East Timor

Saturday, 27 October 2012

East Timor

East Timor battles resource giants for back taxes

Noam Chomsky and Nobel Laureate José Ramos-Horta on East Timor 10/12/93

Freedom fighter sworn in as East Timor president

East Timor Massacre Remembered: US-Armed Indonesian Troops Kill 270 Timorese 20 Years Ago

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Abkhazia
Abkhazia ( Apsny, Apkhazeti, Abkhazia) is a political entity on the eastern coast of the Black Sea and the south-western flank of the Caucasus whose status is disputed. It considers itself an independent state (the Republic of Abkhazia). This is recognised by Russia, Nicaragua, Venezuela, Nauru, South Ossetia and Transnistria.
http://wn.com/Abkhazia
Accra
Accra ( or ) is the capital and largest city in Ghana with the population of the city proper estimated at 1,963,264 as of 2009. Accra also doubles as the capital of the Greater Accra Region and of the Accra Metropolitan District with which it is coterminous. Accra is also the anchor of a substantially larger metropolitan area called the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area and includes eight districts - Accra Metropolitan, Tema Metropolitan, Ga East Municipal, Ga West Municipal, Ga South Municipal, Ledzokuku-Krowor Municipal, Ashaiman Municipal and Adenta Municipal. It is home to about 4 million people, making it the largest metropolitan conglomeration in the country by population. As a primate city, Accra is the administrative, communications, and economic centre of the country.
http://wn.com/Accra
Afghanistan
{{Infobox country
http://wn.com/Afghanistan
Agadir
http://wn.com/Agadir
Aileu
Aileu is the main township in Aileu District, East Timor. It is located 47km southwest of Dili, the national capital, Dili and has a population of 17,356.
http://wn.com/Aileu
Aileu District
http://wn.com/Aileu_District
Ainaro
Ainaro is a town in East Timor, the capital of the Ainaro District, and is located in the southwest part of the country. The subdistrict has a population of approximately 12,000 people. It contains the small mountain town of Ainaro, the district capital, along with the villages of Soro, Maununo, Cassa, Suro Craic, Manutassi, and Mau-Ulo. The town of Ainaro is located 78 km south of Dili, the national capital.
http://wn.com/Ainaro
Ainaro District
Ainaro is one of 13 administrative districts of East Timor, in the southwest part of the country. It has a population of 53,629 (census 2004) and an area of 797 km2. Its capital is the city of Ainaro, a small mountain town.
http://wn.com/Ainaro_District
Algeria
http://wn.com/Algeria
Andorra
Andorra , officially the Principality of Andorra (), also called the Principality of the Valleys of Andorra, (), is a small country in southwestern Europe, located in the eastern Pyrenees mountains and bordered by Spain and France. It is the sixth smallest nation in Europe having an area of and an estimated population of 83,888 in 2009. Its capital, Andorra la Vella, is the highest capital city in Europe, being at an elevation of 1023 metres. The official language is Catalan, although Spanish, French, and Portuguese are also commonly spoken.
http://wn.com/Andorra
Angola
Angola, officially the Republic of Angola (, ; ), is a country in south-central Africa bordered by Namibia on the south, Democratic Republic of the Congo on the north, and Zambia on the east; its west coast is on the Atlantic Ocean with Luanda as its capital city. The exclave province of Cabinda has a border with the Republic of the Congo and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
http://wn.com/Angola
Anosy
Anosy is a region in Toliara Province of Madagascar. It borders Androy region in west, Atsimo-Andrefana in north-west, Ihorombe in north and Atsimo-Atsinanana in north-east. This region runs from approximately Manantenina in the northeast corner of the region, west to Ranomafana, west to Esira, south to Amboasary-Sud and back east to Tolagnaro.
http://wn.com/Anosy
Antigua and Barbuda
Antigua and Barbuda (; Spanish for "ancient" and "bearded") is a twin-island nation lying between the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. It consists of two major inhabited islands, Antigua and Barbuda, and a number of smaller islands (including Great Bird, Green, Guinea, Long, Maiden and York Islands). Separated by a few sea miles, the group is in the middle of the Leeward Islands part of the Lesser Antilles, roughly at 17 degrees north of the Equator. Being a former part of the British Empire has strongly influenced the country's governance, language, and culture.
http://wn.com/Antigua_and_Barbuda
Arab League
{{Infobox Country
http://wn.com/Arab_League
Argentina
Argentina (), officially the Argentine Republic (, ), is the second largest country in South America, constituted as a federation of 23 provinces and an autonomous city, Buenos Aires. It is the eighth-largest country in the world by land area and the largest among Spanish-speaking nations, though Mexico, Colombia and Spain are more populous.
http://wn.com/Argentina
Arguin
http://wn.com/Arguin
Armenia
http://wn.com/Armenia
Asilah
Asilah or Arzila (; "authentic") is a fortified town on the northwest tip of the Atlantic coast of Morocco, about 50 km from Tangier. Its ramparts and gateworks remain fully intact. Its history dates back to 1500 B.C., when the Phoenicians used it as a base for trade.
http://wn.com/Asilah
Atauro Island
http://wn.com/Atauro_Island
Australia
{{Infobox country
http://wn.com/Australia
Azemmour
http://wn.com/Azemmour
Azerbaijan
Azerbaijan ( ; ), officially the Republic of Azerbaijan (), is one of the six independent Turkic states in the Caucasus region of Eurasia. Located at the crossroads of Eastern Europe and Western Asia, it is bounded by the Caspian Sea to the east, Russia to the north, Georgia to the northwest, Armenia to the west, and Iran to the south.
http://wn.com/Azerbaijan
Baguia
Baguia is a subdistrict in Baucau District, East Timor.
http://wn.com/Baguia
Bahrain
Bahrain, officially Kingdom of Bahrain (, , literally: "Kingdom of the Two Seas"), is a small island country in the Persian Gulf ruled by the Al Khalifa royal family. While Bahrain is an archipelago of thirty-three islands, the largest (Bahrain Island) is long by wide. Saudi Arabia lies to the west and is connected to Bahrain via the King Fahd Causeway, which was officially opened on 25 November 1986. Qatar is to the southeast across the Gulf of Bahrain.
http://wn.com/Bahrain
Banda Sea
The Banda Sea is the sea of the South Moluccas in Indonesia, technically part of the Pacific Ocean but separated from it by hundreds of islands, as well as the Halmahera and Ceram Seas. It is about 1000 km (600 mi) east to west, and about 500 km (300 mi) north to south.
http://wn.com/Banda_Sea
Bandar-Abbas
http://wn.com/Bandar-Abbas
Bangladesh
http://wn.com/Bangladesh
Barbados
Barbados ()or (Bar-bay-dos) is an island nation of the Lesser Antilles, in length and as much as in width, amounting to . It is situated in the western area of the North Atlantic Ocean and 100 kilometres (62 mi) east of the Windward Islands and the Caribbean Sea; therein, it is about east of the islands of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, and north-east of Venezuela. Barbados is outside of the principal Atlantic hurricane belt.
http://wn.com/Barbados
Barique
Barique is a town in Saint Patrick Parish, Grenada. It is located at the northern end of the island.
http://wn.com/Barique
Barique-Natarbora
http://wn.com/Barique-Natarbora
Barka, Oman
http://wn.com/Barka_Oman
Baucau
Baucau is the second-largest city in East Timor, after Dili, the capital, which lies 122 km east of Dili.
http://wn.com/Baucau
Baucau District
http://wn.com/Baucau_District
Bazartete
http://wn.com/Bazartete
Belarus
Belarus, ( ; , ), officially the Republic of Belarus, is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe, bordered clockwise by Russia to the northeast, Ukraine to the south, Poland to the west, and Lithuania and Latvia to the northwest. Its capital is Minsk; other major cities include Brest, Grodno (Hrodna), Gomel (Homiel), Mogilev (Mahilyow) and Vitebsk (Viciebsk). Forty percent of its is forested, and its strongest economic sectors are agriculture and manufacturing.
http://wn.com/Belarus
Belize
Belize () (formerly British Honduras), is a democratic constitutional monarchy, and the northernmost Central American nation. Belize has a diverse society, comprising many cultures and languages. Although Kriol and Spanish are spoken among the population, Belize is the only country in Central America where English is the official language. Belize is bordered by Mexico to its north, by Guatemala to its south and west, and by the Caribbean Sea to the east.
http://wn.com/Belize
Benin
Benin (), officially the Republic of Benin, is a country in West Africa. It borders Togo to the west, Nigeria to the east and Burkina Faso and Niger to the north. Its small southern coastline on the Bight of Benin is where a majority of the population is located. The capital of Benin is Porto-Novo, but the seat of government is located in the country's largest city of Cotonou. Benin covers an area of approximately 110,000 square kilometers (42,000 sq mi), with a population of approximately 8.8 million. Benin is a tropical, sub-Saharan nation, highly dependent on agriculture, with substantial employment and income arising from subsistence farming.
http://wn.com/Benin
Bhutan
The Kingdom of Bhutan () (Dzongkha: ; Wylie: '' 'drug yul; Tibetan pinyin: ''), is a small landlocked country in South Asia, located at the eastern end of the Himalayas and bordered to the south, east and west by the Republic of India and to the north by the People's Republic of China . Bhutan is separated from the nearby state of Nepal to the west by the Indian state of Sikkim, and from Bangladesh to the south by West Bengal.
http://wn.com/Bhutan
Bidiyah
Bidiyah is the name of a settlement in Ras al-Khaimah.
http://wn.com/Bidiyah
Bioko
Bioko (spelled also Bioco, in Europe traditionally called Fernando Po) is an island 32 km off the west coast of Africa, in particular Cameroon, in the Gulf of Guinea. It is the northernmost part of the Republic of Equatorial Guinea with a population of 124,000 and an area of . It is volcanic with its highest peak the Pico Basile at .
http://wn.com/Bioko
Bissau
http://wn.com/Bissau
Bobonaro (city)
http://wn.com/Bobonaro_(city)
Bobonaro District
http://wn.com/Bobonaro_District
Bolivia
Bolivia (), officially known as the Plurinational State of Bolivia, (, ) is a landlocked country in central South America. It is bordered by Brazil to the north and east, Paraguay and Argentina to the south, and Chile and Peru to the west.
http://wn.com/Bolivia
Bonin Islands
The Bonin Islands, known in Japan as the are an archipelago of over 30 subtropical and tropical islands, some directly south of Tokyo, Japan. Administratively, they are part of Ogasawara Municipality (mura) of Ogasawara Subprefecture, Tokyo. The total area of the islands is , with a population of 2440 (2000 on Chichijima, and 440 on Hahajima, the only two inhabited islands).
http://wn.com/Bonin_Islands
Botswana
The Republic of Botswana () is a sub Saharan country located in Southern Africa. The citizens are referred to as "Batswana" (singular: Motswana). Formerly the British protectorate of Bechuanaland, Botswana adopted its new name after becoming independent within the Commonwealth on 30 September 1966. It has held free and fair democratic elections since independence.
http://wn.com/Botswana
Brazil
Brazil (; , ), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (, ), is the largest country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country, both by geographical area and by population. It is the only Portuguese-speaking country in the Americas and the largest lusophone country in the world.
http://wn.com/Brazil
Brunei
http://wn.com/Brunei
Burkina Faso
http://wn.com/Burkina_Faso
Burma
Burma, officially the Union of Myanmar, is the second largest country by geographical area in Southeast Asia. The country is bordered by People's Republic of China on the north-east, Laos on the east, Thailand on the south-east, Bangladesh on the west, India on the north-west and the Bay of Bengal to the south-west with the Andaman Sea defining its southern periphery. One-third of Burma's total perimeter, 1,930 kilometers (1,199 mi), forms an uninterrupted coastline.
http://wn.com/Burma
Cacheu
Cacheu is a town in north western Guinea-Bissau, lying on the Cacheu River. Population 9,849 (2008 est).
http://wn.com/Cacheu
Cailaco
http://wn.com/Cailaco
Cambodia
http://wn.com/Cambodia
Cameroon
http://wn.com/Cameroon
Cape Verde
The Republic of Cape Verde (; , ; ) is an island country, spanning an archipelago of 15 islands located in the central Atlantic Ocean, 570 kilometres off the coast of Western Africa. The islands, covering a combined area of slightly over , are of volcanic origin and while three of them (Sal, Boa Vista and Maio) are fairly flat, sandy and dry, the remaining ones are generally rockier and have more vegetation. Due to the infrequent occurrence of rainfall the overall landscape is not particularly green, as the country's name suggests (verde is Portuguese for "green"). The name of the country stems instead from the nearby Cap Vert, on the Senegalese coast.
http://wn.com/Cape_Verde
Chad
http://wn.com/Chad
Chile
http://wn.com/Chile
China
China is seen variously as an ancient civilization extending over a large area in East Asia, a nation and/or a multinational entity.
http://wn.com/China
Chittagong
http://wn.com/Chittagong
Christmas Island
The Territory of Christmas Island is a territory of Australia in the Indian Ocean. It is located northwest of the Western Australian city of Perth, south of the Indonesian capital, Jakarta, and ENE of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands.
http://wn.com/Christmas_Island
Coloane
http://wn.com/Coloane
Colombia
Colombia (), officially the Republic of Colombia (, ), is a constitutional republic in northwestern South America. Colombia is bordered to the east by Venezuela and Brazil; to the south by Ecuador and Peru; to the north by the Caribbean Sea; to the northwest by Panama; and to the west by the Pacific Ocean. Colombia also shares maritime borders with Venezuela, Jamaica, Haiti, the Dominican Republic, Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica. With a population of over 45 million people, Colombia has the 29th largest population in the world and the second largest in South America, after Brazil. Colombia has the fourth largest Spanish-speaking population in the world after Mexico, the United States, and Spain.
http://wn.com/Colombia
Colonial Brazil
http://wn.com/Colonial_Brazil
Comoros
this is an island with to people on it
http://wn.com/Comoros
Cook Islands
http://wn.com/Cook_Islands
Coral Sea Islands
The Coral Sea Islands Territory includes a group of small and mostly uninhabited tropical islands and reefs in the Coral Sea, northeast of Queensland, Australia. The only inhabited island is Willis Island. The territory covers 780,000 km2, extending east and south from the outer edge of the Great Barrier Reef, and including Heralds Beacon Island, Osprey Reef, the Willis Group, and fifteen other reef/island groups.
http://wn.com/Coral_Sea_Islands
Costa Rica
:For the plant genus Costarica, see its synonym Sicyos.
http://wn.com/Costa_Rica
Cova Lima District
Cova Lima is a district of East Timor, in the Southwest part of the country. It has a population of 55,941 (Census 2004) and an area of 1,226 km2. The capital of the district is Suai, which lies 136 km from Dili, the national capital. The subdistricts of Cova Lima are Fatululic, Fatumean, Fohorem, Zumalai, Maucatar, Suai, and Tilomar.
http://wn.com/Cova_Lima_District
Cristo Rei
http://wn.com/Cristo_Rei
Croatia
Croatia (, ; ), officially the Republic of Croatia (Croatian: Republika Hrvatska ), is a country in Central Europe and Southeastern Europe at the crossroads of the Pannonian Plain, the Balkans, and the Adriatic Sea. Its capital and largest city is Zagreb. Croatia borders Slovenia to the north, Hungary to the northeast, Bosnia and Herzegovina to the southeast, Serbia to the east, and Montenegro to the southeast.
http://wn.com/Croatia
Cuba
The Republic of Cuba (; , ) is an island country in the Caribbean. The nation of Cuba consists of the main island of Cuba, the Isla de la Juventud, and several archipelagos.
http://wn.com/Cuba
Cyprus
http://wn.com/Cyprus
Côte d'Ivoire
The Republic of (; ), commonly known in English as Ivory Coast, is a country in West Africa. It has an area of 322,462 km2, and borders the countries of Liberia, Guinea, Mali, Burkina Faso and Ghana; its southern boundary is along the Gulf of Guinea. The country's population which was 15,366,672 in 1998, was estimated to be 20,617,068 in 2009.
http://wn.com/Côte_d'Ivoire
Daman and Diu
http://wn.com/Daman_and_Diu
Dejima
was a small fan-shaped artificial island built in the bay of Nagasaki in 1634. This island, which was formed by digging a canal through a small peninsula, remained as the single place of direct trade and exchange between Japan and Europe during the Edo period. Dejima was built to constrain foreign traders as part of "sakoku" self-imposed isolationist policy. Originally built to house Portuguese traders, it became a Dutch trading post from 1641 until 1853. Covering an area of 120 m x 75 m (9000 square meters, or 0.9 hectares) it became integrated in the city.
http://wn.com/Dejima
Dili
http://wn.com/Dili
Dili District
Dili is the name of one of the 13 districts of East Timor, which includes the national capital Dili. It has a population of 167,777 (2004 census), most of whom live in the capital city. The district has an area of 372 km2. The district is the same as what was the council of the same name in Portuguese Timor.
http://wn.com/Dili_District
Djibouti
http://wn.com/Djibouti
Dom Aleixo
http://wn.com/Dom_Aleixo
Dominica
Dominica, ( ) officially the Commonwealth of Dominica, is an island nation in the Caribbean Sea. To the north-northwest lies Guadeloupe, to the southeast Martinique. Its size is and the highest point in the country is Morne Diablotins, which has an elevation of . The Commonwealth of Dominica has an estimated population of 72,500. The capital is Roseau.
http://wn.com/Dominica
Dominican Republic
The Dominican Republic (; , ) is a nation on the island of Hispaniola, part of the Greater Antilles archipelago in the Caribbean region. The western third of the island is occupied by the nation of Haiti, making Hispaniola one of two Caribbean islands that are shared by two countries. Both by area and population, the Dominican Republic is the second largest Caribbean nation (after Cuba), with and an estimated 10 million people.
http://wn.com/Dominican_Republic
East Nusa Tenggara
East Nusa Tenggara () is a province of Indonesia, located in the eastern portion of the Lesser Sunda Islands, including West Timor. The provincial capital is Kupang, located on West Timor. The highest point is Mount Mutis of Timor Tengah Selatan, which is 2427 meters above sea level.
http://wn.com/East_Nusa_Tenggara
East Timor
http://wn.com/East_Timor
Easter Island
Easter Island (, ) is a Polynesian island in the southeastern Pacific Ocean, at the southeastern most point of the Polynesian triangle. A special territory of Chile annexed in 1888, Easter Island is widely famous for its 887 extant monumental statues, called moai (), created by the early Rapanui people. It is a World Heritage Site (as determined by UNESCO) with much of the island protected within the Rapa Nui National Park. In recent times the island has served as a cautionary tale about the cultural and environmental dangers of overexploitation. Ethnographers and archaeologists now argue that the introduction of diseases carried by European colonizers and the slave raiding that devastated the population in the 1860s had a much greater social than environmental impact.
http://wn.com/Easter_Island
Ecuador
http://wn.com/Ecuador
Egypt
http://wn.com/Egypt
El Jadida
http://wn.com/El_Jadida
El Salvador
El Salvador (; , literally meaning "Republic of The Savior") is the smallest and also the most densely populated country in Central America. It borders the Pacific Ocean between Guatemala and Honduras. It lies on the Gulf of Fonseca, as do Honduras and Nicaragua further south.
http://wn.com/El_Salvador
Elmina
Elmina, is a town in the Central Region, situated on a south-facing bay on the Atlantic Ocean coast of Ghana, about 12 km west of Cape Coast. The first European settlement in West Africa, it now has a population of around 20,000 people.
http://wn.com/Elmina
Equatorial Guinea
http://wn.com/Equatorial_Guinea
Eritrea
http://wn.com/Eritrea
Ermera
http://wn.com/Ermera
Ermera District
Ermera is one of the districts of East Timor, located in the west-central part of the country. It has a population of 103,169 (Census 2004) and an area of 746 km2. Its capital is Gleno, which is located 30 km to the southwest of the national capital, Dili. The city of Ermera, also known as Vila Ermera, lies 58 km from the capital along the same road.
http://wn.com/Ermera_District
Essaouira
Mogador redirects here, for the hamlet in Surrey see Mogador, Surrey.
http://wn.com/Essaouira
Ethiopia
{{Infobox country
http://wn.com/Ethiopia
Fatuberliu
http://wn.com/Fatuberliu
Fatumean
http://wn.com/Fatumean
Fiji
Fiji (; ), officially the Republic of the Fiji Islands (; ), is an island nation in Melanesia in the South Pacific Ocean about 2000 km northeast of New Zealand's North Island. Its more immediate neighbours are Vanuatu to the west, France's New Caledonia to the southwest, New Zealand's Kermadec to the southeast, Tonga to the east, the Samoas and France's Wallis and Futuna to the northeast and Tuvalu to the north. Fiji has had inhabitants since the second millennium B.C. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the Dutch and the British explored Fiji.Fiji was a British colony up until 1970; British occupation lasted almost a century. Because of the abundance of forest, mineral, and fish resources, Fiji is one of the most developed economies in the Pacific island realm. Today, the main sources of foreign exchange are its tourist industry and sugar exports. The country's currency is the Fijian dollar.
http://wn.com/Fiji
France
{{Infobox Country
http://wn.com/France
French Polynesia
French Polynesia (, ) is a French overseas collectivity in the southern Pacific Ocean. It is made up of several groups of Polynesian islands, the most famous island being Tahiti in the Society Islands group, which is also the most populous island and the seat of the capital of the territory (Papeete). Although not an integral part of its territory, Clipperton Island was administered from French Polynesia until 2007.
http://wn.com/French_Polynesia
Fuiloro
Fuiloro is a village on the northeastern tip of East Timor, near the city of Lospalos.
http://wn.com/Fuiloro
Funar
http://wn.com/Funar
Fuorém
http://wn.com/Fuorém
Gabon
http://wn.com/Gabon
Galicia (Spain)
:This article is about the nation in Spain. For the Polish-Ukrainian region, see Galicia (Eastern Europe).
http://wn.com/Galicia_(Spain)
Georgia (country)
http://wn.com/Georgia_(country)
Ghana
http://wn.com/Ghana
Gleno
Gleno is a city in East Timor, to the southwest of Dili, the national capital. It has a population of 29,000. Its geographical coordinates are and it lies above sea level.
http://wn.com/Gleno
Goa
http://wn.com/Goa
Grenada
Grenada () is an island country and Commonwealth Realm consisting of the island of Grenada and six smaller islands at the southern end of the Grenadines in the southeastern Caribbean Sea. Grenada is located northwest of Trinidad and Tobago, northeast of Venezuela, and southwest of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines.
http://wn.com/Grenada
Guam
http://wn.com/Guam
Guatemala
http://wn.com/Guatemala
Guinea
http://wn.com/Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
The Republic of Guinea-Bissau (; , ) is located in West Africa. It is bordered by Senegal to the north, and Guinea to the south and east, with the Atlantic Ocean to its west.
http://wn.com/Guinea-Bissau
Guyana
Guyana ( ), officially the Co-operative Republic of Guyana and previously known as British Guiana, is a state on the northern coast of South America that is culturally part of the Anglophone Caribbean. Guyana has been a former colony of the British, Dutch and for a brief period, the French. It is the only state of the Commonwealth of Nations on mainland South America, and is also a member of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM), which has its secretariat headquarters in Guyana's capital, Georgetown. Guyana achieved independence from the United Kingdom on 26 May 1966 and became a Republic on 23 February 1970.
http://wn.com/Guyana
Haiti
Haiti (; French , ; Haitian Creole: Ayiti, ), officially the Republic of Haiti ( ;
http://wn.com/Haiti
Hatu Builico
http://wn.com/Hatu_Builico
Hatudo
http://wn.com/Hatudo
Hatólia
http://wn.com/Hatólia
Hawaii
: For geographic details see Geography and environment or Hawaiian Islands.
http://wn.com/Hawaii
Hengqin New Area
Hengqin New Area is an island and a special economic district (similar to Binhai New Area in Tianjin and Pudong New Area in Shanghai) in Zhuhai, a prefecture-level city and Special Economic Zone in the Guangdong province of the People's Republic of China. It has a population of about 3,000.
http://wn.com/Hengqin_New_Area
Honduras
Honduras (, , ) is a republic in Central America. It was formerly known as Spanish Honduras to differentiate it from British Honduras (now Belize). The country is bordered to the west by Guatemala, to the southwest by El Salvador, to the southeast by Nicaragua, to the south by the Pacific Ocean at the Gulf of Fonseca, and to the north by the Gulf of Honduras, a large inlet of the Caribbean Sea.
http://wn.com/Honduras
Hong Kong
Hong Kong () is one of two special administrative regions (SARs) of the People's Republic of China (PRC), the other being Macau. Situated on China's south coast and enclosed by the Pearl River Delta and South China Sea, it is renowned for its expansive skyline and deep natural harbour. With a land mass of and a population of seven million people, Hong Kong is one of the most densely populated areas in the world. Hong Kong's population is 95 percent ethnic Chinese and 5 percent from other groups. Hong Kong's Han Chinese majority originate mainly from the cities of Guangzhou and Taishan in the neighbouring Guangdong province.
http://wn.com/Hong_Kong
Hugli-Chuchura
Hooghly-Chinsurah (also commonly known as Hughly-Chinsura or Chuchura) () is a city in the state of West Bengal, India. It lies on the Hooghly River, 35 km north of Kolkata (Calcutta). It is located in the district of Hooghly and is home to the district headquarters. Chinsurah houses the Commissioner of the Burdwan Range. It forms a part of the Kolkata Metropolitan Development Authority (KMDA) region.
http://wn.com/Hugli-Chuchura
Iliomar
http://wn.com/Iliomar
India
India (), officially the Republic of India ( ; see also official names of India), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.18 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world. Mainland India is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the west, and the Bay of Bengal on the east; and it is bordered by Pakistan to the west; Bhutan, the People's Republic of China and Nepal to the north; and Bangladesh and Burma to the east. In the Indian Ocean, mainland India and the Lakshadweep Islands are in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives, while India's Andaman and Nicobar Islands share maritime border with Thailand and the Indonesian island of Sumatra in the Andaman Sea. India has a coastline of .
http://wn.com/India
Indonesia
Indonesia ( or ), officially the Republic of Indonesia (), is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania. Indonesia comprises 17,508 islands. With a population of around 238 million people, it is the world's fourth most populous country, and has the world's largest population of Muslims. Indonesia is a republic, with an elected legislature and president. The nation's capital city is Jakarta. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, and Malaysia. Other neighboring countries include Singapore, Philippines, Australia, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indonesia is a founding member of ASEAN and a member of the G-20 major economies.
http://wn.com/Indonesia
Iran
Iran ( ), officially the Islamic Republic of Iran is a country in Central Eurasia and Western Asia. The name Iran has been in use natively since the Sassanian era and came into use internationally in 1935, before which the country was also known to the western world as Persia. Both Persia and Iran are used interchangeably in cultural contexts; however, Iran is the name used officially in political contexts.
http://wn.com/Iran
Iraq
Iraq ( or , Arabic: ), officially the Republic of Iraq (Arabic:
http://wn.com/Iraq
Israel
http://wn.com/Israel
Italy
http://wn.com/Italy
Jamaica
http://wn.com/Jamaica
Japan
http://wn.com/Japan
Johnston Atoll
Johnston Atoll is a atoll in the North Pacific Ocean about 1,400 km (750 nmi) west of Hawaii. There are four islands located on the coral reef platform, two natural islands, Johnston Island and Sand Island, which have been expanded by coral dredging, as well as North Island (Akau) and East Island (Hikina), an additional two artificial islands formed by coral dredging.
http://wn.com/Johnston_Atoll
Jordan
{{Infobox Country
http://wn.com/Jordan
Kalba
Kalba () is a city in the United Arab Emirates. It is an enclave of the emirate of Sharjah, Kalba is north of Oman and south of the emirate of Fujairah. Khor Kalba (Kalba Creek), a mangrove swamp, is located further south of the town. The town was captured by Portugal in the 16th century and was referred to as Chalba.
http://wn.com/Kalba
Kannur
:For the district with the name Kannur, see Kannur District.
http://wn.com/Kannur
Kazakhstan
http://wn.com/Kazakhstan
Kenya
The Republic of Kenya (pronounced ) is a country in East Africa. Lying along the Indian Ocean to its southeast and at the equator, Kenya is bordered by Somalia to the northeast, Ethiopia to the north, Sudan to the northwest, Uganda to the west and Tanzania to the south. Lake Victoria is to the southwest and is shared between Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. Kenya has numerous wildlife reserves, containing thousands of animal species. The capital city is Nairobi. Kenya's area is 580,000 km2 with a population of nearly 39 million which is diverse: more than 40 different ethnic groups are present. The country is named after Mount Kenya, a significant landmark and second among Africa's highest mountain peaks.
http://wn.com/Kenya
Khasab
Khasab () is a city in an exclave of Oman. It is the local capital of the Musandam peninsula. Khasab is located 500 kilometers from Muscat and is dubbed the "Norway of Arabia". The Portuguese built Khasab at the beginning of the 17th century at the height of their naval presence in the region. The natural harbor gave shelter from tough seas. Unlike many forts, which were built on high ground for defensive purposes, Khasab was designed as a supply point for dates and water for Portuguese ships sailing through the strait. Today, Khasab is protected from floods by three large dams.
http://wn.com/Khasab
Khor Fakkan
Khor Fakkan (or Khawr Fakkan) () is a town located along the Gulf of Oman on the east coast of the in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). Khor Fakkan is scenically the most beautiful part of the entire country; the town is set on the picturesque bay of Khor Fakkan, which means "Creek of Two Jaws". Khor Fakkan belongs to the emirate of Sharjah but is geographically surrounded by the emirate of Fujairah. It is a natural deep water port that is now a major container terminal.
http://wn.com/Khor_Fakkan
Kilwa Kisiwani
Kilwa Kisiwani is a community on an island off the coast of East Africa, in present day Tanzania.
http://wn.com/Kilwa_Kisiwani
Kiribati
Kiribati ( ; ), officially the Republic of Kiribati, is an island nation located in the central tropical Pacific Ocean. It is composed of 32 atolls and one raised coral island, dispersed over 3.5 million square kilometres, (1,351,000 square miles) straddling the equator, and bordering the International Date Line at its easternmost point.
http://wn.com/Kiribati
Kochi
Kochi (Malayalam: , ), formerly known as Cochin (the erstwhile colonial name), is a major city in the Indian state of Kerala. The city is one of the principal seaports of the country and is located in the district of Ernakulam. It has a population of 564,589, with an extended metropolitan population of about 1.5 million, making it the largest urban agglomeration in the state and the second largest city in Kerala after the state capital. Kochi is also the one of the few cities in India without a Hindu majority.
http://wn.com/Kochi
Kollam
Kollam () (Anglicised name: Quilon, pronounced koy-lon) is a city, a municipal corporation, and headquarters of Kollam District in the Indian state of Kerala. Kollam is the fourth largest city of Kerala and is known for cashew processing and coir manufacturing. It lies north of the state capital of Thiruvanathapuram. The city lies on the shores of Ashtamudi Lake. It is the southern gateway to the Kerala Backwaters of Kerala and is a prominent tourist destination.
http://wn.com/Kollam
Kuwait
The State of Kuwait (, Dawlat al-Kuwayt) is a sovereign Arab nation situated in the northeast of the Arabian Peninsula in Western Asia. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south, and Iraq to the north. It lies on the northwestern shore of the Persian Gulf. The name Kuwait is derived from the Arabic "akwat", the plural of "kout", meaning fortress built near water. The emirate covers an area of 17,820 square kilometres (6,880 sq mi) and has a population of about 2.7 million.
http://wn.com/Kuwait
Laclo
http://wn.com/Laclo
Laclubar
http://wn.com/Laclubar
Lacluta
http://wn.com/Lacluta
Laga (East Timor)
Laga (East Timor) is a city and subdistrict in Baucau District, East Timor.
http://wn.com/Laga_(East_Timor)
Lakshadweep
http://wn.com/Lakshadweep
Laleia
http://wn.com/Laleia
Laos
Laos (, , or ), officially the '''Lao People's Democratic Republic''', is a landlocked country in Southeast Asia, bordered by Burma and People's Republic of China to the northwest, Vietnam to the east, Cambodia to the south and Thailand to the west.
http://wn.com/Laos
Latin Union
The Latin Union is an international organization of nations that use Romance languages, with the aim of protecting, projecting, and promoting the common cultural heritage and unifying identities of the Latin, and Latin-influenced, world. It was created in 1954 in Madrid, Spain, and has existed as a functional institution since 1983. Its membership has risen from 12 to 37 states, including countries in the Americas, Europe, Africa, and the Asia-Pacific region.
http://wn.com/Latin_Union
Laulara
http://wn.com/Laulara
Lautém District
http://wn.com/Lautém_District
Lebanon
Lebanon ( or ; ; ), officially the Republic of Lebanon (Arabic: ; French: ), is a country on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea. It is bordered by Syria to the north and east, and Israel to the south. Lebanon's location at the crossroads of the Mediterranean Basin and the Arabian hinterland has dictated its rich history, and shaped a cultural identity of religious and ethnic diversity.
http://wn.com/Lebanon
Lequidoe
http://wn.com/Lequidoe
Lesotho
http://wn.com/Lesotho
Letefoho
http://wn.com/Letefoho
Liberia
http://wn.com/Liberia
Libya
http://wn.com/Libya
Lifau
Lifau is a former town in the East Timor exclave of Oecussi-Ambeno. It was the first European settlement in the region. Dominican brothers carried on missionary work on the north coast of Timor after 1556. In 1641 they arrived to Lifau and baptized the royal family of Ambeno. A permanent Portuguese settlement arose in the 1650s, as many Portuguese moved from their old colonial seat Larantuka on Flores to Timor in response to the Dutch colonial settlement in Kupang in westernmost Timor (1653). Lifau remained the centre for Portuguese colonial activities for more than a century, and was headed by a governor after 1702. In 1769 the colonial capital was moved to Dili due to military aggression from the Eurasian Topasses who opposed the politics of the governor. After this date the place lost its significance, since the Topasses preferred to keep their residence in Pante Macassar further to the east. Lifau is located close to the mouth of the Tono River.
http://wn.com/Lifau
Liquiçá
http://wn.com/Liquiçá
Liquiçá District
http://wn.com/Liquiçá_District
Lolotoi
http://wn.com/Lolotoi
Lospalos
http://wn.com/Lospalos
Macau
Macau (), also spelled Macao () is, along with Hong Kong one of China's two special administrative regions. It lies on the western side of the Pearl River Delta, bordering Guangdong province to the north and facing the South China Sea to the east and south.
http://wn.com/Macau
Madagascar
Madagascar, or Republic of Madagascar (older name Malagasy Republic, French: ), is an island nation in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern coast of Africa. The main island, also called Madagascar, is the fourth-largest island in the world.
http://wn.com/Madagascar
Madha
The Omani territory of Madha () or Wadi Madha is an exclave of Oman, surrounded by the United Arab Emirates (UAE), and located halfway between the Musandam Peninsula and the rest of Oman. It belongs to Muhafazat Musandam.
http://wn.com/Madha
Makalero
http://wn.com/Makalero
Makasai
http://wn.com/Makasai
Makassar
http://wn.com/Makassar
Malabe
http://wn.com/Malabe
Malacca
Malacca (, dubbed The Historical State or Negeri Bersejarah among locals) is the third smallest Malaysian state, after Perlis and Penang. It is located in the southern region of the Malay Peninsula, on the Straits of Malacca. It borders Negeri Sembilan to the north and the state of Johor to the south. The capital is Malacca Town. This historical city centre has been listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 7 July 2008.
http://wn.com/Malacca
Malawi
The Republic of Malawi (; Chichewa ) is a landlocked country in southeast Africa that was formerly known as Nyasaland. It is bordered by Zambia to the northwest, Tanzania to the northeast, and Mozambique on the east, south and west. The country is separated from Tanzania and Mozambique by Lake Malawi. Its size is over with an estimated population of more than 13,900,000. Its capital is Lilongwe, the second largest city is Blantyre and the third large city is Mzuzu. The name Malawi comes from the Maravi, an old name of the Nyanja people that inhabit the area.
http://wn.com/Malawi
Malaysia
Malaysia (pronounced or ) is a federal constitutional monarchy in Southeast Asia. It consists of thirteen states and three federal territories and has a total landmass of . The country is separated by the South China Sea into two regions, Peninsular Malaysia and Malaysian Borneo (also known as West and East Malaysia respectively). Malaysia shares land borders with Thailand, Indonesia, and Brunei and has maritime boundaries with Singapore, Vietnam, and the Philippines. The capital city is Kuala Lumpur, while Putrajaya is the seat of the federal government. The population as of 2009 stood at over 28 million.
http://wn.com/Malaysia
Maldives
http://wn.com/Maldives
Mali
http://wn.com/Mali
Maliana
Maliana is a city in East Timor, 149 km southwest of Dili, the national capital. It has a population of 22,000. It is the capital of the district of Bobonaro and subdistrict of Maliana, and is located just a few kilometers from the border with Indonesia. It is also the see city of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Maliana, which was formed by Pope Benedict XVI with territory taken from the Roman Catholic Diocese of Dili.
http://wn.com/Maliana
Malindi
Malindi (once known as Melinde) is a town on Malindi Bay at the mouth of the Galana River, lying on the Indian Ocean coast of Kenya. It is 120 kilometres northeast of Mombasa. The population of Malindi is 117,735 (in 1999 census). It is the capital of the Malindi District.
http://wn.com/Malindi
Maluku Islands
The Maluku Islands (also known as the Moluccas, Moluccan Islands, the Spice Islands) are an archipelago in Indonesia, and part of the larger Maritime Southeast Asia region. Tectonically they are located on the Halmahera Plate within the Molucca Sea Collision Zone. Geographically they are located east of Sulawesi (Celebes), west of New Guinea, and north of Timor. The islands were also historically known as the "Spice Islands" by the Chinese and Europeans, but this term has also been applied to other islands outside Indonesia.
http://wn.com/Maluku_Islands
Manama
http://wn.com/Manama
Manatuto
Manatuto is a city and one of the subdistricts of Manatuto District/East Timor.
http://wn.com/Manatuto
Manatuto District
http://wn.com/Manatuto_District
Mangalore
http://wn.com/Mangalore
Manufahi District
Manufahi is one of the districts of East Timor. It has a population of 44,235 (2004 census) and an area of 1,325 km2. The capital of the district is Same. The subdistricts are Alas, Fatuberliu, Same, and Turiscai. In the times of the Portuguese colony, the district was called Same, after the capital city. During the Indonesian occupation the subdistrict Hatudo was split off from the district and joined to Ainaro, and the subdistrict Turiscai, previously in Ainaro, was moved to Manufahi.
http://wn.com/Manufahi_District
Mape-Zumulai
http://wn.com/Mape-Zumulai
Marshall Islands
The Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) , is a Micronesian nation of atolls and islands in the middle of the Pacific Ocean, just west of the International Date Line and just north of the Equator. The population is about 62,000. In 1986 independence was attained under a Compact of Free Association with the United States.
http://wn.com/Marshall_Islands
Mascarene Islands
http://wn.com/Mascarene_Islands
Maubara
http://wn.com/Maubara
Maubisse
http://wn.com/Maubisse
Maucatar
http://wn.com/Maucatar
Mauritania
http://wn.com/Mauritania
Mauritius
http://wn.com/Mauritius
Mehdya
http://wn.com/Mehdya
Metinaro
Metinaro is a city in Dili District, East Timor. The coast has a wonderful diving area with a colourful world of animals.
http://wn.com/Metinaro
Mexico
Mexico, (pronounced ; ), officially known as the United Mexican States (), is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of Mexico. Covering almost 2 million square kilometres (over 760,000 sq mi), Mexico is the fifth-largest country in the Americas by total area and the 14th largest independent nation in the world. With an estimated population of 111 million, it is the 11th most populous country and the most populous Hispanophone country on Earth. Mexico is a federation comprising thirty-one states and a Federal District, the capital city.
http://wn.com/Mexico
Moldova
Moldova , officially the Republic of Moldova (Moldovan/) is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe, located between Romania to the west and Ukraine to the north, east and south. It declared itself an independent state with the same boundaries as the preceding Moldovan SSR in 1991, as part of the dissolution of the Soviet Union. A strip of Moldova's internationally recognized territory on the east bank of the river Dniester has been under the de facto control of the breakaway government of Transnistria since 1990.
http://wn.com/Moldova
Mombasa
http://wn.com/Mombasa
Monaco
http://wn.com/Monaco
Mongolia
Mongolia (; ) is a landlocked country in East and Central Asia. It is bordered by Russia to the north and the People's Republic of China to the south, east and west. Although Mongolia does not share a border with Kazakhstan, its western-most point is only from Kazakhstan's eastern tip. Ulaanbaatar, the capital and largest city, is home to about 38% of the population. Mongolia's political system is a parliamentary republic.
http://wn.com/Mongolia
Montenegro
http://wn.com/Montenegro
Morocco
http://wn.com/Morocco
Mozambique
http://wn.com/Mozambique
Muharraq
Muharraq () (meaning Place of Ashes), is Bahrain's second largest city, and served as its capital until 1923. The Muharraq Town was established by the Al Bin Ali Utub tribe as early as the late 17th Century. It has long been a centre of religiosity. The city is located on Muharraq Island.
http://wn.com/Muharraq
Mumbai
Mumbai (; , ', ), previously known as Bombay' (), is the capital of the Indian state of Maharashtra. It is the most populous city in India, and the second most populous city in the world, with a population of approximately 14 million. The official language of Mumbai is Marathi. But many other languages are also widely used, particularly the Mumbaiian Hindi''. Along with the neighbouring urban areas, including the cities of Navi Mumbai and Thane, it is one of the most populous urban regions in the world. Mumbai lies on the west coast of India and has a deep natural harbour. As of 2009, Mumbai was named an Alpha world city. Mumbai is also the richest city in India, and has the highest GDP of any city in South or Central Asia.
http://wn.com/Mumbai
Muscat, Oman
http://wn.com/Muscat_Oman
Muttrah
Muttrah, () population 650,000, is a city located in the Muscat province of Oman. Before the discovery of oil, Muttrah was the center of commerce in Oman. It is still a center of commerce as one of largest sea ports of the region is located there. Other landmarks include Souq Muttrah, a traditional bazaar and Sour Al-Lawatiah, a small community of houses surrounded by an old wall.
http://wn.com/Muttrah
Mylapore
Mylapore() is a cultural hub and a bustling neighborhood, in the southern part of Chennai (formerly Madras) city, the capital of Tamil Nadu, India. Earlier Mylapore used to be called as Vedapuri.
http://wn.com/Mylapore
Namibia
Namibia, officially the Republic of Namibia (, ), is a country in southern Africa whose western border is the Atlantic Ocean. It shares land borders with Angola and Zambia to the north, Botswana to the east and South Africa to the south and east. It gained independence from South Africa on 21 March 1990 following the Namibian War of Independence. Its capital and largest city is Windhoek. Namibia is a member state of the United Nations (UN), the Southern African Development Community (SADC), the African Union (AU), and the Commonwealth of Nations.
http://wn.com/Namibia
Nauru
Nauru ( ), officially the Republic of Nauru and formerly known as Pleasant Island, is an island nation in Micronesia in the South Pacific. Its nearest neighbour is Banaba Island in Kiribati, 300 km to the east. Nauru is the world's smallest island nation, covering just .
http://wn.com/Nauru
New Caledonia
http://wn.com/New_Caledonia
New Zealand
{{Infobox Country
http://wn.com/New_Zealand
Nicaragua
Nicaragua ( ) officially the Republic of Nicaragua (, ), is a representative democratic republic. It is the largest country in Central America with an area of 130,373 km2. The country is bordered by Honduras to the north and Costa Rica to the south. The Pacific Ocean lies to the west of the country, the Caribbean Sea to the east. The country's Caribbean coast is part of the Western Caribbean Zone. Falling within the tropics, Nicaragua sits between 11 degrees and 14 degrees north of the Equator in the Northern Hemisphere. Nicaragua's abundance of biologically significant and unique ecosystems contribute to Mesoamerica's designation as a biodiversity hotspot. The capital city of Nicaragua is Managua. Roughly one quarter of the nation's population lives in the Nicaraguan capital, making it the second largest city and metropolitan area in Central America (following Guatemala City).
http://wn.com/Nicaragua
Niger
Niger ( or ; ), officially named the Republic of Niger, is a landlocked country in Western Africa, named after the Niger River. It borders Nigeria and Benin to the south, Burkina Faso and Mali to the west, Algeria and Libya to the north and Chad to the east. Niger covers a land area of almost 1,270,000 km2, over 80 percent of which is covered by the Sahara desert. The country's predominantly Islamic population of just above 15,000,000 is mostly clustered in the far south and west of the nation. The capital city is Niamey.
http://wn.com/Niger
Nigeria
Nigeria (), officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a federal constitutional republic comprising thirty-six states and its Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. The country is located in West Africa and shares land borders with the Republic of Benin in the west, Chad and Cameroon in the east, and Niger in the north. Its coast in the south lies on the Gulf of Guinea on the Atlantic Ocean. The three largest and most influential ethnic groups in Nigeria are the Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba. In terms of religion Nigeria is roughly split half and half between Muslims and Christians with a very small minority who practice traditional religion.
http://wn.com/Nigeria
Nipane
Nipane is a village development committee in Sindhuli District in the Janakpur Zone of south-eastern Nepal. At the time of the 1991 Nepal census it had a population of 1944 people living in 342 individual households.
http://wn.com/Nipane
Nitibe
Nitibe is a small town in Nitibe subdistrict, in the East Timor exclave of Oecusse. It is located inland in the west of the exclave.
http://wn.com/Nitibe
Niue
http://wn.com/Niue
Nobel Peace Prize
The Nobel Peace Prize (Swedish and Norwegian: Nobels fredspris) is one of the five Nobel Prizes bequeathed by the Swedish industrialist and inventor Alfred Nobel.
http://wn.com/Nobel_Peace_Prize
Norfolk Island
Norfolk Island (Norfuk: Norfuk Ailen ) is a small island in the Pacific Ocean located between Australia, New Zealand and New Caledonia. The island is part of the Commonwealth of Australia, but it enjoys a large degree of self-governance. Together with two neighbouring islands, it forms one of Australia's external territories.
http://wn.com/Norfolk_Island
North Korea
http://wn.com/North_Korea
Northern Cyprus
http://wn.com/Northern_Cyprus
Nova Scotia
Nova Scotia (pronounced ; ) is one of Canada's three Maritime provinces and is the most populous province in Atlantic Canada. The provincial capital is Halifax. Nova Scotia is the second-smallest province in Canada with an area of . As of 2009, the population is 940,397, which makes Nova Scotia the second-most-densely populated province.
http://wn.com/Nova_Scotia
Oecusse
http://wn.com/Oecusse
Oecusse District
http://wn.com/Oecusse_District
Oesilo
Oesilo is a small town and sub-district in the East Timor exclave of Oecussi-Ambeno. It is located in the southeast of the exclave, close to the border with Indonesia.
http://wn.com/Oesilo
Oman
Oman (pronounced ; '), officially the Sultanate of Oman''' ( ), is an Arab country in southwest Asia on the southeast coast of the Arabian Peninsula. It borders the United Arab Emirates on the northwest, Saudi Arabia on the west and Yemen on the southwest. The coast is formed by the Arabian Sea on the southeast and the Gulf of Oman on the northeast. The country also contains Madha and Musandam, two exclaves on the Gulf of Oman, south of the Strait of Hormuz and surrounded by the United Arab Emirates on the land side.
http://wn.com/Oman
Ombai Strait
The Ombai Strait () is the strait which separates the Alor Archipelago from the islands of Wetar, Atauro, and Timor in the Lesser Sunda Islands. Wetar, the Alor Archipelago, and the western part of Timor are part of the province of East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia, while Atauro and the eastern part of Timor comprise the nation of East Timor.
http://wn.com/Ombai_Strait
Orchid Island
http://wn.com/Orchid_Island
Ormus
The Kingdom of Ormus (also known as Ohrmuzd, Hormuz, and Ohrmazd; Portuguese Ormuz) was a 10th to 17th century kingdom located within the Persian Gulf and extending as far as the Strait of Hormuz. The Kingdom was established by Arab princes in the 10th century who in 1262 came under the suzerainty of Persia, before becoming a client state of the Portuguese Empire.
http://wn.com/Ormus
Ossu
http://wn.com/Ossu
Ouadane
Ouadane () is a town in northwestern Mauritania, lying on the Adrar Plateau, northeast of Chinguetti. It was founded in 1147 by the Berber tribe Idalwa el Hadji and soon became an important caravan and trading centre.
http://wn.com/Ouadane
Pakistan
{{Infobox country
http://wn.com/Pakistan
Palau
Palau , officially the Republic of Palau (), is an island nation in the Pacific Ocean, some 500 miles (800 km) east of the Philippines and 2,000 miles (3,200 km) south of Tokyo. Having emerged from United Nations trusteeship (administered by the United States) in 1994, it is one of the world's youngest and smallest sovereign states. In English, the name is sometimes spelled Belau in accordance with the native pronunciation. It was formerly also spelled Pelew.
http://wn.com/Palau
Palmyra Atoll
Palmyra Atoll () is an essentially unoccupied equatorial Northern Pacific atoll administered as a unorganized incorporated territory by the United States federal government. The variable temporary population of 4–20 'non-occupants' are essentially staff and scientists employed by various departments of the U.S. federal government and The Nature Conservancy, as well as a rotating mix of Palymra Atoll Research Consortium scholars pursuing research.
http://wn.com/Palmyra_Atoll
Panama
Panama (), officially the Republic of Panama (; ), is the southernmost country of Central America. Situated on the isthmus connecting North and South America, it is bordered by Costa Rica to the northwest, Colombia to the southeast, the Caribbean Sea to the north and the Pacific Ocean to the south. The capital is Panama City.
http://wn.com/Panama
Pante Macassar
Pante Macassar (also known as Pante Makasar) is a city and subdistrict on the north coast of East Timor, 281 km to the west of Dili, the nation's capital. It has a population of 4,730 (Stand 2006). It is the capital of the Oecusse exclave (former Oecussi-Ambeno).
http://wn.com/Pante_Macassar
Papua New Guinea
Papua New Guinea ( , also or ; Tok Pisin: Papua Niugini) (PNG), officially the Independent State of Papua New Guinea, is a country in Oceania, occupying the eastern half of the island of New Guinea and numerous offshore islands (the western portion of the island is a part of the Indonesian provinces of Papua and West Papua). It is located in the southwestern Pacific Ocean, in a region defined since the early 19th century as Melanesia. The capital is Port Moresby.
http://wn.com/Papua_New_Guinea
Paraguay
http://wn.com/Paraguay
Passabe
Passabe is a subdistrict of the Oecusse District of East Timor, which is an enclave surrounded by Indonesian West Timor. In the 2004 census it had a population of 7,531 people in 1,153 households. Passabe is a small village (sulo) in the subdistrict, very near the Indonesian border. It was the site of a massacre of East Timorese by pro-Indonesia militias in the follow-up to the 1999 referendum for East Timor's independence.
http://wn.com/Passabe
Philippines
The Philippines ( ), officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (), is a country in Southeast Asia in the western Pacific Ocean. To its north across the Luzon Strait lies Taiwan. West across the South China Sea sits Vietnam. The Sulu Sea to the southwest lies between the country and the island of Borneo, and to the south the Celebes Sea separates it from other islands of Indonesia. It is bounded on the east by the Philippine Sea. Its location on the Pacific Ring of Fire and its tropical climate make the Philippines prone to earthquakes and typhoons but have also endowed the country with natural resources and made it one of the richest areas of biodiversity in the world. An archipelago comprising 7,107 islands, the Philippines is categorized broadly into three main geographical divisions: Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. Its capital city is Manila.
http://wn.com/Philippines
Pitcairn Islands
http://wn.com/Pitcairn_Islands
Portugal
Portugal (, ), officially the Portuguese Republic (; ), is a country located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Portugal is the westernmost country of Europe and is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the west and south and by Spain to the north and east. The Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira are also part of Portugal.
http://wn.com/Portugal
Portuguese colonies
http://wn.com/Portuguese_colonies
Portuguese Congo
http://wn.com/Portuguese_Congo
Portuguese Empire
http://wn.com/Portuguese_Empire
Portuguese Guinea
Portuguese Guinea (also Guinea or the Overseas Province of Guinea) was the name for what is today Guinea-Bissau from 1446 to September 10, 1974.
http://wn.com/Portuguese_Guinea
Portuguese India
http://wn.com/Portuguese_India
Portuguese Malacca
Portuguese Malacca was the territory of Malacca that, for 130 years ( 1511 - 1641 ), was a Portuguese colony.
http://wn.com/Portuguese_Malacca
Portuguese Timor
Portuguese Timor was the name of East Timor when it was under Portuguese control. During this period, Portugal shared the island of Timor with the Netherlands East Indies, and later with Indonesia.
http://wn.com/Portuguese_Timor
Príncipe
http://wn.com/Príncipe
Pulicat
Pulicat (Pazhaverkadu) is a historic seashore town in Thiruvallur District, of Tamil Nadu state, South India. It is about 60 km north of Chennai and 3 km from Elavur, on the barrier island of Sriharikota, which separates Pulicat Lake from the Bay of Bengal. Pulicat lake is a shallow salt water lagoon which stretches about km along the coast. With lakeside and seashore development as well as several SEZs including a US $1 billion Medical SEZ, coming up in nearby Elavur, the land prices in the area are in the upswing.
http://wn.com/Pulicat
Qatar
Qatar ( ; ; local pronunciation: ), also known as the State of Qatar or locally , is an Arab country, known officially as an emirate, in the Middle East, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeasterly coast of the much larger Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south; otherwise, the Persian Gulf surrounds the state. A strait of the Persian Gulf separates Qatar from the nearby island nation of Bahrain.
http://wn.com/Qatar
Qatif
Qatif or Al-Qatif (also spelled Qateef or Al-Qateef; ) is a historic, coastal oasis region located on the western shore of the Persian Gulf in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia. It extends from Ras Tanura and Jubail in the north to Dammam in the south, and from the Persian Gulf in the east to King Fahd International Airport in the west. This region includes the city of Qatif as well many smaller towns and villages.
http://wn.com/Qatif
Qeshm
http://wn.com/Qeshm
Quelicai
Quelicai (Kelikai) is a city and subdistrict in Baucau District, East Timor.
http://wn.com/Quelicai
Qurayyat, Oman
Qurayyat is a small fishing village near Muscat, Oman. A popular stopping point on the way to Sur, Qurayyat is in itself also a very popular destination for Muscat.
http://wn.com/Qurayyat_Oman
Railaco
http://wn.com/Railaco
Ras al-Khaimah
Ras al-Khaimah (, , literally "The Top of the Tent"), is one of the emirates of the United Arab Emirates (UAE), in the east of the Persian Gulf. It is in the northern part of the UAE bordering Oman. The capital city and home of most residents is also called Ras al-Khaimah. The city has a population of 263,217 as of 2008. The city has two main sections, Old Ras Al Khaimah and Nakheel, on either side of a creek. It is served by the Ras Al Khaimah International Airport in Al Jazirah Al Hamra.
http://wn.com/Ras_al-Khaimah
Romania
Romania ( ; dated: Rumania; ) is a country located at the crossroads of Central and Southeastern Europe, north of the Balkan Peninsula, on the Lower Danube, within and outside the Carpathian arch, bordering on the Black Sea. Romania shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova to the northeast, and Bulgaria to the south.
http://wn.com/Romania
Russia
Russia (; ), also officially known as the Russian Federation (), is a state in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects. From northwest to southeast, Russia shares borders with Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland (both via Kaliningrad Oblast), Belarus, Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, the People's Republic of China, Mongolia, and North Korea. It also has maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk and the United States by the Bering Strait. At , Russia is the largest country in the world, covering more than a ninth of the Earth's land area. Russia is also the ninth most populous nation with 142 million people. It extends across the whole of northern Asia and 40% of Europe, spanning 9 time zones and incorporating a wide range of environments and landforms. Russia has the world's largest reserves of mineral and energy resources. It has the world's largest forest reserves and its lakes contain approximately one-quarter of the world's fresh water.
http://wn.com/Russia
Rwanda
The Republic of Rwanda (, , or in English, or in Kinyarwanda) is a unitary republic of central and eastern Africa. It borders Uganda to the north; Tanzania to the east; Burundi to the south; and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west. Rwanda is landlocked but is noted for its lakes, particularly Lake Kivu, which occupies the floor of the Rift Valley along most of the country's western border. Although close to the equator, the country has a temperate climate due to its high elevation, with the highest point being Mount Karisimbi. The terrain consists of mountains and gently rolling hills, with plains and swamps in the east. Abundant wildlife, including rare mountain gorillas, have led to a fast-growing tourism sector. The largest cities in Rwanda are Kigali, Gitarama, and Butare. Unlike many African countries, Rwanda is home to only one significant ethnic and linguistic group, the Banyarwanda. The country is well known for its native styles of dance, particularly the Intore dance, and for its drummers. Kinyarwanda, English and French are the official languages.
http://wn.com/Rwanda
Safi, Morocco
Safi (, ) is a city in western Morocco on the Atlantic Ocean. The capital of the Doukkala-Abda Region, it has a population of 284,750 (2004 census), but is also the centre of an agglomeration which has an estimated 793,000 inhabitants (1987).
http://wn.com/Safi_Morocco
Saint Helena
http://wn.com/Saint_Helena
Saint Lucia
Saint Lucia (; ) is an island country in the eastern Caribbean Sea on the boundary with the Atlantic Ocean. Part of the Lesser Antilles, it is located north/northeast of the islands of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, northwest of Barbados and south of Martinique. It covers a land area of 620 km2 (238 sq mi) and has an estimated population of 160,000. Its capital is Castries. The island nation has been the home of two Nobel laureates, Arthur Lewis and Derek Walcott. It is the nation with the second most such honorees per capita after Faroe Islands.
http://wn.com/Saint_Lucia
Salsette Island
:Not to be confused by Salcette, Goa.
http://wn.com/Salsette_Island
Same (East Timor)
Same is a city and subdistrict in the interior of East Timor, 81 km south of Dili, the national capital. Same has a population of 25,000 and is the capital of the district of Manufahi, which was known as the district of Same in Portuguese Timor.
http://wn.com/Same_(East_Timor)
Samoa
Samoa , officially the Independent State of Samoa, formerly known as Western Samoa and German Samoa, is a country governing the western part of the Samoan Islands in the South Pacific Ocean. It became independent from New Zealand in 1962. The two main islands of Samoa are Upolu and one of the biggest islands in Polynesia, Savai'i. The capital city Apia and Faleolo International Airport are situated on the island of Upolu.
http://wn.com/Samoa
San Marino
San Marino, officially the Most Serene Republic of San Marino ( ; ), is a country situated on the eastern side of the Apennine Mountains. It is an enclave, in Italy. Its size is just over with an estimated population of almost 30,000. Its capital is the City of San Marino. One of the European microstates, along with Liechtenstein, the Vatican, Monaco, Andorra, and Malta, San Marino has the smallest population of all the members of the Council of Europe.
http://wn.com/San_Marino
Saudi Arabia
http://wn.com/Saudi_Arabia
Senegal
http://wn.com/Senegal
Serbia
Serbia (pronounced: ), officially the Republic of Serbia (), is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central- and Southeastern Europe, covering the southern lowlands of the Carpathian basin and the central part of the Balkans. Serbia borders Hungary to the north; Romania and Bulgaria to the east; the Republic of Macedonia to the south; and Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Montenegro to the west; its border with Albania is disputed. Serbia's capital city, Belgrade, is among the most populous in Southeastern Europe.
http://wn.com/Serbia
Seychelles
Seychelles ( ; French: ), officially the Republic of Seychelles (; Creole: Repiblik Sesel), is an island country spanning an archipelago of 115 islands in the Indian Ocean, some east of mainland Africa, northeast of the island of Madagascar.
http://wn.com/Seychelles
Sierra Leone
Sierra Leone () (Krio: Sa Lone), officially the Republic of Sierra Leone, is a country in West Africa. It is bordered by Guinea to the north and east, Liberia to the southeast, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west and southwest. Sierra Leone covers a total area of and has a population estimated at 6.5 million. It is a former British Colony and now a constitutional republic comprising three provinces and the Western Area; which are further divided into fourteen districts.
http://wn.com/Sierra_Leone
Singapore
{{Infobox Country
http://wn.com/Singapore
Solomon Islands
Solomon Islands ) is a sovereign state in Oceania, east of Papua New Guinea, consisting of nearly one thousand islands. It covers a land mass of 28,400 square kilometres (10,965 sq mi). The capital, Honiara, is located on the island of Guadalcanal. The nation of the Solomon Islands is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations.
http://wn.com/Solomon_Islands
Somalia
Somalia ( ; ; ), officially the Republic of Somalia (, ) and formerly known as the Somali Democratic Republic under communist rule, is a country located in the Horn of Africa. It is bordered by Djibouti to the northwest, Kenya to the southwest, the Gulf of Aden with Yemen to the north, the Indian Ocean to the east, and Ethiopia to the west. With the longest coastline on the continent, its terrain consists mainly of plateaus, plains and highlands.
http://wn.com/Somalia
Souira Guedima
Souira Guedima, formerly known as Aguz, is a Moroccan town 36 km south of Safi, at the mouth of the Tensift River on the Atlantic seacoast. Guedima may also be spelt Kadima, Kdima, Qadima (best English transliteration), or Qdima. Aguz may also be spelt Agouz, Gouz or Couz.
http://wn.com/Souira_Guedima
South Africa
The Republic of South Africa is a country located at the southern tip of Africa, with a coastline on the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. To the north lie Namibia, Botswana and Zimbabwe; to the east are Mozambique and Swaziland; while Lesotho is an independent country wholly surrounded by South African territory.
http://wn.com/South_Africa
South Korea
South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea (ROK, , ) and sometimes referred to simply as Korea, is a state in East Asia, located on the southern portion of the Korean Peninsula. It is neighbored by the People's Republic of China to the west, Japan to the east, and North Korea to the north. Its capital is Seoul. South Korea lies in a temperate climate region with a predominantly mountainous terrain. Its territory covers a total area of 99,392 square kilometers and has a population of .
http://wn.com/South_Korea
South Ossetia
South Ossetia ( or ; , Khussar Iryston; , Samxret Oseti; , Yuzhnaya Osetiya) or Tskhinvali Region (, Tsxinvalis regioni; , Tskhinvalskiy region) is a disputed region and partly recognized state in the South Caucasus, located in the territory of the South Ossetian Autonomous Oblast within the former Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic.
http://wn.com/South_Ossetia
Spain
Spain ( ; , ), officially the Kingdom of Spain (), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Its mainland is bordered to the south and east by the Mediterranean Sea except for a small land boundary with the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar; to the north by France, Andorra, and the Bay of Biscay; and to the northwest and west by the Atlantic Ocean and Portugal.
http://wn.com/Spain
Sri Lanka
The Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka (commonly known as Sri Lanka (, , or ); ; , ) is a country and a sovereign state off souther coast of the Indian subcontinent. A island nation in South Asia, it was till 1972 known as Ceylon (, , or ). Sri Lanka is surrounded by the Indian Ocean, the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Strait.
http://wn.com/Sri_Lanka
State of Palestine
The State of Palestine (, dawlat filastin), officially simply Palestine (, filastin), is a polity that was unilaterally declared in Algiers on 15 November 1988, when the Palestine Liberation Organization's (PLO) National Council (PNC) adopted the Palestinian Declaration of Independence.
http://wn.com/State_of_Palestine
Suai
Suai is a city in East Timor. It has a population of 23,000 and is located 138 km to the southwest of Dili, the national capital. Suai is the capital of the Cova Lima district, which is in the southwest of the country. It is located just a few kilometers from the Timor Sea, on the south side of the island.
http://wn.com/Suai
Sudan
Sudan (), officially the Republic of the Sudan, is a country in northeastern Africa. It is the largest country in Africa and the Arab world, and tenth largest in the world by area. It is bordered by Egypt to the north, the Red Sea to the northeast, Eritrea and Ethiopia to the east,Kenya and Uganda to the southeast, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Central African Republic to the southwest, Chad to the west and Libya to the northwest. The world's longest river, the Nile, divides the country between east and west sides.
http://wn.com/Sudan
Surat
Surat () is the commercial capital of the Indian state of Gujarat. It is the administrative capital of Surat district. As of 2010 Surat is the fifth most populous city and seventh largest metropolitan area of india. Surat with its twin city navsari has a population of over 6.3 million. Surat Metropolitan Region is widely regarded as one of the cleanest Metropolitan Regions in the country with the city proper being the third cleanest city in India after Chandigarh and Mysore.
http://wn.com/Surat
Suriname
http://wn.com/Suriname
Swaziland
The Kingdom of Swaziland (Umbuso weSwatini), sometimes called Ngwane or Swatini, is a landlocked country in Southern Africa, bordered to the north, south and west by South Africa, and to the east by Mozambique. The nation, as well as its people, are named after the 19th century king Mswati II.
http://wn.com/Swaziland
Syria
Syria ( ; ' or '), officially the Syrian Arab Republic (), is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the West, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south, and Israel to the southwest.
http://wn.com/Syria
São Tomé Island
http://wn.com/São_Tomé_Island
Taipa
Taipa is the smaller of the two islands in Macau Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China (formerly the Portuguese colony of Macau).
http://wn.com/Taipa
Taiwan
Taiwan, also known (especially in the past) as Formosa (from , "Beautiful Island"), is an island situated in East Asia in the Western Pacific Ocean and located off the southeastern coast of mainland China. It comprises most (99%) of the territory of the Republic of China (ROC) since the 1950s. The term "Taiwan" is also a common name to refer to the entire country of the Republic of China.
http://wn.com/Taiwan
Tajikistan
Tajikistan ( or ; ), officially the Republic of Tajikistan (, Jumhurii Tojikiston; , Respublika Tadzhikistan; Jomhuri-ye Tajikestan), is a mountainous landlocked country in Central Asia. Afghanistan borders it to the south, Uzbekistan to the west, Kyrgyzstan to the north, and People's Republic of China to the east. Tajikistan also lies adjacent to Pakistan and the Gilgit-Baltistan region, separated by the narrow Wakhan Corridor.
http://wn.com/Tajikistan
Tangier
http://wn.com/Tangier
Tanzania
The United Republic of Tanzania (; phonetical: tan-zann-ei-a; or sometimes tan-zanneia; ) is a country in central East Africa bordered by Kenya and Uganda to the north, Rwanda, Burundi and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west, and Zambia, Malawi and Mozambique to the south. The country's eastern borders lie on the Indian Ocean.
http://wn.com/Tanzania
Tarut Island
Tarut Island is an island in the Persian Gulf.
http://wn.com/Tarut_Island
Thailand
Thailand ( or ; Ratcha Anachak Thai, ), formerly Siam (, ), is an independent country that lies in the heart of Southeast Asia. It is bordered to the north by Burma and Laos, to the east by Laos and Cambodia, to the south by the Gulf of Thailand and Malaysia, and to the west by the Andaman Sea and the southern extremity of Burma. Its maritime boundaries include Vietnam in the Gulf of Thailand to the southeast and Indonesia and India in the Andaman Sea to the southwest.
http://wn.com/Thailand
The Bahamas
The Bahamas (), officially the Commonwealth of The Bahamas, is a country consisting of 29 islands, 661 cays, and 2,387 islets (rocks). It is located in the Atlantic Ocean north of Cuba and Hispaniola (Dominican Republic and Haiti), northwest of the Turks and Caicos Islands, and southeast of the United States (nearest to the state of Florida). Its total land area is ; slightly larger than the US states of Connecticut and Rhode Island combined), with an estimated population of 330,000. Its capital is Nassau. Geographically, the Bahamas lie in the same island chain as Cuba, Hispaniola and the Turks and Caicos Islands, the designation of the Bahamas refers normally to the commonwealth and not the geographic chain.
http://wn.com/The_Bahamas
The Gambia
The Republic of the Gambia, commonly known as the Gambia, or Gambia, is a country in Western Africa. The Gambia is the smallest country on mainland Africa, bordered to the north, east, and south by Senegal, with a small coast on the Atlantic Ocean in the west.
http://wn.com/The_Gambia
Thoothukudi
Thoothukudi (), also known as Tuticorin, is a port city and a Municipal Corporation in Thoothukudi district of the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Thoothukudi is the headquarters of Thoothukudi District.
http://wn.com/Thoothukudi
Tidore
Tidore is a city, island, and archipelago in the Maluku Islands of eastern Indonesia, west of the larger island of Halmahera. In the pre-colonial era, the kingdom of Tidore was a major regional political and economic power, and a fierce rival of nearby Ternate, just to the north.
http://wn.com/Tidore
Tilomar
Tilomar is a city and subdistrict in Cova Lima District, East Timor.
http://wn.com/Tilomar
Togo
http://wn.com/Togo
Tokelau
Tokelau () is a territory of New Zealand that consists of three tropical coral atolls with a combined land area of 10 km2 and a population of approximately 1,400 in the South Pacific Ocean. The atolls lie north of the Samoan Islands, east of Tuvalu, south of the Phoenix Islands, southwest of the more distant Line Islands (both islands groups belonging to Kiribati) and northwest of the Cook Islands.
http://wn.com/Tokelau
Tonga
http://wn.com/Tonga
Trinidad and Tobago
The Republic of Trinidad and Tobago () is an archipelagic state in the southern Caribbean, lying northeast of the South American country of Venezuela and south of Grenada in the Lesser Antilles. It shares maritime boundaries with other nations including Barbados to the northeast, Guyana to the southeast, and Venezuela to the south and west.
http://wn.com/Trinidad_and_Tobago
Tunisia
http://wn.com/Tunisia
Turkey
Turkey (), known officially as the Republic of Turkey (), is a Eurasian country that stretches across the Anatolian peninsula in western Asia and Thrace in the Balkan region of southeastern Europe. Turkey is one of the six independent Turkic states. Turkey is bordered by eight countries: Bulgaria to the northwest; Greece to the west; Georgia to the northeast; Armenia, Azerbaijan (the exclave of Nakhchivan) and Iran to the east; and Iraq and Syria to the southeast. The Mediterranean Sea and Cyprus are to the south; the Aegean Sea to the west; and the Black Sea is to the north. The Sea of Marmara, the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles (which together form the Turkish Straits) demarcate the boundary between Eastern Thrace and Anatolia; they also separate Europe and Asia.
http://wn.com/Turkey
Turkmenistan
The Turkmenistan (), also known as Turkmenia () is one of the Turkic states in Central Asia. Until 1991, it was a constituent republic of the Soviet Union, the Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic (Turkmen SSR). Turkmenistan is one of the six independent Turkic states. It is bordered by Afghanistan to the southeast, Iran to the south and southwest, Uzbekistan to the east and northeast, Kazakhstan to the north and northwest and the Caspian Sea to the west.
http://wn.com/Turkmenistan
Tuvalu
Tuvalu ( or ), formerly known as the Ellice Islands, is a Polynesian island nation located in the Pacific Ocean, midway between Hawaii and Australia. Its nearest neighbours are Kiribati, Nauru, Samoa and Fiji. It comprises four reef islands and five true atolls. Its population of 12,373 makes it the second-least populous sovereign state in the world, with only Vatican City having fewer inhabitants. In terms of physical land size, at just Tuvalu is the fourth smallest country in the world, larger only than the Vatican City at , Monaco at and Nauru at .
http://wn.com/Tuvalu
Uato Carabau
http://wn.com/Uato_Carabau
Uganda
The Republic of Uganda ( or ) is a landlocked country in East Africa. It is bordered on the east by Kenya, on the north by Sudan, on the west by the Democratic Republic of the Congo, on the southwest by Rwanda, and on the south by Tanzania. The southern part of the country includes a substantial portion of Lake Victoria, which is also bordered by Kenya and Tanzania.
http://wn.com/Uganda
Ukraine
Ukraine ( ; , transliterated: , ), with its area of 603,628 km2, is the second largest country in Eastern Europe. It is bordered by the Russian Federation to the east and northeast, Belarus to the northwest, Poland, Slovakia and Hungary to the west, Romania and Moldova to the southwest, and the Black Sea and Sea of Azov to the south and southeast respectively.
http://wn.com/Ukraine
United Arab Emirates
http://wn.com/United_Arab_Emirates
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK, or Britain) is a country and sovereign state located off the northwestern coast of continental Europe. It is an island nation, spanning an archipelago including Great Britain, the northeastern part of the island of Ireland, and many smaller islands. Northern Ireland is the only part of the UK with a land border with another sovereign state, sharing it with the Republic of Ireland. Apart from this land border, the UK is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea, the English Channel and the Irish Sea. Great Britain is linked to continental Europe by the Channel Tunnel.
http://wn.com/United_Kingdom
United States
The United States of America (also referred to as the United States, the U.S., the USA, or America) is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district. The country is situated mostly in central North America, where its forty-eight contiguous states and Washington, D.C., the capital district, lie between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, bordered by Canada to the north and Mexico to the south. The state of Alaska is in the northwest of the continent, with Canada to the east and Russia to the west across the Bering Strait. The state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific. The country also possesses several territories in the Caribbean and Pacific.
http://wn.com/United_States
Uruguay
Uruguay (, ), officially the Oriental Republic of Uruguay (sometimes rendered as the Eastern Republic of Uruguay in the English language; , ), is a country located in the southeastern part of South America. It is home to some 3.5 million people, of whom 1.4 million live in the capital Montevideo and its metropolitan area. An estimated 88% of the population are of European descent.
http://wn.com/Uruguay
Uzbekistan
http://wn.com/Uzbekistan
Vanuatu
Vanuatu ( or ), officially the Republic of Vanuatu (, Bislama: Ripablik blong Vanuatu), is an island nation located in the South Pacific Ocean. The archipelago, which is of volcanic origin, is some east of northern Australia, northeast of New Caledonia, west of Fiji, and southeast of the Solomon Islands, near New Guinea.
http://wn.com/Vanuatu
Vemasse
http://wn.com/Vemasse
Venezuela
http://wn.com/Venezuela
Venilale
Venilale is a city and subdistricts in Baucau District, East Timor.
http://wn.com/Venilale
Vietnam
Vietnam ( ; , ), officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (, ), is the easternmost country on the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia. It is bordered by People's Republic of China (PRC) to the north, Laos to the northwest, Cambodia to the southwest, and the South China Sea, referred to as East Sea (), to the east. With a population of over 86 million, Vietnam is the 13th most populous country in the world.
http://wn.com/Vietnam
Viqueque
Viqueque () is a city in the south-east of East Timor, 183 km from Dili, the national capital. Viqueque is the capital of the district of Viqueque and subdistrict of Viqueque, in the eastern part of the country with five subdistricts under its control, they are: Uatu-Lari, Uatu-Carbau, Viqueque, Lacluta and Ossu. The city has a population of 5,477 (2006), the subdistrict has 20,640 (2004), the district 65,245 inhabitants (2004).
http://wn.com/Viqueque
Viqueque District
http://wn.com/Viqueque_District
Wallis and Futuna
http://wn.com/Wallis_and_Futuna
Wetar Strait
The Wetar Strait () separates the eastern part of the island of Timor from the island of Wetar. It thus lies between the nations of Indonesia to the north and East Timor to the south. To the west is Atauro, and beyond it the Ombai Strait; while to the east is the southern part of the Banda Sea and the southernmost of the Maluku Islands. At its narrowest point, the strait is 36 km across.
http://wn.com/Wetar_Strait
Yemen
http://wn.com/Yemen
Zambia
The Republic of Zambia () is a landlocked country in Southern Africa. The neighbouring countries are the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the north, Tanzania to the north-east, Malawi to the east, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Botswana and Namibia to the south, and Angola to the west. The capital city is Lusaka, located in the south-central part of the country. The population is concentrated mainly around the Lusaka in the south and the Copperbelt to the northwest.
http://wn.com/Zambia
Zanzibar
http://wn.com/Zanzibar
Ziguinchor
Ziguinchor (also called Zinguinchor) is the capital of the Ziguinchor Region, and the chief town of the Casamance area of Senegal, lying at the mouth of the Casamance River. It has a population of over 230,000 (2007 estimate). It is the second city of Senegal, but largely separated from the north of the country by The Gambia.
http://wn.com/Ziguinchor
Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe ( ; officially the Republic of Zimbabwe and formerly Southern Rhodesia, the Republic of Rhodesia, and Zimbabwe Rhodesia) is a landlocked country located in the southern part of the continent of Africa, between the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers. It is bordered by South Africa to the south, Botswana to the southwest, Zambia to the northwest and Mozambique to the east. Zimbabwe has three official languages: English, Shona (a Bantu language), and Ndebele (also a Bantu language).
http://wn.com/Zimbabwe

All Saints
'''All Saints' Day (in the Roman Catholic Church officially the Solemnity of All Saints and also called All Hallows or Hallowmas), often shortened to All Saints''', is a solemnity celebrated on 1 November in Western Christianity, and on the first Sunday after Pentecost in Eastern Christianity, in honour of all the saints, known and unknown.
http://wn.com/All_Saints
Buddhism
http://wn.com/Buddhism
China
China is seen variously as an ancient civilization extending over a large area in East Asia, a nation and/or a multinational entity.
http://wn.com/China
Guda
Guda was a 12th century nun and illuminator. She created a self-portrait in an initial letter in a Homeliary (now in the Frankfurt am Main, Staatsbibliothek). Along with her self-portrait, she wrote an inscription, "Guda, a sinner, wrote and painted this book."
http://wn.com/Guda
Hakka people
http://wn.com/Hakka_people
Hong Kong
Hong Kong () is one of two special administrative regions (SARs) of the People's Republic of China (PRC), the other being Macau. Situated on China's south coast and enclosed by the Pearl River Delta and South China Sea, it is renowned for its expansive skyline and deep natural harbour. With a land mass of and a population of seven million people, Hong Kong is one of the most densely populated areas in the world. Hong Kong's population is 95 percent ethnic Chinese and 5 percent from other groups. Hong Kong's Han Chinese majority originate mainly from the cities of Guangzhou and Taishan in the neighbouring Guangdong province.
http://wn.com/Hong_Kong
Jean Berlie
http://wn.com/Jean_Berlie
José Ramos-Horta
http://wn.com/José_Ramos-Horta
Macau
Macau (), also spelled Macao () is, along with Hong Kong one of China's two special administrative regions. It lies on the western side of the Pearl River Delta, bordering Guangdong province to the north and facing the South China Sea to the east and south.
http://wn.com/Macau
Mari Alkatiri
Mari Bim Amude Alkatiri (born 26 November 1949) was the first Prime Minister of an internationally-recognized East Timor. He served from May 2002 until he resigned on 26 June 2006 following weeks of political unrest in the country. He is the Secretary-General of the Revolutionary Front for an Independent East Timor (FRETILIN).
http://wn.com/Mari_Alkatiri
Paracel Islands
http://wn.com/Paracel_Islands
Portuguese people
The Portuguese () are an ethnic group or nation native to the country of Portugal, in the west of the Iberian peninsula of south-west Europe. Their language is Portuguese, and Roman Catholicism is the predominant religion.
http://wn.com/Portuguese_people
Pratas Islands
The Pratas Islands or Dongsha Islands ( ) consists of three islands located in northeastern South China Sea, southeast of Hong Kong. The islands are governed by the Republic of China (Taiwan). The People's Republic of China claims sovereignty over these islands along with all other territories currently controlled by the Republic of China.
http://wn.com/Pratas_Islands
Rufus Yerxa
Rufus H. Yerxa (born 1951) is currently Deputy Director-General of the World Trade Organization (WTO). He has served in this position since 2002. He was the former Chief International Counsel for Monsanto Company.
http://wn.com/Rufus_Yerxa
Spratly Islands
The Spratly Islands are a group of more than 750 reefs, islets, atolls, cays, and islands in the South China Sea between Brunei, China, Malaysia, Philippines and Vietnam. They comprise less than four square kilometers of land area, spread over more than 425,000 square kilometers of sea. The Spratlys are part of the three archipelagos of the South China Sea, comprising more than 30,000 islands and reefs which so complicates geography, governance and economics in that region of Southeast Asia. Such small and remote islands have little economic value in themselves, but are important in establishing international boundaries. There are no native islanders but there are rich fishing grounds and initial surveys indicate the islands may be near significant oil and gas deposits.
http://wn.com/Spratly_Islands
Taiping Island
http://wn.com/Taiping_Island
Taiwan
Taiwan, also known (especially in the past) as Formosa (from , "Beautiful Island"), is an island situated in East Asia in the Western Pacific Ocean and located off the southeastern coast of mainland China. It comprises most (99%) of the territory of the Republic of China (ROC) since the 1950s. The term "Taiwan" is also a common name to refer to the entire country of the Republic of China.
http://wn.com/Taiwan
Taur Matan Ruak
http://wn.com/Taur_Matan_Ruak
Xanana Gusmão
http://wn.com/Xanana_Gusmão
Étienne Balibar
http://wn.com/Étienne_Balibar

East Timor's crocodile hunters

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published: 12 Sep 2012

East Timor independence anniversary

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published: 18 May 2012

Discover Dili (East Timor)

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published: 27 Jan 2012

East Timor battles resource giants for back taxes

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published: 05 Jul 2012

East Timor in firing line as UN exits

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published: 25 Jun 2012

Noam Chomsky and Nobel Laureate José Ramos-Horta on East Timor 10/12/93

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published: 11 Jul 2012

Freedom fighter sworn in as East Timor president

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published: 20 May 2012

"Peace through Ping Pong" East Timor 2010

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published: 25 Mar 2012

East Timor Massacre Remembered: US-Armed Indonesian Troops Kill 270 Timorese 20 Years Ago

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published: 14 Nov 2011

Culture in East Timor, (Timor Leste)

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published: 18 Jan 2012

Discover East Timor (Timor Leste)

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published: 30 Dec 2011

Diving in East Timor (Timor Leste)

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published: 03 Jan 2012

Ramos Horta defeated in East Timor vote

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published: 19 Mar 2012

Cycling East Timor - Timor Leste

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published: 28 Aug 2012

BALIBO Official Film Trailer

East Timor, 1975. As Indonesia prepares to invade the tiny nation of East Timor, five Aust...

published: 05 Jul 2009

Author: Footprint Films

East Timor First Perception

Legendado em Português. An introductory documentary about the natural beauty of East Timo...

published: 23 Aug 2012

Author: aidnature.org

East Timor

Br Bill Tynan and his helpers working with the people of East Timor....

published: 08 Mar 2011

Author: Cliff Fogarty

East Timor

I was fortunate enough to witness the independence of East Timor back in 2002. This was a ...

published: 11 May 2012

Author: iSee iHear

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Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste

Repúblika Demokrátika Timór-Leste^[1] (Tetum)
República Democrática de Timor-Leste (Portuguese)


Flag	Coat of arms

Motto: "Unidade, Acção, Progresso" (Portuguese)
("Unity, Action, Progress")

Anthem: Pátria

Capital
(and largest city) Dili
8°34′S 125°34′E / 8.567°S 125.567°E / -8.567; 125.567

Official language(s) Tetum and Portuguese¹

Working languages Indonesian and English^[2]

Demonym East Timorese

Government Unitary parliamentary democratic republic

- President Taur Matan Ruak

- Prime Minister Xanana Gusmão

Legislature National Parliament

Independence from Portugal, Indonesia²

- Established 1702

- Declared November 28, 1975

- Restored May 20, 2002

Area

- Total 14,874 km² (159th)
5,743 sq mi

- Water (%) negligible

Population

- 2010 estimate 1,066,582^[3] (155th)

- Density 76.2/km² (132nd)
197.4/sq mi

GDP (PPP) 2011 estimate

- Total $9.507 billion^[4]

- Per capita $8,701^[4]

GDP (nominal) 2011 estimate

- Total $4.315 billion^[4]

- Per capita $3,949^[4]

HDI (2011) 0.495^[5] (low) (147th)

Currency US$³ (USD)

Time zone (UTC+9)

Drives on the left

Internet TLD .tl⁴

Calling code

+670

¹ 15 further "national languages" recognised by the Constitution.

² Indonesia invaded East Timor on December 7, 1975 and left in 1999.

³ Centavo coins also used.

⁴ .tp is being phased out.

The Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste (tiˈmɔr ˈlɛʃteɪ), commonly known as East Timor ⁱ/ˌiːst ˈtiːmɔr/ (Tetum: Timór Lorosa'e, Portuguese: Timor-Leste), is a sovereign state in Southeast Asia.^[a] It comprises the eastern half of the island of Timor, the nearby islands of Atauro and Jaco, and Oecusse, an exclave on the northwestern side of the island, within Indonesian West Timor. The small country of 15,410 km²^[6] (5,400 sq mi) is located about 640 km (400 mi) northwest of Darwin, Australia.

East Timor was colonized by Portugal in the 16th century, and was known as Portuguese Timor until Portugal's decolonization of the country. In late 1975, East Timor declared its independence, but later that year was invaded and occupied by Indonesia and was declared Indonesia's 27th province the following year. In 1999, following the United Nations-sponsored act of self-determination, Indonesia relinquished control of the territory and East Timor became the first new sovereign state of the 21st century on May 20, 2002. East Timor is one of only two predominantly Roman Catholic countries in Asia, the other being the Philippines.

East Timor has a lower-middle-income economy.^[7] It continues to suffer the aftereffects of a decades-long independence struggle against Indonesia, which damaged infrastructure and displaced thousands of civilians. It is placed 147th by Human Development Index (HDI).

1 Name
2 History
3 Politics
4 Subdivisions
5 Geography
6 Economy
7 Demographics
8 Religion
9 Languages
10 Education
11 Health
12 Culture
- 12.1 Sports
13 Public holidays
14 See also
15 Notes and references
16 Bibliography
17 External links

[edit] Name

"Timor" derives from timur, the word for "east" in Indonesian and Malay, which became Timor in Portuguese and entered English as Portuguese Timor. Lorosa'e (lit "rising sun") is the word for "east" in Tetum.

The official names under the Constitution are República Democrática de Timor-Leste in Portuguese (pronounced: [tiˈmoɾ ˈlɛʃtɨ]) and Repúblika Demokrátika Timor-Leste in Tetum. The Indonesian name Timor Timur, abbreviated Timtim, is now less widely used, with the Indonesian government and media now using Timor Leste.

The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) official short form in English and all other languages is Timor-Leste (codes: TLS & TL), which has been adopted by the United Nations,^[8] the European Union,^[9] and the national standards organisations of France (AFNOR), the United States of America (ANSI),^[10] United Kingdom (BSI), Germany (DIN) and Sweden (SIS). A notable exception to this practice is Australia, which uses "East Timor".

The island's former two-letter country code, TP, is gradually being phased out.

History [link]

Main article: History of East Timor

It is believed that descendants from at least three waves of migration still live in East Timor. The first were related to the principal Australoid indigenous groups of New Guinea and Australia, and arrived before 40,000 years ago. Around 3000 BC, Austronesians migrated to Timor, and are thought to be associated with the development of agriculture on the island.^{[citation needed]} Thirdly, proto-Malays arrived from south China and north Indochina.^[11] Before colonialism Timor was included in Chinese and Indian trading networks, being in the 14th century an exporter of aromatic sandalwood, slaves, honey and wax. Early European explorers report that the island had a number of small chiefdoms or princedoms in the early 16th century.

Portuguese Timor Arms (1935–1975)^[12]

The Portuguese established outposts in Timor and Maluku. Effective European occupation of a small part of the territory began in 1769, when the city of Dili was founded and the colony of Portuguese Timor declared.^[13] A definitive border between the Dutch colonised western half of the island and the Portuguese colonised eastern half of the island was established by the Hague Treaty of 1914^[14], and it remains the international boundary between the successor states East Timor and Indonesia. For the Portuguese, East Timor remained little more than a neglected trading post until the late nineteenth century, with minimal investment in infrastructure, health, and education. Sandalwood remained the main export crop with coffee exports becoming significant in the mid-nineteenth century. In places where Portuguese rule was asserted, it tended to be brutal and exploitative.^[15]

At the beginning of the twentieth century, a faltering home economy prompted the Portuguese to extract greater wealth from its colonies, which was met with Timorese resistance.^[15] During World War II, the Japanese occupied Dili, and the mountainous interior became the scene of a guerrilla campaign, known as the Battle of Timor. Waged by Allied forces and Timorese volunteers against the Japanese, the struggle resulted in the deaths of between 40,000 and 70,000 Timorese.^[16] Following the end of the war, Portuguese control was reinstated.

The decolonisation process instigated by the 1974 Portuguese revolution saw Portugal effectively abandon the colony of East Timor. A civil war between supporters of East Timorese political parties, Fretilin and the UDT, broke out in 1975 as UDT attempted a coup which Fretilin resisted with the help of local Portuguese military.^[17] Independence was unilaterally declared on November 28, 1975.^{[citation needed]} The Indonesian government was fearful of an independent communist state within the Indonesian archipelago, and at the height of the Cold War, Western governments were supportive of Indonesia's position. The Indonesian military launched a full-scale invasion of East Timor in December 1975. Indonesia declared East Timor as its 27th province on July 17, 1976.^[18] The UN Security Council opposed the invasion and the territory's nominal status in the UN remained "non-self-governing territory under Portuguese administration."

Demonstration for independence from Indonesia.

Indonesia's occupation of East Timor was marked by violence and brutality. A detailed statistical report prepared for the Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor cited a minimum bound of 102,800 conflict-related deaths in the period 1974–1999, namely, approximately 18,600 killings and 84,200 'excess' deaths from hunger and illness.^[19] The East Timorese guerrilla force, Falintil, fought a campaign against the Indonesian forces from 1975–1999. The 1991 Dili Massacre was a turning point for the independence cause internationally, and an East Timor solidarity movement grew in Portugal, Australia, and the United States.

Following the resignation of Indonesian President Suharto, a UN-sponsored agreement between Indonesia and Portugal allowed for UN-supervised popular referendum in August 1999. The resulting clear vote for independence was met with a punitive campaign of violence by Timorese pro-integration militia with the support of elements of the Indonesian military. An Australian-led international peacekeeping force, INTERFET, was sent (with Indonesian permission) until order was restored. The administration of East Timor was taken over by the UN through the United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET) in October 1999.^[20] The INTERFET deployment ended in February 2000 with the transfer of military command to the UN.^[21] East Timorese independence was formalised on May 20, 2002 with Xanana Gusmão sworn in as the country's first President. East Timor became a member of the UN on September 27, 2002.

The following year, Gusmão declined another presidential term and in the build-up to the April 2007 presidential elections there were renewed outbreaks of violence. José Ramos-Horta was elected President in the May 2007 election.^[22] Ramos-Horta was critically injured in an attempted assassination in February 2008. Prime Minister Gusmão also faced gunfire separately but escaped unharmed. Australian reinforcements were immediately sent to help keep order.^[23]

In 2006, the United Nations sent in security forces to restore order when unrest and factional fighting forced 15 percent of the population (155,000 people) to flee their homes. In March 2011, the UN handed-off operational control of the police force to the East Timor authorities, but more than 1,200 UN police officers still patrol on the street. After the 2012 presidential election, the missions are scheduled to end.^[24]

Politics [link]

José Ramos-Horta, the President of East Timor in 2008–2012.

Main article: Politics of East Timor

Government Palace in Dili.

The head of state of East Timor is the President of East Timor, who is elected by popular vote for a five-year term. Although the role is largely symbolic, the president does have veto power over certain types of legislation. Following elections, the president appoints the leader of the majority party or majority coalition as the Prime Minister of East Timor. As head of government, the prime minister presides over the Council of State or cabinet.

The unicameral Timorese parliament is the National Parliament or Parlamento Nacional, whose members are elected by popular vote to a five-year term. The number of seats can vary from a minimum of fifty-two to a maximum of sixty-five, though it exceptionally has eighty-eight members at present, due to this being its first term of office. The East Timorese constitution was modelled on that of Portugal. The country is still in the process of building its administration and governmental institutions.

Government departments include the Policia Nacional de Timor-Leste (police), East Timor Ministry for State and Internal Administration, Civil Aviation Division of Timor Leste and Immigration Department of Timor Leste.

Subdivisions [link]

Main articles: Districts of East Timor, Subdistricts of East Timor, and Sucos of East Timor

East Timor is divided into thirteen administrative districts. The districts are subdivided into 65 subdistricts, 442 sucos (villages) and 2,225 aldeias (hamlets).^[25]

A clickable map of East Timor exhibiting its 13 administrative districts.

Geography [link]

Map of East Timor showing cities and main roads.

Main article: Geography of East Timor

Tasitolu in Dili.

Located in southeast Asia,^[26] the island of Timor is part of the Maritime Southeast Asia, and is the largest and easternmost of the Lesser Sunda Islands. To the north of the mountainous island are the Ombai Strait, Wetar Strait and the greater Banda Sea, to the south the Timor Sea separates the island from Australia, while to the west lies the Indonesian Province of East Nusa Tenggara. The highest mountain of East Timor is Tatamailau (also known as Mount Ramelau) at 2,963 meters (9,721 ft).

East Timor lies between latitudes 8° and 10°S, and longitudes 124° and 128°E.

The local climate is tropical and generally hot and humid, characterised by distinct rainy and dry seasons. The capital, largest city and main port is Dili, and the second-largest city is the eastern town of Baucau.

The easternmost area of Timor-Leste consists of the Paitchau Range and Iralalaro area. This area is the first conservation area in Timor-Leste, the Nino Konis Santana National Park. It contains the last remaining tropical dry forested area within the country. It hosts a number of unique plant and animal species and is sparsely populated.^[27] The northern coast is characterised by a number of coral reef systems that have been determined to be at risk.^[28]

Economy [link]

Main article: Economy of East Timor

Coffee production in the subdistricts of East Timor

Prior to and during colonization, Timor was best known for its sandalwood.

In late 1999, about 70% of the economic infrastructure of East Timor was destroyed by Indonesian troops^{[citation needed]} and anti-independence militias, and 260,000 people fled westward. From 2002 to 2005, an international program led by the UN, manned by civilian advisers, 5,000 peacekeepers (8,000 at peak) and 1,300 police officers, substantially reconstructed the infrastructure. By mid-2002, all but about 50,000 of the refugees had returned.

One promising long-term project is the joint development with Australia of petroleum and natural gas resources in the waters southeast of Timor. The Portuguese colonial administration granted concessions to Oceanic Exploration Corporation to develop the deposits. However, this was curtailed by the Indonesian invasion in 1976. The resources were divided between Indonesia and Australia with the Timor Gap Treaty in 1989.^[29] The treaty established guidelines for joint exploitation of seabed resources in the area of the "gap" left by then-Portuguese Timor in the maritime boundary agreed between the two countries in 1972.^[30] Revenues from the "joint" area were to be divided 50%–50%. Woodside Petroleum and ConocoPhillips began development of some resources in the Timor Gap on behalf of the two governments in 1992.

East Timor inherited no permanent maritime boundaries when it attained independence, repudiating the Timor Gap Treaty as illegal. A provisional agreement (the Timor Sea Treaty, signed when East Timor became independent on May 20, 2002) defined a Joint Petroleum Development Area (JPDA), and awarded 90% of revenues from existing projects in that area to East Timor and 10% to Australia.^[31] The first significant new development in the JPDA since Timorese independence is the largest petroleum resource in the Timor Sea, the Greater Sunrise gas field. Its exploitation was the subject of separate agreements in 2003 and 2005. Only 20% of the field lies within the JPDA and the rest in waters not subject to the treaty (though claimed by both countries). The initial, temporary agreement gave 82% of revenues to Australia and only 18% to East Timor.^[32]^{[dead link]}

The government of East Timor has sought to negotiate a definite boundary with Australia at the halfway line between the countries, in accordance with the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. The government of Australia preferred to establish the boundary at the end of the wide Australian continental shelf, as agreed with Indonesia in 1972 and 1991. Normally a dispute such as this would be referred to the International Court of Justice or the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea for an impartial decision,^[33] but the Australian government had withdrawn itself from these international jurisdictions (solely on matters relating to maritime boundaries) shortly before Timorese independence.^[34]^[35] Nevertheless, under public and diplomatic pressure, the Australian government offered instead a last-minute concession on Greater Sunrise gas field royalties alone.^[36] On July 7, 2005, an agreement was signed under which both countries would set aside the dispute over the maritime boundary, and East Timor would receive 50% of the revenues (estimated at A$26 billion or about US$20 billion over the lifetime of the project)^[37] from the Greater Sunrise development. Other developments within waters claimed by East Timor but outside the JPDA (Laminaria-Corallina and Buffalo) continue to be exploited unilaterally by Australia, however.^[38]

Subdistricts suffering from hunger in November 2007

In 2007, a bad harvest led to deaths in several parts of Timor-Leste. In November 2007, eleven subdistricts still needed food supplied by international aid.^[39]

East Timor also has a large and potentially lucrative coffee industry, which sells organic coffee to numerous Fair Trade retailers and on the open market.^{[citation needed]}

Currently three foreign banks have a branch in Dili: Australia's ANZ, Portugal's Banco Nacional Ultramarino, and Indonesia's Bank Mandiri.

There are no patent laws in East Timor.^[40]

Demographics [link]

A Timorese in traditional dress

Main article: Demographics of East Timor

The population of East Timor is about one million. It has grown considerably recently, because of a high birth rate and because of the return of refugees.^{[citation needed]} The population is especially concentrated in the area around Dili.

The Timorese are called Maubere collectively by some of their political organizations, an originally derogatory name turned into a name of pride by Fretilin. They consist of a number of distinct ethnic groups, most of whom are of mixed Malayo-Polynesian and Melanesian/Papuan descent. The largest Malayo-Polynesian ethnic groups are the Tetum^[41] (or Tetun) (100,000), primarily in the north coast and around Dili; the Mambae (80,000), in the central mountains; the Tukudede (63,170), in the area around Maubara and Liquiçá; the Galoli (50,000), between the tribes of Mambae and Makasae; the Kemak (50,000) in north-central Timor island; and the Baikeno (20,000), in the area around Pante Macassar. The main tribes of predominantly Papuan origin include the Bunak (50,000), in the central interior of Timor island; the Fataluku (30,000), at the eastern tip of the island near Lospalos; and the Makasae, toward the eastern end of the island. In addition, like other former Portuguese colonies where interracial marriage was common, there is a smaller population of people of mixed Timorese and Portuguese origin, known in Portuguese as mestiços. The East Timorese mestiço best-known internationally is José Ramos-Horta, the spokesman for the resistance movement in exile, and now President of East Timor. Mário Viegas Carrascalão, Indonesia's appointed governor between 1987 and 1992, is also a mestiço. East Timor also has a small Chinese minority, most of whom are Hakka. Most left after the Indonesian invasion, with most moving to Australia although many Sino-Timorese have returned, including Pedro Lay, the Minister for Infrastructure.

Religion [link]

Main article: Religion in East Timor

Balide church, Dili

Upon independence, East Timor became one of only two predominantly Roman Catholic countries in Asia (along with the Philippines), although nearby parts of Indonesia also have Catholic majorities, including West Timor and Flores. The population predominantly identifies as Roman Catholic (97%), though local animist traditions have a persistent and strong influence on the culture. The number of churches has grown from 100 in 1974 to over 800 in 1994. ^[42] Religious minorities include Muslims (1%) (including former Prime Minister Mari Alkatiri) and Protestants (1%) (including Taur Matan Ruak, Commander of the Falintil-FDTL). Smaller Hindu (0.5%), Buddhist (0.1%) and traditional animist minorities make up the remainder.^[43]^[44]^[45] Church membership grew considerably under Indonesian rule, as Indonesia's state ideology Pancasila does not recognize traditional beliefs and requires all citizens to believe in God. Although the struggle was not about religion, as a deep-rooted local institution the Church not only symbolized East Timor's distinction from predominantly Muslim Indonesia, but also played a significant role in the resistance movement, as personified by Bishop Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo, the 1996 Nobel Peace Prize laureate.^[46] The constitution acknowledges the Church's role among the East Timorese people and stipulates a secular state that guarantees freedom of religion to everyone.

Languages [link]

Main article: Languages of East Timor

Biggest language groups in sucos of East Timor.

East Timor's two official languages are Portuguese and Tetum, which belongs to the Austronesian family of languages spoken throughout Southeast Asia.^[47] The predominant form of Tetum, known as Tetun-Dili, grew out of the dialect favored by the colonizers at Dili and, thus, has considerable Portuguese influence. Other dialects of Tetum are also widely used in the country, including Tetun-Terik which is spoken along the southwestern coast. Indonesian and English are defined as working languages under the Constitution in the Final and Transitional Provisions, without setting a final date. Another 15 indigenous languages are spoken: Bekais, Bunak, Dawan, Fataluku, Galoli, Habun, Idalaka, Kawaimina, Kemak, Lovaia, Makalero, Makasai, Mambai, Tokodede, and Wetarese.

Under Indonesian rule, the use of Portuguese was banned, but it was used by the clandestine resistance, especially in communicating with the outside world.^{[citation needed]} The language, along with Tetum, gained importance as a symbol of resistance and freedom. It was adopted as one of the two official languages for this reason and as a link to nations in other parts of the world. It is now being taught and promoted widely with the help of Brazil, Portugal, and the Latin Union.

According to East Timor's 2010 census, along with other local languages, Tetum is the most common means of communication between ordinary Timorese: Almost 90% of Timorese use Tetum in their daily life, while Indonesian is still widely used in the media and school from high school to university by an estimated 35%. It is estimated that English is understood by 31.4% of the population. 23.5% speak, read and write Portuguese, which is a very impressive number compared with less than 5% in the 2006 UN Development Report.^[48]^[49] A large proportion of words in Tetum are derived from Portuguese, and it also shares many Malay-derived words with Indonesian. Many Indonesian words are still in common use in Tetum and other Timorese languages, particularly numbers.

East Timor is a member of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP), also known as the Lusophone Commonwealth, and a member of the Latin Union. It is the only independent state in Asia with Portuguese as an official language, although it is also one of the official languages of China's Special Administrative Region of Macau.

Education [link]

About half the adult population are illiterate.^[50] Illiteracy is higher among women.^[51] Illiteracy was at 90% at the end of Portuguese rule.^{[citation needed]} In 2006, 10%–30% of primary-school age children did not attend school.^[51]

The country has the National University of East Timor. Indonesian plays a considerable role in education.^{[citation needed]} Since the departure of the Portuguese, schools have increased from 50 to more than 800. There are also four colleges.^[42]

Health [link]

Life expectancy at birth was at 60.7 in 2007.^[50] The fertility rate is at six births per woman.^[50] Healthy life expectancy at birth was at 55 years in 2007.^[50] Government expenditure on health was at US$150 (PPP) per person in 2006.^[50] Many people in East Timor lack safe drinking water.^[51]

There were two hospitals and 14 village healthcare facilities in 1974. By 1994 there were 11 hospitals and 330 healthcare centres.^[42]

In June 2011, the United Nations Population Fund released a report on The State of the World's Midwifery. It contained new data on the midwifery workforce and policies relating to newborn and maternal mortality for 58 countries. The 2010 maternal mortality rate per 100,000 births for Timor-Leste is 370. This is compared with 928.6 in 2008 and 1016.3 in 1990. The under 5 mortality rate, per 1,000 births is 60 and the neonatal mortality as a percentage of under 5's mortality is 48. The aim of this report is to highlight ways in which the Millennium Development Goals can be achieved, particularly Goal 4 (reduce child mortality) and Goal 5 (improve maternal health). In Timor-Leste the number of midwives per 1,000 live births is 8 and 1 in 44 shows us the lifetime risk of death for pregnant women.^[52]

Culture [link]

Main article: Culture of East Timor

The culture of East Timor reflects numerous influences, including Portuguese, Roman Catholic, and Malaysia, on the indigenous Austronesian and Melanesian cultures of Timor. Legend has it that a giant crocodile was transformed into the island of Timor, or Crocodile Island, as it is often called. East Timorese culture is heavily influenced by Austronesian legends, although the Catholic influence is also strong. There is a strong tradition of poetry. Prime Minister Xanana Gusmão, for example, is a distinguished poet. As for architecture, some Portuguese-style buildings can be found, along with the traditional totem houses of the eastern region. These are known as uma lulik (sacred houses) in Tetum, and lee teinu (houses with legs) in Fataluku. Craftsmanship is also widespread, as is the weaving of traditional scarves or tais.

Sports [link]

Main article: Sport in East Timor

East Timor has joined many international sport associations, including the International Olympic Committee (IOC). The IOC board has granted full recognition to the East Timorese Olympic Committee (COTL). The IOC had allowed a mainly symbolic four-member team to take part in the 2000 Sydney Games under the Olympic flag as "Independent Olympic Athletes." The Federação de Timor-Leste de Atletismo has joined the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF). The Federação de Badminton de Timor-Leste joined the International Badminton Federation (IBF) in April 2003. The East Timor Cycling Federation has joined the Union Cycliste Internationale. The Confederação do Desporto de Timor Leste has joined the International Weightlifting Federation. East Timor is also a full member of the International Table Tennis Federation (ITTF). In September 2005, East Timor's national football team joined FIFA.

East Timor has taken part in several sporting events. Although the athletes came back with no medals, East Timorese athletes had the opportunity to compete with other Southeast Asian athletes in the 2003 Southeast Asian Games held in Vietnam in 2003. In the 2003 ASEAN Paralympics Games, also held in Vietnam, East Timor won a bronze medal. In the Athens 2004 Olympic Games, six athletes participated in three sports: athletics, weightlifting and boxing. East Timor won three medals in Arnis at the 2005 Southeast Asian Games. East Timor was also one of the competing nations in the first Lusophony Games, winning a bronze medal in the women's volleyball competition (finishing third out of three teams), despite the fact the team had lost all its three games. On October 30, 2008, East Timor earned their first international points in a FIFA match with a 2–2 draw against Cambodia.^[53]

Public holidays [link]

East Timor now has public holidays that commemorate historic events in the liberation struggle, as well as those associated with Catholicism and Islam. They are defined in Timor-Leste Law no. 10/2005PDF (16.7 KB).

Date	Name	Notes
January 1	New Year's Day
date varies	Eid al-Adha
March–April	Good Friday
May 1	Labour Day
May 20	Independence Restoration Day	Anniversary of transfer of sovereignty from the UN transitional government, 2002
May–June	Corpus Christi
August 30	Popular Consultation Day	Anniversary of the Popular Consultation, 1999
November 1	All Saints' Day
November 2	All Souls' Day
November 12	National Youth Day	Anniversary of the Santa Cruz massacre, 1991
November 28	Proclamation of Independence Day	1975
date varies	Idul Fitri
December 7	National Heroes' Day	Anniversary of Indonesian invasion of East Timor, 1975
December 8	Immaculate Conception
December 25	Christmas Day

In addition, the law defines "official commemorative dates" which are not considered holidays but could be subject to time off from work:

Date	Name
February–March	Ash Wednesday
March–April	Holy Thursday
May–June	Ascension Day
June 1	International Children's Day
August 20	Day of the Armed Forces for the National Liberation of Timor-Leste (FALINTIL)
November 3	National Women's Day
December 10	International Human Rights Day

Notes and references [link]

Notes

^ Or ecologically part of Oceania depending on definitions. See Boundaries between continents#Asia and Oceania.

References

^ Name used in the constitution (Konstituisaun Repúblika Demokrátika Timór-Leste)
^ "Country profile: East Timor". BBC News. March 16, 2010. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/country_profiles/1508119.stm. Retrieved March 28, 2010.
^ President Horta announces preliminary census of population’s results. Timor Newsline. October 22, 2010. http://www.timornewsline.com/?debut_articles02=8#pagination_articles02. Retrieved October 23, 2010.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d "East Timor". International Monetary Fund. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2012/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=47&pr.y=16&sy=2009&ey=2012&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=537&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=. Retrieved April 22, 2012.
^ "Human Development Report 2011 – Human development statistical annex". HDRO (Human Development Report Office United Nations Development Programme. pp. 127–130. http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2011_EN_Tables.pdf. Retrieved November 2, 2011.
^ mne.gov.tl
^ "World Bank Country Groups". Web.worldbank.org. http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/DATASTATISTICS/0,,contentMDK:20421402~pagePK:64133150~piPK:64133175~theSitePK:239419,00.html#Low_income. Retrieved July 17, 2011.
^ "United Nations Member States". United Nations. http://www.un.org/members/list.shtml. Retrieved March 28, 2010.
^ "European Union deploys Election Observation Mission to Timor Leste". Europa (web portal). http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP/07/833&format=HTML&aged=0&language=EN&guiLanguage=en. Retrieved March 28, 2010.
^ "USA Department of State: Timor Leste Country Page". State.gov. January 20, 2009. http://www.state.gov/p/eap/ci/tt/. Retrieved March 28, 2010.
^ "Brief History of Timor-Leste". Official Web Gateway to the Government of Timor-Leste. Government of the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste. 2006. http://www.timor-leste.gov.tl/AboutTimorleste/history.htm. ^{[dead link]}; A. Barbedo de Magalhães (October 24, 1994). "Population Settlements in East Timor and Indonesia". University of Coimbra website. University of Coimbra. http://www.uc.pt/timor/CURSO1A.HTM. ^{[dead link]}
^ "Flags of the World". Fotw.net. http://www.fotw.net/flags/tl!1967.html. Retrieved July 17, 2011.
^ http://www.lusotopie.sciencespobordeaux.fr/carneiroSousa.rtf
^ Deeley, Furness, and Schofield (2001) The International Boundaries of East Timor p. 8
^ ^a ^b Schwarz, A. (1994). A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia in the 1990s. Westview Press. p. page 198. ISBN 978-1-86373-635-0.
^ Department of Defence (Australia), 2002, "A Short History of East Timor" Access date: January 3, 2007.
^ Ricklefs, M. C. (1991). A History of Modern Indonesia since c.1300, Second Edition. MacMillan. p. 301. ISBN 0-333-57689-6.
^ "Official Web Gateway to the Government of Timor-Leste – Districts". Government of the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste. http://www.gov.east-timor.org/AboutTimorleste/distt.htm. Retrieved July 16, 2011.
^ Benetech Human Rights Data Analysis Group (February 9, 2006). "The Profile of Human Rights Violations in Timor-Leste, 1974–1999". A Report to the Commission on Reception, Truth and Reconciliation of Timor-Leste. Human Rights Data Analysis Group (HRDAG). http://www.hrdag.org/resources/timor_chapter_graphs/timor_chapter_page_02.shtml.
^ "UNITED NATIONS TRANSITIONAL ADMINISTRATION IN EAST TIMOR – UNTAET". United Nations. http://www.un.org/peace/etimor/etimor.htm. Retrieved July 17, 2011.
^ Etan/Us (February 15, 2000). "UN takes over East Timor command". Etan.org. http://www.etan.org/et2000a/february/13-19/14untake.htm. Retrieved July 17, 2011.
^ "East Timor May Be Becoming Failed State". Web.archive.org. January 13, 2008. Archived from the original on January 13, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080113222417/http://www.guardian.co.uk/worldlatest/story/0,,-6759703,00.html. Retrieved July 17, 2011.
^ "Asia-Pacific | Shot East Timor leader 'critical'". BBC News. February 11, 2008. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7238142.stm. Retrieved July 17, 2011.
^ "UN on Track to End East Timor Peacekeeping Mission in 2012". Feeds.bignewsnetwork.com. June 1, 2011. http://feeds.bignewsnetwork.com/?sid=790883. Retrieved July 17, 2011.
^ Jornal da Républica mit dem Diploma Ministerial n.° 199/09 (PDF-Datei; 315 kB)
^ "United Nations". United Nations. http://www.un.org/depts/dhl/maplib/worldregions.htm. Retrieved March 28, 2010. ^{[dead link]}
^ Norwegian energy and Water Resources Directorate (NVE) (2004), Iralalaro Hydropower Project Environmental Assessment
^ "ReefGIS – Reefs At Risk – Global 1998". Reefgis.reefbase.org. http://reefgis.reefbase.org/default.aspx?wms=RGWRR&bbox=124.435391706464,-9.57341029858931,127.322447704801,-7.95947401551091. Retrieved March 28, 2010.
^ atns.net.au^{[dead link]}
^ "Radio Australia". Archived from the original on January 2, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070102054153/http://www.radioaustralia.net.au/news/timelines/s1408008_to.htm.
^ "The Timor Sea Treaty: Are the Issues Resolved?". Aph.gov.au. http://www.aph.gov.au/library/pubs/RN/2001-02/02rn45.htm. Retrieved July 17, 2011.
^ transparency.gov.tl
^ Etan/Us. "Plain facts about Australia and East Timor’s Maritime Boundary". Etan.org. http://www.etan.org/issues/tsea/plainfact.htm. Retrieved July 17, 2011.
^ "Declaration under the Statute of the International Court of Justice concerning Australia's acceptance of the jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice (Canberra, 21 March 2002) -2002 ATS 5". Austlii.edu.au. March 21, 2002. http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/other/dfat/treaties/2002/5.html. Retrieved July 17, 2011.
^ "Declarations or Statements upon UNCLOS ratification". United Nations. http://www.un.org/Depts/los/convention_agreements/convention_declarations.htm#Australia%20after%20ratification. Retrieved July 17, 2011.
^ "Downer's spin and the East Timor talks". Archived from the original on December 1, 2005. http://web.archive.org/web/20051201131559/http://www.crikey.com.au/articles/2005/05/09-1204-7954.html.
^ Geoff A. McKee, oil and gas expert engineer, Lecturer, University of NSW, Sydney, Australia. "McKee: How much is Sunrise really worth?: True Value of a Timor Sea Gas Resource (26 Mar 05)". Canb.auug.org.au. http://www.canb.auug.org.au/~wildwood/05mar26mckee.html. Retrieved July 17, 2011.
^ "Prime Minister and Cabinet, Timor-Leste Government – Media Releases". Pm.gov.tp. http://www.pm.gov.tp/bill.htm. Retrieved July 17, 2011.
^ Voice of America, June 24, 2007, East Timor Facing Food Crisis and Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries of Timor-Leste
^ "Gazetteer – Patents". Billanderson.com.au. http://www.billanderson.com.au/Gazetteer-Patents.htm. Retrieved March 28, 2010.
^ Taylor, Jean Gelman (2003). Indonesia: Peoples and Histories. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. p. page 378. ISBN 978-0-300-10518-6.
^ ^a ^b ^c Robinson, G. If you leave us here, we will die, Princeton University Press 2010 p 72.
^ "Timor-Leste (03/08)". State.gov. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35878.htm. Retrieved March 28, 2010.
^ CIA – The World Factbook – Timor-Leste
^ "Timor-Leste". State.gov. September 14, 2007. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90135.htm. Retrieved March 28, 2010.
^ See also Liquiçá Church Massacre.
^ Taylor, Jean Gelman (2003). Indonesia: Peoples and Histories. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. p. page 378. ISBN 978-0-300-10518-6.
^ "Timor Leste, Tetum, Portuguese, Bahasa Indonesia or English?". April 20, 2012. http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2012/04/20/timor-leste-tetum-portuguese-bahasa-indonesia-or-english.html.
^ JSMP ReportPDF (295 KB)
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e "Human Development Report 2009 – Timor-Leste". Hdrstats.undp.org. http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/countries/data_sheets/cty_ds_TMP.html. Retrieved March 28, 2010.
^ ^a ^b ^c "Timor-Leste faces development challenges". Content.undp.org. January 12, 2006. http://content.undp.org/go/newsroom/march-2006/timor-leste-hdr20060309.en?g11n.enc=ISO-8859-1. Retrieved March 28, 2010.
^ "The State Of The World's Midwifery". United Nations Population Fund. Retrieved August 2011. http://www.unfpa.org/sowmy/report/home.html.
^ [1]^{[dead link]}

Bibliography [link]

Cashmore, Ellis (1988). Dictionary of Race and Ethnic Relations. New York: Routledge. ASIN B000NPHGX6
Charny, Israel W. Encyclopedia of Genocide Volume I. Denver: Abc Clio.
Dunn, James (1996). East Timor: A People Betrayed. Sydney: ABC Books.
Hägerdal, Hans (2012), Lords of the Land, Lords of the Sea; Conflict and Adaptation in Early Colonial Timor, 1600–1800. Oapen.org,
Levinson, David. Ethnic Relations. Denver: Abc Clio.
Rudolph, Joseph R. Encyclopedia of Modern Ethnic Conflicts. Westport: Greenwood P, 2003. 101–106.
Shelton, Dinah. Encyclopedia of Genocide and Crimes Against Humanity. Thompson Gale.
Taylor, John G. (1999). East Timor: The Price of Freedom. Australia: Pluto Press. ISBN 978-1-85649-840-1.
East Timor: a bibliography, a bibliographic reference, Jean A. Berlie, launched by PM Xanana Gusmão, Indes Savantes editor, Paris, France, published in 2001. ISBN 978-2-84654-012-4, ISBN 978-2-84654-012-4.
East Timor, politics and elections (in Chinese)/ 东帝汶政治与选举 (2001–2006): 国家建设及前景展望, Jean A. Berlie, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies of Jinan University editor, Jinan, China, published in 2007.

External links [link]

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Government

General information

Timor-Leste entry at The World Factbook
East Timor from UCB Libraries GovPubs
Timor-Leste at the Open Directory Project
Wikimedia Atlas of East Timor
East Timor travel guide from Wikitravel
Key Development Forecasts for Timor-Leste from International Futures

Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on

East Timor

v t e East Timor topics

Politics	Constitution · President · Prime Minister · Parliament · Elections · Political parties · Military · Coat of arms · Human rights · Foreign relations · Law · Law enforcement · Foreign aid · United Nations mission

History	Timeline · Pre-colonial Timor · Portuguese colonisation · Japanese invasion · Indonesian invasion · Indonesian occupation · Dili massacre · 1999 referendum · 1999 crisis · Peacekeeping efforts · Transition to independence · Tribunals · 2006 crisis · 2008 crisis

Geography	Timor · Protected areas · Tatamailau · Islands · Rivers · Wildlife · Districts · Subdistricts · Sucos · Towns

Economy	Centavo · Pataca · Escudo · Communications · Transport · Airports

Society	Culture · Demographics · Languages · Music · Literature · Sports · Notable people · Religion · Flag · Anthem

Outline · Index · Portal

Administrative divisions

v t e Districts of East Timor

Aileu Ainaro Baucau Bobonaro Cova Lima Dili Ermera Lautém Liquiçá Manatuto Manufahi Oecusse Viqueque

v t e District capitals of East Timor

Aileu Ainaro Baucau Dili Gleno Liquiçá Lospalos Maliana Manatuto Pante Macassar Same Suai Viqueque

v t e Subdistricts of East Timor

Aileu Laulara Lequidoe Remexio Ainaro Hatudo Hatu Builico Maubisse Baguia Baucau Laga Quelicai Vemasse Venilale Atabae Balibó Bobonaro Cailaco Lolotoi Maliana Fatululique Fatumean Fuorém Mape-Zumulai Maucatar Suai Tilomar Atauro Cristo Rei Dom Aleixo Metinaro Nain Feto Vera Cruz Atsabe Ermera Hatólia Letefuó Railaco Iliomar Lautém Lospalos Luro Tutuala Bazartete Liquiçá Maubara Barique-Natarbora Laclo Laclubar Laleia Manatuto Soibada Alas Fatuberliu Same Turiscai Nitibe Oesilo Pante Macassar Passabe Lacluta Ossu Uatolari Uato Carabau Viqueque

Sucos of East Timor

Aisirimou • Bandudatu • Fahiria • Fatubosa • Hoholau • Lahae • Lausi • Liurai • Malere • Saboria • Seloi Kraik • Fatisi • Kotolau • Madabeno • Talitu • Tohumeta • Acubilitoho • Bereleu • Betulau • Fahisoi • Fautrilau • Manukasa • Namleso • Acumau • Fadabloko • Fahisoi • Faturasa • Hautuho • Liurai • Maumeta • Tulatakeu • Ainaro • Cassa • Manutassi • Mau-Nunu • Mau-Ulo • Soro • Suro-Craic • Mulo • Mauchiga • Nunu Mogue • Beikala • Leolima • Aituto • Edi • Fatubessi • Horiauic • Liurai • Manelobas • Manetu • Maubisse • Maulau • Afaloicai • Alaua-Craik • Alaua-Leten • Defa-Uassi • Hae-Coni • Larisula • Lavateri • Osso-Huna • Samalari • Uacala • Bahú • Bucoli • Buibau • Buruma • Caibada Uaimua • Samalari • Seiçal • Tirilolo • Triloka • Gariuai • Uailili • Atelari • Libagua • Nunira • Saelari • Sagadate • Samalari • Soba • Tequinaumata • Abafala • Abo • Afaçá • Baguia • Bualale • Guruça • Lacoliu • Laisorulai de baixo • Laisorulai de cima • Lelalai • Letemumo • Macalaco • Maluro • Namanei • Uaitame • Caicua • Loilubo • Ossoala • Ostico • Uaigae • Uatu-Lari • Vemasse • Bado-Ho’o • Bahamori • Fatulia • Uailaha • Uai-Oli • Uatu-Haco • Uma-Anaico • Uma Analu • Aidabaleten • Atabai • Rairobo • Hataz • Balibo Kota • Batugade • Cová • Leohitu • Leolima • Sanirin • Ai-Assa • Atu Aben • Bobonaro • Carabau • Colimau • Cota Bo’ot • Ilatalaun • Leber • Lour • Lourba • Maliubu • Malilait • Molop • Oe-Leu • Sibuni • Soi Leco • Tapo • Tebabui • Atudara • Daudo • Goulolo • Guenolai • Manapa • Miligo • Purogoa • Raiheu • Deudet • Gildapil • Guda • Lebos • Lontas • Lupai • Opa • Holsa • Lahomea • Odamau • Rai Fun • Ritabou • Saburai • Tapo Memo • Fatululik • Taroman • Beluluik Leten • Fatumean • Nanu • Dato Rua • Dato Tolu • Fohoren • Lactos • Beco II • Fatuleto • Lepo • Lour • Mape • Raimera • Ucecai • Zulo • Belecasac • Holpilat • Matai • Ogues • Beco I • Debus • Labarat • Kamenasa • Suai • Foholulik • Lalawa • Maudemu • Beloi • Biqueli • Macadade • Maquili • Vila • Akadiru-Hun • Balibar • Becora • Bemori • Hera • Kamea • Kulu Hun • Bairo Pite • Colmera • Comoro • Fatuhada • Kampung Alor • Motael • Vila Verde • Sabuli • Duyung • Bairo Central • Bairo dos Grilhos • Bairo Formosa • Bidau Lecidere • Bidau Santana • Meti Aut • Caicoli • Dare • Lahane Ocidental • Lahane Oriental • Mascarinhas • Santa Cruz • Atara • Baboe Kraik • Baboe Leten • Batu Manu • Laklo • Lasaun • Laubonu • Leimea Leten • Malabe • Obulo • Paramin • Tiarlelo • Estado • Humboe • Lauala • Liguimea • Mertutu • Poetete • Ponilala • Raimerhei • Riheu • Talimoro • Ailelo • Asulau/Sare • Fatubalu • Fatubessi • Hatulia • Kailete Leotela • Leimea Kraik • Leimea Sarinbala • Lisabat • Manusea • Mauabu • Samara • Uruhau • Dukurai • Eraulo • Goulolo • Hatugau • Katrai Kraik • Katrai Leten • Lauana • Letefoho • Fatuquero • Lihu • Matata • Oeleso • Railaco Kraik • Railako Leten • Samaleten • Taraso • Tokoluli • Iliomar I • Iliomar II • Ailebere • Fuat • Cainliu • Tirilolo • Baduro • Com • Daudere • Eukisi • Ililai • Maina I • Maina II • Pairara • Parlamento • Serelau • Bauro • Cacaven • Fuiloro • Home • Leuro • Loré I • Loré II • Muapitine • Raça • Souro • Afabubu • Baricafa • Cotamuto • Lakawa • Luro • Wairoke • Mehara • Tutuala • Fahilebo • Fatumasi • Lauhata • Leorema • Maumeta • Metagou • Motaulun • Tibar • Ulmera • Asumano • Darulete • Dato • Hatukesi • Leotela • Loidahar • Lukulai • Guguleur • Guico • Lisadilia • Maubaralisa • Vatuboro • Vatuvou • Vaviquinia • Aubeon • Barique • Fatuwaqui • Manehat • Umaboku • Hohorai • Laku Mesak • Umakaduak • Umanaruk • Batara • Fatumakerek • Funar • Manelima • Orlalan • Sananain • Cairui • Hatularan • Lifau • Ailili • Aiteas • Cribas • Iliheu • Maabat • Sau • Fatumakerek • Leohat • Manlala • Maunfahe • Samoro • Aituha • Dotik • Malagidan • Taitudal • Uma Berloik • Bubususu • Fatukahi • Kaikasa • Klakuk • Talinehar • Babulu • Betano • Daisula • Gratu • Holarua • Letefoho • Rotutu • Tutuluro • Aitenua • Beremana • Fatukalo • Kaimauk • Foholau • Lesuata • Liurai • Manumera • Matorek • Mindelo • Orana • Banafi • Bebe Ufe • Lela Ufe • Suni Ufe • Usi Taco • Bobometo • Usitakeno • Usitasae • Bobocasae • Costa • Cunha • Lalisuk • Lifau • Naimeco • Nipane • Taiboco • Abani • Malelat • Ahic • Dilor • Laline • Uma Tolu • Builale • Liaruca • Loi-Huno • Nahareca • Ossorua • Ossu de Cima • Uabubo • Uaguia • Uaibobo • Bahalarauain • Bibileo • Caraubalu • Fatu Dere • Luca • Maluru • Uaimori • Uma Qui’ic • Uma Uain Craic • Uma Uain Leten • Afaloicai • Bahatata • Irabin de baixo • Irabin de cima • Loi - Ulu • Uani Uma • Afaloicai • Babulo • Macadique • Matohoi • Uaitame • Vessoru

Geographic international

Countries and dependencies of Asia

Sovereign states

States with limited recognition

Dependencies and
Special Administrative Regions

Australia	Christmas Island Cocos (Keeling) Islands

China	Hong Kong Macau

United Kingdom	Akrotiri and Dhekelia British Indian Ocean Territory

Countries and territories of Oceania

Sovereign states

Australia
Chile
- Easter Island
- Juan Fernández Islands
East Timor (Timor-Leste)
Fiji
Indonesia
Kiribati
Marshall Islands
Federated States of Micronesia
Japan
- Bonin Islands
Nauru
New Zealand
- Cook Islands
- Niue
Palau
Papua New Guinea
Samoa
Solomon Islands
Tonga
Tuvalu
United States
- Hawaii
- Palmyra Atoll
Vanuatu

Dependencies
and
other territories

Australia	Ashmore and Cartier Islands Christmas Island Cocos (Keeling) Islands Coral Sea Islands Territory Norfolk Island

France	Clipperton Island French Polynesia New Caledonia Wallis and Futuna

New Zealand	Cook Islands Niue Tokelau

United Kingdom	Pitcairn Islands

United States	American Samoa Baker Island Guam Howland Island Jarvis Island Johnston Atoll Kingman Reef Midway Atoll Northern Mariana Islands Wake Island

v t e Countries and other territories in Southeast Asia

Sovereign states	Brunei Burma Cambodia East Timor Indonesia Laos Malaysia Philippines Singapore Thailand Vietnam

Dependent territories	Christmas Island, Australia Cocos (Keeling) Islands, Australia

Subdivisions	Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India Hainan, China Paracel Islands, China Pratas Islands, Taiwan Spratly Islands (Taiping Island, Taiwan))

v t e Countries of the Malay Archipelago

Brunei · East Timor · Indonesia · Malaysia · Philippines · Singapore · Papua New Guinea

International membership

v t e Pacific Islands Forum (PIF)

Members	Australia Cook Islands Fiji (suspended, May 2009) Kiribati Marshall Islands Micronesia Nauru New Zealand Niue Palau Papua New Guinea Samoa Solomon Islands Tonga Tuvalu Vanuatu

Associate members	French Polynesia New Caledonia

Observers	Commonwealth of Nations East Timor Tokelau United Nations Wallis and Futuna Guam American Samoa Northern Mariana Islands Asian Development Bank WCPFC

Dialogue partners	Canada China European Union France India Indonesia Italy Japan South Korea Malaysia Philippines Thailand United Kingdom United States

v t e Association of Southeast Asian Nations

Governance	Charter Free trade area Customs union

Member states	Brunei Burma (Myanmar) Cambodia Indonesia Laos Malaysia Philippines Singapore Thailand Vietnam

Enlargement	Papua New Guinea East Timor Bangladesh

Summits/Forums	ASEAN Summits ASEAN +3 AMU ASEAN Regional Forum ASEM East Asia Summit CEPEA CMI

Related articles	Anthem Common Time Date of Establishment Emblem Flag Hymn Organizations SEA Games Secretariat Treaty of Amity and Cooperation

East Asia Summit (EAS)

Members and observers of the Non-Aligned Movement

Members

Observers

Countries	Antigua and Barbuda Armenia Azerbaijan Bosnia-Herzegovina Brazil China Costa Rica Croatia Cyprus Dominica El Salvador Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Mexico Montenegro Russia Serbia Ukraine Uruguay

Organizations	African Union Arab League United Nations

v t e World Trade Organization

System	Accession and membership Appellate Body Dispute Settlement Body International Trade Centre Chronology of key events

Issues	Criticism Doha Development Round Singapore issues Quota Elimination Peace Clause

Agreements	General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade Agriculture Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures Technical Barriers to Trade Trade Related Investment Measures Trade in Services Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights Government Procurement Information Technology Marrakech Agreement Doha Declaration

Ministerial Conferences	1st (1996) 2nd (1998) 3rd (1999) 4th (2001) 5th (2003) 6th (2005) 7th (2009) 8th (2011)

People	Pascal Lamy (Director-General) Supachai Panitchpakdi (Former Director-General) Deputy Directors-General: Alejandro Jara Valentine Rugwabiza Harsha Singh Rufus Yerxa

Members	Albania Algeria Angola Antigua and Barbuda Argentina Armenia Australia Bahrain Bangladesh Barbados Belize Benin Bolivia Botswana Brazil Brunei Burkina Faso Burma Burundi Cambodia Cameroon Canada Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Chile China Colombia Democratic Republic of the Congo Republic of the Congo Costa Rica Côte d'Ivoire Croatia Cuba Djibouti Dominica Dominican Republic Ecuador Egypt El Salvador European Union¹ Fiji Gabon The Gambia Georgia Ghana Grenada Guatemala Guinea Guinea-Bissau Guyana Haiti Honduras Hong Kong² Iceland India Indonesia Israel Jamaica Japan Jordan Kenya South Korea Kuwait Kyrgyzstan Lesotho Liechtenstein Macau² Macedonia Madagascar Malawi Malaysia Maldives Mali Mauritania Mauritius Mexico Moldova Mongolia Morocco Mozambique Namibia Nepal New Zealand Nicaragua Niger Nigeria Norway Oman Pakistan Panama Papua New Guinea Paraguay Peru Philippines Qatar Russia Rwanda St. Kitts and Nevis St. Lucia St. Vincent and the Grenadines Saudi Arabia Senegal Sierra Leone Singapore Solomon Islands South Africa Sri Lanka Suriname Swaziland Switzerland Taiwan³ Tanzania Thailand Togo Tonga Trinidad and Tobago Tunisia Turkey Uganda Ukraine United Arab Emirates United States Uruguay Venezuela Vietnam Zambia Zimbabwe 1. All twenty-seven member states of the European Union are also members of the WTO in their own right: Austria Belgium Bulgaria Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Ireland Italy Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malta Netherlands Poland Portugal Romania Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden United Kingdom 2. Special administrative region of the People's Republic of China, participate as "Hong Kong, China" and "Macao China". 3. Officially the Republic of China, participate as "Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu"

Languages

v t e Austronesian-speaking countries and territories

Formosan	Taiwan

Malayo-Polynesian	American Samoa Brunei Burma (Myanmar) Cambodia Christmas Island Cocos (Keeling) Islands Cook Islands Easter Island East Timor Fiji French Polynesia Guam Hainan Indonesia Kiribati Madagascar Malaysia Marshall Islands FS Micronesia Nauru New Caledonia New Zealand Niue Northern Mariana Islands Orchid Island Palau Papua New Guinea Philippines Samoa Singapore Solomon Islands Sri Lanka Suriname Thailand Tokelau Tonga Tuvalu United States (Hawaii) Vanuatu Vietnam Wallis and Futuna

v t e Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP)

Members	Angola Brazil Cape Verde East Timor Guinea-Bissau Mozambique Portugal São Tomé and Príncipe

Observers	Equatorial Guinea Mauritius Senegal

Interested	Andorra Croatia Galicia Goa Macau Morocco Malacca Philippines Romania Ukraine

v t e Latin Union

Member nations	Andorra Angola Bolivia Brazil Cape Verde Chile Colombia Costa Rica Côte d'Ivoire Cuba Dominican Republic East Timor Ecuador El Salvador France Guatemala Guinea-Bissau Haiti Honduras Italy Mexico Moldova Monaco Mozambique Nicaragua Panama Paraguay Peru Philippines Portugal Romania San Marino São Tomé and Príncipe Senegal Spain Uruguay Venezuela

Permanent observers	Argentina Holy See Sovereign Military Order of Malta

Official languages	Catalan French Italian Portuguese Romanian Spanish

History

Portuguese Overseas Empire

North Africa

15th century
1415–1640 Ceuta
1458–1550 Alcácer Ceguer (El Qsar es Seghir)
1471–1550 Arzila (Asilah)
1471–1662 Tangier
1485–1550 Mazagan (El Jadida)
1487– middle 16th century Ouadane
1488–1541 Safim (Safi)
1489 Graciosa

16th century
1505–1769 Santa Cruz do Cabo
de Gué (Agadir)
1506–1525 Mogador (Essaouira)
1506–1525 Aguz (Souira Guedima)
1506–1769 Mazagan (El Jadida)
1513–1541 Azamor (Azemmour)
1515 São João da Mamora (Mehdya)
1577–1589 Arzila (Asilah)

Sub-Saharan Africa

15th century 1455–1633 Anguim 1462–1975 Cape Verde 1470–1975 São Tomé¹ 1474–1778 Annobón 1478–1778 Fernando Poo (Bioko) 1482–1637 Elmina (São Jorge da Mina) 1482–1642 Portuguese Gold Coast 1508–1547 (1600) Madagascar² 1498–1540 Mascarene Islands	16th century 1500–1630 Malindi 1500–1975 Príncipe¹ 1501–1975 Portuguese E. Africa (Mozambique) 1502–1659 Saint Helena 1503–1698 Zanzibar 1505–1512 Quíloa (Kilwa) 1506–1511 Socotra 1557–1578 Accra 1575–1975 Portuguese W. Africa (Angola) 1588–1974 Cacheu³ 1593–1698 Mombassa (Mombasa)	17th century 1645–1888 Ziguinchor 1680–1961 São João Baptista de Ajudá 1687–1974 Bissau³ 18th century 1728–1729 Mombassa (Mombasa) 1753–1975 São Tomé and Príncipe 19th century 1879–1974 Portuguese Guinea 1885–1975 Portuguese Congo
	¹ Part of São Tomé and Príncipe from 1753. ² A Factory (Anosy region) and small temporary coastal bases. ³ Part of Portuguese Guinea from 1879.

Southwest Asia

16th century
1506–1615 Gamru (Bandar-Abbas)
1507–1643 Sohar
1515–1622 Hormuz (Ormus)
1515–1648 Quriyat
1515–? Qalhat
1515–1650 Muscat
1515?–? Barka
1515–1633? Julfar (Ras al-Khaimah)
1521–1602 Bahrain (Muharraq and Manama)
1521–1529? Qatif
1521?–1551? Tarut Island
1550–1551 Qatif
1588–1648 Matrah

17th century
1620–? Khor Fakkan
1621?–? As Sib
1621–1622 Qeshm
1623–? Khasab
1623–? Libedia
1624–? Kalba
1624–? Madha
1624–1648 Dibba Al-Hisn
1624?–? Bandar-e Kong

Indian subcontinent

15th century
1498–1545 Laccadive Islands
(Lakshadweep)

16th century
Portuguese India
· 1500–1663 Cochim (Kochi)
· 1501–1663 Cannanore (Kannur)
· 1502–1658, 1659-1661 Quilon (Coulão/Kollam)
· 1502–1661 Pallipuram (Cochin de Cima)
· 1507–1657 Negapatam (Nagapatnam)
· 1510–1962 Goa
· 1512–1525, 1750 Calicut (Kozhikode)
· 1518–1619 Portuguese Paliacate trading outpost (Pulicat)
· 1521–1740 Chaul
· 1523–1662 Mylapore
· 1528–1666 Chittagong
· 1531–1571 Chaul
· 1531–1571 Chalé
· 1534–1601 Salsette Island
· 1534–1661 Bombay (Mumbai)
· 1535 Ponnani
· 1535–1739 Baçaím (Vasai-Virar)
· 1536–1662 Cranganore (Kodungallur)
· 1540–1612 Surat
· 1548–1658 Tuticorin (Thoothukudi)

16th century (continued)
Portuguese India (continued)
· 1559–1962 Daman and Diu
· 1568–1659 Mangalore
· 1579–1632 Hugli
· 1598–1610 Masulipatnam (Machilipatnam)
1518–1521 Maldives
1518–1658 Portuguese Ceylon (Sri Lanka)
1558–1573 Maldives

17th century
Portuguese India
· 1687–1749 Mylapore

18th century
Portuguese India
· 1779–1954 Dadra and Nagar Haveli

East Asia and Oceania

	16th century 1511–1641 Portuguese Malacca 1512–1621 Maluku · 1522–1575 Ternate · 1576–1605 Ambon · 1578–1650 Tidore 1512–1665 Makassar 1553–1999 Macau 1571–1639 Decima (Dejima, Nagasaki)	17th century 1642–1975 Portuguese Timor (East Timor)¹ 19th century Macau · 1864–1999 Coloane · 1849–1999 Portas do Cerco · 1851–1999 Taipa · 1890–1999 Ilha Verde 20th century Macau · 1938–1941 Lapa and Montanha (Hengqin)
¹	1975 is the year of East Timor's Declaration of Independence and subsequent invasion by Indonesia. In 2002, East Timor's independence was recognized by Portugal & the world.

North America and the North Atlantic Ocean

15th century
1420 Madeira
1432 Azores

16th century
1500–1579? Terra Nova (Newfoundland)
1500–1579? Labrador
1516–1579? Nova Scotia

Central and South America

16th century
1500–1822 Brazil
1536–1620 Barbados

17th century
1680–1777 Nova Colónia do Sacramento
19th century
1808–1822 Cisplatina (Uruguay)
1809–1817 Portuguese Guiana
1822 Upper Peru (Bolivia)

Portuguese colonization of the Americas - Theory of Portuguese discovery of Australia - Portuguese colonialism in Indonesia

http://wn.com/East_Timor

http://de.wn.com/Osttimor

http://es.wn.com/Timor Oriental

http://ru.wn.com/Восточный Тимор

http://cs.wn.com/Východní Timor

http://pt.wn.com/Timor-Leste

http://pl.wn.com/Timor Wschodni

http://hi.wn.com/पूर्वी तिमोर

http://it.wn.com/Timor Est

http://id.wn.com/Timor Leste

http://nl.wn.com/Oost-Timor

http://fr.wn.com/Timor oriental

This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Timor

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"Chomsky" redirects here. For other topics with the same name, see Chomsky (disambiguation).

Noam Chomsky
Noam Chomsky visiting Vancouver, British Columbia in 2004
Other names	Avram Noam Chomsky
Born	(1928-12-07) December 7, 1928 (age 83) Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Era	20th / 21st-century philosophy
Region	Western philosophy
School	Generative linguistics, Analytic philosophy
Main interests	Linguistics · Psychology Philosophy of language Philosophy of mind Politics · Ethics
Notable ideas	Generative grammar, universal grammar, transformational grammar, government and binding, X-bar theory, Chomsky hierarchy, context-free grammar, principles and parameters, Minimalist program, language acquisition device, poverty of the stimulus, Chomsky–Schützenberger theorem, Chomsky Normal Form, propaganda model^[1]
Influenced by Dwight Macdonald,^[2] Pāṇini, Bertrand Russell,^[3] Ludwig Wittgenstein, John Dewey, Mikhail Bakunin, Wilhelm von Humboldt, Adam Smith, Zellig Harris, Rudolf Rocker, Immanuel Kant, René Descartes, George Orwell, C. West Churchman, Alan Turing, W. V. O. Quine, Russian literature, Hebrew literature^[4]
Influenced Colin McGinn, Edward Said, Christopher Hitchens, Steven Pinker, Peter Ludlow, Tanya Reinhart, Morris Halle, Gilbert Harman, Jerry Fodor, Howard Lasnik, Robert Fisk, Neil Smith, Ray Jackendoff, Norbert Hornstein, Jean Bricmont, Marc Hauser, Norman Finkelstein, Robert Lees, Hugo Chavez, Mark Baker, Julian Boyd, Ray C. Dougherty, Derek Bickerton, Amy Goodman, Michael Albert

Avram Noam Chomsky (/ˈnoʊm ˈtʃɒmski/; born December 7, 1928) is an American linguist, philosopher,^[5]^[6] cognitive scientist, historian, and activist. He is an Institute Professor and Professor (Emeritus) in the Department of Linguistics & Philosophy at MIT, where he has worked for over 50 years.^[7] Chomsky has been described as the "father of modern linguistics"^[8]^[9]^[10] and a major figure of analytic philosophy.^[5] His work has influenced fields such as computer science, mathematics, and psychology.^[11]^[12]

Ideologically identifying with anarcho-syndicalism and libertarian socialism, Chomsky is known for his critiques of U.S. foreign policy^[13] and contemporary capitalism,^[14] and he has been described as a prominent cultural figure.^[15] His media criticism has included Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media (1988), co-written with Edward S. Herman, an analysis articulating the propaganda model theory for examining the media.

According to the Arts and Humanities Citation Index in 1992, Chomsky was cited as a source more often than any other living scholar from 1980 to 1992, and was the eighth most cited source overall.^[16]^[17]^[18]^[19] Chomsky is the author of over 100 books.^[20] He is credited as the creator or co-creator of the Chomsky hierarchy, the universal grammar theory, and the Chomsky–Schützenberger theorem.

1 Life and career
2 Thought
3 Debates
4 Influence
5 Academic achievements, awards and honors
6 Bibliography
7 Filmography
8 See also
9 References
10 External links

Life and career [link]

Chomsky was born on December 7, 1928, to Jewish parents in the affluent East Oak Lane neighborhood of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the elder son of noted professor of Hebrew at Gratz College and IWW (Industrial Workers of the World) member William Chomsky (1896–1977), a native of Ukraine. His mother, Elsie Chomsky (née Simonofsky)—a native of what is present-day Belarus—grew up in the United States and, unlike her husband, spoke "ordinary New York English". Chomsky's parents' first language was Yiddish,^[21] but Chomsky said it was "taboo" in his family to speak it.^[21] Although Chomsky's mother was part of the radical activism in the 1930s, he was influenced largely by his uncle who, having never passed 4th grade, owned a newsstand that acted as an "intellectual center [where] professors of this and that argu[ed] all night".^[22] Chomsky was influenced also by being a part of a Hebrew-based, Zionist organization, as well as by hanging around anarchist bookstores.^[22]

He describes his family as living in a sort of "Jewish ghetto", split into a "Yiddish side" and "Hebrew side", with his family aligning with the latter and bringing him up "immersed in Hebrew culture and literature", though he means more a "cultural ghetto than a physical one".^[23] Chomsky also describes tensions he experienced with Irish Catholics and German Catholics and anti-semitism in the mid-1930s. He recalls "beer parties" celebrating the fall of Paris to the Nazis.^[23] In a discussion of the irony of his staying in the 1980s in a Jesuit House in Central America, Chomsky explained that during his childhood, "We were the only Jewish family around. I grew up with a visceral fear of Catholics. They're the people who beat you up on your way to school. So I knew when they came out of that building down the street, which was the Jesuit school, they were raving anti-Semites. So childhood memories took a long time to overcome."^[24]

Chomsky remembers the first article he wrote was at age 10 while a student at Oak Lane Country Day School about the threat of the spread of fascism, following the fall of Barcelona in the Spanish Civil War. From the age of 12 or 13, he identified more fully with anarchist politics.^[25]

A graduate of Central High School of Philadelphia, Chomsky began studying philosophy and linguistics at the University of Pennsylvania in 1945, taking classes with philosophers such as C. West Churchman and Nelson Goodman and linguist Zellig Harris. Harris's teaching included his discovery of transformations as a mathematical analysis of language structure (mappings from one subset to another in the set of sentences). Chomsky referred to the morphophonemic rules in his 1951 master's thesis—The Morphophonemics of Modern Hebrew—as transformations in the sense of Carnap's 1938 notion of rules of transformation (vs. rules of formation), and subsequently reinterpreted the notion of grammatical transformations in a very different way from Harris, as operations on the productions of a context-free grammar (derived from Post production systems). Harris's political views were instrumental in shaping those of Chomsky.^[26] Chomsky earned a BA in 1949 and an MA in 1951.

In 1949, he married linguist Carol Schatz. They remained married for 59 years until her death from cancer in December 2008.^[27] The couple had two daughters, Aviva (b. 1957) and Diane (b. 1960), and a son, Harry (b. 1967). With his wife Carol, Chomsky spent time in 1953 living in HaZore'a, a kibbutz in Israel. Asked in an interview whether the stay was "a disappointment" Chomsky replied, "No, I loved it"; however, he "couldn't stand the ideological atmosphere" and "fervent nationalism" in the early 1950s at the kibbutz, with Stalin being defended by many of the left-leaning kibbutz members who chose to paint a rosy image of future possibilities and contemporary realities in the USSR.^[28] Chomsky notes seeing many positive elements in the commune-like living of the kibbutz, in which parents and children lived together in separate houses, and when asked whether there were "lessons that we have learned from the history of the kibbutz", responded,^[29]^[30] that in "some respects, the kibbutzim came closer to the anarchist ideal than any other attempt that lasted for more than a very brief moment before destruction, or that was on anything like a similar scale. In these respects, I think they were extremely attractive and successful; apart from personal accident, I probably would have lived there myself – for how long, it's hard to guess."

Chomsky received his PhD in linguistics from the University of Pennsylvania in 1955. He conducted part of his doctoral research during four years at Harvard University as a Harvard Junior Fellow. In his doctoral thesis, he began to develop some of his linguistic ideas, elaborating on them in his 1957 book Syntactic Structures, one of his best-known works in linguistics.

Chomsky joined the staff of MIT in 1955 and in 1961 was appointed full professor in the Department of Modern Languages and Linguistics (now the Department of Linguistics and Philosophy). From 1966 to 1976 he held the Ferrari P. Ward Professorship of Modern Languages and Linguistics, and in 1976 he was appointed Institute Professor. As of 2010, Chomsky has taught at MIT continuously for 55 years.

In February 1967, Chomsky became one of the leading opponents of the Vietnam War with the publication of his essay, "The Responsibility of Intellectuals",^[31] in The New York Review of Books. This was followed by his 1969 book, American Power and the New Mandarins, a collection of essays that established him at the forefront of American dissent. His far-reaching criticisms of U.S. foreign policy and the legitimacy of U.S. power have raised controversy,^[32]^[33] and he is frequently sought out for his views by publications and news outlets internationally. In 1977 he delivered the Huizinga Lecture in Leiden, the Netherlands, under the title: Intellectuals and the State.

Chomsky has received death threats because of his criticisms of U.S. foreign policy.^[34] He was also on a list of planned targets created by Theodore Kaczynski, better known as the Unabomber; during the period that Kaczynski was at large, Chomsky had all of his mail checked for explosives.^[34] He states that he often receives undercover police protection, in particular while on the MIT campus, although he does not agree with the police protection.^[34]

Chomsky resides in Lexington, Massachusetts, and travels often, giving lectures on politics.

Thought [link]

Linguistics [link]

Chomskyan linguistics, beginning with his Syntactic Structures, a distillation of his Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory (1955, 75), challenges structural linguistics and introduces transformational grammar. This approach takes utterances (sequences of words) to have a syntax characterized by a formal grammar; in particular, a context-free grammar extended with transformational rules.

Perhaps his most influential and time-tested contribution to the field is the claim that modeling knowledge of language using a formal grammar accounts for the "productivity" or "creativity" of language. In other words, a formal grammar of a language can explain the ability of a hearer-speaker to produce and interpret an infinite number of utterances, including novel ones, with a limited set of grammatical rules and a finite set of terms. He has always acknowledged his debt to Pāṇini for his modern notion of an explicit generative grammar, although it is also related to rationalist ideas of a priori knowledge.

It is a popular misconception that Chomsky proved that language is entirely innate, and that he discovered a "universal grammar" (UG). In fact, Chomsky simply observed that while a human baby and a kitten are both capable of inductive reasoning, if they are exposed to exactly the same linguistic data, the human child will always acquire the ability to understand and produce language, while the kitten will never acquire either ability. Chomsky labeled whatever the relevant capacity the human has that the cat lacks the "language acquisition device" (LAD) and suggested that one of the tasks for linguistics should be to figure out what the LAD is and what constraints it puts on the range of possible human languages. The universal features that would result from these constraints are often termed "universal grammar" or UG.^[35]

The Principles and Parameters approach (P&P)—developed in his Pisa 1979 Lectures, later published as Lectures on Government and Binding (LGB)—makes strong claims regarding universal grammar: that the grammatical principles underlying languages are innate and fixed, and the differences among the world's languages can be characterized in terms of parameter settings in the brain (such as the pro-drop parameter, which indicates whether an explicit subject is always required, as in English, or can be optionally dropped, as in Spanish), which are often likened to switches. (Hence the term principles and parameters, often given to this approach.) In this view, a child learning a language need only acquire the necessary lexical items (words, grammatical morphemes, and idioms), and determine the appropriate parameter settings, which can be done based on a few key examples.

Proponents of this view argue that the pace at which children learn languages is inexplicably rapid, unless children have an innate ability to learn languages. The similar steps followed by children all across the world when learning languages, and the fact that children make certain characteristic errors as they learn their first language, whereas other seemingly logical kinds of errors never occur (and, according to Chomsky, should be attested if a purely general, rather than language-specific, learning mechanism were being employed), are also pointed to as indications of innateness.

More recently, in his Minimalist Program (1995), while retaining the core concept of "principles and parameters," Chomsky attempts a major overhaul of the linguistic machinery involved in the LGB model, stripping from it all but the barest necessary elements, while advocating a general approach to the architecture of the human language faculty that emphasizes principles of economy and optimal design, reverting to a derivational approach to generation, in contrast with the largely representational approach of classic P&P.

Chomsky's ideas have had a strong influence on researchers of language acquisition in children, though many researchers in this area such as Elizabeth Bates^[36] and Michael Tomasello^[37] argue very strongly against Chomsky's theories, and instead advocate emergentist or connectionist theories, explaining language with a number of general processing mechanisms in the brain that interact with the extensive and complex social environment in which language is used and learned.

His best-known work in phonology is The Sound Pattern of English (1968), written with Morris Halle (and often known as simply SPE). This work has had a great significance for the development in the field. While phonological theory has since moved beyond "SPE phonology" in many important respects, the SPE system is considered the precursor of some of the most influential phonological theories today, including autosegmental phonology, lexical phonology and optimality theory. Chomsky no longer publishes on phonology.

Generative grammar [link]

Main article: Generative grammar

The Chomskyan approach towards syntax, often termed generative grammar, studies grammar as a body of knowledge possessed by language users. Since the 1960s, Chomsky has maintained that much of this knowledge is innate, implying that children need only learn certain parochial features of their native languages.^[38] The innate body of linguistic knowledge is often termed universal grammar. From Chomsky's perspective, the strongest evidence for the existence of Universal Grammar is simply the fact that children successfully acquire their native languages in so little time. Furthermore, he argues that there is an enormous gap between the linguistic stimuli to which children are exposed and the rich linguistic knowledge they attain (the "poverty of the stimulus" argument). The knowledge of Universal Grammar would serve to bridge that gap.

Chomsky's theories have been immensely influential within linguistics, but they have also received criticism. One recurring criticism of the Chomskyan variety of generative grammar is that it is Anglocentric and Eurocentric, and that often linguists working in this tradition have a tendency to base claims about Universal Grammar on a very small sample of languages, sometimes just one. Initially, the Eurocentrism was exhibited in an overemphasis on the study of English. However, hundreds of different languages have now received at least some attention within Chomskyan linguistic analyses.^[39]^[40]^[41]^[42]^[43] In spite of the diversity of languages that have been characterized by UG derivations, critics continue to argue that the formalisms within Chomskyan linguistics are Anglocentric and misrepresent the properties of languages that are different from English.^[44]^[45]^[46] Thus, Chomsky's approach has been criticized as a form of linguistic imperialism.^[47] In addition, Chomskyan linguists rely heavily on the intuitions of native speakers regarding which sentences of their languages are well-formed. This practice has been criticized on general methodological grounds. Some psychologists and psycholinguists,^[who?] though sympathetic to Chomsky's overall program, have argued that Chomskyan linguists pay insufficient attention to experimental data from language processing, with the consequence that their theories are not psychologically plausible. Other critics (see language learning) have questioned whether it is necessary to posit Universal Grammar to explain child language acquisition, arguing that domain-general learning mechanisms are sufficient.

Today there are many different branches of generative grammar; one can view grammatical frameworks such as head-driven phrase structure grammar, lexical functional grammar, and combinatory categorial grammar as broadly Chomskyan and generative in orientation, but with significant differences in execution.

Chomsky hierarchy [link]

Main article: Chomsky hierarchy

Chomsky is famous for investigating various kinds of formal languages and whether or not they might be capable of capturing key properties of human language. His Chomsky hierarchy partitions formal grammars into classes, or groups, with increasing expressive power, i.e., each successive class can generate a broader set of formal languages than the one before. Interestingly, Chomsky argues that modeling some aspects of human language requires a more complex formal grammar (as measured by the Chomsky hierarchy) than modeling others. For example, while a regular language is powerful enough to model English morphology, it is not powerful enough to model English syntax. In addition to being relevant in linguistics, the Chomsky hierarchy has also become important in computer science (especially in compiler construction and automata theory).^[48] Indeed, there is an equivalence between the Chomsky language hierarchy and the different kinds of automata. Thus theorems about languages are often dealt with as either languages (grammars) or automata.

An alternate method of dealing with languages is based upon Formal Power series.^[49] Formal Power series as well as the relationship between languages and semi-groups continued to occupy M. P. Schützenberger at the Sorbonne. Formal Power Series are similar to the Taylor Series one encounters in a course on Calculus, and it is especially useful for languages where words (terminal symbols) are commutative.^[50]

Politics [link]

Main article: Noam Chomsky's political views

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Chomsky has stated that his "personal visions are fairly traditional anarchist ones, with origins in the Enlightenment and classical liberalism",^[51] and he has praised libertarian socialism.^[52] Although Chomsky tries to avoid the ambiguity of labels, his political views are often characterized in news accounts as "leftist"^[53]^[54]^[55]^[56] or "left-wing," and he has described himself as an anarcho-syndicalist.^[57] He is a member of the Campaign for Peace and Democracy and the Industrial Workers of the World international union.^[58] Chomsky is also a member of the International Organization for a Participatory Society which he describes as having the potential to "carry us a long way towards unifying the many initiatives here and around the world and molding them into a powerful and effective force."^[59]^[60] He published a book on anarchism titled Chomsky on Anarchism, published by the anarchist book collective AK Press in 2006.

Chomsky has engaged in political activism all of his adult life and expressed opinions on politics and world events, which are widely cited, publicized, and discussed. Chomsky has in turn argued that his views are those the powerful do not want to hear, and for this reason he is considered an American political dissident.

Chomsky asserts that authority, unless justified, is inherently illegitimate, and that the burden of proof is on those in authority. If this burden can't be met, the authority in question should be dismantled. Authority for its own sake is inherently unjustified. An example given by Chomsky of a legitimate authority is that exerted by an adult to prevent a young child from wandering into traffic.^[61] He contends that there is little moral difference between chattel slavery and renting one's self to an owner or "wage slavery". He feels that it is an attack on personal integrity that undermines individual freedom. He holds that workers should own and control their workplace, a view held (as he notes) by the Lowell Mill Girls.^[62]

Chomsky has strongly criticized the foreign policy of the United States. He claims double standards in a foreign policy preaching democracy and freedom for all while allying itself with non-democratic and repressive organizations and states such as Chile under Augusto Pinochet and argues that this results in massive human rights violations. He often argues that America's intervention in foreign nations, including the secret aid given to the Contras in Nicaragua, an event of which he has been very critical, fits any standard description of terrorism,^[63]^{[dead link]} including "official definitions in the US Code and Army Manuals in the early 1980s."^[64]^[65] Before its collapse, Chomsky also condemned Soviet imperialism; for example in 1986 during a question/answer following a lecture he gave at Universidad Centroamericana in Nicaragua, when challenged about how he could "talk about North American imperialism and Russian imperialism in the same breath," Chomsky responded: "One of the truths about the world is that there are two superpowers, one a huge power which happens to have its boot on your neck; another, a smaller power which happens to have its boot on other people's necks. I think that anyone in the Third World would be making a grave error if they succumbed to illusions about these matters."^[66]

Regarding the death of Osama bin Laden, Chomsky stated: "We might ask ourselves how we would be reacting if Iraqi commandos landed at George W. Bush's compound, assassinated him, and dumped his body in the Atlantic. Uncontroversially, his crimes vastly exceed bin Laden’s, and he is not a 'suspect' but uncontroversially the 'decider' who gave the orders to commit the 'supreme international crime differing only from other war crimes in that it contains within itself the accumulated evil of the whole' (quoting the Nuremberg Tribunal) for which Nazi criminals were hanged: the hundreds of thousands of deaths, millions of refugees, destruction of much of the country, [and] the bitter sectarian conflict that has now spread to the rest of the region."^[67]

He has argued that the mass media in the United States largely serve as a "bought priesthood"^[68] of the U.S. government and U.S.-based corporations, with the three intertwined through common interests. In a famous reference to Walter Lippmann, Chomsky along with his coauthor Edward S. Herman has written that the American media manufactures consent among the public. Chomsky has condemned the 2010 US Supreme Court Citizens United ruling revoking the limits on campaign finance, calling it a "corporate takeover of democracy."^[69]

Chomsky opposes the U.S. global "war on drugs", claiming its language is misleading, and refers to it as "the war on certain drugs." He favors drug policy reform, in education and prevention rather than military or police action as a means of reducing drug use.^[70] In an interview in 1999, Chomsky argued that, whereas crops such as tobacco receive no mention in governmental exposition, other non-profitable crops, such as marijuana are attacked because of the effect achieved by persecuting the poor.^[71] He has stated:

U.S. domestic drug policy does not carry out its stated goals, and policymakers are well aware of that. If it isn't about reducing substance abuse, what is it about? It is reasonably clear, both from current actions and the historical record, that substances tend to be criminalized when they are associated with the so-called dangerous classes, that the criminalization of certain substances is a technique of social control.^[72]

Chomsky is critical of the American "state capitalist" system and big business; he describes himself as a socialist, specifically an anarcho-syndicalist, and is critical of "authoritarian" communist branches of socialism.^{[citation needed]} He also believes that socialist values exemplify the rational and morally consistent extension of original unreconstructed classical liberal and radical humanist ideas to an industrial context. He believes that society should be highly organized and based on democratic control of communities and work places. He believes that the radical humanist ideas of his two major influences, Bertrand Russell and John Dewey, were "rooted in the Enlightenment and classical liberalism, and retain their revolutionary character."^[73]

Chomsky has stated that he believes the United States remains the "greatest country in the world",^[74] a comment that he later clarified by saying, "Evaluating countries is senseless and I would never put things in those terms, but that some of America's advances, particularly in the area of free speech, that have been achieved by centuries of popular struggle, are to be admired."^[75] He has also said "In many respects, the United States is the freest country in the world. I don't just mean in terms of limits on state coercion, though that's true too, but also in terms of individual relations. The United States comes closer to classlessness in terms of interpersonal relations than virtually any society."^[76]

Chomsky objects to the criticism that anarchism is inconsistent with support for government welfare, stating in part:

One can, of course, take the position that we don't care about the problems people face today, and want to think about a possible tomorrow. OK, but then don't pretend to have any interest in human beings and their fate, and stay in the seminar room and intellectual coffee house with other privileged people. Or one can take a much more humane position: I want to work, today, to build a better society for tomorrow – the classical anarchist position, quite different from the slogans in the question. That's exactly right, and it leads directly to support for the people facing problems today: for enforcement of health and safety regulation, provision of national health insurance, support systems for people who need them, etc. That is not a sufficient condition for organizing for a different and better future, but it is a necessary condition. Anything else will receive the well-merited contempt of people who do not have the luxury to disregard the circumstances in which they live, and try to survive.^[77]

Chomsky holds views that can be summarized as anti-war but not strictly pacifist. He prominently opposed the Vietnam War and most other wars in his lifetime. He expressed these views with tax resistance and peace walks. In 1968, he signed the “Writers and Editors War Tax Protest” pledge, vowing to refuse tax payments in protest against the Vietnam War.^[78] He published a number of articles about the war in Vietnam, including "The Responsibility of Intellectuals". He maintains that U.S. involvement in World War II to defeat the Axis powers was probably justified, with the caveat that a preferable outcome would have been to end or prevent the war through earlier diplomacy. He believes that the dropping of nuclear bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki were "among the most unspeakable crimes in history".^[79]

Chomsky has made many criticisms of the Israeli government, its supporters, the United States' support of the government, and its treatment of the Palestinian people, arguing that " 'supporters of Israel' are in reality supporters of its moral degeneration and probable ultimate destruction" and that "Israel's very clear choice of expansion over security may well lead to that consequence."^[80] Chomsky disagreed with the founding of Israel as a Jewish state, saying, "I don't think a Jewish or Christian or Islamic state is a proper concept. I would object to the United States as a Christian state."^[81] Chomsky hesitated before publishing work critical of Israeli policies while his parents were alive, because he "knew it would hurt them" he says, "mostly because of their friends, who reacted hysterically to views like those expressed in my work."^[82] On May 16, 2010, Israeli authorities detained Chomsky and ultimately refused his entry to the West Bank via Jordan.^[83] A spokesman for the Israeli Prime Minister indicated that the refusal of entry was simply due to a border guard who "overstepped his authority" and a second attempt to enter would likely be allowed.^[84] Chomsky disagreed, saying that the Interior Ministry official who interviewed him was taking instructions from his superiors.^[84] Chomsky maintained that based on the several hours of interviewing, he was denied entry because of the things he says and because he was visiting a university in the West Bank but no Israeli universities.^[84]

Chomsky has a broad view of free-speech rights, especially in the mass media, and opposes censorship. He has stated that "with regard to freedom of speech there are basically two positions: you defend it vigorously for views you hate, or you reject it and prefer Stalinist/fascist standards".^[85] With reference to the United States diplomatic cables leak, Chomsky suggested that "perhaps the most dramatic revelation ... is the bitter hatred of democracy that is revealed both by the U.S. Government -- Hillary Clinton, others -- and also by the diplomatic service."^[86] Chomsky refuses to take legal action against those who may have libeled him and prefers to counter libels through open letters in newspapers. One notable example of this approach is his response to an article by Emma Brockes in The Guardian which alleged he denied the existence of the Srebrenica massacre.^[87]^[88]^[89] Chomsky's complaint prompted The Guardian to publish an apologetic correction and to withdraw the article from the paper's website.^[90]

Chomsky has frequently stated that there is no connection between his work in linguistics and his political views and is generally critical of the idea that competent discussion of political topics requires expert knowledge in academic fields. In a 1969 interview, he said regarding the connection between his politics and his work in linguistics:

I still feel myself that there is a kind of tenuous connection. I would not want to overstate it but I think it means something to me at least. I think that anyone's political ideas or their ideas of social organization must be rooted ultimately in some concept of human nature and human needs.^[91]

Some critics have accused Chomsky of hypocrisy when, in spite of his political criticism of American and European military imperialism, early research at the institution (MIT) where he did his linguistic research had been substantially funded by the American military.^[92] Chomsky makes the argument that because he has received funding from the U.S. military, he has an even greater responsibility to criticize and resist its immoral actions.

He is also an outspoken advocate against the use of the death penalty and has spoken against the execution of Steven Woods.

I think the death penalty is a crime no matter what the circumstances, and it is particularly awful in the Steven Woods case. I strongly oppose the execution of Steven Woods on September 13, 2011.

In March 2012,^[93] Chomsky endorsed Jill Stein for President of the United States in 2012, saying,

As you know, popular anger at the political and economic institutions, and the subordination of the former to the latter, has reached historic heights. And for sound reasons. There could hardly be a better time to open up political debate to the just anger and frustrations of citizens who are watching the country move towards what might be irreversible decline while a tiny sector of concentrated wealth and power implements policies of benefit to them and opposed by the general population, whom they are casting adrift.

Nick Cohen has criticised Chomsky for frequently making overly critical statements about Western governments, especially the US, and for allegedly refusing to retract his speculations when facts become available which disprove them.^[94]

Media [link]

Another focus of Chomsky's political work has been an analysis of mainstream mass media (especially in the United States), its structures and constraints, and its perceived role in supporting big business and government interests. Edward S. Herman and Chomsky's book Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media (1988) explores this topic in depth, presenting their "propaganda model" of the news media with numerous detailed case studies demonstrating it. According to this propaganda model, more democratic societies like the U.S. use subtle, non-violent means of control, unlike totalitarian systems, where physical force can readily be used to coerce the general population. In an often-quoted remark, Chomsky states that "propaganda is to a democracy what the bludgeon is to a totalitarian state." (Media Control)

The model attempts to explain this perceived systemic bias of the mass media in terms of structural economic causes rather than a conspiracy of people. It argues the bias derives from five "filters" that all published news must "pass through," which combine to systematically distort news coverage.

In explaining the first filter, ownership, he notes that most major media outlets are owned by large corporations. The second, funding, notes that the outlets derive the majority of their funding from advertising, not readers. Thus, since they are profit-oriented businesses selling a product—readers and audiences—to other businesses (advertisers), the model expects them to publish news that reflects the desires and values of those businesses. In addition, the news media are dependent on government institutions and major businesses with strong biases as sources (the third filter) for much of their information. Flak, the fourth filter, refers to the various pressure groups that attack the media for supposed bias. Norms, the fifth filter, refer to the common conceptions shared by those in the profession of journalism. (Note: in the original text, published in 1988, the fifth filter was "anticommunism". However, with the fall of the Soviet Union, it has been broadened to allow for shifts in public opinion.) The model describes how the media form a decentralized and non-conspiratorial but nonetheless very powerful propaganda system, that is able to mobilize an elite consensus, frame public debate within elite perspectives and at the same time give the appearance of democratic consent.

Chomsky and Herman test their model empirically by picking "paired examples"—pairs of events that were objectively similar except for the alignment of domestic elite interests. They use a number of such examples to attempt to show that in cases where an "official enemy" does something (like murder of a religious official), the press investigates thoroughly and devotes a great amount of coverage to the matter, thus victims of "enemy" states are considered "worthy". But when the domestic government or an ally does the same thing (or worse), the press downplays the story, thus victims of US or US client states are considered "unworthy."

They also test their model against the case that is often held up as the best example of a free and aggressively independent press, the media coverage of the Tet Offensive during the Vietnam War. Even in this case, they argue that the press was behaving subserviently to elite interests.

Science [link]

Chomsky sees science as a straightforward search for explanation, and rejects the views of it as a catalog of facts or mechanical explanations. In this light, the majority of his contributions to science have been frameworks and hypotheses, rather than "discoveries."^[95]

As such, he considers certain so-called post-structuralist or postmodern critiques of logic and reason to be nonsensical:

I have spent a lot of my life working on questions such as these, using the only methods I know of; those condemned here as "science", "rationality," "logic," and so on. I therefore read the papers with some hope that they would help me "transcend" these limitations, or perhaps suggest an entirely different course. I'm afraid I was disappointed. Admittedly, that may be my own limitation. Quite regularly, "my eyes glaze over" when I read polysyllabic discourse on the themes of poststructuralism and postmodernism; what I understand is largely truism or error, but that is only a fraction of the total word count. True, there are lots of other things I don't understand: the articles in the current issues of math and physics journals, for example. But there is a difference. In the latter case, I know how to get to understand them, and have done so, in cases of particular interest to me; and I also know that people in these fields can explain the contents to me at my level, so that I can gain what (partial) understanding I may want. In contrast, no one seems to be able to explain to me why the latest post-this-and-that is (for the most part) other than truism, error, or gibberish, and I do not know how to proceed.^[96]

Although Chomsky believes that a scientific background is important to teach proper reasoning, he holds that science in general is "inadequate" to understand complicated problems like human affairs:

Science talks about very simple things, and asks hard questions about them. As soon as things become too complex, science can’t deal with them... But it’s a complicated matter: Science studies what’s at the edge of understanding, and what’s at the edge of understanding is usually fairly simple. And it rarely reaches human affairs. Human affairs are way too complicated.^[97]

Psychology [link]

Chomsky's work in linguistics has had profound implications for modern psychology.^[12] For Chomsky, linguistics is a branch of cognitive psychology; genuine insights in linguistics imply concomitant understandings of aspects of mental processing and human nature. His theory of a universal grammar was seen by many as a direct challenge to the established behaviorist theories of the time and had major consequences for understanding how children learn language and what, exactly, the ability to use language is.

In 1959, Chomsky published an influential critique of B.F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior, a book in which Skinner offered a theoretical account of language in functional, behavioral terms. He defined "Verbal Behavior" as learned behavior that has characteristic consequences delivered through the learned behavior of others. This makes for a view of communicative behaviors much larger than that usually addressed by linguists. Skinner's approach focused on the circumstances in which language was used; for example, asking for water was functionally a different response than labeling something as water, responding to someone asking for water, etc. These functionally different kinds of responses, which required in turn separate explanations, sharply contrasted both with traditional notions of language and Chomsky's psycholinguistic approach. Chomsky thought that a functionalist explanation restricting itself to questions of communicative performance ignored important questions. (Chomsky—Language and Mind, 1968). He focused on questions concerning the operation and development of innate structures for syntax capable of creatively organizing, cohering, adapting and combining words and phrases into intelligible utterances.

In the review Chomsky emphasized that the scientific application of behavioral principles from animal research is severely lacking in explanatory adequacy and is furthermore particularly superficial as an account of human verbal behavior because a theory restricting itself to external conditions, to "what is learned," cannot adequately account for generative grammar. Chomsky raised the examples of rapid language acquisition of children, including their quickly developing ability to form grammatical sentences, and the universally creative language use of competent native speakers to highlight the ways in which Skinner's view exemplified under-determination of theory by evidence. He argued that to understand human verbal behavior such as the creative aspects of language use and language development, one must first postulate a genetic linguistic endowment. The assumption that important aspects of language are the product of universal innate ability runs counter to Skinner's radical behaviorism.

Chomsky's 1959 review has drawn fire from a number of critics, the most famous criticism being that of Kenneth MacCorquodale's 1970 paper On Chomsky’s Review of Skinner’s Verbal Behavior (Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, volume 13, pages 83–99). MacCorquodale's argument was updated and expanded in important respects by Nathan Stemmer in a 1990 paper, Skinner's Verbal Behavior, Chomsky's review, and mentalism (Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, volume 54, pages 307–319). These and similar critiques have raised certain points not generally acknowledged outside of behavioral psychology, such as the claim that Chomsky did not possess an adequate understanding of either behavioral psychology in general, or the differences between Skinner's behaviorism and other varieties. Consequently, it is argued that he made several serious errors. On account of these perceived problems, the critics maintain that the review failed to demonstrate what it has often been cited as doing. As such, it is averred that those most influenced by Chomsky's paper probably either already substantially agreed with Chomsky or never actually read it. The review has been further critiqued for misrepresenting the work of Skinner and others, including by quoting out of context.^[98] Chomsky has maintained that the review was directed at the way Skinner's variant of behavioral psychology "was being used in Quinean empiricism and naturalization of philosophy."^[99]

It has been claimed that Chomsky's critique of Skinner's methodology and basic assumptions paved the way for the "cognitive revolution", the shift in American psychology between the 1950s through the 1970s from being primarily behavioral to being primarily cognitive. In his 1966 Cartesian Linguistics and subsequent works, Chomsky laid out an explanation of human language faculties that has become the model for investigation in some areas of psychology. Much of the present conception of how the mind works draws directly from ideas that found their first persuasive author of modern times in Chomsky.

There are three key ideas. First is that the mind is "cognitive", or that the mind actually contains mental states, beliefs, doubts, and so on. Second, he argued that most of the important properties of language and mind are innate. The acquisition and development of a language is a result of the unfolding of innate propensities triggered by the experiential input of the external environment. The link between human innate aptitude to language and heredity has been at the core of the debate opposing Noam Chomsky to Jean Piaget at the Abbaye de Royaumont in 1975 (Language and Learning. The Debate between Jean Piaget and Noam Chomsky, Harvard University Press, 1980). Although links between the genetic setup of humans and aptitude to language have been suggested at that time and in later discussions, we are still far from understanding the genetic bases of human language. Work derived from the model of selective stabilization of synapses set up by Jean-Pierre Changeux, Philippe Courrège and Antoine Danchin,^[100] and more recently developed experimentally and theoretically by Jacques Mehler and Stanislas Dehaene in particular in the domain of numerical cognition lend support to the Chomskyan "nativism". It does not, however, provide clues about the type of rules that would organize neuronal connections to permit language competence. Subsequent psychologists have extended this general "nativist" thesis beyond language. Lastly, Chomsky made the concept of "modularity" a critical feature of the mind's cognitive architecture. The mind is composed of an array of interacting, specialized subsystems with limited flows of inter-communication. This model contrasts sharply with the old idea that any piece of information in the mind could be accessed by any other cognitive process (optical illusions, for example, cannot be "turned off" even when they are known to be illusions).

Debates [link]

Chomsky at the World Social Forum (Porto Alegre) in 2003

Chomsky has been known to vigorously defend and debate his views and opinions, in philosophy, linguistics, and politics.^[5] He has had notable debates with Jean Piaget,^[101] Michel Foucault,^[102] William F. Buckley, Jr.,^[103] Christopher Hitchens,^[104]^[105]^[106]^[107]^[108]^[109] George Lakoff,^[110] Richard Perle,^[111] Hilary Putnam,^[112] Willard Quine,^[113] and Alan Dershowitz,^[114] to name a few. In response to his speaking style being criticized as boring, Chomsky said that "I'm a boring speaker and I like it that way.... I doubt that people are attracted to whatever the persona is.... People are interested in the issues, and they're interested in the issues because they are important."^[115] "We don't want to be swayed by superficial eloquence, by emotion and so on."^[116]

Influence [link]

Chomskyan models have been used as a theoretical basis in various fields of study. The Chomsky hierarchy is often taught in fundamental computer science courses as it confers insight into the various types of formal languages. This hierarchy can also be discussed in mathematical terms^[117] and has generated interest among mathematicians, particularly combinatorialists. Some arguments in evolutionary psychology are derived from his research results.^[118]

The 1984 Nobel Prize laureate in Medicine and Physiology, Niels K. Jerne, used Chomsky's generative model to explain the human immune system, equating "components of a generative grammar ... with various features of protein structures". The title of Jerne's Stockholm Nobel lecture was "The Generative Grammar of the Immune System".

Nim Chimpsky, a chimpanzee who was the subject of a study in animal language acquisition at Columbia University, was named after Chomsky in reference to his view of language acquisition as a uniquely human ability.

Famous computer scientist Donald Knuth admits to reading Syntactic Structures during his honeymoon and being greatly influenced by it. "...I must admit to taking a copy of Noam Chomsky's Syntactic Structures along with me on my honeymoon in 1961 ... Here was a marvelous thing: a mathematical theory of language in which I could use a computer programmer's intuition!".^[119]

Academic achievements, awards and honors [link]

In early 1969, he delivered the John Locke Lectures at Oxford University; in January 1970, the Bertrand Russell Memorial Lecture at University of Cambridge; in 1972, the Nehru Memorial Lecture in New Delhi; in 1977, the Huizinga Lecture in Leiden; in 1988 the Massey Lectures at the University of Toronto, titled "Necessary Illusions: Thought Control in Democratic Societies"; in 1997, The Davie Memorial Lecture on Academic Freedom in Cape Town,^[120] and many others.^[121]

Chomsky has received many honorary degrees from universities around the world, including from the following:

He is a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the National Academy of Sciences, and the American Philosophical Society. In addition, he is a member of other professional and learned societies in the United States and abroad, and is a recipient of the Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award of the American Psychological Association, the Kyoto Prize in Basic Sciences, the Helmholtz Medal, the Dorothy Eldridge Peacemaker Award, the 1999 Benjamin Franklin Medal in Computer and Cognitive Science, and others.^[125] He is twice winner of The Orwell Award, granted by The National Council of Teachers of English for "Distinguished Contributions to Honesty and Clarity in Public Language" (in 1987 and 1989).^[126]

He is a member of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts in Department of Social Sciences.^[127]

In 2005, Chomsky received an honorary fellowship from the Literary and Historical Society.^[128] In 2007, Chomsky received The Uppsala University (Sweden) Honorary Doctor's degree in commemoration of Carolus Linnaeus.^[129] In February 2008, he received the President's Medal from the Literary and Debating Society of the National University of Ireland, Galway.^[130] Since 2009 he is an honorary member of IAPTI.^[131]

In 2010, Chomsky received the Erich Fromm Prize in Stuttgart, Germany.^[132] In April 2010, Chomsky became the third scholar to receive the University of Wisconsin's A.E. Havens Center's Award for Lifetime Contribution to Critical Scholarship.^[133]

Chomsky has an Erdős number of four.^[134]

Chomsky was voted the leading living public intellectual in The 2005 Global Intellectuals Poll conducted by the British magazine Prospect. He reacted, saying "I don't pay a lot of attention to polls".^[135] In a list compiled by the magazine New Statesman in 2006, he was voted seventh in the list of "Heroes of our time".^[136]

Actor Viggo Mortensen with avant-garde guitarist Buckethead dedicated their 2006 album, called Pandemoniumfromamerica, to Chomsky.^[137]

On January 22, 2010, a special honorary concert for Chomsky was given at Kresge Auditorium at MIT.^[138]^[139] The concert, attended by Chomsky and dozens of his family and friends, featured music composed by Edward Manukyan and speeches by Chomsky's colleagues, including David Pesetsky of MIT and Gennaro Chierchia, head of the linguistics department at Harvard University.

In June 2011, Chomsky was awarded the Sydney Peace Prize, which cited his "unfailing courage, critical analysis of power and promotion of human rights".^[140]

In 2011, Chomsky was inducted into IEEE Intelligent Systems' AI's Hall of Fame for the "significant contributions to the field of AI and intelligent systems".^[141]^[142]

Bibliography [link]

Main article: Noam Chomsky bibliography

Filmography [link]

Manufacturing Consent: Noam Chomsky and the Media, Director: Mark Achbar and Peter Wintonick (1992)
Last Party 2000, Director: Rebecca Chaiklin and Donovan Leitch (2001)
Power and Terror: Noam Chomsky in Our Times, Director: John Junkerman (2002)
Distorted Morality—America's War On Terror?, Director: John Junkerman (2003)
Noam Chomsky: Rebel Without a Pause (TV), Director: Will Pascoe (2003)
The Corporation, Directors: Mark Achbar and Jennifer Abbott; Writer: Joel Bakan (2003)
Peace, Propaganda & the Promised Land, Directors: Sut Jhally and Bathsheba Ratzkoff (2004)
On Power, Dissent and Racism: A discussion with Noam Chomsky, Journalist: Nicolas Rossier; Producers: Eli Choukri, Baraka Productions (2004)
Lake of Fire, Director: Tony Kaye (2006)
American Feud: A History of Conservatives and Liberals, Director: Richard Hall (2008)
Chomsky & Cie Director: Olivier Azam (out in 2008)
An Inconvenient Tax, Director: Christopher P. Marshall (out in 2009)
The Money Fix, Director: Alan Rosenblith (2009)
Pax Americana and the Weaponization of Space, Director: Denis Delestrac (2010)
Article 12: Waking up in a surveillance society, Director: Juan Manuel Biaiñ (2010)

References [link]

^ Kanan Makiya, Fouad Moughrabi, Adel Safty, Rex Brynen, "Letters to the Editor" in Journal of Palestine Studies, Journal of Palestine Studies via JSTOR (Vol. 23, No. 4, Summer, 1994, pp. 196–200), accessed December 4, 2007. Relevant quotation: "On page 146 of my book, I clearly adopt the propaganda model developed by Noam Chomsky and Edward Herman..."
^ Noam Chomsky (2011-09-22). Noam Chomsky on the Responsibility of Intellectuals: Redux. Ideas Matter. Event occurs at 09:23. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PK9W5DE7ZtQ. Retrieved 2011-10-16.
^ Barsky, Robert F.. "Chomsky and Bertrand Russell". Noam Chomsky: A Life of Dissent. http://cognet.mit.edu/library/books/chomsky/chomsky/1/10.html. Retrieved 29 October 2011.
^ http://www.chomsky.info/books/reader01.htm
^ ^a ^b ^c "Noam Chomsky", by Zoltán Gendler Szabó, in Dictionary of Modern American Philosophers, 1860–1960, ed. Ernest Lepore (2004). "Chomsky's intellectual life had been divided between his work in linguistics and his political activism, philosophy coming as a distant third. Nonetheless, his influence among analytic philosophers has been enormous because of three factors. First, Chomsky contributed substantially to a major methodological shift in the human sciences, turning away from the prevailing empiricism of the middle of the twentieth century: behaviorism in psychology, structuralism in linguistics and positivism in philosophy. Second, his groundbreaking books on syntax (Chomsky (1957, 1965)) laid a conceptual foundation for a new, cognitivist approach to linguistics and provided philosophers with a new framework for thinking about human language and the mind. And finally, he has persistently defended his views against all takers, engaging in important debates with many of the major figures in analytic philosophy..."
^ The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy (1999), "Chomsky, Noam," Cambridge University Press, pg. 138. "Chomsky, Noam (born 1928), preeminent American linguist, philosopher, and political activist... Many of Chomsky's most significant contributions to philosophy, such as his influential rejection of behaviorism... stem from his elaborations and defenses of the above consequences..."
^ "MIT Department of Linguistics: People: Faculty: Noam Chomsky". Web.mit.edu. http://web.mit.edu/linguistics/people/faculty/chomsky/index.html. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
^ Clark, Neil (2003-07-14). "Great thinkers of our time – Noam Chomsky". New Statesman. http://www.newstatesman.com/200307140016. Retrieved 2008-08-02. "Regarded as the father of modern linguistics, founder of the field of transformational-generative grammar, which relies heavily on logic and philosophy."
^ Fox, Margalit (1998-12-05). "A Changed Noam Chomsky Simplifies". New York Times. http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F20B1FFA3A5F0C768CDDAB0994D0494D81&n=Top%2fReference%2fTimes%20Topics%2fPeople%2fC%2fChomsky%2c%20Noam. Retrieved 2008-08-02. "... Noam Chomsky, father of modern linguistics and the field's most influential practitioner; ..."
^ Thomas Tymoczko, Jim Henle, James M. Henle, Sweet Reason: A Field Guide to Modern Logic, Birkhäuser, 2000, p. 101.
^ Michael Sipser (1997). Introduction to the Theory of Computation. PWS Publishing. ISBN 0-534-94728-X.
^ ^a ^b "The Cognitive Science Millennium Project". Cogsci.umn.edu. http://www.cogsci.umn.edu/OLD/calendar/past_events/millennium/final.html. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
^ "The Accidental Bestseller, Publishers Weekly, 5-5-03, accessed 05-03-11. "Chomsky's controversial political works...became mainstream bestsellers."
^ Arnove, Anthony (March 1997). "In Perspective: Noam Chomsky". International Socialism. http://pubs.socialistreviewindex.org.uk/isj74/arnove.htm. Retrieved 29 October 2011.
^ Matt Dellinger, "Sounds and Sites: Noam Chomsky", The New Yorker, Link, 3-31-03, accessed 1-26-09
^ "Noam Chomsky". Web.archive.org. 2010-05-28. Archived from the original on 2010-05-28. http://web.archive.org/web/20100528222251/http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/information/biography/abcde/chomsky_noam.html. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
^ "Chomsky is Citation Champ". MIT News Office. 1992-04-15. http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/1992/citation-0415.html. Retrieved 2007-09-03.
^ Hughes, Samuel (July/August 2001). "Speech!". The Pennsylvania Gazette. http://www.chomsky.info/onchomsky/200107--.htm. Retrieved 2007-09-03. "According to a recent survey by the Institute for Scientific Information, only Marx, Lenin, Shakespeare, Aristotle, the Bible, Plato, and Freud are cited more often in academic journals than Chomsky, who edges out Hegel and Cicero."
^ Robinson, Paul (1979-02-25). "The Chomsky Problem". The New York Times. "Judged in terms of the power, range, novelty and influence of his thought, Noam Chomsky is arguably the most important intellectual alive today. He is also a disturbingly divided intellectual."
^ "Books". chomsky.info. http://www.chomsky.info/books.htm. Retrieved 30 August 2011.
^ ^a ^b "The Life and Times of Noam Chomsky, Noam Chomsky interviewed by Amy Goodman". www.chomsky.info. http://www.chomsky.info/interviews/20041126.htm. Retrieved 2008-12-21.
^ ^a ^b "Conversation with Noam Chomsky, p. 1 of 5". Globetrotter.berkeley.edu. http://globetrotter.berkeley.edu/people2/Chomsky/chomsky-con1.html. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
^ ^a ^b Choamsky, Noam. Conversations with History, U. C. Berkeley, March 2002. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8ghoXQxdk6s
^ "The Chomsky Tapes: Conversations with Michael Albert". Z magazine. November 2001. http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/Chomsky/Chomsky_Tapes_MAlbert.html.
^ Kreisler (2002), "Chapter 1: Background". http://globetrotter.berkeley.edu/people2/Chomsky/chomsky-con1.html. Retrieved 2007-09-03.
^ Barsky, Robert Franklin (1997). Noam Chomsky: a life of dissent. ECW Press. pp. 47. ISBN 978-1-55022-281-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=GhwvCoZBFoYC&pg=PA47. Retrieved 16 August 2011.
^ Marquard, Bryan (2008-12-20). "Carol Chomsky; at 78; Harvard language professor was wife of MIT linguist". Boston Globe. http://www.boston.com/news/education/higher/articles/2008/12/20/carol_chomsky_at_78_harvard_language_professor_was_wife_of_mit_linguist/. Retrieved 2008-12-20.
^ "Noam Chomsky interviewed by Shira Hadad". Chomsky.info. http://www.chomsky.info/interviews/20051110.htm. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
^ "Eight Question on Kibbutzim: Answers from Noam Chomsky Questions from Nikos Raptis". Zmag.org. 1999-08-24. http://www.zmag.org/zspace/commentaries/186. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
^ "Kibbutzim as a Climate for Learning". Csudh.edu. http://www.csudh.edu/dearhabermas/kibbutzim01.htm. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
^ Chomsky, Noam (1967-02-23). "The Responsibility of Intellectuals". The New York Review of Books 8 (3). http://www.nybooks.com/articles/12172. Retrieved 2007-09-03.
^ Flint, Anthony (1995-11-19). "Divided Legacy". The Boston Globe. http://www.chomsky.info/onchomsky/19951119.htm. Retrieved 2007-09-04. "Ask this intellectual radical why he is shunned by the mainstream, and he'll say that established powers have never been able to handle his brand of dissent."
^ Barsky (1997), "Chapter 4". http://cognet.mit.edu/library/books/chomsky/chomsky/4/17.html. Retrieved 2007-09-04. Barsky quotes an excerpt of Edward Herman examining why "one of America's most well-known intellectuals and dissidents would be thus ignored and even ostracized by the mainstream press". For example, "Chomsky has never had an Op Ed column in the Washington Post, and his lone opinion piece in the New York Times was not an original contribution but rather excerpts from testimony before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee".
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^ Tomasello, M (2003). Constructing a Language: A Usage-Based Theory of Language Acquisition. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-01764-1.
^ Chomsky, Noam (1965). Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-53007-4.
^ Huang, Cheng-Teh James (1982). Logical relations in Chinese and the theory of grammar. MIT PhD dissertation. Available online [1].
^ Matthews, G.H. (1965). Hidatsa Syntax. Mouton.
^ Platero, Paul Randolph (1978). Missing noun phrases in Navajo. MIT PhD dissertation. Available online [2].
^ Schütze, Carson T. (1993). Towards a Minimalist Account of Quirky Case and Licensing in Icelandic. MIT Working Papers in Linguistics 19. Available online [3]
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^ Chomsky wrote the preface to an edition of Rudolf Rocker's book Anarcho-Syndicalism: Theory and Practice. In it Chomsky wrote: "I felt at once, and still feel, that Rocker was pointing the way to a much better world, one that is within our grasp, one that may well be the only alternative to the 'universal catastrophe' towards which 'we are driving on under full sail'..." Book Citation: Rudolph Rocker. Anarcho-Syndicalism: Theory and Practice. AK Press. p. ii. 2004.
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^ "Corrections and clarifications". The Guardian. 2005-11-17. http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/2005/nov/17/pressandpublishing.corrections. Retrieved 2011-04-28.
^ New Left Review, 57, Sept. – Oct. 1969, p. 21
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^ "Chomsky endorses Stein in 2012". Jill Stein for President. http://www.jillstein.org/chomsky. Retrieved 9 March 2012.
^ Nick Cohen (2007). What's Left?: How Liberals Lost Their Way. Harper Collins. pp. 14, 155–62, 164–8 , 170 , 179–80, 258. ISBN 978-0-00-722969-7.
^ Chomsky, Noam (2009). "Mysteries of Nature: How Deeply Hidden?". Journal of Philosophy 106 (4): 167–200. ISSN 0022-362X.
^ Chomsky, Noam; Otero, Carlos Peregrín (2003). Chomsky on democracy & education. RoutledgeFalmer. p. 93. ISBN 978-0-415-92632-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=Y5Ouy4XoXPsC. Retrieved 16 August 2011.
^ "Science in the Dock, Discussion with Noam Chomsky, Lawrence Krauss & Sean M. Carroll". Chomsky.info. 2006-03-01. http://www.chomsky.info/debates/20060301.htm. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
^ Journal citation PMC2774611 - An Underdiscussed Aspect of Chomsky (1959)
^ Barsky (1997), "Chapter 3". http://cognet.mit.edu/library/books/chomsky/chomsky/3/2.html. Retrieved 2007-09-04.
^ Changeux, Jean-Pierre; Courrége, Philippe; Danchin, Antoine (October 1973). "A Theory of the Epigenesis of Neuronal Networks by Selective Stabilization of Synapses". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (PNAS) 70 (10): 2974–8. DOI:10.1073/pnas.70.10.2974. PMC 427150. PMID 4517949. //www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=427150.
^ Massimo Piatelli-Palmarini, ed., Language and Learning: The Debate Between Jean Piaget and Noam Chomsky, Routledge, 1975.
^ "''The Chomsky–Foucault Debate: On Human Nature''". Chomsky.info. http://www.chomsky.info/debates/1971xxxx.htm. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
^ William F. Buckley vs. Noam Chomsky, YouTube
^ Noam Chomsky "A Quick Reaction", Counterpunch September 12, 2001
^ Christopher Hitchens, "Against Rationalization: Minority Report", The Nation, September 24, 2001
^ Christopher Hitchens, "Of Sin, the Left & Islamic Fascism", The Nation, 2001
^ Noam Chomsky, "Reply to Hitchens", The Nation, 2001
^ Christopher Hitchens, "A Rejoinder to Noam Chomsky", The Nation, 2001
^ Noam Chomsky, "Reply to Hitchens' 'Rejoinder'", The Nation, 2001
^ "The New York Review of Books, "Chomsky Replies", 1973 20;12". Nybooks.com. http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/1973/jul/19/chomsky-replies/. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
^ Chomsky vs. Perle, YouTube
^ Hilary Putnam, "Externalism: Its Motivation and Its Critics", Harvard University, 2007.
^ KU Leuven, "An Epistemological Reading of the Debate between Quine and Chomsky", October 2003.
^ "Noam Chomsky v. Alan Dershowitz: A Debate on the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict", Democracy Now!, 23 December 2005.
^ "Chomsky Rebel". Dvdverdict.com. 2005-05-16. http://www.dvdverdict.com/reviews/chomskyrebel.php. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
^ Chomsky, Noam. "False, False, False, and False: Noam Chomsky interviewed by Ray Suarez", January 20, 1999 Chomsky.info
^ Sakharov, Alex (2003-05-12). "Grammar". MathWorld. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Grammar.html. Retrieved 2007-09-04.
^ "Lecture 6: Evolutionary Psychology, Problem Solving, and 'Machiavellian' Intelligence". School of Psychology. Massey University. 1996. Archived from the original on January 17, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070117055247/http://evolution.massey.ac.nz/lecture6/lect600.htm. Retrieved 2007-09-04.
^ Knuth, Donald (2003), Selected Papers on Computer Languages, CSLI Lecture Notes, Stanford, California: Center for the Study of Language and Information, http://www-cs-faculty.stanford.edu/~knuth/cl.html
^ "Van Zyl Slabbert to present TB Davie Memorial Lecture". Uct.ac.za. 2003-10-13. http://www.uct.ac.za/mondaypaper/archives/?id=4104. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
^ The Current Crisis in the Middle East: About the Lecture. MIT World.
^ "CU Regents". Cu.edu. https://www.cu.edu/regents/Awards/AwardsMaster.htm. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
^ "Welcome to Peking University". English.pku.edu.cn. 2010-08-13. http://english.pku.edu.cn/News_Events/News/Campus/6797.htm. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
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^ "Noam Chomsky, MIT Linguistics Program". Chomsky.info. 1928-12-07. http://www.chomsky.info/bios/2002----.htm. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
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^ Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts - Department of Social Sciences members Retrieved 2012-2-11
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^ http://www.literaryanddebating.com/press/80-archbishop-desmond-tutu-to-speak-to-litndeb; excerpt:the Literary and Debating Society’s President’s Medal, the society’s achievement award, [has] been won in the past by the likes of Noam Chomsky, Senator Mike Gravel, Congressman Bruce Morrison, journalist Fintan O’Toole and, playwright, Tom Murphy.
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Chomsky, Noam (1996). Perspectives on Power. Montréal: Black Rose. ISBN 978-1-55164-048-8.
Kreisler, Harry (2002-03-22). "Activism, Anarchism, and Power: Conversation with Noam Chomsky". Conversations with History. Institute of International Studies, UC Berkeley. http://globetrotter.berkeley.edu/people2/Chomsky/chomsky-con1.html. Retrieved 2007-09-03.

External links [link]

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chomsky.info official website
Noam Chomsky at MIT
Noam Chomsky at the Open Directory Project
Noam Chomsky articles on libcom.org
Noam Chomsky at Democracy Now!
Column archive at The Guardian
Appearances on C-SPAN
- In Depth interview with Chomsky, June 1, 2003
Noam Chomsky on Charlie Rose
Noam Chomsky at the Internet Movie Database
Works by or about Noam Chomsky in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
Noam Chomsky at ZSpace
Articles and videos featuring Noam Chomsky at AnarchismToday.org
Noam Chomsky collected news and commentary at The Guardian
Noam Chomsky collected news and commentary at The Jerusalem Post
Noam Chomsky collected news and commentary at The New York Times
Noam Chomsky at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
Noam Chomsky at the AI Genealogy Project.

Interviews and articles

Talks by Noam Chomsky at A-Infos Radio Project
Interview about Human Rights by scholars (English with French subtitles) – 2009
Chomsky media files at the Internet Archive
Noam Chomsky interviewed by Alyssa McDonald on New Statesman, September 2010.
Noam Chomsky Interviews on The Real News (TRNN)
Hegemony or Survival: America's Quest for Global Dominance – discussion on the "Bush doctrine" and its implications, C-SPAN, Feb 2004
Philosophies of Language & Politics – talk at The Commonwealth Club, October 2009
Thought Economics Interviews Noam Chomsky – Noam Chomsky interviewed on global democracy, April 2011

Links to related articles

Noam Chomsky

Select
bibliography

Linguistics	Syntactic Structures (1957) Current issues in linguistic theory (1964) Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965) Cartesian Linguistics: A Chapter in the History of Rationalist Thought (1966) The Sound Pattern of English (1968) Conditions on Transformations (1973) The Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory (1975) Lectures on Government and Binding: The Pisa Lectures (1981) Knowledge of language: its nature, origin, and use (1986) The Minimalist Program (1995) New Horizons in the Study of Language and Mind (2000)

Politics	The Responsibility of Intellectuals (1967) American Power and the New Mandarins (1969) The Fateful Triangle (1983) The Soviet Union Versus Socialism (1986) Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media^[a] (1988) Necessary Illusions (1989) Deterring Democracy (1992) Hegemony or Survival: America's Quest for Global Dominance (2003) Objectivity and Liberal Scholarship (2003) Failed States: The Abuse of Power and the Assault on Democracy (2006)

Collections (articles & interviews)	Class Warfare (1996) Middle East Illusions (2003) Imperial Ambitions (2005) Interventions (2007) Gaza in Crisis (2010)

Filmography

Manufacturing Consent: Noam Chomsky and the Media (1992)
Last Party 2000 (2001)
Power and Terror: Noam Chomsky in Our Times (2002)
Distorted Morality – America's War On Terror? (2003)
Noam Chomsky: Rebel Without a Pause (2003) (TV)
Peace, Propaganda & the Promised Land (2004)

Family

^ with Edward S. Herman

Automata theory: formal languages and formal grammars

Chomsky hierarchy	Grammars	Languages	Minimal automaton
Type-0	Unrestricted	Recursively enumerable	Turing machine
—	(no common name)	Recursive	Decider
Type-1	Context-sensitive	Context-sensitive	Linear-bounded
—	Indexed	Indexed	Nested stack
—	Linear context-free rewriting systems etc.	Mildly context-sensitive	Thread automata
—	Tree-adjoining etc.	Tree-adjoining	Embedded pushdown
Type-2	Context-free	Context-free	Nondeterministic pushdown
—	Deterministic context-free	Deterministic context-free	Deterministic pushdown
—	Visibly pushdown	Visibly pushdown	Visibly pushdown
Type-3	Regular	Regular	Finite
—	—	Star-free	Counter-free (with aperiodic finite monoid)

Each category of languages is a proper subset of the category directly above it. - Any automaton and any grammar in each category has an equivalent automaton or grammar in the category directly above it.

v t e Philosophy of language

Philosophers	Plato (Cratylus) Confucius Xun Zi Aristotle Stoics Pyrrhonists Scholasticism Ibn Rushd Ibn Khaldun Thomas Hobbes Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Johann Herder Wilhelm von Humboldt Fritz Mauthner Paul Ricœur Ferdinand de Saussure Gottlob Frege Franz Boas Paul Tillich Edward Sapir Leonard Bloomfield Zhuangzi Henri Bergson Lev Vygotsky Ludwig Wittgenstein Philosophical Investigations Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus Bertrand Russell Rudolf Carnap Jacques Derrida Of Grammatology Limited Inc Benjamin Lee Whorf Gustav Bergmann J. L. Austin Noam Chomsky Hans-Georg Gadamer Saul Kripke Alfred Jules Ayer Donald Davidson Paul Grice Gilbert Ryle P. F. Strawson

Theories	Causal theory of reference Contrast theory of meaning Contrastivism Conventionalism Cratylism Deconstruction Descriptivist theory of names Direct reference theory Dramatism Expressivism Linguistic determinism Logical atomism Logical positivism Mediated reference theory Nominalism Non-cognitivism Phallogocentrism Quietism Relevance theory Semantic externalism Semantic holism Structuralism Supposition theory Symbiosism Theological noncognitivism Theory of descriptions Verification theory

Concepts	Ambiguity Linguistic relativity Meaning Language Truth-bearer Proposition Use–mention distinction Concept Categories Set Class Intension Logical form Metalanguage Mental representation Principle of compositionality Property Sign Sense and reference Speech act Symbol Entity Sentence Statement more...

Related articles	Analytic philosophy Language Philosophy of information Philosophical logic Linguistics Pragmatics Rhetoric Semantics Formal semantics Semiotics

Category Task Force Discussion

v t e Social and political philosophy

Philosophers	Plato Vaisheshika Nyāya Sūtras Augustine Sri Aurobindo Marsilius Machiavelli Grotius Montesquieu Comte Bosanquet Spencer Malebranche Durkheim Santayana Royce Russell Confucius Hobbes Leibniz Hume Kant Rousseau Locke Burke Smith Bentham Mill Thoreau Marx Gentile Maritain Berlin Schmitt Debord Camus Sartre Foucault Rawls Popper Đilas Habermas Kirk Oakeshott Nozick Rabindranath Tagore Alinsky Chomsky Baudrillard Badiou Strauss Rand Žižek Walzer

Social theories	Anarchism Authoritarianism Conservatism Liberalism Libertarianism National liberalism Socialism Utilitarianism Conflict theory Consensus theory

Social concepts	Society War Law Justice Peace Rights Revolution Civil disobedience Democracy Social contract more...

Related articles	Philosophy of economics Philosophy of education Philosophy of history Jurisprudence Philosophy of social science Philosophy of love Philosophy of sex

Portal Category Task Force Discussion Changes

v t e Sydney Peace Prize laureates

Muhammad Yunus (1998) Desmond Tutu (1999) Xanana Gusmão (2000) William Deane (2001) Mary Robinson (2002) Hanan Ashrawi (2003) Arundhati Roy (2004) Olara Otunnu (2005) Irene Khan (2006) Hans Blix (2007) Patrick Dodson (2008) John Pilger (2009) Vandana Shiva (2010) Noam Chomsky (2011) Sekai Holland (2012)

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His Excellency José Ramos-Horta GCL

President of East Timor
In office 17 April 2008 – 20 May 2012
Prime Minister	Xanana Gusmão
Preceded by	Fernando de Araújo (Acting)
Succeeded by	Taur Matan Ruak
In office 20 May 2007 – 11 February 2008
Prime Minister	Estanislau da Silva Xanana Gusmão
Preceded by	Xanana Gusmão
Succeeded by	Vicente Guterres (Acting)
Prime Minister of East Timor
In office 26 June 2006 – 19 May 2007
President	Xanana Gusmão
Preceded by	Mari Alkatiri
Succeeded by	Estanislau da Silva
Personal details
Born	(1949-12-26) 26 December 1949 (age 62) Dili, Portuguese Timor (now East Timor)
Political party	Independent
Spouse(s)	Ana Pessoa Pinto (Divorced)
Children	Loro Ramos-Horta
Alma mater	Hague Academy of International Law Antioch College International Institute of Human Rights Columbia University

José Manuel Ramos-Horta GCL (Portuguese pronunciation: [ʒuˈzɛ ˈʁɐmuz ˈoɾtɐ]; born 26 December 1949) was the President of East Timor from 20 May 2007 to 20 May 2012, the second since independence from Indonesia. He is a co-recipient of the 1996 Nobel Peace Prize and a former prime minister, having served from 2006 until his inauguration as president after winning the 2007 East Timorese presidential election.^[1] As a founder and former member of the Revolutionary Front for an Independent East Timor (FRETILIN), Ramos-Horta served as the exiled spokesman for the East Timorese resistance during the years of the Indonesian occupation of East Timor (1975 to 1999). While he has continued to work with FRETILIN, Ramos-Horta resigned from the party in 1988, becoming an independent politician.^[2]

After East Timor achieved independence in 2002, Ramos-Horta was appointed as the country's first foreign minister. He served in this position until his resignation on 25 June 2006, amidst political turmoil. On 26 June, following the resignation of prime minister Mari Alkatiri, Ramos-Horta was appointed acting prime minister by then president, Xanana Gusmão. Two weeks later, on 10 July 2006, he was officially sworn in as the second prime minister of East Timor. On 11 February 2008, Ramos-Horta was injured when he was shot during an assassination attempt.

1 Early history and family
2 Political career
3 Presidency
- 3.1 Assassination attempt
4 Other activities
5 Awards
6 Depictions
7 See also
8 References
9 External links

Early history and family [link]

Of mestiço ethnicity,^[3] Ramos-Horta was born in 1949 at Dili, capital of East Timor, to a Timorese mother and a Portuguese father who had been exiled to what was then Portuguese Timor by the Salazar dictatorship. He was educated in a Catholic mission in the small village of Soibada, later chosen by FRETILIN as headquarters after the Indonesian invasion. Of his eleven brothers and sisters, four were killed by the Indonesian military.

Ramos-Horta studied Public International Law at the Hague Academy of International Law (1983) and at Antioch College in Yellow Springs, Ohio where he completed a Master of Arts degree in Peace Studies (1984). He was trained in Human Rights Law at the International Institute of Human Rights in Strasbourg (1983). He completed Post-Graduate courses in American Foreign Policy at Columbia University in New York (1983).^[4]^[5] He is a Senior Associate Member of the University of Oxford's St Antony's College (1987) and speaks fluently in five languages: Portuguese, plus English, French, Spanish and the most commonly spoken East Timorese language, Tetum.^[6]

He is divorced from Ana Pessoa Pinto, East Timor's Minister for State and Internal Administration, with whom he had a son, Loro Horta, born in exile in Mozambique.^[7]

Political career [link]

He was actively involved in the development of political awareness in Portuguese Timor which caused him to be exiled for two years in 1970–71 to Portuguese East Africa. His grandfather, before him, had also been exiled, from Portugal to the Azores Islands, then Cape Verde, Portuguese Guinea and finally to Portuguese Timor.

A moderate in the emerging Timorese nationalist leadership, he was appointed Foreign Minister in the "Democratic Republic of East Timor" government proclaimed by the pro-independence parties in November 1975. When appointed minister, Ramos-Horta was only 25 years old. Ramos-Horta left East Timor three days before the Indonesian troops invaded to plead the Timorese case before the UN.

Ramos-Horta arrived in New York to address the UN Security Council and urge them to take action in the face of the Indonesian occupation during which an estimated 102,000 East Timorese would die.^[8] Ramos-Horta was the Permanent Representative of FRETILIN to the UN for the next ten years. His friends at that time mentioned that he arrived in the United States with a total of twenty-five dollars in his pocket. His pecuniary situation was often straitened in that period; he survived partly by grace of Americans who admired his politics and his determination. Further, he was obliged to travel worldwide to explain his party's position.

In 1993, the Rafto Prize was awarded to the people of East Timor. Foreign-minister-in-exile José Ramos-Horta represented his nation at the prize ceremony. In May 1994, Philippine President Fidel Ramos, bowing to pressure from Jakarta, tried to ban an international conference on East Timor in Manila, blacklisting Ramos-Horta, and the Thai government followed suite later that year by declaring him persona non grata.^[9]

In December 1996, Ramos-Horta shared the Nobel Peace Prize with his fellow countryman, Bishop Ximenes Belo. The Nobel Committee chose to honour the two laureates for their "sustained efforts to hinder the oppression of a small people", hoping that "this award will spur efforts to find a diplomatic solution to the conflict of East Timor based on the people's right to self-determination". The Committee considered Ramos-Horta "the leading international spokesman for East Timor's cause since 1975".^[10]

Ramos-Horta played a leading role in negotiating the institutional foundations for independence. He led the Timorese delegation at an important joint workshop with UNTAET on 1 March 2000 to tease out a new strategy, and identify institutional needs. The outcome was an agreed blueprint for a joint administration with executive powers, including leaders of the National Congress for Timorese Reconstruction (CNRT). Further details were worked out in a conference in May 2000. The Special Representative of the UN Secretary-General in East Timor, Sérgio Vieira de Mello, presented the new blueprint to a donor conference in Lisbon,^[11] on 22 June 2000, and to the UN Security Council on 27 June 2000.^[12] On 12 July 2000, the NCC adopted a regulation establishing a Transitional Cabinet composed of four East Timorese and four UNTAET representatives.^[13] The revamped joint administration successfully laid the institutional foundations for independence, and on 27 September 2002, East Timor joined the United Nations. Ramos-Horta was its first Foreign Minister.

On 3 June 2006, Ramos-Horta added the post of Interim Minister of Defense to his portfolio as Foreign Minister, in the wake of the resignations of the previous minister.^[14] He resigned as both Foreign and Defence Minister on 25 June 2006, announcing, "I do not wish to be associated with the present government or with any government involving Alkatiri."^[15] Prime Minister Alkatiri had been under pressure to resign his position in place of President Xanana Gusmão, but in a 25 June meeting, leaders of the FRETILIN party agreed to keep Alkatiri as Prime Minister; Ramos-Horta resigned immediately following this decision.^[16] Foreign Minister of Australia Alexander Downer expressed his personal disappointment at Ramos-Horta's resignation.^[17] Following Alkatiri's resignation on 26 June, Ramos-Horta withdrew his resignation to contest the prime ministership and served in the position on a temporary basis until a successor to Alkatiri was named.^[18] On 8 July 2006, Ramos-Horta himself was appointed Prime Minister by President Gusmão.^[19] He was sworn in on 10 July.

Before his appointment as Prime Minister, Ramos-Horta was considered a possible candidate to succeed Kofi Annan as United Nations Secretary-General.^[20] He dropped out of the race in order to serve as East Timor's Prime Minister, but he has indicated that he might run for the UN position at some time in the future: "I can wait five years if I am really interested in the job in 2012. I would be interested in that."^[21]

In an interview with Al Jazeera broadcast on 22 February 2007, Ramos-Horta said that he would run for president in the April 2007 election.^[22] On 25 February 2007, Ramos-Horta formally announced his candidacy. He received the support of Gusmão, who was not running for re-election.^[23]

In the first round of the election, held on 9 April, Ramos-Horta took second place with 21.81% of the vote; he and FRETILIN candidate Francisco Guterres, who took first place, then participated in the second round of the election in May.^[24] The full results of the runoff elections were made public by East Timor's National Electorial Committee spokeswoman, Maria Angelina Sarmento, on 11 May, and Ramos-Horta won with 69% of the vote.^[25]

Presidency [link]

Presidential styles of José Ramos-Horta

Reference style	His Excellency
Spoken style	Your Excellency
Alternative style	Mr. President

He was inaugurated as President of East Timor in a ceremony at the parliament house in Dili on 20 May 2007.^[26] He had resigned as Prime Minister the day before and was succeeded by Estanislau da Silva.

During the first round of the presidential elections of 2012, held on 17 March, Ramos-Horta who was eligible for a second and final term as president, took third place with 19.43% of the vote behind the presidential candidates Francisco Guterres with 27.28% and Taur Matan Ruak 24.17% of the vote. He admitted defeat,^[27] and his term as president ended on 19 May, with the inauguration of Taur Matan Ruak as his successor.^[28]^[29]

Assassination attempt [link]

Main article: 2008 East Timorese assassination attempts

On 11 February 2008, José Ramos-Horta was shot in an assassination attempt. In the gun skirmish, one of Ramos-Horta's guards was wounded, and two rebel soldiers, including rebel leader Alfredo Reinado, were killed.^[30]^[31] Ramos-Horta was treated at Dili Australian military base before being transferred to the Royal Darwin Hospital in Australia for further treatment. Doctors thought that he had been shot two or three times with the most serious injury being to his right lung.^[32] His condition was listed as critical but stable.^[33] He was placed in an induced coma on full life support,^[34] and regained consciousness on 21 February.^[35] A message from Ramos-Horta, still recovering in Darwin, was broadcast on 12 March. In this message, he thanked his supporters and Australia and said that he had "been very well looked after". A spokesman said that his condition was improving and that he had started taking short daily walks for exercise.^[36]

Ramos-Horta was released from the Royal Darwin Hospital on 19 March, although he said that he would stay in Australia for physical therapy for "a few more weeks". He also said on this occasion that he had remained conscious following the shooting and "remember[ed] every detail", describing how he was taken for treatment.^[37] On 17 April, Ramos-Horta returned to Dili from Darwin. He gave a press conference at the airport in which he urged the remaining rebels in the mountains to surrender.^[38]

Other activities [link]

Ramos-Horta and the Obamas

Ramos-Horta is a frequent speaker, along with other Nobel Peace Prize Laureates, at Peacejam conferences.

The chairman of terrorist organization in India - ULFA, Arabinda Rajkhowa told Ramos as the main force behind the Ulfa making an impact in the international fora^[39]

He has served as Chairman of the Advisory Board for TheCommunity.com, a web site for peace and human rights, since 2000. In 2001 he gathered the post 9/11 statements of 28 Nobel Peace Prize Laureates on the web site,^[40] and has spearheaded other peace initiatives with his fellow Nobel Laureates.

Ramos-Horta supported the US invasion and occupation of Iraq, and condemned the anti-American tone of its detractors as "hypocritical".^[41] In the 1990s he had supported the cause of Kurdish people in Iraq^[42]

José Ramos-Horta in 2009.

In May 2009 Ramos-Horta stated that he would ask the International Criminal Court to investigate the ruling junta of Burma (Myanmar) if they continue to detain fellow Nobel Laureate Aung San Suu Kyi.^[43] However by August 2010, he softened his views on Myanmar, he warmly received the Myanmar Foreign Minister U Nyan Win, and said that he wants to improve relations and seek strong commercial ties with Myanmar.^[44]

On 5 August 2009, he attended the funeral of the late former president of the Philippines Corazon Aquino. He was the only foreign head of state to attend.

On 29 September 2009, he delivered the prestigious Legatum Pericles Lecture at the Legatum Center for Development and Entrepreneurship at Massachusetts Institute of Technology.^[45]

On 30 June 2010, he attended the inauguration of Benigno Simeon C. Aquino III, the 15th President of the Philippines. He is the only head of state who attended the inauguration and the first dignitary to arrive in the Philippines for the inauguration. He is a close friend of the Aquino family.

Awards [link]

Along with Roman Catholic priest Carlos Belo, Ramos-Horta jointly received the 1996 Nobel Peace Prize. Both men also received the Order of Liberty, Grand Cross, from Portugal in 1996.

Depictions [link]

The 2000 documentary The Diplomat, directed by Tom Zubrycki, follows Ramos-Horta in the period from 1998 to his return to East Timor in 2000.^[46]^[47] Ramos-Horta is played by Oscar Isaac in the 2009 film Balibo.^[48] The film tells the story of the Balibo Five and the events preceding the Indonesian occupation of East Timor.^[49]

References [link]

^ Greenlees, Donald (11 May 2007). "East Timor hopes new leader will heal divisions". International Herald Tribune. http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/05/11/news/timor.php.
^ Lindsay Murdoch (10 July 2006). "Ramos Horta vows to rebuild Timor". The Age (Melbourne). http://www.theage.com.au/news/world/horta-vows-to-rebuild-timor/2006/07/09/1152383610425.html. Retrieved 27 September 2006..
^ Dr. José Ramos-Horta
^ http://www.worldleaders.columbia.edu/participants/jos%C3%A9-manuel-ramos-horta
^ http://mitworld.mit.edu/speaker/view/1126
^ www.etan.org
^ YaleGlobal Online
^ A detailed statistical report prepared for the Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor cited a lower range of 102,800 conflict-related deaths in the period 1974–1999, namely, approximately 18,600 killings and 84,200 'excess' deaths from hunger and illness. (Benetech Human Rights Data Analysis Group (9 February 2006). "The Profile of Human Rights Violations in Timor-Leste, 1974–1999". A Report to the Commission on Reception, Truth and Reconciliation of Timor-Leste. Human Rights Data Analysis Group (HRDAG). http://www.hrdag.org/resources/timor_chapter_graphs/timor_chapter_page_02.shtml.
^ Sonny Inbaraj Asean's commitment to East Timor faces tough test Asia Times
^ The Norwegian Nobel Committee (2006). The Nobel Peace Prize 1996. Retrieved 26 June 2006.
^ "New structure of NCC proposed". 21 June 2000. http://www.un.org/peace/etimor/DB/DB210600.HTM.
^ "SC/6882 : Security Council briefed by Sergio Vieira de Mello, Special representative for East Timor". 27 Jun 2000&#93. http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2000/20000627.sc6882.doc.html.
^ "?". http://www.unmit.org/UNMISETWebSite.nsf/TimeLineofUNMISET.htm?OpenPage. ^{[dead link]}
^ Seattle Times (3 June 2003). Nobel laureate takes security posts.
^ Australian Associated Press (2006). Timor's foreign minister resigns. Retrieved 25 June 2006.
^ Associated Press (2006). Alkatiri to remain as PM. Retrieved 25 June 2006.
^ AM (2006). Downer disappointed by Horta resignation. Retrieved 26 June 2006.
^ Reuters (2006). Jose Ramos-Horta to be East Timor prime minister. Retrieved 8 July 2006.
^ Associated Press (2006). Ramos-Horta named E Timor's new PM. Retrieved 8 July 2006.
^ UNSG.org (2006). Spec growing on Ramos-Horta. Retrieved 27 September 2006.
^ The Courier Mail (2006). Ramos Horta ‘on PM shortlist’. Retrieved 27 September 2006.
^ "East Timor PM to run for president", Al Jazeera, 22 February 2007.
^ "Nobel laureate Jose Ramos-Horta to run for president in East Timor", Associated Press (International Herald Tribune), 24 February 2007.
^ "Two set to square off for presidency", AAP (news.com.au), 18 April 2007.
^ "Guterres congratulates Horta as new president of Timor-Leste", Xinhua (People's Daily Online), 11 May 2007.
^ "Ramos-Horta sworn in as E Timor president", 20 May 2007.
^ East Timor President Jose Ramos-Horta admits poll defeat BBC News, 19 March 2012
^ Kingsbury, Damien Timor election a key test of stability Sydney Morning Herald, 17 April 2012
^ Powles, Anna Nationalism and nostalgia win in Timor Leste Asia Times, 27 April 2012
^ "Ramos-Horta wounded". The Sydney Morning Herald. 11 February 2008. http://www.smh.com.au/news/world/ramoshorta-wounded/2008/02/11/1202578639815.html. Retrieved 11 February 2008.
^ "Ramos Horta wounded, Reinado dead in Timor attack". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 11 February 2008. http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2008/02/11/2159179.htm. Retrieved 11 February 2008.
^ Australian troops arrive in East Timor. AP, 12 February 2008.
^ news.com.au/story "Ramos-Horta on way to Darwin". http://www.news.com.au/story/0,23599,23193948-1702,00.html news.com.au/story.
^ "East Timor leader 'in induced coma'". London: BBC News. 11 February 2008. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7238142.stm. Retrieved 11 February 2008.
^ "Ramos-Horta regains consciousness". ABC News. 21 February 2008. http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2008/02/21/2168775.htm. Retrieved 21 February 2008.
^ Ed Johnson, "East Timor's Ramos-Horta Thanks Supporters From Hospital Bed", Bloomberg.com, 12 March 2008.
^ "Timorese president leaves Australian hospital after treatment following Feb. attack", Associated Press (International Herald Tribune), 19 March 2008.
^ Lindsay Murdoch, "Emotional homecoming for Ramos Horta", theage.com.au, 17 April 2008.
^ "Pakistani weapons made us weak, says Ulfa chief". HindustanTimes. 7 August 2011. http://www.hindustantimes.com/Pak-weapons-made-us-weak-Ulfa-chief/Article1-730339.aspx. Retrieved 8 August 2011.
^ "Cnn Live This Morning". CNN. 7 February 2001. http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0110/05/ltm.17.html. Retrieved 7 May 2010.
^ U.S. Soldiers Are The Real Heroes In Iraq Wall Street Journal 17 October 2005
^ Jose Ramos Horta, Nobel Peace Laureate, Speaks for Leyla Zana 28 May 1997
^ Arkar Moe (20 May 2009). "Is it Time to Take Than Shwe to International Criminal Court?". The Irrawaddy. http://www.irrawaddy.org/article.php?art_id=15688.
^ "Timor Leste seeks 'strong' commercial ties with Myanmar". The Brunai Times. 21 August 2010. http://www.bt.com.bn/news-asia/2010/08/21/timor-leste-seeks-strong-commercial-ties-myanmar. Retrieved 4 October 2010.
^ "?". MIT. http://legatum.mit.edu/RamosHorta. ^{[dead link]}
^ "The Diplomat (2000)". IMDB. http://us.imdb.com/title/tt0258526/. Retrieved 16 January 2010.
^ "A Place to Think: The Diplomat (2000)". ABC. http://www.abc.net.au/aplacetothink/html/diplomat.htm. Retrieved 16 January 2010.
^ "Balibo (2009)". IMDB. http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1111876/. Retrieved 22 August 2009.
^ Davies, Luke (August 2009). Robert Connolly's 'Balibo'. The Monthly. http://www.themonthly.com.au/node/1846. Retrieved 22 August 2009.

External links [link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: José Ramos-Horta

Political offices
Preceded by Mari Alkatiri	Prime Minister of East Timor 2006–2007	Succeeded by Estanislau da Silva
Preceded by Xanana Gusmão	President of East Timor 2007–2008	Succeeded by Vicente Guterres Acting
Preceded by Fernando de Araújo Acting	President of East Timor 2008–2012	Succeeded by Taur Matan Ruak

v t e Presidents of East Timor

Xanana Gusmão • José Ramos-Horta • Vicente Guterres (Acting) • Fernando de Araújo (Acting) • José Ramos-Horta • Taur Matan Ruak

v t e Prime Ministers of East Timor

Mari Alkatiri \| José Ramos-Horta \| Estanislau da Silva \| Xanana Gusmão

v t e Laureates of the Nobel Peace Prize (1976–2000)

Betty Williams / Mairead Corrigan (1976) Amnesty International (1977) Anwar Sadat / Menachem Begin (1978) Mother Teresa (1979) Adolfo Pérez Esquivel (1980) United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (1981) Alva Myrdal / Alfonso García Robles (1982) Lech Wałęsa (1983) Desmond Tutu (1984) International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War (1985) Elie Wiesel (1986) Óscar Arias (1987) UN Peacekeeping Forces (1988) Tenzin Gyatso (14th Dalai Lama) (1989) Mikhail Gorbachev (1990) Aung San Suu Kyi (1991) Rigoberta Menchú (1992) Nelson Mandela / F.W. de Klerk (1993) Shimon Peres / Yitzhak Rabin / Yasser Arafat (1994) Pugwash Conferences / Joseph Rotblat (1995) Carlos Belo / José Ramos-Horta (1996) International Campaign to Ban Landmines / Jody Williams (1997) John Hume / David Trimble (1998) Médecins Sans Frontières (1999) Kim Dae-jung (2000)

Complete list (1901–1925) (1926–1950) (1951–1975) (1976–2000) (2001–2025)

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Hillary Rodham Clinton

67th United States Secretary of State
Incumbent
Assumed office January 21, 2009
President	Barack Obama
Deputy	William Burns (2011-present) James Steinberg (2009-2011)
Preceded by	Condoleezza Rice
United States Senator from New York
In office January 3, 2001 – January 21, 2009
Preceded by	Daniel Patrick Moynihan
Succeeded by	Kirsten Gillibrand
First Lady of the United States
In office January 20, 1993 – January 20, 2001
Preceded by	Barbara Bush
Succeeded by	Laura Bush
First Lady of Arkansas
In office January 11, 1983 – December 12, 1992
Preceded by	Gay Daniels White
Succeeded by	Betty Tucker
In office January 9, 1979 – January 19, 1981
Preceded by	Barbara Pryor
Succeeded by	Gay Daniels White
Personal details
Born	Hillary Diane Rodham (1947-10-26) October 26, 1947 (age 64) Chicago, Illinois, U.S.
Political party	Democratic Party (1968–present)
Other political affiliations	Republican Party (before 1968)
Spouse(s)	Bill Clinton
Children	Chelsea Clinton
Residence	Chappaqua, New York
Alma mater	Wellesley College Yale Law School
Profession	Lawyer
Religion	Methodist
Signature
Website	Official website

The Hillary Rodham Clinton series v t e
Tenure as Secretary of State, 2009– Campaign for the Presidency, 2007–2008 United States Senate career, 2001–2009 Political positions Awards and honors List of books about Hillary Rodham Clinton

Hillary Diane Rodham Clinton ( /ˈhɪləri daɪˈæn ˈrɒdəm ˈklɪntən/; born October 26, 1947) is the 67th United States Secretary of State, serving in the administration of President Barack Obama. She was a United States Senator for New York from 2001 to 2009. As the wife of the 42nd President of the United States, Bill Clinton, she was the First Lady of the United States from 1993 to 2001. In the 2008 election, Clinton was a leading candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination.

A native of Illinois, Hillary Rodham first attracted national attention in 1969 for her remarks as the first student commencement speaker at Wellesley College. She embarked on a career in law after graduating from Yale Law School in 1973. Following a stint as a Congressional legal counsel, she moved to Arkansas in 1974 and married Bill Clinton in 1975. Rodham cofounded the Arkansas Advocates for Children and Families in 1977 and became the first female chair of the Legal Services Corporation in 1978. Named the first female partner at Rose Law Firm in 1979, she was twice listed as one of the 100 most influential lawyers in America. First Lady of Arkansas from 1979 to 1981 and 1983 to 1992 with husband Bill as Governor, she successfully led a task force to reform Arkansas's education system. She sat on the board of directors of Wal-Mart Stores and several other corporations.

In 1994, as First Lady of the United States, her major initiative, the Clinton health care plan, failed to gain approval from the U.S. Congress. However, in 1997 and 1999, Clinton played a role in advocating the creation of the State Children's Health Insurance Program, the Adoption and Safe Families Act, and the Foster Care Independence Act. Her years as First Lady drew a polarized response from the American public. The only First Lady to have been subpoenaed, she testified before a federal grand jury in 1996 due to the Whitewater controversy, but was never charged with wrongdoing in this or several other investigations during her husband's administration. The state of her marriage was the subject of considerable speculation following the Lewinsky scandal in 1998.

After moving to the state of New York, Clinton was elected as a U.S. Senator in 2000. That election marked the first time an American First Lady had run for public office; Clinton was also the first female senator to represent the state. In the Senate, she initially supported the Bush administration on some foreign policy issues, including a vote for the Iraq War Resolution. She subsequently opposed the administration on its conduct of the war in Iraq and on most domestic issues. Senator Clinton was reelected by a wide margin in 2006. In the 2008 presidential nomination race, Hillary Clinton won more primaries and delegates than any other female candidate in American history, but narrowly lost to Illinois Senator Barack Obama.

Obama went on to win the election and appoint Clinton as Secretary of State; Clinton became the first former First Lady to serve in a president's cabinet. She has put into place institutional changes seeking to maximize departmental effectiveness and promote the empowerment of women worldwide, and has set records for most-traveled secretary for time in office. She has been at the forefront of the U.S. response to the Arab Spring, including advocating for the military intervention in Libya. She has used "smart power" as the strategy for asserting U.S. leadership and values in the world and has championed the use of social media in getting the U.S. message out.

1 Early life and education
2 Marriage and family, law career and First Lady of Arkansas
3 First Lady of the United States
4 Senate election of 2000
5 United States Senator
6 Presidential campaign of 2008
7 Secretary of State
- 7.1 Nomination and confirmation
- 7.2 Tenure
8 Political positions
9 Writings and recordings
10 Cultural and political image
11 Awards and honors
12 Electoral history
13 Notes
14 References
15 Bibliography
16 Further reading
17 External links

Early life and education [link]

Early life [link]

Hillary Diane Rodham^{[nb 1]} was born at Edgewater Hospital in Chicago, Illinois.^[1]^[2] She was raised in a United Methodist family, first in Chicago and then, from the age of three, in suburban Park Ridge, Illinois.^[3] Her father, Hugh Ellsworth Rodham (1911–1993), was the son of Welsh and English immigrants;^[4] he managed a successful small business in the textile industry.^[5] Her mother, Dorothy Emma Howell (1919–2011), was a homemaker of English, Scottish, French, French Canadian, and Welsh descent.^[4]^[6] Hillary grew up with two younger brothers, Hugh and Tony.

File:HRCEarlyYearsExhibitClintonPresidentialCenter.jpg

Mementos of Hillary Rodham's early life are shown at the William J. Clinton Presidential Center.

As a child, Hillary Rodham was a teacher's favorite at her public schools in Park Ridge.^[7]^[8] She participated in swimming, baseball, and other sports.^[7]^[8] She also earned numerous awards as a Brownie and Girl Scout.^[8] She attended Maine East High School, where she participated in student council, the school newspaper, and was selected for National Honor Society.^[1]^[9] For her senior year, she was redistricted to Maine South High School, where she was a National Merit Finalist and graduated in the top five percent of her class of 1965.^[9]^[10] Her mother wanted her to have an independent, professional career,^[6] and her father, otherwise a traditionalist, was of the opinion that his daughter's abilities and opportunities should not be limited by gender.^[11]

Raised in a politically conservative household,^[6] at age thirteen Rodham helped canvass South Side Chicago following the very close 1960 U.S. presidential election, where she found evidence of electoral fraud against Republican candidate Richard Nixon.^[12] She then volunteered to campaign for Republican candidate Barry Goldwater in the U.S. presidential election of 1964.^[13] Rodham's early political development was shaped most by her high school history teacher (like her father, a fervent anticommunist), who introduced her to Goldwater's classic The Conscience of a Conservative,^[14] and by her Methodist youth minister (like her mother, concerned with issues of social justice), with whom she saw and met civil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr., in Chicago in 1962.^[15]

Wellesley College years [link]

In 1965, Rodham enrolled at Wellesley College, where she majored in political science.^[16] During her freshman year, she served as president of the Wellesley Young Republicans;^[17]^[18] with this Rockefeller Republican-oriented group,^[19] she supported the elections of John Lindsay and Edward Brooke.^[20] She later stepped down from this position, as her views changed regarding the American Civil Rights Movement and the Vietnam War.^[17] In a letter to her youth minister at this time, she described herself as "a mind conservative and a heart liberal."^[21] In contrast to the 1960s current that advocated radical actions against the political system, she sought to work for change within it.^[22] In her junior year, Rodham became a supporter of the antiwar presidential nomination campaign of Democrat Eugene McCarthy.^[23] Following the assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr., Rodham organized a two-day student strike and worked with Wellesley's black students to recruit more black students and faculty.^[23] In early 1968, she was elected president of the Wellesley College Government Association and served through early 1969;^[22]^[24] she was instrumental in keeping Wellesley from being embroiled in the student disruptions common to other colleges.^[22] A number of her fellow students thought she might some day become the first woman President of the United States.^[22] So she could better understand her changing political views, Professor Alan Schechter assigned Rodham to intern at the House Republican Conference, and she attended the "Wellesley in Washington" summer program.^[23] Rodham was invited by moderate New York Republican Representative Charles Goodell to help Governor Nelson Rockefeller's late-entry campaign for the Republican nomination.^[23] Rodham attended the 1968 Republican National Convention in Miami. However, she was upset by how Richard Nixon's campaign portrayed Rockefeller and by what she perceived as the convention's "veiled" racist messages, and left the Republican Party for good.^[23]

Main article: Hillary Rodham senior thesis

Rodham wrote her senior thesis, a critique of the tactics of radical community organizer Saul Alinsky, under Professor Schechter.^[25] (Years later, while she was First Lady, access to the thesis was restricted at the request of the White House and it became the subject of some speculation.)^[25]

In 1969, she graduated with a Bachelor of Arts,^[26] with departmental honors in political science.^[25] Following pressure from some fellow students,^[27] she became the first student in Wellesley College history to deliver its commencement address.^[24] Her speech received a standing ovation lasting seven minutes.^[22]^[28]^[29] She was featured in an article published in Life magazine,^[30] due to the response to a part of her speech that criticized Senator Edward Brooke, who had spoken before her at the commencement.^[27] She also appeared on Irv Kupcinet's nationally syndicated television talk show as well as in Illinois and New England newspapers.^[31] That summer, she worked her way across Alaska, washing dishes in Mount McKinley National Park and sliming salmon in a fish processing cannery in Valdez (which fired her and shut down overnight when she complained about unhealthy conditions).^[32]

Yale Law School and postgraduate studies [link]

Rodham then entered Yale Law School, where she served on the editorial board of the Yale Review of Law and Social Action.^[33] During her second year, she worked at the Yale Child Study Center,^[34] learning about new research on early childhood brain development and working as a research assistant on the seminal work, Beyond the Best Interests of the Child (1973).^[35]^[36] She also took on cases of child abuse at Yale-New Haven Hospital^[35] and volunteered at New Haven Legal Services to provide free legal advice for the poor.^[34] In the summer of 1970, she was awarded a grant to work at Marian Wright Edelman's Washington Research Project, where she was assigned to Senator Walter Mondale's Subcommittee on Migratory Labor. There she researched migrant workers' problems in housing, sanitation, health and education.^[37] Edelman later became a significant mentor.^[38] Rodham was recruited by political advisor Anne Wexler to work on the 1970 campaign of Connecticut U.S. Senate candidate Joseph Duffey, with Rodham later crediting Wexler with providing her first job in politics.^[39]

In the late spring of 1971, she began dating Bill Clinton, also a law student at Yale. That summer, she interned at the Oakland, California, law firm of Treuhaft, Walker and Burnstein.^[40] The firm was well known for its support of constitutional rights, civil liberties, and radical causes (two of its four partners were current or former Communist Party members);^[40] Rodham worked on child custody and other cases.^{[nb 2]} Clinton canceled his original summer plans, in order to live with her in California;^[41] the couple continued living together in New Haven when they returned to law school.^[42] The following summer, Rodham and Clinton campaigned in Texas for unsuccessful 1972 Democratic presidential candidate George McGovern.^[43] She received a Juris Doctor degree from Yale in 1973,^[26] having stayed on an extra year to be with Clinton.^[44] Clinton first proposed marriage to her following graduation, but she declined.^[44]

Rodham began a year of postgraduate study on children and medicine at the Yale Child Study Center.^[45] Her first scholarly article, "Children Under the Law", was published in the Harvard Educational Review in late 1973.^[46] Discussing the new children's rights movement, it stated that "child citizens" were "powerless individuals"^[47] and argued that children should not be considered equally incompetent from birth to attaining legal age, but that instead courts should presume competence except when there is evidence otherwise, on a case-by-case basis.^[48] The article became frequently cited in the field.^[49]

Marriage and family, law career and First Lady of Arkansas [link]

From the East Coast to Arkansas [link]

During her postgraduate study, Rodham served as staff attorney for Edelman's newly founded Children's Defense Fund in Cambridge, Massachusetts,^[50] and as a consultant to the Carnegie Council on Children.^[51] In 1974 she was a member of the impeachment inquiry staff in Washington, D.C., advising the House Committee on the Judiciary during the Watergate scandal.^[52] Under the guidance of Chief Counsel John Doar and senior member Bernard Nussbaum,^[35] Rodham helped research procedures of impeachment and the historical grounds and standards for impeachment.^[52] The committee's work culminated in the resignation of President Richard Nixon in August 1974.^[52]

By then, Rodham was viewed as someone with a bright political future; Democratic political organizer and consultant Betsey Wright had moved from Texas to Washington the previous year to help guide her career;^[53] Wright thought Rodham had the potential to become a future senator or president.^[54] Meanwhile, Clinton had repeatedly asked her to marry him, and she continued to demur.^[55] However, after failing the District of Columbia bar exam^[56] and passing the Arkansas exam, Rodham came to a key decision. As she later wrote, "I chose to follow my heart instead of my head".^[57] She thus followed Bill Clinton to Arkansas, rather than staying in Washington where career prospects were brighter. He was then teaching law and running for a seat in the U.S. House of Representatives in his home state. In August 1974, Rodham moved to Fayetteville, Arkansas, and became one of only two female faculty members in the School of Law at the University of Arkansas, Fayetteville.^[58]^[59] She gave classes in criminal law, where she was considered a rigorous teacher and tough grader, and was the first director of the school's legal aid clinic.^[60] She still harbored doubts about marriage, concerned that her separate identity would be lost and that her accomplishments would be viewed in the light of someone else's.^[61]

Early Arkansas years [link]

File:HillaryRodhamBillClintonLittleRockHouse1adjusted.jpg

Hillary Rodham and Bill Clinton lived in this 980 square feet (91 m²) house in the Hillcrest neighborhood of Little Rock from 1977 to 1979 while he was Arkansas Attorney General.^[62]

Hillary Rodham and Bill Clinton bought a house in Fayetteville in the summer of 1975, and Hillary finally agreed to marry.^[63] Their wedding took place on October 11, 1975, in a Methodist ceremony in their living room.^[64] She announced she was keeping the name Hillary Rodham,^[64] to keep their professional lives separate and avoid apparent conflicts of interest and because "it showed that I was still me,"^[65] although her decision upset their mothers.^[66] Bill Clinton had lost the congressional race in 1974, but in November 1976 was elected Arkansas Attorney General, and so the couple moved to the state capital of Little Rock.^[67] There, in February 1977, Rodham joined the venerable Rose Law Firm, a bastion of Arkansan political and economic influence.^[68] She specialized in patent infringement and intellectual property law^[33] while also working pro bono in child advocacy;^[69] she rarely performed litigation work in court.^[70]

Rodham maintained her interest in children's law and family policy, publishing the scholarly articles "Children's Policies: Abandonment and Neglect" in 1977^[71] and "Children's Rights: A Legal Perspective" in 1979.^[72] The latter continued her argument that children's legal competence depended upon their age and other circumstances and that in serious medical rights cases, judicial intervention was sometimes warranted.^[48] An American Bar Association chair later said, "Her articles were important, not because they were radically new but because they helped formulate something that had been inchoate."^[48] Historian Garry Wills would later describe her as "one of the more important scholar-activists of the last two decades",^[73] while conservatives said her theories would usurp traditional parental authority,^[74] allow children to file frivolous lawsuits against their parents,^[48] and argued that her work was legal "crit" theory run amok.^[75]

In 1977, Rodham cofounded the Arkansas Advocates for Children and Families, a state-level alliance with the Children's Defense Fund.^[33]^[76] Later that year, President Jimmy Carter (for whom Rodham had been the 1976 campaign director of field operations in Indiana)^[77] appointed her to the board of directors of the Legal Services Corporation,^[78] and she served in that capacity from 1978 until the end of 1981.^[79] From mid-1978 to mid-1980,^{[nb 3]} she served as the chair of that board, the first woman to do so.^[80] During her time as chair, funding for the Corporation was expanded from $90 million to $300 million; subsequently she successfully fought President Ronald Reagan's attempts to reduce the funding and change the nature of the organization.^[69]

Following her husband's November 1978 election as Governor of Arkansas, Rodham became First Lady of Arkansas in January 1979, her title for twelve years (1979–1981, 1983–1992). Clinton appointed her chair of the Rural Health Advisory Committee the same year,^[81] where she secured federal funds to expand medical facilities in Arkansas's poorest areas without affecting doctors' fees.^[82]

In 1979, Rodham became the first woman to be made a full partner of Rose Law Firm.^[83] From 1978 until they entered the White House, she had a higher salary than that of her husband.^[84] During 1978 and 1979, while looking to supplement their income, Rodham made a spectacular profit from trading cattle futures contracts;^[85] an initial $1,000 investment generated nearly $100,000 when she stopped trading after ten months.^[86] The couple also began their ill-fated investment in the Whitewater Development Corporation real estate venture with Jim and Susan McDougal at this time.^[85]

On February 27, 1980, Rodham gave birth to a daughter, Chelsea, her only child. In November 1980, Bill Clinton was defeated in his bid for reelection.

Later Arkansas years [link]

Long shot of two men flanked by two women walking down read carpet, as military band plays on either side

Governor Bill Clinton and Hillary Clinton attend the 1987 Dinner Honoring the Nation's Governors with President Ronald Reagan and First Lady Nancy Reagan.

Bill Clinton returned to the governor's office two years later by winning the election of 1982. During her husband's campaign, Rodham began to use the name Hillary Clinton, or sometimes "Mrs. Bill Clinton", to assuage the concerns of Arkansas voters;^{[nb 4]} she also took a leave of absence from Rose Law to campaign for him full-time.^[87] As First Lady of Arkansas, Hillary Clinton was named chair of the Arkansas Educational Standards Committee in 1983, where she sought to reform the state's court-sanctioned public education system.^[88]^[89] In one of the Clinton governorship's most important initiatives, she fought a prolonged but ultimately successful battle against the Arkansas Education Association, to establish mandatory teacher testing and state standards for curriculum and classroom size.^[81]^[88] In 1985, she also introduced Arkansas's Home Instruction Program for Preschool Youth, a program that helps parents work with their children in preschool preparedness and literacy.^[90] She was named Arkansas Woman of the Year in 1983 and Arkansas Mother of the Year in 1984.^[91]^[92]

Clinton continued to practice law with the Rose Law Firm while she was First Lady of Arkansas. She earned less than the other partners, as she billed fewer hours,^[93] but still made more than $200,000 in her final year there.^[94] She seldom did trial work,^[94] but the firm considered her a "rainmaker" because she brought in clients, partly thanks to the prestige she lent the firm and to her corporate board connections.^[94] She was also very influential in the appointment of state judges.^[94] Bill Clinton's Republican opponent in his 1986 gubernatorial reelection campaign accused the Clintons of conflict of interest, because Rose Law did state business; the Clintons deflected the charge by saying that state fees were walled off by the firm before her profits were calculated.^[95]

From 1982 to 1988, Clinton was on the board of directors, sometimes as chair, of the New World Foundation,^[96] which funded a variety of New Left interest groups.^[97] From 1987 to 1991, she chaired the American Bar Association's Commission on Women in the Profession,^[98] which addressed gender bias in the law profession and induced the association to adopt measures to combat it.^[98] She was twice named by the National Law Journal as one of the 100 most influential lawyers in America: in 1988 and in 1991.^[99] When Bill Clinton thought about not running again for governor in 1990, Hillary considered running, but private polls were unfavorable and, in the end, he ran and was reelected for the final time.^[100]

Clinton served on the boards of the Arkansas Children's Hospital Legal Services (1988–1992)^[101] and the Children's Defense Fund (as chair, 1986–1992).^[1]^[102] In addition to her positions with nonprofit organizations, she also held positions on the corporate board of directors of TCBY (1985–1992),^[103] Wal-Mart Stores (1986–1992)^[104] and Lafarge (1990–1992).^[105] TCBY and Wal-Mart were Arkansas-based companies that were also clients of Rose Law.^[94]^[106] Clinton was the first female member on Wal-Mart's board, added following pressure on chairman Sam Walton to name a woman to the board.^[106] Once there, she pushed successfully for Wal-Mart to adopt more environmentally friendly practices, was largely unsuccessful in a campaign for more women to be added to the company's management, and was silent about the company's famously anti-labor union practices.^[104]^[106]^[107]

Bill Clinton presidential campaign of 1992 [link]

Black-and-white close-up photographic portrait of the same woman as in the top photo, in her forties and with shoulder-length blonde hair

Hillary Rodham Clinton, 1992

Hillary Clinton received sustained national attention for the first time when her husband became a candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination of 1992. Before the New Hampshire primary, tabloid publications printed claims that Bill Clinton had had an extramarital affair with Arkansas lounge singer Gennifer Flowers.^[108] In response, the Clintons appeared together on 60 Minutes, where Bill Clinton denied the affair but acknowledged "causing pain in my marriage."^[109] This joint appearance was credited with rescuing his campaign.^[110] During the campaign, Hillary Clinton made culturally disparaging remarks about Tammy Wynette and her outlook on marriage,^{[nb 5]} and about women staying home and baking cookies and having teas,^{[nb 6]} that were ill-considered by her own admission. Bill Clinton said that in electing him, the nation would "get two for the price of one", referring to the prominent role his wife would assume.^[111] Beginning with Daniel Wattenberg's August 1992 The American Spectator article "The Lady Macbeth of Little Rock", Hillary Clinton's own past ideological and ethical record came under conservative attack.^[74] At least twenty other articles in major publications also drew comparisons between her and Lady Macbeth.^[112]

First Lady of the United States [link]

Role as First Lady [link]

When Bill Clinton took office as president in January 1993, Hillary Rodham Clinton became the First Lady of the United States, and announced that she would be using that form of her name.^[113] She was the first First Lady to hold a postgraduate degree^[114] and to have her own professional career up to the time of entering the White House.^[114] She was also the first to have an office in the West Wing of the White House in addition to the usual First Lady offices in the East Wing.^[45]^[115] She was part of the innermost circle vetting appointments to the new administration, and her choices filled at least eleven top-level positions and dozens more lower-level ones.^[116] She is regarded as the most openly empowered presidential wife in American history, save for Eleanor Roosevelt.^[117]^[118]

Man, same woman, and teenage girl walk across lawn after leaving a helicopter

The Clinton family arrives at the White House on Marine One, 1993.

Some critics called it inappropriate for the First Lady to play a central role in matters of public policy. Supporters pointed out that Clinton's role in policy was no different from that of other White House advisors and that voters were well aware that she would play an active role in her husband's presidency.^[119] Bill Clinton's campaign promise of "two for the price of one" led opponents to refer derisively to the Clintons as "co-presidents",^[120] or sometimes the Arkansas label "Billary".^[81]^[121] The pressures of conflicting ideas about the role of a First Lady were enough to send Clinton into "imaginary discussions" with the also-politically-active Eleanor Roosevelt.^{[nb 7]} From the time she came to Washington, she also found refuge in a prayer group of The Fellowship that featured many wives of conservative Washington figures.^[122]^[123] Triggered in part by the death of her father in April 1993, she publicly sought to find a synthesis of Methodist teachings, liberal religious political philosophy, and Tikkun editor Michael Lerner's "politics of meaning" to overcome what she saw as America's "sleeping sickness of the soul" and that would lead to a willingness "to remold society by redefining what it means to be a human being in the twentieth century, moving into a new millennium."^[124]^[125] Other segments of the public focused on her appearance, which had evolved over time from inattention to fashion during her days in Arkansas,^[126] to a popular site in the early days of the World Wide Web devoted to showing her many different, and frequently analyzed, hairstyles as First Lady,^[127]^[128] to an appearance on the cover of Vogue magazine in 1998.^[129]

Health care and other policy initiatives [link]

Hillary Rodham Clinton's Gallup Poll favorable and unfavorable ratings, 1992–1996^[130]

favorable

unfavorable

no opinion

In January 1993, Bill Clinton appointed Hillary Clinton to head the Task Force on National Health Care Reform, hoping to replicate the success she had in leading the effort for Arkansas education reform.^[131] She privately urged that passage of health care reform be given higher priority than the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) (which she was also unenthusiastic about the merits of).^[132]^[133] The recommendation of the task force became known as the Clinton health care plan, a comprehensive proposal that would require employers to provide health coverage to their employees through individual health maintenance organizations. Its opponents quickly derided the plan as "Hillarycare"; some protesters against it became vitriolic, and during a July 1994 bus tour to rally support for the plan, she was forced to wear a bulletproof vest at times.^[134]^[135]

The plan did not receive enough support for a floor vote in either the House or the Senate, although Democrats controlled both chambers, and the proposal was abandoned in September 1994.^[134] Clinton later acknowledged in her book, Living History, that her political inexperience partly contributed to the defeat, but mentioned that many other factors were also responsible. The First Lady's approval ratings, which had generally been in the high-50s percent range during her first year, fell to 44 percent in April 1994 and 35 percent by September 1994.^[136] Republicans made the Clinton health care plan a major campaign issue of the 1994 midterm elections,^[137] which saw a net Republican gain of fifty-three seats in the House election and seven in the Senate election, winning control of both; many analysts and pollsters found the plan to be a major factor in the Democrats' defeat, especially among independent voters.^[138] The White House subsequently sought to downplay Hillary Clinton's role in shaping policy.^[139] Opponents of universal health care would continue to use "Hillarycare" as a pejorative label for similar plans by others.^[140]

Same woman reads a book in a classroom to an African American boy in her lap, as an African American girl and two adults look on

Clinton reads to a child during a school visit

Along with Senators Ted Kennedy and Orrin Hatch, she was a force behind the passage of the State Children's Health Insurance Program in 1997, a federal effort that provided state support for children whose parents could not provide them with health coverage, and conducted outreach efforts on behalf of enrolling children in the program once it became law.^[141] She promoted nationwide immunization against childhood illnesses and encouraged older women to seek a mammogram to detect breast cancer, with coverage provided by Medicare.^[142] She successfully sought to increase research funding for prostate cancer and childhood asthma at the National Institutes of Health.^[45] The First Lady worked to investigate reports of an illness that affected veterans of the Gulf War, which became known as the Gulf War syndrome.^[45] Together with Attorney General Janet Reno, Clinton helped create the Office on Violence Against Women at the Department of Justice.^[45] In 1997, she initiated and shepherded the Adoption and Safe Families Act, which she regarded as her greatest accomplishment as First Lady.^[45]^[143] In 1999, she was instrumental in the passage of the Foster Care Independence Act, which doubled federal monies for teenagers aging out of foster care.^[143] As First Lady, Clinton hosted numerous White House conferences, including ones on Child Care (1997),^[144] on Early Childhood Development and Learning (1997),^[145] and on Children and Adolescents (2000).^[146] She also hosted the first-ever White House Conference on Teenagers (2000)^[147] and the first-ever White House Conference on Philanthropy (1999).^[148]

Clinton traveled to 79 countries during this time,^[149] breaking the mark for most-traveled First Lady held by Pat Nixon.^[150] She did not hold a security clearance or attend National Security Council meetings, but played a soft power role in U.S. diplomacy.^[151] A March 1995 five-nation trip to South Asia, on behest of the U.S. State Department and without her husband, sought to improve relations with India and Pakistan.^[152] Clinton was troubled by the plight of women she encountered, but found a warm response from the people of the countries she visited and a gained better relationship with the American press corps.^[152]^[153] The trip was a transformative experience for her and presaged her eventual career in diplomacy.^[154] In a September 1995 speech before the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing, Clinton argued very forcefully against practices that abused women around the world and in the People's Republic of China itself,^[155] declaring "that it is no longer acceptable to discuss women's rights as separate from human rights".^[155] Delegates from over 180 countries heard her say: "If there is one message that echoes forth from this conference, let it be that human rights are women's rights and women's rights are human rights, once and for all."^[156] In doing so, she resisted both internal administration and Chinese pressure to soften her remarks.^[149]^[156] She was one of the most prominent international figures during the late 1990s to speak out against the treatment of Afghan women by the Islamist fundamentalist Taliban.^[157]^[158] She helped create Vital Voices, an international initiative sponsored by the United States to promote the participation of women in the political processes of their countries.^[159] It and Clinton's own visits encouraged women to make themselves heard in the Northern Ireland peace process.^[160]

Whitewater and other investigations [link]

For more details on these investigations, see Whitewater controversy, Travelgate, Filegate, and Hillary Rodham cattle futures controversy.

First Lady Clinton was a subject of several investigations by the United States Office of the Independent Counsel, the independent prosecutor of the United States Congress, and others. Some believed the Independent Counsels were politically motivated.^[161]^[162]

The Whitewater controversy was the focus of media attention from the publication of a New York Times report during the 1992 presidential campaign,^[163] and throughout her time as First Lady. The Clintons had lost their late-1970s investment in the Whitewater Development Corporation;^[164] at the same time, their partners in that investment, Jim and Susan McDougal, operated Madison Guaranty, a savings and loan institution that retained the legal services of Rose Law Firm^[164] and may have been improperly subsidizing Whitewater losses.^[163] Madison Guaranty later failed, and Clinton's work at Rose was scrutinized for a possible conflict of interest in representing the bank before state regulators that her husband had appointed;^[163] she claimed she had done minimal work for the bank.^[165] Independent counsels Robert Fiske and Kenneth Starr subpoenaed Clinton's legal billing records; she said she did not know where they were.^[166]^[167] The records were found in the First Lady's White House book room after a two-year search, and delivered to investigators in early 1996.^[167] The delayed appearance of the records sparked intense interest and another investigation about how they surfaced and where they had been;^[167] Clinton's staff attributed the problem to continual changes in White House storage areas since the move from the Arkansas Governor's Mansion.^[168] After the discovery of the records, on January 26, 1996, Clinton became the first First Lady to be subpoenaed to testify before a Federal grand jury.^[166] After several Independent Counsels had investigated, a final report was issued in 2000 that stated there was insufficient evidence that either Clinton had engaged in criminal wrongdoing.^[169]

Same teenage girl, man and woman walk down a broad street in wintertime, as security personnel trail and a crowd looks on

The Clinton family takes an Inauguration Day walk down Pennsylvania Avenue to start President Bill Clinton's second term in office. January 20, 1997.

Scrutiny of the May 1993 firings of the White House Travel Office employees, an affair that became known as "Travelgate", began with charges that the White House had used audited financial irregularities in the Travel Office operation as an excuse to replace the staff with friends from Arkansas.^[170] The 1996 discovery of a two-year-old White House memo caused the investigation to focus more on whether Hillary Clinton had orchestrated the firings and whether the statements she made to investigators about her role in the firings were true.^[171]^[172] The 2000 final Independent Counsel report concluded she was involved in the firings and that she had made "factually false" statements, but that there was insufficient evidence that she knew the statements were false, or knew that her actions would lead to firings, to prosecute her.^[173]

Following deputy White House counsel Vince Foster's July 1993 suicide, allegations were made that Hillary Clinton had ordered the removal of potentially damaging files (related to Whitewater or other matters) from Foster's office on the night of his death.^[174] Independent Counsel Kenneth Starr investigated this, and by 1999, Starr was reported to be holding the investigation open, despite his staff having told him there was no case to be made.^[175] When Starr's successor Robert Ray issued his final Whitewater reports in 2000, no claims were made against Hillary Clinton regarding this.^[169]

An outgrowth of the Travelgate investigation was the June 1996 discovery of improper White House access to hundreds of FBI background reports on former Republican White House employees, an affair that some called "Filegate".^[176] Accusations were made that Hillary Clinton had requested these files and that she had recommended hiring an unqualified individual to head the White House Security Office.^[177] The 2000 final Independent Counsel report found no substantial or credible evidence that Hillary Clinton had any role or showed any misconduct in the matter.^[176]

In March 1994, newspaper reports revealed her spectacular profits from cattle futures trading in 1978–1979;^[178] allegations were made in the press of conflict of interest and disguised bribery,^[179] and several individuals analyzed her trading records, but no formal investigation was made and she was never charged with any wrongdoing.^[179]

Lewinsky scandal [link]

Hillary Rodham Clinton's Gallup Poll favorable and unfavorable ratings, 1997–2000^[130]

favorable

unfavorable

no opinion

In 1998, the Clintons' relationship became the subject of much speculation when investigations revealed that the President had had extramarital relations with White House intern Monica Lewinsky.^[180] Events surrounding the Lewinsky scandal eventually led to the impeachment of Bill Clinton by the House of Representatives. When the allegations against her husband were first made public, Hillary Clinton stated that they were the result of a "vast right-wing conspiracy",^[181] characterizing the Lewinsky charges as the latest in a long, organized, collaborative series of charges by Bill Clinton's political enemies^{[nb 8]} rather than any wrongdoing by her husband. She later said that she had been misled by her husband's initial claims that no affair had taken place.^[182] After the evidence of President Clinton's encounters with Lewinsky became incontrovertible, she issued a public statement reaffirming her commitment to their marriage,^[183] but privately was reported to be furious at him^[184] and was unsure if she wanted to stay in the marriage.^[185]

There was a variety of public reactions to Hillary Clinton after this: some women admired her strength and poise in private matters made public, some sympathized with her as a victim of her husband's insensitive behavior, others criticized her as being an enabler to her husband's indiscretions, while still others accused her of cynically staying in a failed marriage as a way of keeping or even fostering her own political influence.^[186] Her public approval ratings in the wake of the revelations shot upward to around 70 percent, the highest they had ever been.^[186] In her 2003 memoir, she would attribute her decision to stay married to "a love that has persisted for decades" and add: "No one understands me better and no one can make me laugh the way Bill does. Even after all these years, he is still the most interesting, energizing and fully alive person I have ever met."^[187]

Traditional duties [link]

Clinton initiated and was Founding Chair of the Save America's Treasures program, a national effort that matched federal funds to private donations to preserve and restore historic items and sites,^[188] including the flag that inspired "The Star-Spangled Banner" and the First Ladies Historic Site in Canton, Ohio.^[45] She was head of the White House Millennium Council,^[189] and hosted Millennium Evenings,^[190] a series of lectures that discussed futures studies, one of which became the first live simultaneous webcast from the White House.^[45] Clinton also created the first White House Sculpture Garden, located in the Jacqueline Kennedy Garden, which displayed large contemporary American works of art loaned from museums.^[191]

In the White House, Clinton placed donated handicrafts of contemporary American artisans, such as pottery and glassware, on rotating display in the state rooms.^[45] She oversaw the restoration of the Blue Room to be historically authentic to the period of James Monroe,^[192] the redecoration of the Treaty Room into the presidential study along 19th century lines,^[193] and the redecoration of the Map Room to how it looked during World War II.^[193] Clinton hosted many large-scale events at the White House, such as a Saint Patrick's Day reception, a state dinner for visiting Chinese dignitaries, a contemporary music concert that raised funds for music education in public schools, a New Year's Eve celebration at the turn of the 21st century, and a state dinner honoring the bicentennial of the White House in November 2000.^[45]

Senate election of 2000 [link]

Main article: United States Senate election in New York, 2000

When the long-serving United States Senator from New York, Daniel Patrick Moynihan, announced his retirement in November 1998, several prominent Democratic figures, including Representative Charles B. Rangel of New York, urged Clinton to run for Moynihan's open seat in the United States Senate election of 2000.^[194] Once she decided to run, the Clintons purchased a home in Chappaqua, New York, north of New York City, in September 1999.^[195] She became the first First Lady of the United States to be a candidate for elected office.^[196] Initially, Clinton expected to face Rudy Giuliani, the Mayor of New York City, as her Republican opponent in the election. However, Giuliani withdrew from the race in May 2000 after being diagnosed with prostate cancer and having developments in his personal life become very public, and Clinton instead faced Rick Lazio, a Republican member of the United States House of Representatives representing New York's 2nd congressional district. Throughout the campaign, opponents accused Clinton of carpetbagging, as she had never resided in New York nor participated in the state's politics before this race. Clinton began her campaign by visiting every county in the state, in a "listening tour" of small-group settings.^[197] During the campaign, she devoted considerable time in traditionally Republican Upstate New York regions.^[198] Clinton vowed to improve the economic situation in those areas, promising to deliver 200,000 jobs to the state over her term. Her plan included tax credits to reward job creation and encourage business investment, especially in the high-tech sector. She called for personal tax cuts for college tuition and long-term care.^[198]

The contest drew national attention. Lazio blundered during a September debate by seeming to invade Clinton's personal space trying to get her to sign a fundraising agreement.^[199] The campaigns of Clinton and Lazio, along with Giuliani's initial effort, spent a record combined $90 million.^[200] Clinton won the election on November 7, 2000, with 55 percent of the vote to Lazio's 43 percent.^[199] She was sworn in as United States Senator on January 3, 2001.

United States Senator [link]

Main article: Senate career of Hillary Rodham Clinton

First term [link]

Reenactment of Hillary Rodham Clinton being sworn in as a United States Senator by Vice President Al Gore in the Old Senate Chamber, as President Clinton and daughter Chelsea look on. January 3, 2001.

Clinton's official photo as U.S. Senator

Upon entering the Senate, Clinton maintained a low public profile and built relationships with senators from both parties.^[201] She forged alliances with religiously inclined senators by becoming a regular participant in the Senate Prayer Breakfast.^[122]^[202]

Clinton served on five Senate committees: Committee on Budget (2001–2002),^[203] Committee on Armed Services (since 2003),^[204] Committee on Environment and Public Works (since 2001),^[203] Committee on Health, Education, Labor and Pensions (since 2001)^[203] and Special Committee on Aging.^[205] She was also a Commissioner of the Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe^[206] (since 2001).^[207]

Following the September 11, 2001, attacks, Clinton sought to obtain funding for the recovery efforts in New York City and security improvements in her state. Working with New York's senior senator, Charles Schumer, she was instrumental in quickly securing $21 billion in funding for the World Trade Center site's redevelopment.^[202]^[208] She subsequently took a leading role in investigating the health issues faced by 9/11 first responders.^[209] Clinton voted for the USA Patriot Act in October 2001. In 2005, when the act was up for renewal, she worked to address some of the civil liberties concerns with it,^[210] before voting in favor of a compromise renewed act in March 2006 that gained large majority support.^[211]

Clinton strongly supported the 2001 U.S. military action in Afghanistan, saying it was a chance to combat terrorism while improving the lives of Afghan women who suffered under the Taliban government.^[212] Clinton voted in favor of the October 2002 Iraq War Resolution, which authorized United States President George W. Bush to use military force against Iraq, should such action be required to enforce a United Nations Security Council Resolution after pursuing with diplomatic efforts.

After the Iraq War began, Clinton made trips to Iraq and Afghanistan to visit American troops stationed there. On a visit to Iraq in February 2005, Clinton noted that the insurgency had failed to disrupt the democratic elections held earlier, and that parts of the country were functioning well.^[213] Noting that war deployments were draining regular and reserve forces, she cointroduced legislation to increase the size of the regular United States Army by 80,000 soldiers to ease the strain.^[214] In late 2005, Clinton said that while immediate withdrawal from Iraq would be a mistake, Bush's pledge to stay "until the job is done" was also misguided, as it gave Iraqis "an open-ended invitation not to take care of themselves."^[215] Her stance caused frustration among those in the Democratic Party who favored immediate withdrawal.^[216] Clinton supported retaining and improving health benefits for veterans, and lobbied against the closure of several military bases.^[217]

Hillary Rodham Clinton's Gallup Poll favorable and unfavorable ratings, 2001–2009^[130]

favorable

unfavorable

no opinion

Senator Clinton voted against President Bush's two major tax cut packages, the Economic Growth and Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2001 and the Jobs and Growth Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2003.^[218] Clinton voted against the 2005 confirmation of John G. Roberts as Chief Justice of the United States and the 2006 confirmation of Samuel Alito to the United States Supreme Court.^[219]

In 2005, Clinton called for the Federal Trade Commission to investigate how hidden sex scenes showed up in the controversial video game Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas.^[220] Along with Senators Joe Lieberman and Evan Bayh, she introduced the Family Entertainment Protection Act, intended to protect children from inappropriate content found in video games. In 2004 and 2006, Clinton voted against the Federal Marriage Amendment that sought to prohibit same-sex marriage.^[218]^[221]

Looking to establish a "progressive infrastructure" to rival that of American conservatism, Clinton played a formative role in conversations that led to the 2003 founding of former Clinton administration chief of staff John Podesta's Center for American Progress, shared aides with Citizens for Responsibility and Ethics in Washington, founded in 2003, and advised the Clintons' former antagonist David Brock's Media Matters for America, created in 2004.^[222] Following the 2004 Senate elections, she successfully pushed new Democratic Senate leader Harry Reid to create a Senate war room to handle daily political messaging.^[223]

Reelection campaign of 2006 [link]

Main article: United States Senate election in New York, 2006

In November 2004, Clinton announced that she would seek a second Senate term. The early frontrunner for the Republican nomination, Westchester County District Attorney Jeanine Pirro, withdrew from the contest after several months of poor campaign performance.^[224] Clinton easily won the Democratic nomination over opposition from antiwar activist Jonathan Tasini.^[225] Clinton's eventual opponents in the general election were Republican candidate John Spencer, a former mayor of Yonkers, along with several third-party candidates. She won the election on November 7, 2006, with 67 percent of the vote to Spencer's 31 percent,^[226] carrying all but four of New York's sixty-two counties.^[227] Clinton spent $36 million for her reelection, more than any other candidate for Senate in the 2006 elections did. Some Democrats criticized her for spending too much in a one-sided contest, while some supporters were concerned she did not leave more funds for a potential presidential bid in 2008.^[228] In the following months, she transferred $10 million of her Senate funds toward her presidential campaign.^[229]

Second term [link]

Senator Clinton listens as Chief of Naval Operations Navy Admiral Mike Mullen responds to a question during his 2007 confirmation hearing with the Senate Armed Services Committee.

Clinton opposed the Iraq War troop surge of 2007.^[230] In March 2007, she voted in favor of a war-spending bill that required President Bush to begin withdrawing troops from Iraq by a deadline; it passed almost completely along party lines^[231] but was subsequently vetoed by President Bush. In May 2007, a compromise war funding bill that removed withdrawal deadlines but tied funding to progress benchmarks for the Iraqi government passed the Senate by a vote of 80–14 and would be signed by Bush; Clinton was one of those who voted against it.^[232] Clinton responded to General David Petraeus's September 2007 Report to Congress on the Situation in Iraq by saying, "I think that the reports that you provide to us really require a willing suspension of disbelief."^[233]

In March 2007, in response to the dismissal of U.S. attorneys controversy, Clinton called on Attorney General Alberto Gonzales to resign.^[234] In May and June 2007, regarding the high-profile, hotly debated comprehensive immigration reform bill known as the Secure Borders, Economic Opportunity and Immigration Reform Act of 2007, Clinton cast several votes in support of the bill, which eventually failed to gain cloture.^[235]

As the financial crisis of 2007–2008 reached a peak with the liquidity crisis of September 2008, Clinton supported the proposed bailout of United States financial system, voting in favor of the $700 billion Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008, saying that it represented the interests of the American people.^[236] It passed the Senate 74–25.

Presidential campaign of 2008 [link]

Main article: Hillary Clinton presidential campaign, 2008

Clinton had been preparing for a potential candidacy for United States President since at least early 2003.^[237] On January 20, 2007, Clinton announced via her web site the formation of a presidential exploratory committee for the United States presidential election of 2008; she stated, "I'm in, and I'm in to win."^[238] No woman had ever been nominated by a major party for President of the United States. In April 2007, the Clintons liquidated a blind trust, that had been established when Bill Clinton became president in 1993, to avoid the possibility of ethical conflicts or political embarrassments in the trust as Hillary Clinton undertook her presidential race.^[239] Later disclosure statements revealed that the couple's worth was now upwards of $50 million,^[239] and that they had earned over $100 million since 2000, with most of it coming from Bill Clinton's books, speaking engagements, and other activities.^[240]

Clinton led candidates competing for the Democratic nomination in opinion polls for the election throughout the first half of 2007. Most polls placed Senator Barack Obama of Illinois and former Senator John Edwards of North Carolina as Clinton's closest competitors.^[241] Clinton and Obama both set records for early fundraising, swapping the money lead each quarter.^[242] By September 2007, polling in the first six states holding Democratic primaries or caucuses showed that Clinton was leading in all of them, with the races being closest in Iowa and South Carolina. By the following month, national polls showed Clinton far ahead of Democratic competitors.^[243] At the end of October, Clinton suffered a rare poor debate performance against Obama, Edwards, and her other opponents.^[244]^[245]^[246] Obama's message of "change" began to resonate with the Democratic electorate better than Clinton's message of "experience".^[247] The race tightened considerably, especially in the early caucus and primary states of Iowa, New Hampshire, and South Carolina, with Clinton losing her lead in some polls by December.^[248]

Clinton campaigning at Augsburg College in Minneapolis, Minnesota, two days before Super Tuesday 2008.

In the first vote of 2008, she placed third in the January 3 Iowa Democratic caucus to Obama and Edwards.^[249] Obama gained ground in national polling in the next few days, with all polls predicting a victory for him in the New Hampshire primary.^[250]^[251] However, Clinton gained a surprise win there on January 8, defeating Obama narrowly.^[252] Explanations for her New Hampshire comeback varied but often centered on her being seen more sympathetically, especially by women, after her eyes welled with tears and her voice broke while responding to a voter's question the day before the election.^[252]^[253]

The nature of the contest fractured in the next few days. Several remarks by Bill Clinton and other surrogates,^[254] and a remark by Hillary Clinton concerning Martin Luther King, Jr., and Lyndon B. Johnson,^{[nb 9]} were perceived by many as, accidentally or intentionally, limiting Obama as a racially oriented candidate or otherwise denying the post-racial significance and accomplishments of his campaign.^[255] Despite attempts by both Hillary Clinton and Obama to downplay the issue, Democratic voting became more polarized as a result, with Clinton losing much of her support among African Americans.^[254]^[256] She lost by a two-to-one margin to Obama in the January 26 South Carolina primary,^[257] setting up, with Edwards soon dropping out, an intense two-person contest for the twenty-two February 5 Super Tuesday states. Bill Clinton had made more statements attracting criticism for their perceived racial implications late in the South Carolina campaign, and his role was seen as damaging enough to her that a wave of supporters within and outside of the campaign said the former President "needs to stop."^[258]

On Super Tuesday, Clinton won the largest states, such as California, New York, New Jersey and Massachusetts, while Obama won more states; they almost evenly split the total popular vote.^[259]^[260] But Obama was gaining more pledged delegates for his share of the popular vote due to better exploitation of the Democratic proportional allocation rules.^[261]

Clinton speaking at a Pennsylvania rally in support of her former rival, Barack Obama; October 2008.

The Clinton campaign had counted on winning the nomination by Super Tuesday, and was unprepared financially and logistically for a prolonged effort; lagging in Internet fundraising, Clinton began loaning her campaign money.^[247]^[262] There was continuous turmoil within the campaign staff and she made several top-level personnel changes.^[262]^[263] Obama won the next eleven February caucuses and primaries across the country, often by large margins, and took a significant pledged delegate lead over Clinton.^[261]^[262] On March 4, Clinton broke the string of losses by winning in Ohio among other places,^[262] where her criticism of NAFTA, a major legacy of her husband's presidency, had been a key issue.^[264] Throughout the campaign, Obama dominated caucuses, which the Clinton campaign largely ignored organizing for.^[247]^[261]^[265] Obama did well in primaries where African Americans or younger, college-educated, or more affluent voters were heavily represented; Clinton did well in primaries where Hispanics or older, non-college-educated, or working-class white voters predominated.^[266]^[267] Some Democratic party leaders expressed concern that the drawn-out campaign between the two could damage the winner in the general election contest against Republican presumptive nominee John McCain, especially if an eventual triumph for Clinton was won via party-appointed superdelegates.^[268]

Clinton's admission in late March, that her repeated campaign statements about having been under hostile fire from snipers during a 1996 visit to U.S. troops at Tuzla Air Base in Bosnia-Herzegovina were not true, attracted considerable media attention and risked undermining both her credibility and her claims of foreign policy expertise as First Lady.^[269]

On April 22, she won the Pennsylvania primary, and kept her campaign alive.^[270] However, on May 6, a narrower-than-expected win in the Indiana primary coupled with a large loss in the North Carolina primary ended any realistic chance she had of winning the nomination.^[270] She vowed to stay on through the remaining primaries, but stopped attacks against Obama; as one advisor stated, "She could accept losing. She could not accept quitting."^[270] She won some of the remaining contests, and indeed, over the last three months of the campaign she won more delegates, states, and votes than Obama, but she failed to overcome Obama's lead.^[262]

Clinton speaks during the second night of the 2008 Democratic National Convention in Denver, Colorado.

Following the final primaries on June 3, 2008, Obama had gained enough delegates to become the presumptive nominee.^[271] In a speech before her supporters on June 7, Clinton ended her campaign and endorsed Obama, declaring, "The way to continue our fight now to accomplish the goals for which we stand is to take our energy, our passion, our strength and do all we can to help elect Barack Obama."^[272] By campaign's end, Clinton had won 1,640 pledged delegates to Obama's 1,763;^[273] at the time of the clinching, Clinton had 286 superdelegates to Obama's 395,^[274] with those numbers widening to 256 versus 438 once Obama was acknowledged the winner.^[273] Clinton and Obama each received over 17 million votes during the nomination process,^{[nb 10]} with both breaking the previous record.^[275] Clinton also eclipsed, by a very large margin, Congresswoman Shirley Chisholm's 1972 mark for most primaries and delegates won by a woman.^[276] Clinton gave a passionate speech supporting Obama at the 2008 Democratic National Convention and campaigned frequently for him in Fall 2008, which concluded with his victory over McCain in the general election on November 4.^[277] Clinton's campaign ended up severely in debt; she owed millions of dollars to outside vendors and wrote off the $13 million that she lent it herself.^[278]

Secretary of State [link]

Main article: Hillary Rodham Clinton's tenure as Secretary of State

Nomination and confirmation [link]

Wikinews has related news: Hillary Clinton nominated as US Secretary of State

Clinton takes the oath-of-office as Secretary of State, administered by Associate Judge Kathryn Oberly as Bill Clinton holds the Bible.

In mid-November 2008, President-elect Obama and Clinton discussed the possibility of her serving as U.S. Secretary of State in his administration,^[279] and on November 21, reports indicated that she had accepted the position.^[280] On December 1, President-elect Obama formally announced that Clinton would be his nominee for Secretary of State.^[281] Clinton said she was reluctant to leave the Senate, but that the new position represented a "difficult and exciting adventure".^[281] As part of the nomination and in order to relieve concerns of conflict of interest, Bill Clinton agreed to accept several conditions and restrictions regarding his ongoing activities and fundraising efforts for the Clinton Presidential Center and Clinton Global Initiative.^[282]

The appointment required a Saxbe fix, passed and signed into law in December 2008.^[283] Confirmation hearings before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee began on January 13, 2009, a week before the Obama inauguration; two days later, the Committee voted 16–1 to approve Clinton.^[284] By this time, her public approval rating had reached 65 percent, the highest point since the Lewinsky scandal.^[285] On January 21, 2009, Clinton was confirmed in the full Senate by a vote of 94–2.^[286] Clinton took the oath of office of Secretary of State and resigned from the Senate that same day.^[287] She became the first former First Lady to serve in the United States Cabinet.^[288]

Tenure [link]

Obama and Clinton speaking with one another at the 21st NATO summit, April 2009

Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and Clinton, May 2009

Clinton spent her initial days as Secretary of State telephoning dozens of world leaders and indicating that U.S. foreign policy would change direction: "We have a lot of damage to repair."^[289] She advocated an expanded role in global economic issues for the State Department and cited the need for an increased U.S. diplomatic presence, especially in Iraq where the Defense Department had conducted diplomatic missions.^[290] She pushed for a larger international affairs budget;^[290] the Obama administration's proposed 2010 budget contained a 7 percent increase for the State Department and other international programs.^[291] In March 2009, Clinton prevailed over Vice President Joe Biden on an internal debate to send an additional 20,000 troops to the war in Afghanistan.^[292] An elbow fracture and subsequent painful recuperation caused Clinton to miss two foreign trips in June 2009.^[292]^[293]

Clinton announced the most ambitious of her departmental reforms, the Quadrennial Diplomacy and Development Review, which establishes specific objectives for the State Department's diplomatic missions abroad; it is modeled after a similar process in the Defense Department that she was familiar with from her time on the Senate Armed Services Committee.^[294] (The first such review was issued in late 2010 and called for the U.S. leading through "civilian power" as a cost-effective way of responding to international challenges and defusing crises.^[295] It also sought to institutionalize goals of empowering women throughout the world.^[156]) In September, Clinton unveiled the Global Hunger and Food Security Initiative at the annual meeting of her husband's Clinton Global Initiative.^[296] The new initiative seeks to battle hunger worldwide as a strategic part of U.S. foreign policy, rather than just react to food shortage emergencies as they occur, and emphasizes the role of women farmers.^[296] In October, on a trip to Switzerland, Clinton's intervention overcame last-minute snags and saved the signing of an historic Turkish–Armenian accord that established diplomatic relations and opened the border between the two long-hostile nations.^[297]^[298] In Pakistan, she engaged in several unusually blunt discussions with students, talk show hosts, and tribal elders, in an attempt to repair the Pakistani image of the U.S.^[154]

In a major speech in January 2010, Clinton drew analogies between the Iron Curtain and the free and unfree Internet.^[299] Chinese officials reacted negatively towards it, and it garnered attention as the first time a senior American official had clearly defined the Internet as a key element of American foreign policy.^[300] By mid-2010, Clinton and Obama had forged a good working relationship; she was a team player within the administration and a defender of it to the outside, and was careful that neither she nor her husband would upstage him.^[301] She met with him weekly, but did not have the close, daily relationship that some of her predecessors had had with their presidents.^[301] In July 2010, Secretary Clinton visited Korea, Vietnam, Pakistan and Afghanistan, all the while preparing for the July 31 wedding of daughter Chelsea amid much media attention.^[302] In late November 2010, Clinton led the U.S. damage control effort after WikiLeaks released confidential State Department cables containing blunt statements and assessments by U.S. and foreign diplomats.^[303]^[304] A few of the cables released by WikiLeaks concerned Clinton directly: they revealed that directions to members of the foreign service, written by the CIA, had gone out in 2009 under her (systematically attached) name to gather biometric and other personal details on foreign diplomats, including officials of the United Nations and U.S. allies.^[305]^[306]^[307]

Secretary Clinton in February 2011

The 2011 Egyptian protests posed the biggest foreign policy crisis for the administration yet.^[308] Clinton was in the forefront of U.S. public response to it, quickly evolving from an early assessment that the government of Hosni Mubarak was "stable" to a stance that there needed to be an "orderly transition [to] a democratic participatory government" to a condemnation of violence against the protesters.^[309]^[310] Obama also came to rely upon Clinton's advice, organization, and personal connections in the behind-the-scenes response to developments.^[308] As protests spread throughout the region, Clinton was at the forefront of a U.S. response that she recognized was sometimes contradictory, backing some regimes while supporting protesters against others.^[311] As the 2011 Libyan civil war took place, Clinton's shift in favor of military intervention was a key turning point in overcoming internal administration opposition and gaining the backing for, and Arab and U.N. approval of, the 2011 military intervention in Libya.^[311]^[312]^[313] She later used U.S. allies and what she called "convening power" to help keep the Libyan rebels unified as they eventually overthrew the Gaddafi regime.^[313] Following the successful May 2011 U.S. mission to kill Osama bin Laden, Clinton played a key role in the administration's decision not to release photographs of the dead al-Qaeda leader.^[314] In a December 2011 speech before the United Nations Human Rights Council, she said that the U.S. would advocate for gay rights abroad and that "Gay rights are human rights" and that "It should never be a crime to be gay."^[315] The same month saw her conclude the first visit to Burma by a U.S. secretary of state since 1955, as she met with Burmese leaders as well as opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi and sought to support the 2011 Burmese democratic reforms.^[316]

Throughout her tenure, Clinton has looked towards "smart power" as the strategy for asserting U.S. leadership and values, combining military strength with U.S. capacities in global economics, development aid, and technology.^[313] She has also greatly expanded the State Department's use of social media, including Facebook and Twitter, both to get its message out and to help empower people vis à via their rulers.^[313] And in the Mideast turmoil, Clinton particularly saw an opportunity to advance one of the central themes of her tenure, the empowerment and welfare of women and girls worldwide.^[156] By now Clinton had set the record for most-traveled Secretary of State for a comparable period of time, logging 465,000 miles (748,000 km) and visiting 79 countries.^[156] (Time magazine wrote that "Clinton's endurance is legendary."^[313]) Throughout her term, Clinton had indicated she had no interest in running for president again^[317] or in holding any other office. In March 2011, she expanded upon that by saying she was not interested in serving a second term as Secretary of State should Obama be re-elected in 2012.^[312]^[318]

Political positions [link]

Main article: Political positions of Hillary Rodham Clinton

Clinton with Prime Minister of Australia Kevin Rudd in March 2008

In a Gallup poll conducted during May 2005, 54 percent of respondents considered Clinton a liberal, 30 percent considered her a moderate, and 9 percent considered her a conservative.^[319]

Several organizations attempted to measure Clinton's place on the political spectrum scientifically using her Senate votes. National Journal's 2004 study of roll-call votes assigned Clinton a rating of 30 in the political spectrum, relative to the then-current Senate, with a rating of 1 being most liberal and 100 being most conservative.^[320] National Journal's subsequent rankings placed her as the 32nd-most liberal senator in 2006 and 16th-most liberal senator in 2007.^[321] A 2004 analysis by political scientists Joshua D. Clinton of Princeton University, Simon Jackman and Doug Rivers of Stanford University found her to be likely the sixth-to-eighth-most liberal Senator.^[322] The Almanac of American Politics, edited by Michael Barone and Richard E. Cohen, rated her votes from 2003 through 2006 as liberal or conservative, with 100 as the highest rating, in three areas: Economic, Social, and Foreign; averaged for the four years, the ratings are: Economic = 75 liberal, 23 conservative; Social = 83 liberal, 6 conservative; Foreign = 66 liberal, 30 conservative. Average = 75 liberal, 20 conservative.^{[nb 11]}

Interest groups also gave Clinton scores based on how well her Senate votes aligned with the positions of the group. Through 2008, she had an average lifetime 90 percent "Liberal Quotient" from Americans for Democratic Action^[323] and a lifetime 8 percent rating from the American Conservative Union.^[324]

Writings and recordings [link]

As First Lady of the United States, Clinton published a weekly syndicated newspaper column titled "Talking It Over" from 1995 to 2000, distributed by Creators Syndicate.^[325] It focused on her experiences and those of women, children and families she met during her travels around the world.^[1]

In 1996, Clinton presented a vision for the children of America in the book It Takes a Village: And Other Lessons Children Teach Us. The book made the New York Times Best Seller list and Clinton received the Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album in 1997 for the book's audio recording.^[326]

Other books released by Clinton when she was First Lady include Dear Socks, Dear Buddy: Kids' Letters to the First Pets (1998) and An Invitation to the White House: At Home with History (2000). In 2001, she wrote an afterword to the children's book Beatrice's Goat.^[327]

In 2003, Clinton released a 562-page autobiography, Living History. In anticipation of high sales, publisher Simon & Schuster paid Clinton a near-record advance of $8 million.^[328] The book set a first-week sales record for a nonfiction work,^[329] went on to sell more than one million copies in the first month following publication,^[330] and was translated into twelve foreign languages.^[331] Clinton's audio recording of the book earned her a nomination for the Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album.^[332]

Cultural and political image [link]

Hillary Clinton has frequently been featured in the media and popular culture from a wide spectrum of perspectives. In 1995, New York Times writer Todd Purdum labeled Clinton "the First Lady as Rorschach test",^[333] an assessment echoed at the time by feminist writer and activist Betty Friedan, who said, "Coverage of Hillary Clinton is a massive Rorschach test of the evolution of women in our society."^[334]

Hillary Rodham Clinton, January 2007

Clinton has often been described in the popular media as a polarizing figure,^[333]^[335]^[336]^[337]^[338]^[339] with some arguing otherwise.^[339]^[340] James Madison University political science professor Valerie Sulfaro's 2007 study used the American National Election Studies' "feeling thermometer" polls, which measure the degree of opinion about a political figure, to find that such polls during Clinton's First Lady years confirm the "conventional wisdom that Hillary Clinton is a polarizing figure", with the added insight that "affect towards Mrs. Clinton as first lady tended to be very positive or very negative, with a fairly constant one fourth of respondents feeling ambivalent or neutral."^[341] University of California, San Diego political science professor Gary Jacobson's 2006 study of partisan polarization found that in a state-by-state survey of job approval ratings of the state's senators, Clinton had the fourth-largest partisan difference of any senator, with a 50 percentage point difference in approval between New York's Democrats and Republicans.^[342]

Northern Illinois University political science professor Barbara Burrell's 2000 study found that Clinton's Gallup poll favorability numbers broke sharply along partisan lines throughout her time as First Lady, with 70 to 90 percent of Democrats typically viewing her favorably while 20 to 40 percent of Republicans did not.^[343] University of Wisconsin–Madison political science professor Charles Franklin analyzed her record of favorable versus unfavorable ratings in public opinion polls, and found that there was more variation in them during her First Lady years than her Senate years.^[344] The Senate years showed favorable ratings around 50 percent and unfavorable ratings in the mid-40 percent range; Franklin noted that, "This sharp split is, of course, one of the more widely remarked aspects of Sen. Clinton's public image."^[344] McGill University professor of history Gil Troy titled his 2006 biography of her Hillary Rodham Clinton: Polarizing First Lady, and wrote that after the 1992 campaign, Clinton "was a polarizing figure, with 42 percent [of the public] saying she came closer to their values and lifestyle than previous first ladies and 41 percent disagreeing."^[345] Troy further wrote that Hillary Clinton "has been uniquely controversial and contradictory since she first appeared on the national radar screen in 1992"^[346] and that she "has alternately fascinated, bedeviled, bewitched, and appalled Americans."^[346]

File:RoseLawFirmRear2008.jpg

Clinton worked at Rose Law Firm for fifteen years. Her professional career and political involvement set the stage for public reaction to her as First Lady.

Burrell's study found women consistently rating Clinton more favorably than men by about ten percentage points during her First Lady years.^[343] Jacobson's study found a positive correlation across all senators between being women and receiving a partisan-polarized response.^[342] Colorado State University communication studies professor Karrin Vasby Anderson describes the First Lady position as a "site" for American womanhood, one ready made for the symbolic negotiation of female identity.^[347] In particular, Anderson states there has been a cultural bias towards traditional first ladies and a cultural prohibition against modern first ladies; by the time of Clinton, the First Lady position had become a site of heterogeneity and paradox.^[347] Burrell, as well as biographers Jeff Gerth and Don Van Natta, Jr., note that Clinton achieved her highest approval ratings as First Lady late in 1998, not for professional or political achievements of her own, but for being seen as the victim of her husband's very public infidelity.^[186]^[343] University of Pennsylvania communications professor Kathleen Hall Jamieson saw Hillary Clinton as an exemplar of the double bind, who though able to live in a "both-and" world of both career and family, nevertheless "became a surrogate on whom we projected our attitudes about attributes once thought incompatible", leading to her being placed in a variety of no-win situations.^[334] Quinnipiac University media studies professor Lisa Burns found press accounts frequently framing Clinton both as an exemplar of the modern professional working mother and as a political interloper interested in usurping power for herself.^[348] University of Indianapolis English professor Charlotte Templin found political cartoonists using a variety of stereotypes – such as gender reversal, radical feminist as emasculator, and the wife the husband wants to get rid of – to portray Hillary Clinton as violating gender norms.^[349]

Over fifty books and scholarly works have been written about Hillary Clinton, from many different perspectives. A 2006 survey by The New York Observer found "a virtual cottage industry" of "anti-Clinton literature",^[350] put out by Regnery Publishing and other conservative imprints,^[350] with titles such as Madame Hillary: The Dark Road to the White House, Hillary's Scheme: Inside the Next Clinton's Ruthless Agenda to Take the White House, and Can She Be Stopped? : Hillary Clinton Will Be the Next President of the United States Unless .... Books praising Clinton did not sell nearly as well^[350] (other than the memoirs written by her and her husband). When she ran for Senate in 2000, a number of fundraising groups such as Save Our Senate and the Emergency Committee to Stop Hillary Rodham Clinton sprang up to oppose her.^[351] Van Natta, Jr., found that Republican and conservative groups viewed her as a reliable "bogeyman" to mention in fundraising letters,^[352] on a par with Ted Kennedy and the equivalent of Democratic and liberal appeals mentioning Newt Gingrich.^[352]

Going into the early stages of her presidential campaign for 2008, a Time magazine cover showed a large picture of her, with two checkboxes labeled "Love Her", "Hate Her",^[353] while Mother Jones titled its profile of her "Harpy, Hero, Heretic: Hillary".^[354] Democratic netroots activists consistently rated Clinton very low in polls of their desired candidates,^[355] while some conservative figures such as Bruce Bartlett and Christopher Ruddy were declaring a Hillary Clinton presidency not so bad after all^[356]^[357] and an October 2007 cover of The American Conservative magazine was titled "The Waning Power of Hillary Hate".^[358] By December 2007, communications professor Jamieson observed that there was a large amount of misogyny present about Clinton on the Internet,^[359] up to and including Facebook and other sites devoted to depictions reducing Clinton to sexual humiliation.^[359] She noted that, in response to widespread comments on Clinton's laugh,^[360] that "We know that there's language to condemn female speech that doesn't exist for male speech. We call women's speech shrill and strident. And Hillary Clinton's laugh was being described as a cackle."^[359] Use of the "bitch" epithet, which taken place against Clinton going back to her First Lady days and was seen by Karrin Vasby Anderson as a tool of containment against women in American politics,^[361] flourished during the campaign, especially on the Internet but via conventional media as well.^[362] Following Clinton's "choked up moment" and related incidents before the January 2008 New Hampshire primary, both The New York Times and Newsweek found that discussion of gender's role in the campaign had moved into the national political discourse.^[363]^[364] Newsweek editor Jon Meacham summed the relationship between Clinton and the American public by saying that the New Hampshire events, "brought an odd truth to light: though Hillary Rodham Clinton has been on the periphery or in the middle of national life for decades ... she is one of the most recognizable but least understood figures in American politics."^[364]

Once she became Secretary of State, Clinton's image seemed to dramatically improve among the American public and become one of a respected world figure.^[365] She gained consistently high approval ratings (by 2011, the highest of her career except for during the Lewinsky scandal),^[366] and her favorable-unfavorable ratings during 2010 and 2011 were easily the highest of any active, nationally prominent American political figure.^[365]^[367]^[368] She continued to do well in Gallup's most admired man and woman poll; in 2011 she was named the most admired woman by Americans for the tenth straight time and the sixteenth time overall.^[369]

Awards and honors [link]

Main article: Hillary Rodham Clinton awards and honors

Clinton has received many awards and honors during her career from American and international organizations for her activities concerning health, women, and children.

Electoral history [link]

Main article: Electoral history of Hillary Rodham Clinton

New York United States Senate election, 2000
Party		Candidate	Votes	%	±%
	Democratic	Hillary Rodham Clinton	3,747,310	55.3
	Republican	Rick Lazio	2,915,730	43.0

New York United States Senate election, 2006
Party		Candidate	Votes	%	±%
	Democratic	Hillary Rodham Clinton	3,008,428	67.0	+11.7
	Republican	John Spencer	1,392,189	31.0	-12.0

Notes [link]

^ In 1995, Hillary Clinton said her mother had named her after Sir Edmund Hillary, who, with Sherpa Tenzing, was the first mountaineer to scale Mount Everest, and that was the reason for the unusual "two L's" spelling of her name. However, the Everest climb did not take place until 1953, more than five years after she was born. In October 2006, a Clinton spokeswoman said she was not named after the mountain climber. Instead, this account of her name's origin "was a sweet family story her mother shared to inspire greatness in her daughter, to great results I might add." See Hakim, Danny (October 17, 2006). "Hillary, Not as in the Mount Everest Guy". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/17/nyregion/17hillary.html. Retrieved April 25, 2008.
^ Gerstein, Josh (November 26, 2007). "Hillary Clinton's Radical Summer". The New York Sun. http://www.nysun.com/national/hillary-clintons-radical-summer/66933/. Retrieved May 9, 2009. Gerstein finds it is unclear exactly which cases beyond child custody ones Rodham worked on at the Treuhaft firm. Anti-Clinton writers such as Barbara Olson would later charge Hillary Clinton with never repudiating Treuhaft's ideology, and for retaining social and political ties with his wife and fellow communist Jessica Mitford. (Olson 1999, pp. 56–57) Research by The New York Sun in 2007 revealed that Mitford and Hillary Clinton were not close, and had a falling out over a 1980 Arkansas prisoner case. See Gerstein, Josh (November 27, 2007). "Hillary Clinton's Left Hook". The New York Sun. http://www.nysun.com/national/hillary-clintons-left-hook/67002/. Retrieved May 9, 2009.
^ For the start date, see Brock 1996, p. 96. Secondary sources give inconsistent dates as to when her time as chair ended. Primary sources indicate that sometime between about April 1980 and September 1980, Rodham was replaced as chair by F. William McCalpin. See Subcommittee On The Departments Of State, United States. Congress. House. Committee on Appropriations; Justice,; Commerce,; Judiciary, the; Agencies, Related (1980). House Committee on Appropriations, Subcommittee on Departments of State, Justice, Commerce, the Judiciary, and Related Agencies Appropriations. U.S. House of Representatives. http://books.google.com/?id=KWRBPOdZCdAC&q=%22legal+services+corporation%22+rodham+baby&dq=%22legal+services+corporation%22+rodham+baby. Rodham is still chair after having given birth "a few weeks ago"; Chelsea Clinton was born on February 27, 1980. And see "Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Courts, Civil Liberties, and the Administration of Justice, of the Committee of the Judiciary, House of Representatives". Background release, Legal Services Corporation, September 1980. U.S. House of Representatives. September 21, 27, 1979. http://lawlibrary.rutgers.edu/cgi-bin/lib/hearing.cgi?file=81601609%20page=0001. pp. 388–403, exact reference p. 398, which shows McCalpin as chair in September 1980.
^ Bill Clinton's advisers thought her use of her maiden name to be one of the reasons for his 1980 gubernatorial reelection loss. During the following winter, Vernon Jordan, Jr. suggested to Hillary Rodham that she start using the name Clinton, and she began to do so publicly with her husband's February 1982 campaign announcement. She later wrote that "I learned the hard way that some voters in Arkansas were seriously offended by the fact that I kept my maiden name" (Clinton 2003, pp. 91–93; see also Morris 1996, p. 282).
^ During the political damage control over the Gennifer Flowers episode during the 1992 campaign, Hillary Clinton said in the joint 60 Minutes interview, "I'm not sitting here as some little woman 'standing by my man' like Tammy Wynette. I'm sitting here because I love him and I respect him, and I honor what he's been through and what we've been through together." The seemingly sneering reference to country music provoked immediate criticism that Clinton was culturally tone-deaf, and Tammy Wynette herself did not like the remark because her classic song "Stand by Your Man" is not written in the first person. See "2000: Hillary Clinton is first First Lady in Senate". BBC News Online. November 7, 2000. http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/november/7/newsid_4385000/4385582.stm. Retrieved October 1, 2007. Wynette added that Clinton had "offended every true country music fan and every person who has 'made it on their own' with no one to take them to a White House." See Troy 2006, p. 42. A few days later, on Prime Time Live, Hillary Clinton apologized to Wynette. Clinton would later write that she had been careless in her choice of words and that "the fallout from my reference to Tammy Wynette was instant – as it deserved to be – and brutal." See Clinton 2003, p. 108. The two women later resolved their differences, with Wynette appearing at a Clinton fund raiser.
^ Less than two months after the Tammy Wynette remarks, Hillary Clinton was facing questions about whether she could have avoided possible conflicts of interest between her governor husband and work given to the Rose Law Firm, when she remarked, "I've done the best I can to lead my life ... You know, I suppose I could have stayed home and baked cookies and had teas, but what I decided to do was fulfill my profession, which I entered before my husband was in public life" (Clinton 2003, p. 109). The "cookies and teas" part of this statement prompted even more culture-based criticism of Clinton's apparent distaste for women who had chosen to be homemakers; the remark became a recurring campaign liability (Bernstein 2007, pp. 205–206). Clinton subsequently offered up some cookie recipes as a way of making amends, and would later write of her chagrin: "Besides, I've done quite a lot of cookie baking in my life, and tea-pouring too!" (Clinton 2003, p. 109).
^ The Eleanor Roosevelt "discussions" were first reported in 1996 by Washington Post writer Bob Woodward; they had begun from the start of Hillary Clinton's time as First Lady. See Clines, Francis X. (June 25, 1996). "Mrs. Clinton Calls Sessions Intellectual, Not Spiritual". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1996/06/25/us/mrs-clinton-calls-sessions-intellectual-not-spiritual.html. Following the Democrats' loss of congressional control in the 1994 elections, Clinton had engaged the services of human potential expert Jean Houston. Houston encouraged Clinton to pursue the Roosevelt connection, and while no psychic techniques were used with Clinton, critics and comics immediately suggested that Clinton was holding séances with Eleanor Roosevelt. The White House stated that this was merely a brainstorming exercise, and a private poll later indicated that most of the public believed these were indeed just imaginary conversations, with the remainder believing that communication with the dead was actually possible. See Wheen, Francis (July 26, 2000). "Never mind the pollsters". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/Columnists/Column/0,5673,347240,00.html. Retrieved October 2, 2007. In her 2003 autobiography, Clinton titled an entire chapter "Conversations with Eleanor", and stated that holding "imaginary conversations [is] actually a useful mental exercise to help analyze problems, provided you choose the right person to visualize. Eleanor Roosevelt was ideal [as a trail-blazer and controversial First Lady]." (Clinton 2003, pp. 258–259)
^ Clinton was referring to the Arkansas Project and its funder Richard Mellon Scaife, Kenneth Starr's connections to Scaife, Regnery Publishing and its connections to Lucianne Goldberg and Linda Tripp, Jerry Falwell, and others. See Kirn, Walter (February 9, 1998). "Persecuted or Paranoid? A look at the motley characters behind Hillary Clinton's 'vast right-wing conspiracy'". Time. http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/1998/02/02/time/kirn.html.
^ Hillary Clinton said to a news correspondent asking for reaction to an Obama remark earlier in the day about his possibly representing false hope: "I would point to the fact that Dr. King's dream began to be realized when President Johnson passed the Civil Rights Act of 1964, when he was able to get through Congress something that President Kennedy was hopeful to do, the President before had not even tried, but it took a president to get it done. That dream became a reality, the power of that dream became real in people's lives because we had a president who said we are going to do it, and actually got it accomplished." See for transcript: Hulse, Carl; Healy, Patrick (January 11, 2008). "Bill Clinton Tries to Tamp Down 'Fairy-Tale' Remark About Obama". The New York Times. http://thecaucus.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/01/11/bill-clinton-tries-to-tamp-down-fairy-tale-remark-about-obama/. Retrieved January 28, 2008. See for actual interview: Garrett, Major (January 7, 2008). "Clinton's Candid Assessment". Fox News. http://bourbonroom.blogs.foxnews.com/2008/01/07/clintons-candid-assessment/. Retrieved January 28, 2008. ^{[dead link]}
^ "2008 Democratic Popular Vote". RealClearPolitics. http://www.realclearpolitics.com/epolls/2008/president/democratic_vote_count.html. Retrieved July 8, 2008. The popular vote count for a nomination process is unofficial, and meaningless in determining the nominee. It is difficult to come up with precise totals due to some caucus states not reporting popular vote totals and thus having to be estimated. It is further difficult to compare Clinton and Obama's totals, due to only her name having been on the ballot in the Michigan primary.
^ See Barone, Michael; Cohen, Richard E. (2008). The Almanac of American Politics. National Journal. p. 1126. And 2006 edition of same, 1152. The scores for individual years are [highest rating 100, format: liberal, (conservative)]: 2003: Economic = 90 (7), Social = 85 (0), Foreign = 79 (14). Average = 85 (7). 2004: Economic = 63 (36), Social = 82 (0), Foreign = 58 (41). Average = 68 (26). 2005: Economic = 84 (15), Social = 83 (10), Foreign = 66 (29). Average = 78 (18). 2006: Economic = 63 (35), Social = 80 (14), Foreign = 62 (35). Average = 68 (28).

References [link]

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d "Hillary Rodham Clinton". The White House. http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/firstladies/hc42.html. Retrieved August 22, 2006.
^ O'Laughlin, Dania (Summer 2003). "Edgewater Hospital 1929–2001". Edgewater Historical Society. http://www.edgewaterhistory.org/articles/index.html?v14-3-4.html. Retrieved June 10, 2007.
^ Bernstein 2007, pp. 18, 34
^ ^a ^b Roberts, Gary Boyd. "Notes on the Ancestry of Senator Hillary Rodham Clinton". New England Historic Genealogical Society. http://www.newenglandancestors.org/research/services/articles_ancestry_hillary_clinton.asp. Retrieved May 25, 2008.
^ Bernstein 2007, pp. 17–18
^ ^a ^b ^c Brock 1996, p. 4. Her father was an outspoken Republican, while her mother kept quiet but was "basically a Democrat." See also Bernstein 2007, p. 16
^ ^a ^b Morris 1996, p. 113.
^ ^a ^b ^c Bernstein 2007, p. 29
^ ^a ^b Bernstein 2007, pp. 30–31
^ Maraniss 1995, p. 255. She was also voted "most likely to succeed".
^ Bernstein 2007, p. 13
^ Gerth and Van Natta Jr. 2007, p. 19.
^ Middendorf, J. William (2006). Glorious Disaster: Barry Goldwater's Presidential Campaign And the Origins of the Conservative Movement. Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-04573-1. p. 266.
^ Troy 2006, p. 15.
^ Gerth and Van Natta Jr. 2007, pp. 18–21. The teacher, Paul Carlson, and the minister, Donald Jones, came into conflict in Park Ridge; Clinton would later see that "as an early indication of the cultural, political and religious fault lines that developed across America in the [next] forty years" (Clinton 2003, p. 23).
^ Clinton, Hillary Rodham (May 29, 1992). "Hillary Rodham Clinton Remarks to Wellesley College Class of 1992". Wellesley College. http://www.wellesley.edu/PublicAffairs/Commencement/1992/speecheshrc.html. Retrieved June 1, 2007.
^ ^a ^b Clinton 2003, p. 31.
^ "Wellesley College Republicans: History and Purpose". Wellesley College. May 16, 2007. http://www.wellesley.edu/Activities/homepage/gop/history.html. Retrieved June 2, 2007. Gives organization's prior name.
^ Milton, Joyce (1999). The First Partner: Hillary Rodham Clinton. William Morrow and Company. ISBN 0-688-15501-4. pp. 27–28
^ Brock 1996, pp. 12–13.
^ Bernstein 2007, p. 50. Bernstein states she believed this combination was possible and that no equation better describes the adult Hillary Clinton.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Kenney, Charles (January 12, 1993). "Hillary: The Wellesley Years: The woman who will live in the White House was a sharp-witted activist in the class of '69" (fee required). The Boston Globe. http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-8210491.html. Retrieved February 7, 2008.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Leibovich, Mark (September 7, 2007). "In Turmoil of '68, Clinton Found a New Voice". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/05/us/politics/05clinton.html. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
^ ^a ^b Rodham, Hillary (May 31, 1969). "Wellesley College 1969 Student Commencement Speech". Wellesley College. http://www.wellesley.edu/PublicAffairs/Commencement/1969/053169hillary.html. Retrieved August 22, 2006.
^ ^a ^b ^c Dedman, Bill (updated May 9, 2007). "Reading Hillary Rodham's hidden thesis". msnbc.com. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/17388372/. Retrieved January 31, 2012.
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^ ^a ^b Gerth and Van Natta Jr. 2007, pp. 34–36.
^ "Brooke Speech Challenged by Graduate". Fitchburg Sentinel. June 2, 1969.
^ "Brooke Speech Draws Reply". Nevada State Journal. June 2, 1969.
^ "The Class of '69". Life. June 20, 1969. The article features Rodham and two student commencement speakers from other schools, with photos and excerpts from their speeches.
^ Bernstein 2007, p. 70
^ Morris 1996, p. 139; Bernstein 2007, p. 105. Clinton would later write, and repeat on the Late Show with David Letterman, that sliming fish was the best preparation she would ever have for living in Washington. Clinton 2003, pp. 42–43.
^ ^a ^b ^c "Hillary Diane Rodham Clinton (1947–)". The Encyclopedia of Arkansas History & Culture. http://www.encyclopediaofarkansas.net/encyclopedia/entry-detail.aspx?entryID=2744. Retrieved April 8, 2007.
^ ^a ^b Gerth and Van Natta Jr. 2007, pp. 42–43.
^ ^a ^b ^c Bernstein 2007, p. 75
^ The authors of Beyond the Best Interests of the Child were Center director Al Solnit, Yale Law professor Joe Goldstein, and Anna Freud.
^ Morris 1996, pp. 142–143.
^ Bernstein 2007, pp. 71–74
^ Weil, Martin (August 8, 2009). "Anne Wexler, Political Adviser and Lobbyist, Dies at 79". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/08/AR2009080800058.html. Retrieved August 20, 2009.
^ ^a ^b Bernstein 2007, pp. 82–83
^ Gerstein, Josh (November 26, 2007). "The Clintons' Berkeley Summer of Love". The New York Sun. http://www.nysun.com/national/clintons-berkeley-summer-of-love/66982/. Retrieved May 9, 2009.
^ Gerstein, Josh (November 26, 2007). "Hillary Clinton's Radical Summer". The New York Sun. http://www.nysun.com/national/hillary-clintons-radical-summer/66933/. Retrieved May 9, 2009.
^ Gerth and Van Natta Jr. 2007, pp. 48–49.
^ ^a ^b Bernstein 2007, p. 89
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^ This Google Scholar search result produces nearly one hundred hits showing citations of her paper in academic literature.
^ Bernstein 2007, pp. 91–92
^ "Adults Urge Children's Rights". The Arizona Sentinel. October 4, 1974.
^ ^a ^b ^c Bernstein 2007, pp. 94–96, 101–103
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^ Maraniss 1995, p. 277.
^ Bernstein 2007, pp. 90, 120
^ Bernstein 2007, p. 92. Two-thirds (551 of 817) of the candidates had passed, and Rodham did not tell even close friends of the failure until revealing it thirty years later in her autobiography.
^ Clinton 2003, p. 69. Excerpted at Clinton, Hillary Rodham (June 8, 2003). "Hillary Unbound". Time. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,457362-2,00.html. Retrieved December 8, 2007.
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^ Clinton 2003, p. 70. Source for number of female faculty members.
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^ Bernstein 2007, pp. 62, 90, 117
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^ Bernstein 2007, p. 120
^ ^a ^b Maraniss 1995, pp. 121–122.
^ Bernstein 2007, p. 157
^ Clinton 2003, pp. 91–92.
^ Gerth and Van Natta Jr. 2007, p. 57.
^ Bernstein 2007, pp. 128, 103. The firm was called Rose, Nash, Williamson, Carroll, Clay & Giroir, but it simplified its name to Rose Law Firm in 1980.
^ ^a ^b Bernstein 2007, p. 133
^ Bernstein 2007, pp. 131–132
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^ ^a ^b ^c Kelly, Michael (January 20, 1993). "The First Couple: A Union of Mind and Ambition". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1993/01/20/us/the-inauguration-the-first-couple-a-union-of-mind-and-ambition.html.
^ Bernstein 2007, p. 147
^ Gerth and Van Natta Jr. 2007, p. 60.
^ Bernstein 2007, p. 130
^ ^a ^b Gerth and Van Natta Jr. 2007, pp. 66–67.
^ Gerth and Van Natta Jr. 2007, pp. 73–76.
^ Bernstein 2007, p. 166
^ ^a ^b Bernstein 2007, pp. 170–175. Bernstein states that "the political battle for education reform ... would be her greatest accomplishment in public life until she was elected to the U.S. Senate."
^ "Hillary Clinton Guides Movement to Change Public Education in Arkansas". Old State House Museum. Spring 1993. Archived from the original on January 4, 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20060104114405/http://www.oldstatehouse.com/educational_programs/classroom/arkansas_news/detail.asp?id=528&issue_id=29&page=1. Retrieved August 22, 2006.
^ Kearney, Janis F. (2006). Conversations: William Jefferson Clinton, from Hope to Harlem. Writing Our World Press. ISBN 0-9762058-1-5. p. 295.
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^ Gerth and Van Natta Jr. 2007, p. 63.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Labaton, Stephen (February 26, 1994). "Rose Law Firm, Arkansas Power, Slips as It Steps Onto a Bigger Stage". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1994/02/26/us/rose-law-firm-arkansas-power-slips-as-it-steps-onto-a-bigger-stage.html.
^ Gerth and Van Natta Jr. 2007, pp. 80–81.
^ "Limbaugh Responds to FAIR". FAIR. June 28, 1994. http://www.fair.org/index.php?page=1906. Retrieved May 9, 2008.
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^ ^a ^b Gerth and Van Natta Jr. 2007, pp. 82–84.
^ Gerth and Van Natta Jr. 2007, pp. 87–88.
^ Gerth and Van Natta Jr. 2007, p. 85; Bernstein 2007, pp. 187–189
^ "Hon. Hillary Rodham Clinton". FindLaw. http://pview.findlaw.com/view/1708556_1. Retrieved May 31, 2007.
^ "Board of Directors Emeritus". Children's Defense Fund. Archived from the original on February 10, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070210055628/http://www.childrensdefense.org/site/PageNavigator/People_Board_Emeritus. Retrieved May 31, 2007.
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^ ^a ^b ^c Barbaro, Michael (May 20, 2007). "As a Director, Clinton Moved Wal-Mart Board, but Only So Far". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/20/us/politics/20walmart.html. Retrieved September 23, 2007.
^ Ross, Brian; Sauer, Maddy; Schwartz, Rhonda (January 31, 2008). "Clinton Remained Silent As Wal-Mart Fought Unions". ABC News. http://abcnews.go.com/Blotter/Story?id=4218509. Retrieved January 31, 2008.
^ "Clintons to Rebut Rumors on "60 Minutes"". The New York Times. January 25, 1992. http://www.nytimes.com/1992/01/25/us/the-1992-campaign-clintons-to-rebut-rumors-on-60-minutes.html.
^ "In 1992, Clinton Conceded Marital 'Wrongdoing'". The Washington Post. January 26, 1992. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/special/clinton/stories/flowers012792.htm.
^ Troy 2006, pp. 39–42; Gerth and Van Natta Jr. 2007, pp. 94–96.
^ Burns 2008, p. 140.
^ Burns 2008, p. 142.
^ York, Anthony (July 8, 1999). "On her own". Salon. http://www.salon.com/news/feature/1999/07/08/hillary/print.html. Retrieved July 14, 2007. Her announcement was parodied by the May 1993 film spoof Hot Shots! Part Deux, in which all the female characters were given the middle name "Rodham"; see IMDB entry.
^ ^a ^b Williams, Jasim K (October 30, 2006). "Hillary Rodham Clinton". New York Post. http://www.nypost.com/seven/10302006/news/cextra/hillary_rodham_clinton_cextra_jasim_k__williams.htm. Retrieved April 27, 2008. ^{[dead link]} Clinton had the first postgraduate degree through regular study and scholarly work. Eleanor Roosevelt had been previously awarded a postgraduate honorary degree. Clinton's successor Laura Bush became the second First Lady with a postgraduate degree.^{[dead link]}
^ Troy 2006, p. 71.
^ Troy 2006, p. 68.
^ Troy 2006, p. xii.
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^ ^a ^b ^c Kornblut, Anne E. and Balz, Dan (June 5, 2008). "'She Could Accept Losing. She Could Not Accept Quitting.'". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/06/04/AR2008060404312_pf.html. Retrieved November 29, 2008.
^ "Obama: I will be the Democratic nominee". CNN. June 3, 2008. http://www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/06/03/election.democrats/index.html. Retrieved June 3, 2008.
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^ Bumiller, Elisabeth (November 22, 2008). "Clinton-Obama Détente: From Top Rival to Top Aide". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/23/us/politics/23hillary.html. Retrieved November 29, 2008.
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^ "Obama Set On Key Cabinet Nominees". NPR. November 21, 2008. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=97327730. Retrieved November 21, 2008.
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^ Troy 2006, p. 60.
^ ^a ^b Troy 2006, p. 4.
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^ Burns 2008, pp. 135–136, 140–141.
^ Templin, Charlotte (1999). "Hillary Clinton as Threat to Gender Norms: Cartoon Images of the First Lady". Journal of Communication Inquiry 23 (1): 20–36. DOI:10.1177/0196859999023001002.
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Bibliography [link]

Bernstein, Carl (2007). A Woman in Charge: The Life of Hillary Rodham Clinton. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0-375-40766-9.
Brock, David (1996). The Seduction of Hillary Rodham. New York: The Free Press. ISBN 0-684-83451-0.
Burns, Lisa M. (2008). First Ladies and the Fourth Estate: Press Framing of Presidential Wives. DeKalb, Illinois: Northern Illinois University Press. ISBN 0-87580-391-1.
Clinton, Hillary Rodham (2003). Living History. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-2224-5.
Gerth, Jeff; Van Natta, Jr., Don (2007). Her Way: The Hopes and Ambitions of Hillary Rodham Clinton. New York: Little, Brown and Company. ISBN 0-316-01742-6.
Heilemann, John; Halperin, Mark (2010). Game Change: Obama and the Clintons, McCain and Palin, and the Race of a Lifetime. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-173363-6.
Kornblut, Anne E. (2009). Notes from the Cracked Ceiling: Hillary Clinton, Sarah Palin, and What It Will Take for a Woman to Win. New York: Crown Books. ISBN 0-307-46425-3.
Maraniss, David (1995). First in His Class: A Biography of Bill Clinton. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-87109-9.
Morris, Roger (1996). Partners in Power: The Clintons and Their America. New York: Henry Holt. ISBN 0-8050-2804-8.
Olson, Barbara (1999). Hell to Pay: The Unfolding Story of Hillary Rodham Clinton. Washington: Regnery Publishing. ISBN 0-89526-197-9.
Troy, Gil (2006). Hillary Rodham Clinton: Polarizing First Lady. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 0-7006-1488-5.

External links [link]

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Find more about Hillary Rodham Clinton on Wikipedia's sister projects:
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"Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton". U.S. Department of State. http://www.state.gov/secretary/.
"Hillary Clinton.com – Friends of Hillary". http://www.hillaryclinton.com.
"Hillary Rodham Clinton". The White House. http://www.whitehouse.gov/about/first-ladies/hillaryclinton. Official Biography of First Lady Clinton
Biography at WhoRunsGov.com at The Washington Post
Biography at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
Voting record maintained by The Washington Post
Biography, voting record, and interest group ratings at Project Vote Smart
Issue positions and quotes at On the Issues
Financial information at OpenSecrets.org
Campaign finance reports and data at the Federal Election Commission
Appearances on C-SPAN programs
Appearances on Charlie Rose
Appearances at the Internet Movie Database
Collected news and commentary at The New York Times
Collected news and commentary at The Wall Street Journal
Collected news and commentary at The Guardian
Works by or about Hillary Rodham Clinton in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
Senator Hillary Rodham Clinton at the Open Directory Project

Succession and navigation boxes related to Hillary Clinton

Legal offices
Preceded by William McCalpin	Chairperson of the Legal Services Corporation 1978–1980	Succeeded by William McCalpin
Honorary titles
Preceded by Barbara Pryor	First Lady of Arkansas 1979–1981	Succeeded by Gay Daniels White
Preceded by Gay Daniels White	First Lady of Arkansas 1983–1992	Succeeded by Betty Tucker
Preceded by Barbara Bush	First Lady of the United States 1993–2001	Succeeded by Laura Bush
Preceded by Barbara Bush	Honorary Chairperson of the President's Committee on the Arts and Humanities 1993–2001	Succeeded by Laura Bush
Party political offices
Preceded by Daniel Patrick Moynihan	Democratic nominee for United States Senator from New York (Class 1) 2000, 2006	Succeeded by Kirsten Gillibrand
New office	Chairperson of the Democratic Steering and Outreach Committee 2005–2007	Succeeded by Debbie Stabenow
United States Senate
Preceded by Daniel Patrick Moynihan	United States Senator (Class 1) from New York 2001–2009 Served alongside: Charles Schumer	Succeeded by Kirsten Gillibrand
Preceded by John Thune	Chairperson of the Senate Environment and Public Works Subcommittee on Superfund and Environmental Health 2007–2009	Succeeded by Frank Lautenberg
Political offices
Preceded by Condoleezza Rice	United States Secretary of State Served under: Barack Obama 2009–present	Incumbent
United States order of precedence
Preceded by Ambassadors from the United States (while at their posts)	Order of Precedence of the United States as Secretary of State	Succeeded by Ambassadors to the United States (in order of tenure)
Preceded by Otherwise George W. Bush as Former President		Succeeded by Otherwise Ban Ki-moon as Secretary-General of the United Nations
United States presidential line of succession
Preceded by Daniel Inouye as President pro tempore of the Senate	4th in line as Secretary of State	Succeeded by Timothy Geithner as Secretary of the Treasury

v t e Hillary Rodham Clinton

Secretary of State	Tenure as Secretary of State · Foreign policy of the Barack Obama administration

Senator, Presidential candidate	2000 senate election · Senate career · 2006 senate re-election · 2008 presidential campaign · Presidential campaign endorsements · HillRaisers · Political positions · Electoral history

First Lady	1993 health care reform · Hillaryland · Travel office · FBI files · "Vast right-wing conspiracy" · Vital Voices · Save America's Treasures

Arkansas	Rose Law Firm · Legal Services Corporation · Whitewater · Cattle futures

Her books	Senior thesis · Scholarly articles · It Takes a Village · An Invitation to the White House: At Home with History · Living History

Reactions	Awards and Honors · Books about

Family	Bill Clinton · Chelsea Clinton · Hugh E. Rodham · Dorothy Howell Rodham · Hugh Rodham · Tony Rodham · Socks · Buddy

v t e First Ladies of the United States

Martha Washington Abigail Adams Martha Jefferson Randolph Dolley Madison Elizabeth Monroe Louisa Adams Emily Donelson Sarah Jackson Angelica Van Buren Anna Harrison Jane Harrison Letitia Tyler Priscilla Tyler Julia Tyler Sarah Polk Margaret Taylor Abigail Fillmore Jane Pierce Harriet Lane Mary Lincoln Eliza Johnson Julia Grant Lucy Hayes Lucretia Garfield Mary McElroy Rose Cleveland Frances Cleveland Caroline Harrison Mary Harrison Frances Cleveland Ida McKinley Edith Roosevelt Helen Taft Ellen Wilson Edith Wilson Florence Harding Grace Coolidge Lou Hoover Eleanor Roosevelt Bess Truman Mamie Eisenhower Jacqueline Kennedy Lady Bird Johnson Pat Nixon Betty Ford Rosalynn Carter Nancy Reagan Barbara Bush Hillary Clinton Laura Bush Michelle Obama

v t e State Secretaries of the United States

Secretary of Foreign Affairs 1781–1789	R. Livingston Jay

Secretary of State 1789–present	Jefferson Randolph Pickering J. Marshall Madison Smith Monroe Adams Clay Van Buren E. Livingston McLane Forsyth Webster Upshur Calhoun Buchanan Clayton Webster Everett Marcy Cass Black Seward Washburne Fish Evarts Blaine Frelinghuysen Bayard Blaine Foster Gresham Olney Sherman Day Hay Root Bacon Knox Bryan Lansing Colby Hughes Kellogg Stimson Hull Stettinius Byrnes G Marshall Acheson Dulles Herter Rusk Rogers Kissinger Vance Muskie Haig Shultz Baker Eagleburger Christopher Albright Powell Rice Clinton

v t e Current Foreign Ministers of the Group of 8

Baird Fabius Westerwelle Terzi di Sant'Agata Gemba Lavrov Hague Clinton Ashton

v t e Current members of the Cabinet of the United States

Obama Biden

Bryson Chu Clinton Donovan Duncan Geithner Holder Jackson^c Kirk^c Krueger^c LaHood Lew^c Mills^c Napolitano Panetta Rice^c Salazar Sebelius Solis Shinseki Vilsack Zients^ca

^c - cabinet-level; ^a - acting

Cabinet of President Barack Obama (since 2009)

Cabinet

Secretary of State	Hillary Clinton (2009–present)

Secretary of the Treasury	Timothy Geithner (2009–present)

Secretary of Defense	Robert Gates (2009–2011) Leon Panetta (2011–present)

Attorney General	Eric Holder (2009–present)

Secretary of the Interior	Ken Salazar (2009–present)

Secretary of Agriculture	Tom Vilsack (2009–present)

Secretary of Commerce	Gary Locke (2009–2011) John Bryson (2011–present)

Secretary of Labor	Hilda Solis (2009–present)

Secretary of Health and Human Services	Kathleen Sebelius (2009–present)

Secretary of Education	Arne Duncan (2009–present)

Secretary of Housing and Urban Development	Shaun Donovan (2009–present)

Secretary of Transportation	Ray LaHood (2009–present)

Secretary of Energy	Steven Chu (2009–present)

Secretary of Veterans Affairs	Eric Shinseki (2009–present)

Secretary of Homeland Security	Janet Napolitano (2009–present)

Cabinet-level

Vice President	Joe Biden (2009–present)

White House Chief of Staff	Rahm Emanuel (2009–2010) William Daley (2011–2012) Jacob Lew (2012–present)

Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency	Lisa Jackson (2009–present)

Director of the Office of Management and Budget	Peter Orszag (2009–2010) Jacob Lew (2010–2012)

Trade Representative	Ron Kirk (2009–present)

Ambassador to the United Nations	Susan Rice (2009–present)

Chair of the Council of Economic Advisers	Christina Romer (2009–2010) Austan Goolsbee (2010–2011) Alan Krueger (2011–present)

Director of the Central Intelligence Agency	Leon Panetta (2009–2011) David Petraeus (2011–present)

Administrator of the Small Business Administration	Karen Mills (2012–present)*

* took office in 2009, raised to cabinet-rank in 2012

See also: Confirmations of Barack Obama's Cabinet

v t e United States Senators from New York

Class 1	Schuyler Burr Schuyler Hobart North Watson Morris Bailey Armstrong Mitchill German Sanford Van Buren Dudley Tallmadge Dickinson Fish P. King Morgan Fenton Kernan Platt Miller Hiscock Murphy Depew O'Gorman Calder Copeland Mead Ives Keating Kennedy Goodell Buckley Moynihan H. Clinton Gillibrand

Class 3	R. King Laurance Armstrong D. Clinton Armstrong Smith R. King Sanford Marcy Wright Foster Dix Seward Harris Conkling Lapham Evarts Hill Platt Root Wadsworth Wagner Dulles Lehman Javits D'Amato Schumer

v t e Legal Services Corporation

Prominent national chairs	F. William McCalpin · Hillary Rodham · William F. Harvey

Prominent state organizations	Native Hawaiian Legal Corporation · Colorado Legal Services · Texas RioGrande Legal Aid, Inc. · Wyoming Legal Services, Inc. · Legal Aid Society of Louisville

v t e Rose Law Firm

Founders	Robert Crittenden · Chester Ashley

Prominent partners	Hillary Rodham Clinton · Webster Hubbell · Vince Foster · George C. Watkins · Uriah M. Rose

Prominent clients	Wal-Mart · Tyson Foods · Arkansas Democrat-Gazette · Bank of America · WEHCO Media · Stephens Inc.

v t e Bill Clinton

Presidency	Foreign policy · Clinton Doctrine · Judicial appointments · Nannygate · Electoral history · 1st inauguration · 2nd inauguration · Lewinsky scandal · Impeachment hearing

Post-presidency	Clinton Foundation · Presidential Center and Park

Books	Between Hope and History · My Life · Giving · Back to Work

Family	Hillary Rodham Clinton (spouse) · Chelsea Clinton (daughter) · Virginia Clinton Kelley (mother) · Roger Clinton, Sr. (first stepfather) · Jeff Dwire (second stepfather) · Roger Clinton, Jr. (brother) · William Jefferson Blythe, Jr. (biological father) · Socks (cat) · Buddy (dog)

Wiktionary · Wikibooks · Wikiquote · Wikisource · Commons · Wikinews · Bill Clinton

United States presidential election, 2008

Democratic Party

Democratic candidates

VP nominee: Joe Biden
(positions)

Republican Party

Republican candidates

Nominee: John McCain
(campaign
positions)

VP nominee: Sarah Palin
(positions)

Draft movements

Democratic Party:
Al Gore
Mark Warner (movement)

Republican Party:
Newt Gingrich
Condoleezza Rice (movement)

Independent:
Michael Bloomberg (movement)

Third party and independent candidates

Constitution Party: Convention	Nominee: Chuck Baldwin (campaign) VP nominee: Darrell Castle Candidates: Daniel Imperato Alan Keyes (campaign)

Green Party: Convention	Nominee: Cynthia McKinney (campaign positions) VP nominee: Rosa Clemente Candidates: Elaine Brown Jesse Johnson Kent Mesplay Kat Swift

Libertarian Party: Convention	Nominee: Bob Barr (campaign positions) VP nominee: Wayne Allyn Root Candidates: Mike Gravel (campaign) Daniel Imperato Michael Jingozian Steve Kubby Wayne Allyn Root Mary Ruwart Doug Stanhope

American Party	Nominee: Diane Beall Templin

America's Independent Party	Nominee: Alan Keyes (campaign) VP nominee: Brian Rohrbough

Boston Tea Party	Nominee: Charles Jay

New American Independent Party	Nominee: Frank McEnulty

Objectivist Party	Nominee: Tom Stevens

Peace and Freedom Party	Nominee: Ralph Nader (campaign) VP nominee: Matt Gonzalez Candidates: Gloria LaRiva Cynthia McKinney (campaign) Brian Moore (campaign)

Prohibition Party	Nominee: Gene Amondson

Reform Party	Nominee: Ted Weill VP nominee: Frank McEnulty

Socialism and Liberation Party	Nominee: Gloria La Riva VP nominee: Eugene Puryear

Socialist Party	Nominee: Brian Moore (campaign) VP nominee: Stewart Alexander Candidates: Eric Chester

Socialist Workers Party	Nominee: Róger Calero Alternate nominee: James Harris VP nominee: Alyson Kennedy

Independent / Other	Earl Dodge Bradford Lyttle Frank Moore Joe Schriner Jonathon Sharkey

Other 2008 elections:
House
Senate
Gubernatorial

This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hillary_Rodham_Clinton

This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.

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Persondata
Name	Chomsky, Avram Noam
Alternative names	Chomsky, Noam
Short description	linguist, psychologist, and activist
Date of birth	December 7, 1928
Place of birth	East Oak Lane, Philadelphia, United States
Date of death
Place of death

Persondata
Name	Ramos-Horta, José Manuel
Alternative names
Short description	Prime Minister of East Timor
Date of birth	26 December 1949
Place of birth	Dili, East Timor
Date of death	living
Place of death

Persondata
Name	Clinton, Hillary Rodham
Alternative names	Rodham, Hillary Diane
Short description	U.S. Secretary of State, U.S. Senator, U.S. First Lady
Date of birth	1947-10-26
Place of birth	Chicago, Illinois, United States
Date of death
Place of death

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