Zhou Dynasty 周朝
Kingdom
← 1046 BC–256 BC →
Population concentration and boundaries of the Western Zhou Dynasty (1050–771 BC) in China
Capital	Haojing, Luoyang
Language(s)	Old Chinese
Religion	Chinese folk religion, Hundred Schools of Thought
Government	Monarchy/Feudalism
King
- 1046–1043 BC	King Wu
- 314–256 BC	King Nan of Zhou
History
- Battle of Mùyě	1046 BC
- Disestablished	256 BC
Population
- 273 BC est.	30,000,000
- 230 BC est.	38,000,000
Currency	Mostly spade coins and knife coins

History of China
ANCIENT
3 Sovereigns and 5 Emperors
Xia Dynasty 2100–1600 BCE
Shang Dynasty 1600–1046 BCE
Zhou Dynasty 1045–256 BCE
Western Zhou
Eastern Zhou
Spring and Autumn Period
Warring States Period
IMPERIAL
Qin Dynasty 221 BCE–206 BCE
Han Dynasty 206 BCE–220 CE
Western Han
Xin Dynasty
Eastern Han
Three Kingdoms 220–280
Wei, Shu and Wu
Jin Dynasty 265–420
Western Jin	16 Kingdoms 304–439
Eastern Jin
Southern and Northern Dynasties 420–589
Sui Dynasty 581–618
Tang Dynasty 618–907
(Second Zhou 690–705)
5 Dynasties and 10 Kingdoms 907–960	Liao Dynasty 907–1125
Song Dynasty 960–1279
Northern Song		W. Xia
Southern Song	Jin
Yuan Dynasty 1271–1368
Ming Dynasty 1368–1644
Qing Dynasty 1644–1911
MODERN
Republic of China 1912–1949
People's Republic of China 1949–present	Republic of China (Taiwan) 1949–present
Related articles  Chinese historiography Timeline of Chinese history Dynasties in Chinese history Linguistic history Art history Economic history Education history Science and technology history Legal history Media history Military history Naval history
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The Zhou Dynasty (1046–256 BC) (Chinese: 周朝; pinyin: Zhōu Cháo; Wade–Giles: Chou Ch'ao [tʂóʊ tʂʰɑ̌ʊ]) was a Chinese dynasty that followed the Shang Dynasty and preceded the Qin Dynasty. Although the Zhou Dynasty lasted longer than any other dynasty in Chinese history, the actual political and military control of China by the Ji (Chinese: 姬) family lasted only until 771 BC, a period known as the Western Zhou.

During the Zhou Dynasty, the use of iron was introduced to China,^[1] though this period of Chinese history produced what many consider the zenith of Chinese bronze-ware making. The dynasty also spans the period in which the written script evolved into its modern form with the use of an archaic clerical script that emerged during the late Warring States period.

History[link]

Foundation[link]

According to Chinese legend, the Zhou lineage began with Emperor Ku and proceeded from him to Qi, Buku, Ju, and then Gongliu,^[2] before Gugong Danfu^[a] moved the Zhou clan from Bin (豳 or 邠)^[b] to an area in the Wei River valley,^[c] where they founded a town that became central to the Zhou clan's growing prosperity.

Gugong Danfu's son, Jili,^[d] fought against the Rong as a vassal of the Shang Dynasty's King Wen Ding until the king killed him. Jili's son, King Wen of Zhou, moved the Zhou capital downstream to Fenghao.^[e] Around 1046 BC, Wen's son, King Wu of Zhou, led an army of 45,000 men and 300 chariots across the Yellow River and defeated the Shang King Di Xin at the Battle of Muye, marking the beginning of the Zhou Dynasty.^[f]

Western and Eastern Zhou[link]

States of the Western Zhou Dynasty

Though King Wu died just a few years after the Battle of Muye, the Duke of Zhou assisted the young and inexperienced King Cheng in consolidating power for the Ji line: he managed a war against rebellious Zhou princes in the eastern lowlands (allied with feudal rulers and Shang remnants);^[5][6] formulated the Mandate of Heaven doctrine to counter Shang claims to a divine right of rule; founded Chengzhou as an eastern capital;^[7] and set up the fengjian "feudal" system designed to maintain Zhou authority as it expanded its rule over a larger amount of territory.^[5]

However, this decentralized system became strained as the familial relationship between Zhou Kings and regional rulers thinned over generations and peripheral territories developed local power and prestige on par with that of the Zhou.^[8] When King You replaced Queen Shen with the concubine Baosi (and designated Baosì's son as the crown prince), the former queen’s powerful father, the Marquess of Shen, joined forces with Quanrong to sack the western capital of Haojing in 770 BC. Nobles from Zheng, Lu, Qin, Xu, and Shen declared the Marquess's grandson, Ji Yijiu, as the new king. The capital was moved eastward in 770 BC from Haojing to Chengzhou. Because of this shift, historians divide the Zhou era into the Western Zhou (Chinese: 西周; pinyin: Xī Zhōu), lasting up until 771 BC, and the Eastern Zhou (Chinese: 東周; pinyin: Dōng Zhōu) from 770 up to 256 BC.

The Eastern Zhou period, characterized by a breakup of Zhou territory into states that were essentially independent,^[8] is further divided into two sub-periods. The first, from 722 to 481 BC, is called the Spring and Autumn Period, after a famous historical chronicle of the time; the second is known as the Warring States Period (403–221 BC^[g]), after another famous chronicle and initiated by the partitioning of Jin.

The Eastern Zhou period is also designated as the period of the Hundred Schools of Thought, a golden age of influential cultural and intellectual expansion facilitated by relative freedom of expression. Although there were a host of schools, four of them came to influence Chinese government and culture in meaningful ways: Confucianism, Mohism, Taoism and Legalism. The changes brought on played a large part in the decline of the Zhou dynasty.^[9]

Decline[link]

With the royal line broken, the power of the Zhou court gradually diminished, and the fragmentation of the kingdom accelerated. From King Ping's reign onwards, the Zhou kings ruled in name only, with true power lying in the hands of regional nobles. Towards the end of the Zhou Dynasty, the nobles did not even bother to symbolically acknowledge loyalty to the Ji family, declaring themselves to be independent kings. The dynasty ended in 256 BC when the last king of Zhou died and none of his sons proclaimed the nominal title of King of China. Qin Shi Huang's unification of China concluded in 221 BC with the establishment of the Qin Dynasty.

Culture and society[link]

Feudalism and the rise of Confucian bureaucracy[link]

A Western Zhou ceremonial bronze of cooking-vessel form inscribed to record that the King of Zhou gave a fiefdom to Shi You, ordering that he inherit the title as well as the land and people living there

Western writers often describe the Zhou period as "feudal" because the Zhou's early rule invites comparison with medieval rule in Europe. There were five peerage ranks below the royal ranks, in descending order with common English translations: gōng 公 "duke", hóu 侯 "marquis", bó 伯 "count", zǐ 子 "viscount" (also extensively used as an honorific) and nán 男 "baron".^[10]

Despite some similarities in the decentralized system there are a number of important differences from medieval Europe. One obvious difference is that the Zhou ruled from walled cities rather than castles. The Chinese term for the Zhou system is fēngjiàn (封建). When the dynasty was established, the conquered land was divided into hereditary fiefs that eventually became powerful in their own right. The fiefs or states themselves tended to become feudally subdivided. At times, a vigorous duke would take power from his nobles and centralize the state. Centralization became more necessary as the states began to war among themselves and decentralization encouraged more war. If a duke took power from his nobles, the state would have to be administered bureaucratically by appointed officials.

The lowest rank of the Zhou ruling class was called Shi (士). When a dukedom was centralized these people would find employment as government officials or officers. In contrast to Western chivalry, the Shi was expected to be something of a scholar. Being appointed, they could move from one state to another. Some would travel from state to state peddling schemes of administrative or military reform. Those who could not find employment would often end up teaching young men who aspired to official status. The most famous of these was Confucius, who taught a system of mutual duty between superiors and inferiors. In contrast, the Legalists had no time for Confucian virtue and advocated a system of strict laws and harsh punishments. The wars of the Warring States were finally ended by the most legalist state of all, Qin. When the Qin Dynasty fell and was replaced by the Han Dynasty, many Chinese were relieved to return to the more humane virtues of Confucius.

Military[link]

The early Western Zhou supported a strong army, split into two major units: "the Six Armies of the west" and "the Eight Armies of Chengzhou". The armies campaigned in the northern Loess Plateau, modern Ningxia and the Yellow River floodplain. The military prowess of Zhou peaked during the 19th year of King Zhao's reign, when the six armies were wiped out along with King Zhao on a campaign around the Han River. Early Zhou kings were true commanders-in-chief. They were in constant wars with barbarians on behalf of the fiefs called guo, meaning "statelet" or "principality."

King Zhao was famous for repeated campaigns in the Yangtze areas and died in his last action. Later kings' campaigns were less effective. King Li led 14 armies against barbarians in the south, but failed to achieve any victory. King Xuan fought the Quanrong nomads in vain. King You was killed by the Quanrong when Haojing was sacked. Although chariots had been introduced to China during the Shang Dynasty from Central Asia, the Zhou period saw the first major use of chariots in battle.^[11][12]

Mandate of Heaven[link]

A Western Zhou bronze gui vessel, c. 1000 BC

In the Chinese historical tradition, the Zhou defeated the Shang and oriented the Shang system of ancestor worship towards a universalized worship, away from the worship of Shangdi and to that of Tian or "heaven". They legitimized their rule by invoking the "Mandate of Heaven," the notion that the ruler (the "Son of Heaven") governed by divine right and that his dethronement would prove that he had lost the Mandate. Disasters and successful rebellions would thus show that the ruling family had lost this Mandate.

The doctrine explained and justified the demise of the Xia and Shang dynasties and, at the same time, supported the legitimacy of present and future rulers. Before conquering Shang, Zhou was a state in Shaanxi. Gernet (1996:51) describes the Zhou state as a "city" which was in contact with the barbarian peoples of the western regions and more warlike than the Shang. The Zhou dynasty was founded by the Ji family and operated from four capitals throughout its history.^[13] Sharing the language and culture of the Shang, the early Zhou rulers, through conquest and colonization, established a large imperial territory wherein states as far as Shandong acknowledged Zhou rulership and took part in elite culture. The spread of Zhou bronzes, though, was concurrent with the continued use of Shang-style pottery in the distant regions, and these states were the last to recede during the late Western war. The mandate of heaven was based on rules. The emperor was granted the right to rule by heaven.

Philosophy[link]

During the Zhou Dynasty, the origins of native Chinese philosophy developed, its initial stages beginning in the 6th century BC. The greatest Chinese philosophers, those who made the greatest impact on later generations of Chinese, were Confucius, founder of Confucianism, and Laozi, founder of Taoism. Other philosophers, theorists, and schools of thought in this era were Mozi, founder of Mohism; Mencius, a famous Confucian who expanded upon Confucius' legacy; Shang Yang and Han Fei, responsible for the development of ancient Chinese Legalism (the core philosophy of the Qin Dynasty); and Xun Zi, who was arguably the center of ancient Chinese intellectual life during his time, even more so than iconic intellectual figures such as Mencius.^[14]

Li[link]

Established during the Western period, the Li traditional Chinese: 禮; simplified Chinese: 礼; pinyin: lǐ) ritual system encoded an understanding of manners as an expression of the social hierarchy, ethics, and regulation concerning material life; the corresponding social practices became idealized within Confucian ideology.

The system was canonized in the Book of Rites, Zhouli, and Yili compendiums of the Han Dynasty (206 BC–220 AD), thus becoming the heart of the Chinese imperial ideology. While the system was initially a respected body of concrete regulations, the fragmentation of the Western Zhou period led the ritual to drift towards moralization and formalization in regard to:

• The five orders of Chinese nobility.
• Ancestral temples (size, legitimate number of pavilions)
• Ceremonial regulations (number of ritual vessels, musical instruments, people in the dancing troupe)

Agriculture[link]

Zhou vase with glass inlays, 4th-3rd century BC, British Museum.

Agriculture in the Zhou Dynasty was very intensive and, in many cases, directed by the government. All farming lands were owned by nobles, who then gave their land to their serfs, a situation similar to European feudalism. For example, a piece of land was divided into nine squares in the well-field system, with the grain from the middle square taken by the government and that of surrounding squares kept by individual farmers. This way, the government was able to store surplus food and distribute it in times of famine or bad harvest. Some important manufacturing sectors during this period included bronze smelting, which was integral to making weapons and farming tools. Again, these industries were dominated by the nobility who directed the production of such materials.

China's first projects of hydraulic engineering were initiated during the Zhou Dynasty, ultimately as a means to aid agricultural irrigation. The chancellor of Wei, Sunshu Ao, who served King Zhuang of Chu, dammed a river to create an enormous irrigation reservoir in modern-day northern Anhui province. For this, Sunshu is credited as China's first hydraulic engineer. The later Wei statesman Ximen Bao, who served Marquis Wen of Wei (445-396 BC), was the first hydraulic engineer of China to have created a large irrigation canal system. As the main focus of his grandiose project, his canal work eventually diverted the waters of the entire Zhang River to a spot further up the Yellow River.

Art gallery[link]

Western Zhou[link]

• 

  Defang bronze ritual vessel

• 

  Dake bronze ritual vessel

• 

  You bronze ritual vessel

• 

  Qizhong Hu bronze vessel

• 

  Bronze mirror holder c. 1000 BC (Hainan Provincial Museum)

Spring and Autumn period[link]

• 

  Dou vessel with a hunting scene

• 

  A bo bell of the Duke of Qin

• 

  Pu vessel with dragon designs

• 

  bronze ding vessel

• 

  bronze musical bell

• 

  bronze vessels (rightmost from Western Zhou)

• 

  A square bronze hu vessel

• 

  bronze bird-shaped wine server

• 

  Western Zhou Dynasty musical bronze bell

• 

  Silk painting of a man railing a dragon, 6th century BC

Warring States period[link]

• 

  bronze ritual food vessel (ding) with lacquer design, 5th-4th century BC

• 

  A jade bi with two dragons

• 

  embroidered silk gauze garment from a 4th century BC tomb at Mashan, Hubei province

• 

  bronze and silver canteen

Kings[link]

Below dates are those published by the Xia–Shang–Zhou Chronology Project (dates in Chinese history before the first year of the Gonghe Regency in 841 BC are contentious).

Nobles of the Ji family proclaimed Duke Hui of Eastern Zhou as King Nan's successor after their capital, Chengzhou, fell to Qin forces in 256 BC. Ji Zhao, a son of King Nan led a resistance against Qin for five years. The dukedom fell in 249 BC. The remaining Ji family ruled Yan and Wei until 209 BC.

Zhou in astronomy[link]

Zhou is represented by two stars, Eta Capricorni (周一 Zhōu yī, "the First Star of Zhou") and 21 Capricorni (周二 Zhōu èr, "the Second Star of Zhou"), in "Twelve States" asterism.^[15] Zhou is also represented by the star Beta Serpentis in asterism "Right Wall", Heavenly Market enclosure (see Chinese constellation).^[16]

See also[link]

	China portal
	History portal

• Family tree of the Zhou Dynasty
• Four occupations
• Historical capitals of China
• Tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng

Notes[link]

References[link]

Works cited

• Chinn, Ann-ping (2007), The Authentic Confucius, Scribner, ISBN 0-7432-4618-7 
• Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; Walthall, Anne; Palais, James B. (2006), East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History, Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, ISBN 0-618-13384-4 
• Gernet, Jacques (1996), A History of Chinese Civilization (Second ed.), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-49781-7 
• Hucker, Charles O. (1978), China to 1850: A short history, Stanford University Press, ISBN 0-8047-0958-0 
• Khayutina, Maria (2003), "Where Was the Western Zhou Capital?", The Warring States Working Group, WSWG-17, Leiden, Germany: Warring States Project, pp. 14, http://www.sinits.com/research/WesternZhouCapital.pdf 
• Schirokauer, Conrad; Brown, Miranda (2006), A Brief History of Chinese Civilization (Second ed.), Wadsworth: Thomson Learning, pp. 25–47 
• Shaughnessy, Edward L. (1988), "Historical Perspectives on The Introduction of The Chariot Into China", Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 48 (1): 189–237 
• Shaughnessy, Edward L. (1999), "Western Zhou History", in Loewe, Michael; Shaughnessy, Edward L., The Cambridge History of Ancient China, pp. 292–351, ISBN 978-0-521-47030-8 
• Wu, K. C. (1982), The Chinese Heritage, New York: Crown Publishers, ISBN 0-517-54475-X 

Further reading[link]

• Feng, Li. 2006. Landscape and Power in Early China: The Crisis and Fall of the Western Zhou 1045-771 BC
• Lee, Yuan-Yuan and Shen, Sinyan. (1999). Chinese Musical Instruments (Chinese Music Monograph Series). Chinese Music Society of North America Press. ISBN 1-880464-03-9
• Shen, Sinyan (1987), Acoustics of Ancient Chinese Bells, Scientific American, 256, 94.
• Sun, Yan. 2006. "Cultural and Political Control in North China: Style and Use of the Bronzes of Yan at Liulihe during the Early Western Zhou." In: Contact and Exchange in the Ancient World. Edited by Victor H. Mair. University of Hawai'i Press, Honolulu. Pages 215–237. ISBN 978-0-8248-2884-4; ISBN 0-8248-2884-4.
• Wagner, D. G. "The Earliest Use of Iron in China" in Metals in Antiquity, Edited by S. M. M. Young, A. M. Pollard, P. Budd and R. A. Ixer, Oxford: Archaeopress. 1999, pp. 1–9.

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Zhou Dynasty

• Chaos.UMD.edu, History of the Zhou Dynasty, Army Area Handbook on China, Rinn-Sup Shinn and Robert L. Worden, compiled by Leon Poon
• Age of Feudal States, Feudal States of the Zhou Dynasty, Jiang Yike
• Chinese Text Project, Rulers of the Zhou states – with links to their occurrences in pre-Qin and Han texts.
• ChinaWikipedia.com, History of China

Zhou Tai (died ca. 223)^[1], style name Youping (幼平), was a military general serving under the warlord Sun Quan during the late Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history.

Biography[link]

Early life and career[link]

Zhou Tai was a native of Jiujiang Commandery, and was depicted as a pirate around the area in Luo Guanzhong's historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, but it is hard to tell if he really practiced piracy because historic records only suggest he was of an obscure origin. Zhou Tai joined Sun Ce's forces as one of Sun's personal retainers, alongside Jiang Qin. When Sun Ce entered Kuaiji, Zhou Tai was appointed Major with a Separate Command, and was given troops to command. It was at this time that Sun Quan took a liking to Zhou Tai's character, and requested for Zhou to be transferred to under his command.

Several times throughout his career, Zhou Tai saved Sun Quan from danger by risking his own life. Once, while Sun Ce was out fighting Shanyue rebels from the caves within the six prefectures of Jiangdong, Sun Quan was left in Xuan with less than a thousand guards. Out of negligence, he did not set up defence posts. Several thousand of Shanyue rebels attacked. By the time Sun Quan mounted his horse, the bandits managed to surround him already. Their weapons, hitting here and there, slashed Sun Quan's saddle, causing great panic all around. Only Zhou Tai, with spirits roused, defended Sun Quan with his body, emboldening those near him and making them able to fight again. When the bandits were finally dispersed, Zhou Tai was found unconscious with 12 deep wounds, which took a long time to heal. Had Zhou Tai not been there on that day, Sun Quan would have surely perished. This deed was greatly appreciated by Sun Ce, who added the title of Chief of Chunju Prefecture to Zhou Tai.

Service under Sun Ce and Sun Quan[link]

Some time after that, Zhou Tai followed Sun Ce to attack Liu Xun at Wan and Huang Zu of Jiangxia, and upon his return he passed by Yuzhang commandery and there he was granted the title of Chief of Yichun Prefecture as well. These prefectures generated all the supplies needed by his troops. Zhou Tai also assisted in the defense against Huang Zu on a few occasions.

Zhou Tai was among the ten Wu generals who participated in the Battle of Red Cliffs; under the leadership of Zhou Yu, the forces of Sun Quan won a decisive victory over the hordes of Cao Cao. Zhou Tai also participated in the siege of Jiangling fortress, which earned Sun Quan Nan Commandery.

As the Controller of Ruxu[link]

Later, when Cao Cao's army launched an assault on Ruxu, Zhou Tai went to meet the attack. After Cao Cao retreated, Zhou Tai was appointed Controller of Ruxu and General who Pacifies the Caitiffs. At the time Zhou Tai stationed at Ruxu fort, Zhu Ran and Xu Sheng were located there as well, and did not want to submit to Zhou Tai's command citing his common background. Thus Sun Quan made a special trip to Ruxu fort, to meet with all the generals there. A great party was held, where Sun Quan personally served wine to Zhou Tai, and asked him to remove his outer garments. Pointing at each scar, Sun Quan asked Zhou Tai the story behind it, whereupon Zhou would respond with his memories of past battles. At the end, Sun Quan had him dressed again, and together they reveled through the night. When the next day came, Sun Quan had a herald grant him his imperial parasol.

An impression of Zhou Tai by an unknown artist

The Jiangbiao Zhuan describes:

Sun Quan held [Zhou Tai's] arm, and tears crossed his face. He called him by his style name, saying, "Youping, you have fought as brave as a bear and a tiger for us two brothers. Not holding back your own life, you have been wounded in several tens of places, and your skin is as if it's been etched on. Can I not treat you as one of my brothers, and bestow the powers of command upon you? You have done great service for Wu, and I would stand with you whether in honour and shame, and share with you in joy and sorrow. Youping, be merry. Do not let the fact that you lack pedigree make you back down from your tasks!" And at that he commanded for the imperial silk parasol of blue veils to be bestowed upon Zhou Tai. After all that, he had his mounts prepared to go, and ordered Zhou Tai lead the way out, in the midst of drums and horns.

Thus Xu Sheng and Zhu Ran conceded, the other generals gained much respect for Zhou Tai and accepted his command.

Death[link]

After Sun Quan defeated Guan Yu, he planned to invade Shu Han. He made Zhou Tai Grand Administrator of Hanzhong in name and General of Roused Valour. He also conferred the title of Marquis of Lingyang onto Zhou Tai. Zhou Tai died during the Huangwu era (222-228).

Zhou Tai's son, Zhou Shao, also commanded troops, in the position of Chief Commandant of the Cavalry. He gained merits in battle when Cao Ren attacked Ruxu, and he also served in Lu Xun's Battle of Shiting against Cao Xiu. Thus he was promoted to the rank of Major General. He died in the second year of Huanglong (230). His younger brother, Zhou Cheng, took command of the troops and inherited the marquisate.

Modern references[link]

Zhou Tai appears as a playable character in Koei's Dynasty Warriors and Warriors Orochi video game series.

See also[link]

• List of people of the Three Kingdoms
• List of Dynasty Warriors characters

References[link]

• Chen Shou. Records of Three Kingdoms, Volume 55, Biography of Zhou Tai.