New Zealand's Commerce Commission had dropped charges against Cathay Pacific concerning the air cargo price fixing agreements.^[50]

Corporate affairs and identity[link]

Cathay City, the head office at Hong Kong International Airport

Cathay Pacific's head office, Cathay Pacific City (Traditional: 國泰城, Simplified: 国泰城, Cantonese: gwok3 taai3 sing4, Mandarin: Guótài Chéng), is located at Hong Kong International Airport, although the airline's registered office is on the 33rd floor of One Pacific Place.^[51][52] Cathay Pacific City was scheduled to be built in increments between April and September 1998.^[53] The headquarters opened in 1998.^[54] Previously the airline's headquarters were at the Swire House, which was a complex in Central named after the airline's parent company.^[55]

Branding[link]

Branding and publicity efforts have revolved primarily around the staff and passengers of Cathay Pacific. The airline's first campaign focusing on the passenger was "It's the little things that move you". It was followed by an advertising campaign. "Great Service. Great People. Great Fares."^[56] In 2011, Cathay Pacific rolled out "People. They make an airline." as their latest motto. It was accompanied by a supplementary website "Meet the Team", which introduced some of the staff through profiles. The flash site revealed many behind-the-scenes stories many of which contain inspiring facts about their career life.^[57]

Livery[link]

Boeing 747-400 at London Heathrow Airport

All Cathay Pacific aircraft carry the following livery, logos and trademarks: the "brushwing" livery on the body and on the vertical stabiliser, introduced in the early 1990s; the "Asia's world city" brandline, the Brand Hong Kong logotype and the dragon symbol; the Oneworld logo and the Swire Group logo.^[58][59][60]

The brushwing logo consists of a calligraphic stroke against a green background; the stroke is intended to appear like the wing of a bird. The previous logo, consisting of green and white stripes, was in place from the early 1970s until 1994.^[16]

Prior to 1997, all Cathay Pacific aircraft carried they British flag on the empennage. After the handover, aircraft carry the Brand Hong Kong logo and with HONG KONG or in Chinese 香港 under or beside the Brand Hong Kong logo instead of using the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (HKSAR) flag. In fact, the HKSAR flag has never appeared on any aircraft.

Destinations[link]

Cathay Pacific destinations.

  China (served by Dragonair)

  Cathay Pacific destinations

Cathay Pacific serves 115 destinations in 36 countries and territories on five continents, with a well-developed Asian network. The airline serves a number of gateway cities in North America and Europe, with easy connections with its Oneworld and codeshare partners, American Airlines and British Airways via Los Angeles and London, respectively. In addition, the airline serves 10 French cities via a codeshare partnership with French national rail operator, SNCF, from Paris. The airline also has access to over 17 destinations in China through its subsidiary, Dragonair.^[61]

Cathay Pacific suspended its flight operations to and from Colombo on 26 March 2007 due to security concerns, following the closure of the Bandaranaike International Airport. The services between Hong Kong and Colombo via Bangkok and Singapore have subsequently resumed on 30 March 2008.^[62][63] In 2008, the airline increased services to Auckland, Brisbane, Chennai, Delhi, Dubai, Mumbai, Perth, Singapore and Sydney, while reduced services to Toronto and Vancouver.^[64] In 2009, the airline increased services to Jakarta and Shanghai, while services to Paris were increased from 29 March 2009 to 31 August 2009 and from 18 December 2009 to 6 January 2010. In addition, Jeddah will be Cathay Pacific's second destination in Saudi Arabia from 25 October, while services to Brisbane and San Francisco are temporarily reduced from September to 17 November and October, respectively. In late 2009, services increased back to Toronto and Vancouver at a frequency of twice daily.^[65][66] Cathay Pacific announced it will launch daily passenger service to Chicago operated by Boeing 777-300ER on 1 September 2011 and increase service to New York with a fourth daily flight beginning 27 March 2011.^[67] The airline also launched its four weekly service to Abu Dhabi by Airbus 330-300 on 2 June 2011; the airline's second destination in the United Arab Emirates complementing existing service to Dubai^[68]

Codeshare agreements[link]

Cathay Pacific has codeshare agreements with the following airlines.^[69][70][71]

° indicates as Oneworld alliance partner

The airline also has a codeshare agreement with French high speed trains (SNCF) from TGV station at Paris-Charles de Gaulle Airport to ten French cities.^[61][73]

Fleet[link]

Passenger[link]

Cathay Pacific operates three-class configurations on all of its Boeing 747 and most Boeing 777-300ER fleet, and two-class configurations on all other aircraft. Cathay Pacific is one of the few airlines to solely operate wide-bodied jets. The Boeing customer code for Cathay Pacific is 67 (I.e. 747-467).

Cathay Pacific's average fleet age is 10.6 years at March 2012.

Passenger fleet plans

Cleaning a Boeing 747-400 at London Heathrow Airport

On 8 November 2007, Cathay Pacific announced that it had placed an order for seven additional Boeing 777-300ERs and 10 747-8F freighters with a list price of US$5.2 billion.^[74] In addition, it also took 14 options for the new freighter at that time. This order, if all options are exercised, would make Cathay Pacific the largest operator of 777-300ERs in Asia and largest operator of 747-8Fs in the world.^[75] On 6 December 2007, the airline, already the biggest operator of the Airbus A330, placed a firm order for eight more Airbus A330-300 aircraft valued at approximately US$1.7 billion at list prices. Together with the commitment for 17 long-haul passenger aircraft and freighters announced the previous month, the new aircraft will take the Cathay Pacific Group's fleet size to 200 by 2012. From that 200 aircraft, the airline will operate 155 itself, and the rest will be used by its subsidiaries.^[76]

The airline's CEO, Tony Tyler, stated on 30 October 2007 that the carrier had no plans regarding the purchase of either the Boeing 787 Dreamliner or the Airbus A380 for the time being.^[77] On 8 June 2010, the carrier entered talks with both Boeing and Airbus about adding the 787 Dreamliner and/or the Airbus A350 to their fleet, with Tyler reported to have said that the airline was more interested in acquiring smaller, long-range jets that are better suited for carrying cargo, than it is in acquiring either the Boeing 747-8I or the Airbus A380. The twinjet aircraft would allow Cathay Pacific to both add new destinations to its network, and to replace those 747-400s and A340-300s that currently operate on its long-haul routes alongside 777-300ERs.^[78]

On 11 March 2009, it was reported that the delivery of two aircraft due in 2008 was delayed after a strike at Boeing. Additionally, the delivery of two 747-8 freighters was pushed back to 2010 amid delays at the planemaker.^[45] The delivery positions on new A330-300 and 777-300ER aircraft were deferred due to the economic recession. Cathay Pacific also sent four A340-300 and two 747-400 aircraft to Victorville Airport for storage.^[79]

Cathay Pacific Boeing 777-300ER in Oneworld livery

On 4 August 2010, it was confirmed that Cathay Pacific would buy 30 A350-900s and 6 more 777-300ERs.^[80] The carrier remained open on a potential purchase of the A380 for long-haul and ultra long-haul routes to Australia, the US and Europe, with outgoing CEO Tyler saying "I wouldn't rule out the airline becoming a customer (for the A380) at some point."^[81]

On 8 March 2011, it was reported that the airline had ordered another 15 A330-300s and 10 777-300ERs. The deal also included 2 more A350-900s which will be leased from ILFC.^[82] On 10 August 2011, Cathay Pacific entered into an agreement with Boeing to purchase four 777-300ER passenger aircraft and eight Boeing 777F Freighters.^[83] On 20 January 2012, it was confirmed that Cathay Pacific would buy another 6 A350-900s.^[84]

On 20 August 2011, it was identified that Cathay Pacific would be launching a Premium Economy Class on its new 777-300ERs from March 2012. The aircraft will feature 40 Business Class, 32 Premium Economy Class and 268 Economy Class with the absence of a First Class cabin.^[85] On 22 August 2011, it is expanded the Premium Economy Class offering to its new A330-300s from March 2012. The aircraft will feature 38 Business Class, 28 Premium Economy Class and 175 Economy Class.^[86] Premium Economy Class will also be offered on 4-class 777-300ERs and 747-400s from summer 2012.^[87][88][89]

Cargo[link]

Cathay Pacific Cargo operates a fleet of over 20 freighters to more than 40 destinations around the world, in addition to utilising the cargo space on its passenger aircraft. The cargo subsidiary was established in 1981 with a twice-a-week Hong Kong–Frankfurt–London service operated jointly with Lufthansa.^[90] The cargo division ranked fifth in the freight category of the 2008 The World's Top 25 Airlines by Air Transport World.^[91] Cathay Pacific Cargo handles ost of the airlines' passenger cargo. Together with its cargo routes, it serves more than 80 destinations and is able to operate to destinations that are not in the Cathay Pacific passenger network.

Cargo fleet notes

Boeing 747-200F at Melbourne Airport (2007).

On 5 October 2005, the airline took delivery of its first Boeing 747–400 Boeing Converted Freighter (Boeing 747-400BCF) aircraft that was converted from a passenger plane to a freighter in Xiamen, China. Cathay Pacific Cargo is the launch customer for this aircraft type and it was also the first time Boeing had conducted a major flight test programme outside the United States.^[92] On 22 June 2006, the airline announced an order of six Boeing 747-400ERF freighters, delivered in 2008 and 2009.^[93] On 31 October 2011, Cathay Pacific took delivery of its first Boeing 747-8F.^[94]

On 18 March 2008, Airport Authority Hong Kong (HKAA) awarded Cathay Pacific Services Ltd (CPSL), a wholly owned subsidiary, a non-exclusive 20-year franchise to invest in, design, construct and operate a new air cargo terminal at Hong Kong International Airport (HKIA). The new cargo terminal will be built in the cargo area at the airport, close to the existing cargo servicing facilities, with a site area of approximately 10 hectares. The new cargo terminal will be operated by a separate management team in CPSL.^[95] On 15 January 2009, CPSL signed a supplementary agreement with the HKAA to defer the completion of its new cargo terminal by a maximum of 24 months to mid-2013, in response to the current market conditions. A non disclosed compensation amount for the deferral is included in the supplementary agreement.^[96]

Cathay Pacific new cargo centre in Hong Kong International Airport is expected to be opened by mid 2013. The new cargo terminal is designed to maximise the usage of the site area and provide high land use efficiency of over 25 tonnes per m². It will be equipped with a state-of-the-art Materials Handling System (MHS) that can handle the huge throughput in the limited space with high efficiency. The facility design will enable the most efficient flow of cargo through the terminal and facilitate speedy processing of all types of cargo while allowing for regulatory inspection and monitoring if required. The cargo terminal will deliver shorter cargo delivery times, reduced cut-off times for export cargo, a shorter trans-shipment connection window and shorter truck queue times, all of which are essential to sustain the competitiveness of Hong Kong as a leading cargo hub.

The Cathay Pacific Cargo Centre:

• Designed annual capacity: 2.6 million tonnes
• Site area: approximately 10 hectares
• Construction floor area: 246,000 sq m
• Land-use efficiency: over 25 tonnes per m².

In December 2011, the company took delivery of its first state-of-the-art Boeing 747-8F freighters (B-LJF) in the plane makers factory in Paine Field, Seattle. The Boeing 747-8 Freighter has a higher payload of 154 tonnes and a longer range of 8,130 kilometres (5,050 mi) than the B747-400F that Cathay Pacific Cargo owns.

Special liveries[link]

In 1997, a Boeing 747–200 (B-HIB) named Spirit of Hong Kong, with a special livery, a big traditional Chinese brushstroke character "家" (means family/home), a traditional Chinese wording "繁榮進步 更創新高" painted on the left side of the aircraft and a wording "The Spirit of Hong Kong 97" painted on the right side of the aircraft, to commemorate the handover of Hong Kong back to China.^[97] On 17 January 2000, Spirit of Hong Kong made a return on a Boeing 747-400 (B-HOX) to celebrate the legendary resilience of Hong Kong with a new special livery depicts a young athlete overcoming a series of challenges to reach his goal. A special wording "Same Team. Same Dream." was painted on the left side of the aircraft and a traditional Chinese wording "積極進取 飛越更高理想" was painted on the right side of the aircraft.^{[98][99][100]}

Airbus A330-300 fuselage livery. This aircraft was named Progress Hong Kong.

On 5 July 2002, a Boeing 747–400 (B-HOY), named Asia's world city, carried a special livery, the "Asia's world city" brandline, the Brand Hong Kong logotype and the dragon symbol, to promote Hong Kong around the world.^[101] In January 2008, a new Boeing 777-300ER (B-KPF) was painted in the Asia's world city livery.^[102]

On 29 August 2006, the airline took delivery of its 100th aircraft, an Airbus A330-300 with the registration B-LAD. For the aircraft acceptance ceremony in Toulouse, the aircraft was painted in a 100th aircraft livery with a 60th anniversary sticker behind the second doors (2L and 2R), the wording "100th aircraft", and the traditional Chinese wording "進步精神" painted on the rear of the aircraft.^[103] The aircraft was named Progress Hong Kong, a name that was chosen from a competition by the staff.^[103][104]

In November 2011, Cathay received its second 747-8 Freighter (B-LJA) which was painted in the Hong Kong Trader livery. The livery was designed to commemorate the topping out of the new Cathay Pacific Cargo Terminal. The name of the livery is taken from Cathay Pacific’s very first 747 freighter which entered the fleet in 1982.

Currently, a total of three Cathay Pacific aircraft are painted in the Oneworld livery to commemorate the alliance's 10th anniversary. On 12 March 2009, Cathay Pacific's first Oneworld aircraft, an Airbus A340-300 (B-HXG), was painted in the new, standard Oneworld livery. An additional aircraft, an Airbus A330-300 (B-HLU), has also been painted in the Oneworld livery while a brand-new Boeing 777-300ER (B-KPL) was painted and delivered on 17 October 2009.^{[105][106][107]}

Retired[link]

Since its conception in 1946, the airline had operated many types of aircraft. The first two aircraft were two World War II surplus Douglas DC-3s named Betsy and Niki. Betsy (VR-HDB), the first aircraft for Cathay Pacific, is now a permanent exhibit in the Hong Kong Science Museum. Niki (VR-HDA) was lost, but a similar DC-3 was purchased as a replacement. It was refurbished and repainted by the airline's Engineering Department and maintenance provider, Hong Kong Aircraft Engineering Company, and it now wears the second Cathay Pacific livery from the late 1940s. This aircraft received Niki's old VR-HDA aircraft registration and is now on public view in the car park outside the Flight Training Centre of Cathay City.^[108]

Betsy

Other aircraft that have been in service with Cathay Pacific are (in alphabetical order):

• Airbus A340-200^[109] (leased from Philippine Airlines for three years before delivery of A340-300)
• Airbus A340-600 (leased from ILFC)
• Avro Anson
• Boeing 707–320
• Boeing 747-200B^[109] (all retired in 2009)
• Boeing 747-300 (leased from Pakistan International Airlines since July 2002, 5 were on lease by PIA)^[109]
• Bristol Britannia (leased from BOAC for a few months whilst the Electras were taken out of service due to defects)
• Consolidated PBY Catalina^[110]
• Convair 880^[111]
• Douglas DC-3^[108]
• Douglas DC-4^[112]
• Douglas DC-6
• Lockheed L-1011-100 TriStar^[113]
• Lockheed L-188 Electra

During the late 1980s and early 1990s, Cathay Pacific was the largest operator of the Lockheed TriStar outside the United States.^[113]

Loyalty programmes[link]

Cathay Pacific has two loyalty programmes: The Marco Polo Club (The Club), the loyalty programme, and Asia Miles, the travel reward programme. Members of The Club are automatically enrolled as Asia Miles members.^[114] Asia Miles has been named the "Best Frequent Flyer Programme" in the 2009 Business Traveller Asia-Pacific Travel Awards and is the fifth consecutive year it has won the award.^[115] As of April 2010, there were roughly 3.6 million Asia Miles members and 500,000 Marco Polo members.^[116]