This article contains instructions, advice, or how-to content. The purpose of Wikipedia is to present facts, not to train. Please help improve this article either by rewriting the how-to content or by moving it to Wikiversity or Wikibooks. (July 2011)

Text file created with gedit and viewed with a hex editor
Besides the text objects there are only EOL markers
with the hexadecimal value 0A.

In computing, a newline,^[1] also known as a line break or end-of-line (EOL) marker, is a special character or sequence of characters signifying the end of a line of text. The name comes from the fact that the next character after the newline will appear on a new line—that is, on the next line below the text immediately preceding the newline. The actual codes representing a newline vary across operating systems, which can be a problem when exchanging text files between systems with different newline representations.

There is also some confusion whether newlines terminate or separate lines. If a newline is considered a separator, there will be no newline after the last line of a file. The general convention on most systems is to add a newline even after the last line, i.e. to treat newline as a line terminator. Some programs have problems processing the last line of a file if it is not newline terminated. Conversely, programs that expect newline to be used as a separator will interpret a final newline as starting a new (empty) line.

In text intended primarily to be read by humans using software which implements the word wrap feature, a newline character typically only needs to be stored if a line break is required independent of whether the next word would fit on the same line, such as between paragraphs and in vertical lists. See hard return and soft return.

Representations[link]

Software applications and operating systems usually represent a newline with one or two control characters:

• Systems based on ASCII or a compatible character set use either LF (Line feed, '\n', 0x0A, 10 in decimal) or CR (Carriage return, '\r', 0x0D, 13 in decimal) individually, or CR followed by LF (CR+LF, '\r\n', 0x0D0A). These characters are based on printer commands: The line feed indicated that one line of paper should feed out of the printer thus instructed the printer to advance the paper one line, and a carriage return indicated that the printer carriage should return to the beginning of the current line. Some rare systems, such as QNX before version 4, used the ASCII RS (record separator, 0x1E, 30 in decimal) character as the newline character.
  • LF:    Multics, Unix and Unix-like systems (GNU/Linux, Mac OS X, FreeBSD, AIX, Xenix, etc.), BeOS, Amiga, RISC OS and others.
  • CR+LF: Microsoft Windows, DEC TOPS-10, RT-11 and most other early non-Unix and non-IBM OSes, CP/M, MP/M, DOS (MS-DOS, PC-DOS, etc.), Atari TOS, OS/2, Symbian OS, Palm OS
  • LF+CR: Acorn BBC and RISC OS spooled text output.
  • CR:    Commodore 8-bit machines, Acorn BBC, TRS-80, Apple II family, Mac OS up to version 9 and OS-9
  • RS:    QNX pre-POSIX implementation.
• EBCDIC systems—mainly IBM mainframe systems, including z/OS (OS/390) and i5/OS (OS/400)—use NEL (Next Line, 0x15) as the newline character. Note that EBCDIC also has control characters called CR and LF, but the numerical value of LF (0x25) differs from the one used by ASCII (0x0A). Additionally, there are some EBCDIC variants that also use NEL but assign a different numeric code to the character.
• Operating systems for the CDC 6000 series defined a newline as two or more zero-valued six-bit characters at the end of a 60-bit word. Some configurations also defined a zero-valued character as a colon character, with the result that multiple colons could be interpreted as a newline depending on position.
• ZX80 and ZX81, home computers from Sinclair Research Ltd used a specific non-ASCII character set with code NEWLINE (0x76, 118 decimal) as the newline character.
• OpenVMS uses a record-based file system, which stores text files as one record per line. In most file formats, no line terminators are actually stored, but the Record Management Services facility can transparently add a terminator to each line when it is retrieved by an application. The records themselves could contain the same line terminator characters, which could either be considered a feature or a nuisance depending on the application.
• Fixed line length was used by some early mainframe operating systems. In such a system, an implicit end-of-line was assumed every 80 characters, for example. No newline character was stored. If a file was imported from the outside world, lines shorter than the line length had to be padded with spaces, while lines longer than the line length had to be truncated. This mimicked the use of punched cards, on which each line was stored on a separate card, usually with 80 columns on each card. Many of these systems added an carriage control character to the start of the next record, this could indicate if the next record was a continuation of the line started by the previous record, or a new line, or should overprint the previous line (similar to a CR). Often this was a normal printing character such as '#' that thus could not be used as the first character in a line. Some early line printers interpreted these characters directly in the records sent to them.

Most textual Internet protocols (including HTTP, SMTP, FTP, IRC and many others) mandate the use of ASCII CR+LF (0x0D 0x0A) on the protocol level, but recommend that tolerant applications recognize lone LF as well. In practice, there are many applications that erroneously use the C newline character '\n' instead (see section Newline in programming languages below). This leads to problems when trying to communicate with systems adhering to a stricter interpretation of the standards; one such system is the qmail MTA that actively refuses to accept messages from systems that send bare LF instead of the required CR+LF.^[2]

FTP has a feature to transform newlines between CR+LF and LF only when transferring text files. This must not be used on binary files. Usually binary files and text files are recognised by checking their filename extension.

Unicode[link]

The Unicode standard defines a large number of characters that conforming applications should recognize as line terminators:^[3]

 LF:    Line Feed, U+000A
 VT:    Vertical Tab, U+000B
 FF:    Form Feed, U+000C
 CR:    Carriage Return, U+000D
 CR+LF: CR (U+000D) followed by LF (U+000A)
 NEL:   Next Line, U+0085
 LS:    Line Separator, U+2028
 PS:    Paragraph Separator, U+2029

This may seem overly complicated compared to an approach such as converting all line terminators to a single character, for example LF. However, Unicode was designed to preserve all information when converting a text file from any existing encoding to Unicode and back. Therefore, Unicode should contain characters included in existing encodings. NEL is included in ISO-8859-1^{[citation needed]} and EBCDIC (0x15). The approach taken in the Unicode standard allows round-trip transformation to be information-preserving while still enabling applications to recognize all possible types of line terminators.

Recognizing and using the newline codes greater than 0x7F is not often done. They are multiple bytes in UTF-8 and the code for NEL has been used as the ellipsis ('…') character in Windows-1252. For instance:

• YAML^[4] no longer recognizes them as special in order to be compatible with JSON.
• ECMAScript^[5] accepts LS and PS as line breaks, but considers U+0085 (NEL) white space, not a line break.
• Microsoft Windows 2000 does not treat any of NEL, LS or PS as line-break in the default text editor Notepad
• In Linux, a popular editor "gedit" treats LS and PS as newlines but does not for NEL.

History[link]

ASCII was developed simultaneously by the ISO and the ASA, the predecessor organization to ANSI. During the period of 1963–1968, the ISO draft standards supported the use of either CR+LF or LF alone as a newline, while the ASA drafts supported only CR+LF.

The sequence CR+LF was in common use on many early computer systems that had adopted Teletype machines, typically a Teletype Model 33 ASR, as a console device, because this sequence was required to position those printers at the start of a new line. On these systems, text was often routinely composed to be compatible with these printers, since the concept of device drivers hiding such hardware details from the application was not yet well developed; applications had to talk directly to the Teletype machine and follow its conventions.

Most minicomputer systems from DEC used this convention. CP/M used it as well, to print on the same terminals that minicomputers used. From there MS-DOS (1981) adopted CP/M's CR+LF in order to be compatible, and this convention was inherited by Microsoft's later Windows operating system.

The separation of the two functions concealed the fact that the print head could not return from the far right to the beginning of the next line in one-character time. That is why the sequence was always sent with the CR first. In fact, it was often necessary to send extra characters (extraneous CRs or NULs, which are ignored) to give the print head time to move to the left margin. Even many early video displays required multiple character times to scroll the display.

The Multics operating system began development in 1964 and used LF alone as its newline. Multics used a device driver to translate this character to whatever sequence a printer needed (including extra padding characters), and the single byte was much more convenient for programming. The seemingly more obvious choice of CR was not used, as a plain CR provided the useful function of overprinting one line with another, and thus it was useful to not translate it. Unix followed the Multics practice, and later systems followed Unix.

In programming languages[link]

To facilitate the creation of portable programs, programming languages provide some abstractions to deal with the different types of newline sequences used in different environments.

The C programming language provides the escape sequences '\n' (newline) and '\r' (carriage return). However, these are not required to be equivalent to the ASCII LF and CR control characters. The C standard only guarantees two things:

1. Each of these escape sequences maps to a unique implementation-defined number that can be stored in a single char value.
2. When writing a file in text mode, '\n' is transparently translated to the native newline sequence used by the system, which may be longer than one character. When reading in text mode, the native newline sequence is translated back to '\n'. In binary mode, no translation is performed, and the internal representation produced by '\n' is output directly.

On Unix platforms, where C originated, the native newline sequence is ASCII LF (0x0A), so '\n' was simply defined to be that value. With the internal and external representation being identical, the translation performed in text mode is a no-op, and text mode and binary mode behave the same. This has caused many programmers who developed their software on Unix systems simply to ignore the distinction completely, resulting in code that is not portable to different platforms.

The C library function fgets() is best avoided in binary mode because any file not written with the UNIX newline convention will be misread. Also, in text mode, any file not written with the system's native newline sequence (such as a file created on a UNIX system, then copied to a Windows system) will be misread as well.

Another common problem is the use of '\n' when communicating using an Internet protocol that mandates the use of ASCII CR+LF for ending lines. Writing '\n' to a text mode stream works correctly on Windows systems, but produces only LF on Unix, and something completely different on more exotic systems. Using "\r\n" in binary mode is slightly better.

Many languages, such as C++, Perl,^[6] and Haskell provide the same interpretation of '\n' as C.

Java, PHP,^[7] and Python^[8] provide the '\r\n' sequence (for ASCII CR+LF). In contrast to C, these are guaranteed to represent the values U+000A and U+000D, respectively.

The Java I/O libraries do not transparently translate these into platform-dependent newline sequences on input or output. Instead, they provide functions for writing a full line that automatically add the native newline sequence, and functions for reading lines that accept any of CR, LF, or CR+LF as a line terminator (see BufferedReader.readLine()). The System.getProperty() method can be used to retrieve the underlying line separator.

Example:

  String eol = System.getProperty( "line.separator" );
  String lineColor = "Color: Red" + eol;

Python permits "Universal Newline Support" when opening a file for reading, when importing modules, and when executing a file.^[9]

Some languages have created special variables, constants, and subroutines to facilitate newlines during program execution.

Common problems[link]

The different newline conventions often cause text files that have been transferred between systems of different types to be displayed incorrectly. For example, files originating on Unix or Apple Macintosh systems may appear as a single long line on some Windows programs. Conversely, when viewing a file originating from a Windows computer on a Unix system, the extra CR may be displayed as ^M at the end of each line or as a second line break.

The problem can be hard to spot if some programs handle the foreign newlines properly while others do not. For example, a compiler may fail with obscure syntax errors even though the source file looks correct when displayed on the console or in an editor. On a Unix system, the command cat -v myfile.txt will send the file to stdout (normally the terminal) and make the ^M visible, which can be useful for debugging. Modern text editors generally recognize all flavours of CR / LF newlines and allow the user to convert between the different standards. Web browsers are usually also capable of displaying text files and websites which use different types of newlines.

The File Transfer Protocol can automatically convert newlines in files being transferred between systems with different newline representations when the transfer is done in "ASCII mode". However, transferring binary files in this mode usually has disastrous results: Any occurrence of the newline byte sequence—which does not have line terminator semantics in this context, but is just part of a normal sequence of bytes—will be translated to whatever newline representation the other system uses, effectively corrupting the file. FTP clients often employ some heuristics (for example, inspection of filename extensions) to automatically select either binary or ASCII mode, but in the end it is up to the user to make sure his or her files are transferred in the correct mode. If there is any doubt as to the correct mode, binary mode should be used, as then no files will be altered by FTP, though they may display incorrectly.

Conversion utilities[link]

This article contains instructions, advice, or how-to content. The purpose of Wikipedia is to present facts, not to train. Please help improve this article either by rewriting the how-to content or by moving it to Wikiversity or Wikibooks. (June 2010)

Text editors are often used for converting a text file between different newline formats; most modern editors can read and write files using at least the different ASCII CR/LF conventions. The standard Windows editor Notepad is not one of them (although Wordpad and the MS-DOS Editor are).

Editors are often unsuitable for converting larger files. For larger files (on Windows NT/2000/XP) the following command is often used:

TYPE unix_file | FIND "" /V > dos_file

On many Unix systems, the dos2unix (sometimes named fromdos or d2u) and unix2dos (sometimes named todos or u2d) utilities are used to translate between ASCII CR+LF (DOS/Windows) and LF (Unix) newlines. Different versions of these commands vary slightly in their syntax. However, the tr command is available on virtually every Unix-like system and is used to perform arbitrary replacement operations on single characters. A DOS/Windows text file can be converted to Unix format by simply removing all ASCII CR characters with

tr -d '\r' < inputfile > outputfile

or, if the text has only CR newlines, by converting all CR newlines to LF with

tr '\r' '\n' < inputfile > outputfile

The same tasks are sometimes performed with awk, sed, Tr_(Unix) or in Perl if the platform has a Perl interpreter:

awk '{sub("$","\r\n"); printf("%s",$0);}' inputfile > outputfile  # UNIX to DOS  (adding CRs on Linux and BSD based OS that haven't GNU extensions)
awk '{gsub("\r",""); print;}' inputfile > outputfile              # DOS to UNIX  (removing CRs on Linux and BSD based OS that haven't GNU extensions)
sed -e 's/$/\r/' inputfile > outputfile              # UNIX to DOS  (adding CRs on Linux based OS that use GNU extensions)
sed -e 's/\r$//' inputfile > outputfile              # DOS  to UNIX (removing CRs on Linux based OS that use GNU extensions)
cat inputfile | tr -d "\r" > outputfile              # DOS  to UNIX (removing CRs using tr(1). Not Unicode compliant.)
perl -pe 's/\r?\n|\r/\r\n/g' inputfile > outputfile  # Convert to DOS
perl -pe 's/\r?\n|\r/\n/g'   inputfile > outputfile  # Convert to UNIX
perl -pe 's/\r?\n|\r/\r/g'   inputfile > outputfile  # Convert to old Mac

To identify what type of line breaks a text file contains, the file command can be used. Moreover, the editor Vim can be convenient to make a file compatible with the Windows notepad text editor. For example:

[prompt] > file myfile.txt
myfile.txt: ASCII English text
[prompt] > vim myfile.txt
  within vim :set fileformat=dos
             :wq
[prompt] > file myfile.txt
myfile.txt: ASCII English text, with CRLF line terminators

The following grep commands echo the filename (in this case myfile.txt) to the command line if the file is of the specified style:

grep -PL $'\r\n' myfile.txt # show UNIX style file (LF terminated)
grep -Pl $'\r\n' myfile.txt # show DOS style file (CRLF terminated)

For Debian-based systems, these commands are used:

egrep -L $'\r\n' myfile.txt # show UNIX style file (LF terminated)
egrep -l $'\r\n' myfile.txt # show DOS style file (CRLF terminated)

The above grep commands work under Unix systems or in Cygwin under Windows. Note that these commands make some assumptions about the kinds of files that exist on the system (specifically it's assuming only UNIX and DOS-style files—no Mac OS 9-style files).

This technique is often combined with find to list files recursively. For instance, the following command checks all "regular files" (e.g. it will exclude directories, symbolic links, etc.) to find all UNIX-style files in a directory tree, starting from the current directory (.), and saves the results in file unix_files.txt, overwriting it if the file already exists:

find . -type f -exec grep -PL '\r\n' {} \; > unix_files.txt

This example will find C files and convert them to LF style line endings:

find -name '*.[ch]' -exec fromdos {} \;

The file command also detects the type of EOL used:

file myfile.txt
> myfile.txt: ASCII text, with CRLF line terminators

Other tools permit the user to visualise the EOL characters:

od -a myfile.txt
cat -e myfile.txt
hexdump -c myfile.txt

dos2unix, unix2dos, mac2unix, unix2mac, mac2dos, dos2mac can perform conversions. The flip^[10] command is often used.

See also[link]

• ASA carriage control characters
• C0 and C1 control codes
• Page break
• Line starve

References[link]

External links[link]

• The Unicode reference, see paragraph 5.8 in Chapter 5 of the Unicode 4.0 standard (PDF)
• "The End-of-Line Story"
• The [NEL] Newline Character
• The End of Line Puzzle
• Tofrodos - software for Unix that converts to and from DOS newlines
• ToFroWin: a Windows shell extension that is able to convert multiple files from DOS to UNIX (and vice-versa) line endings right from the context menu.
• "Understanding Newlines" on O'Reilly-Net - an article by Xavier Noria.

Albert Hammond, Jr.
Albert Hammond Jr. playing a show in Paris (2006)
Background information
Birth name	Albert Louis Hammond[1]
Born	(1980-04-09) April 9, 1980 (age 32) Los Angeles, California, U.S.
Genres	Indie rock, garage rock, post-punk revival, alternative rock
Instruments	Guitar, vocals, melodica
Years active	1999–present
Labels	New Line, Rough Trade, Scratchie, Black Seal
Associated acts	The Strokes
Notable instruments
Fender Stratocaster Gibson Les Paul Jr.

Albert Louis Hammond, Jr. (born April 9, 1980) is an American musician and member of the garage rock band The Strokes, in which he primarily plays guitar, but also plays keyboards live. He is also a solo musician. His father, Albert Hammond, whose career was primarily in the 1960s and 1970s, had even greater success on the singles charts as a songwriter and occasional singer. He released his debut album Yours To Keep in 2006 and followed up with ¿Cómo Te Llama? in 2008. The Beach Boys, Buddy Holly, Frank Black, Guided By Voices, John Lennon, Matthew Sweet and The Velvet Underground are often cited as his major influences.^[2][3]

Life and career[link]

Hammond was born in Los Angeles, California, the son of British-Gibraltarian singer/songwriter/musician Albert Hammond and Argentine former model and beauty pageant winner Claudia Fernández.^[4] Hammond Jr. was sent to the elite boarding school Institut Le Rosey in Switzerland at the age of 13. While there, he met Julian Casablancas, who would go on to be a fellow band member.^[5]

In 1998, Hammond met up with Casablancas in New York City and together they formed The Strokes with Casablancas' former schoolmates Nikolai Fraiture, Nick Valensi, and Fabrizio Moretti.

His trademark is wearing formal three-piece suits, and has been said by bandmate Julian Casablancas to be the most influential on the band's style. Hammond is usually seen playing a 1985 '70s reissue Olympic White Fender Stratocaster or Gibson Les Paul Jr. that is sometimes used by bandmate Nick Valensi. On the majority of The Strokes' songs he plays rhythm guitar, and solos are played by Valensi. The songs in which Hammond does play solos are "Last Nite", "Trying Your Luck", "Take It or Leave It", "Under Control", "The End Has No End", "Ize of the World", and "Vision of Division". His solos tend to focus largely on more emotional, "bluesy"-type melodical work, and the guitar tends to have a cleaner, softer tone in comparison to Valensi's (with a notable exception found in "Vision of Division"). He often holds his guitar in a high horizontal position, similar to Buddy Holly, which he says is so that he can dance better.

Hammond is set to release his own line of men's suits which he will co-design along with stylist Ilaria Urbinati. The suits will at first only be available at the soon-to-open Confederacy store in Los Angeles which Urbinati co-owns with actor/DJ Danny Masterson. Speaking about the designing endeavor Hammond, Jr. told New York magazine, "I want to make suits that I'm going to have for myself. They're for the person who needs his one suit for a wedding. He'd rather get something like this than go to Men's Wearhouse, pay the same amount, and look like an out-of-date parent." Prices for his line start at $1,250 for the Urbinati-designed trench coat and the $2,000+ price range for his suits. Hammond told NME that the suits will be available in three styles with a new design every season and that he's aiming to keep the line classic.

He previously dated British supermodel Agyness Deyn.

Musical setup[link]

Albert's main guitar is a Fender Stratocaster Arctic White 1985 Reissue of a 1972. He owns three white Stratocasters, a Gibson Les Paul special single cutaway, a Rickenbacker 325, and a Gretsch hollowbody. His amplifier is a Fender Hot Rod DeVille 2x12. His pedal board is made up of an old version of the MXR Micro Amp, a V1 Jekyll and Hyde Ultimate Overdrive and Distortion, and a BOSS TU-2 tuner. In later shows he adds another Micro Amp, and Jekyll and Hyde, and a Boss Digital Delay. He now uses a Mad Professor Deep Blue Delay pedal instead of the Boss Digital Delay.

Songwriting and solo work[link]

This section is in a list format that may be better presented using prose. You can help by converting this section to prose, if appropriate. Editing help is available. (September 2009)

Vocalist Julian Casablancas is the primary songwriter in The Strokes. Hammond co-wrote the track "Automatic Stop" with Casablancas for the group's second album, Room on Fire. He has also been credited with writing three mostly instrumental songs ("Swiss Beats", "Holland", and "By The Way") for the band's 2001 tour video entitled In Transit. These songs were reworked for his later solo album and have different titles ("Everyone Gets A Star", "Bright Young Thing", "In Transit"). He wrote "Elephant Song" when he was required to record a song for his Sound 101 class during his freshman year and used the school's recording equipment. The song was played at a few shows before the release of The Strokes' album. They later re-recorded the song as a special giveaway for fan club members.

In October 2005, Hammond and Ben Kweller released a version of "Wait" on This Bird Has Flown – A 40th Anniversary Tribute to the Beatles' Rubber Soul.

Hammond released a solo album entitled Yours To Keep in the U.K. through Rough Trade Records on October 9, 2006 and in North America through New Line Records/Scratchie Records on March 6, 2007. Produced by Thin Lizard Dawn vocalist Lattimer and recorded at the Electric Lady Studios in New York City, the album features several musical guests, such as Sean Lennon, Ben Kweller, The Strokes' manager Ryan Gentles, Jody Porter of Fountains of Wayne, Chris Feinstein, Mikki James, Sammy James, Jr. (The Mooney Suzuki) and The Strokes' lead singer, Casablancas. Bassist Josh Lattanzi and drummer Matt Romano serve as the backing band, with Hammond on guitar and vocals. The first single taken from the album, "101", was released exclusively through iTunes on September 4, 2006. The music video to "In Transit" was directed by Joaquin Phoenix.

Hammond has said to have been "waiting to make a record like this for years".^[6] Early support from his bandmates in the Strokes was only evident after Casablancas' role playing bass and back-up vocals on the track "Scared", though all of the members (with the exclusion of Nick Valensi, who was busy taking care of his newborn children) attended his shows in and around New York.

"101" was the follow-up single to "Everyone Gets A Star". The music video debuted online in March 2007.^[7] This will be available in general music stores, unlike "Everyone Gets A Star" which was only available through UK iTunes Music Store. It was released on November 27, 2006.

In November 2006, Hammond was announced to be joining Incubus on tour during their North American tour for their new album Light Grenades.

On 16 March 2007 at the South by Southwest festival, Hammond performed a twelve song set including covers of Frank Black's "Old Black Dawning" and Guided By Voices' "Postal Blowfish".^[8] Hammond also regularly covered The Cars' "Don't Cha Stop" in live performances.

The Yours To Keep album was released in North America on March 6, 2007; he also supported Bloc Party on their world tour before making stops at Montreal's Metropolis and Toronto's Kool Haus. After this, Hammond headlined two North American tours along with a European tour. The North American tour featured his friends, The Mooney Suzuki.

Hammond announced that "In Transit" will be his next solo single, featuring a cover of Frank Black's "Old Black Dawning" as the b-side. It was recorded live from the Bowery Ballroom.

On 29 August 2007, Hammond announced on MySpace that he was going back into the studio to record his second album in October 2007 for five weeks.

On 20 March 2008, Hammond posted a blog entry on MySpace in which he revealed the title of his second album, ¿Cómo Te Llama?. Furthermore, he wrote that it contained 13 songs with a total length of 46 minutes and 30 seconds. He also said he hoped to be touring with the new album until the end of 2008. The album was released on July 7, 2008.^[9]

Albert has also produced the new track "123 Stop" by New York band The Postelles.

On 27 May 2008, Hammond released "GfC", the first single off ¿Cómo Te Llama?, on iTunes in the US. The song has already been played extensively live on his 2007 tour. A non-album song entitled "& So it Goes" was released as a B-side along with the single.

On 29 May 2008, Hammond was Myspace's featured artist and exclusively premiered his new album ¿Cómo Te Llama? uploading all the tracks of the album on his official Myspace page.

On 8 July 2008, Hammond played a small show at the Virgin Megastore, Union Square, in New York City to celebrate the release of his new album. A noted absence from Hammond's band was recording bassist Josh Latzanni. Steve Schiltz of the band Longwave, who toured with Hammond on his first album was also missing. Although Hammond was supposed to play only 2 or 3 songs, he ended up playing almost 10, with a selection that included both new and old tracks.

On 11 July 2008, Hammond began his worldwide tour in support of ¿Cómo Te Llama? with a sold-out show at the landmark venue Spaceland in the Silverlake neighborhood of Los Angeles, CA with a capacity of only 260 people. This was his only west coast appearance.

On 23 August 2008, Hammond's website officially announced that Hammond would be the support act of the British band Coldplay during their European Tour, which kicked off on September 1 in Strasbourg, France.

Discography[link]

The Strokes[link]

Main article: The Strokes discography

Studio albums[link]

Singles[link]

See also[link]

• List of Gibraltarians
• Music of Gibraltar

References[link]

• Spin Magazine feature, October 2003, retrieved 25 March 2007
• Star Magazine web feature, 28 March 2007

External links[link]

• Albert Hammond, Jr. official website

Albert Hammond OBE (born 18 May 1944) is an English singer, songwriter and record producer from Gibraltar.

Birth and early success[link]

Hammond was born in London, England,^[1] where his family had been evacuated to from Gibraltar during World War II. His family returned to Gibraltar shortly after his birth, and there he grew up.^[1] In 1960, he started in music with Gibraltarian band 'The Diamond Boys', which had no real commercial success, but played a part in Spain's introduction to popular music. The Diamond Boys performed at the first nightclubs in Madrid to stage modern bands alongside Spanish rock and roll pioneers such as Miguel Ríos. In 1966 Hammond co-founded the British vocal group The Family Dogg, scoring a UK Top 10 hit with "A Way of Life" in 1969.^[1][2]

Main career[link]

He also wrote songs for others with frequent collaborator Mike Hazlewood. These include "Little Arrows" for Leapy Lee, "Make Me An Island" (1969) (which Hammond himself re-recorded in 1979, in a Spanish disco-style version), and "You're Such a Good Looking Woman" (1970) for Joe Dolan, "Gimme Dat Ding" for The Pipkins in 1970 (itself a cover from the Freddie and the Dreamers album, Oliver in the Overworld), "Good Morning Freedom" for Blue Mink, "Freedom Come, Freedom Go" for The Fortunes in 1971 and "The Air That I Breathe" which was a hit for The Hollies in 1974.^[1] In 1971. Hammond also sang on Michael Chapman's fourth album, Wrecked Again, and worked briefly with The Magic Lanterns on recordings of his and Hazlewood's songs and other material.^[3]

He then moved to the United States, where he continued his professional career as a musician. He is known for his hits of the 1970s, released on Columbia subsidiary Mums Records:

1. "Down by the River" — US 91 (1972)
2. "It Never Rains in Southern California" — US 5 (1972)
3. "The Free Electric Band" (the only single of his to chart in the UK)^[2] — UK 19, US 48 (1973)
4. "Half a Million Miles from Home" — US 87 (1973)
5. "If You Gotta Break Another Heart" — US 63 (1973)
6. "The Peacemaker" — US 80, South Africa 1 (1973)
7. "Down by the River" — US 91 (1973)
8. "I Don't Wanna Die in an Air Disaster" — US 0 (1974)
9. "I'm a Train" — US 31 (1974)
10. "99 Miles from L.A." — US 91 (1975)

Written with Carole Bayer Sager, "When I Need You" was first recorded by Hammond on his 1976 album When I Need You. Produced by Richard Perry, Leo Sayer's version made #1 on the UK Singles Chart for two weeks in February 1977, after three of his earlier singles had stalled at #2. A hit worldwide, it reached #1 on the Billboard Hot 100 for a week in May 1977. Leapy Lee released a version of "When I Need You" on his first recording since 1970.^[4]

Hammond had success as a singer-songwriter with his Spanish recordings. His releases on Epic Records allowed him to successfully tour every region of Latin America. It was during this period that he met Manuel Montoya, CBS Mexico executive, who later became his personal manager in 1985, leading to the Grammy Award winning production of Lani Hall, "Es Facil Amar", producer and writer of "Cantaré, Cantarás" (the Latin American equivalent of "We Are The World"), and collaborations with Roberto Livi on recordings by Raphael, Eydie Gorme and others.

With Hal David, Hammond co-wrote "To All The Girls I've Loved Before", a hit in 1984 for Julio Iglesias and Willie Nelson. Hammond collaborated with Diane Warren on "Nothing's Gonna Stop Us Now", a transatlantic #1 in 1987 for Starship, and "I Don't Wanna Live Without Your Love", a hit for Chicago that peaked at #3 in the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart in 1988. Hammond also co-wrote "One Moment in Time", the theme song to the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, South Korea, as performed by Whitney Houston.

In 1991, Hammond co-wrote "When You Tell Me That You Love Me", which was sung by Diana Ross. In 2005, Diana Ross performed the song again, this time in conjunction with Westlife.

He wrote several hits for Tina Turner, including "I Don't Wanna Lose You", "Be Tender With Me Baby", "Way of the World", and "Love Thing". Turner also recorded the original version of Hammond/Warren's "Don't Turn Around", a UK #1 for Aswad in 1988 and a hit for Ace of Base five years later.

In 2005 he released his first album in many years, Revolution of the Heart (where Todd Sharpville was his music director), and the single "This Side of Midnight".

Present day[link]

In 2008, Hammond met Kasaan Steigen of the Los Angeles based Trigger Management who became his personal manager, during which time Hammond collaborated with British singer Duffy and others. Duffy's resulting album, Endlessly, co-written and co-produced by Hammond, was released in November 2010.^[5]

In 2010, Hammond also worked on Legend, a new recording of duets of his greatest hits, featuring such artists as Elena Paparizou and Bonnie Tyler. It was released on Sony Spain on 23 November that year.^[6][7]

His son, Albert Hammond, Jr., is a successful solo musician and also a member of The Strokes.

Awards and accolades[link]

In 1987, Hammond's composition with Diane Warren "Nothing's Gonna Stop Us Now" (recorded by Starship) was nominated for an Oscar, Golden Globe and Grammy. In 1988, Hammond won an Emmy Award for the song "One Moment in Time", a song he wrote along with John Bettis.

In 2000, he received an OBE.^[1] On the 19 June 2008, Hammond was inducted in the Songwriters Hall of Fame.

Hammond was immortalised in song by Half Man Half Biscuit in their 1986 track "Albert Hammond Bootleg".

Other songwriting credits[link]

• "When You Tell Me That You Love Me"
• "It Isn't, It Wasn't, It Ain't Never Gonna Be"
• "Through the Storm" — a duet with Aretha Franklin and Elton John
• "Careless Heart" — written with Roy Orbison and Diane Warren
• "Once in a Lifetime" — written with Antonia Armato and Dennis Morgan
• "Just Walk Away"
• "Moonlight Lady"
• "Smokey Factory Blues" — written by Hammond and Hazelwood, and recorded by Johnny Cash on his John R. Cash album. Also recorded by Steppenwolf on the Slow Flux album
• "Room in Your Heart" — written with Richard Darbyshire and Marcus Vere (Living in a Box)
• "I Don't Wanna Lose You" — written with Graham Lyle
• "Way of the World" — also written with Graham Lyle
• "Love Thing" — written with Holly Knight
• "Creep" — credited by Radiohead as having co-written with Hazlewood
• "I Need to Be in Love" — written with Richard Carpenter and John Bettis for The Carpenters and first recorded on their album, A Kind of Hush.

Discography[link]

• 1972 — It Never Rains in Southern California
• 1973 — The Free Electric Band
• 1974 — Albert Hammond
• 1975 — 99 Miles from L.A.
• 1976 — Canta Sus Grandes Éxitos en Español e Inglés
• 1976 — My Spanish Album
• 1977 — Mi Album de Recuerdos
• 1977 — When I Need You
• 1978 — Albert Louis Hammond
• 1978 — Greatest Hits
• 1979 — Al Otro Lado del Sol
• 1981 — Comprenderte
• 1981 — Your World and My World
• 1982 — Somewhere in America
• 1986 — Hammond and West (Dutch edition)
• 1987 — Hammond and West (German edition)
• 1988 — The Very Best Of (CBS)
• 1989 — Best of Me
• 1991 — Songsmith
• 1992 — Exitos
• 1995 — Greatest Hits
• 1996 — It Never Rains in Southern California (Golden Classics album)
• 1996 — Coplas & Songs
• 1997 — El Nuevo Mundo de los Gnomos (soundtrack) (Various artists)
• 1998 — Todas Sus Grabaciones en Espanol para Discos (Epic) (1975–1978)
• 1999 — It Never Rains in Southern California
• 1999 — The Very Best Of (Sony)
• 2004 — It Never Rains in Southern California / The Free Electric Band
• 2005 — Revolution of the Heart
• 2010 — Legend

See also[link]

• List of Gibraltarians
• Music of Gibraltar
• Inductees of the Songwriters Hall of Fame

References[link]

External links[link]

• Official website
• A Profile on Albert Hammond
• Albert Hammond - 5 Minute Interview with John Matthew Hall of The Independent

Spike Lee
Lee at the 2009 Tribeca Film Festival
Born	Shelton Jackson Lee (1957-03-20) March 20, 1957 (age 55) Atlanta, Georgia, U.S.
Alma mater	Morehouse, NYUTisch School of the Arts
Occupation	Actor, director, producer, screenwriter
Years active	1977–present
Spouse	Tonya Lewis (1993–present)

Shelton Jackson "Spike" Lee (born March 20, 1957) is an American film director, producer, writer, and actor. His production company, 40 Acres & A Mule Filmworks, has produced over 35 films since 1983.

Lee's movies have examined race relations, the role of media in contemporary life, urban crime and poverty, and other political issues. Lee has won numerous awards, including an Emmy Award. He has also received two Academy Award nominations.

Early life[link]

Spike Lee was born in Atlanta, Georgia, the son of Jacqueline Carroll (née Shelton), a teacher of arts and black literature, and William James Edward Lee III, a jazz musician and composer.^[1][2] Lee moved with his family to Brooklyn, New York when he was a small child. (The Fort Greene neighborhood is home to Lee's production company, 40 Acres & A Mule Filmworks, and other Lee-owned or related businesses.) As a child, his mother nicknamed him "Spike." In Brooklyn, he attended John Dewey High School. Lee enrolled in Morehouse College where he made his first student film, Last Hustle in Brooklyn. He took film courses at Clark Atlanta University and graduated with a B.A. in Mass Communication from Morehouse College. He then enrolled in New York University's Tisch School of the Arts, where he earned a Master of Fine Arts in Film & Television.^[3]

Film career[link]

Lee in 2007

Lee's thesis film, Joe's Bed-Stuy Barbershop: We Cut Heads, was the first student film to be showcased in Lincoln Center's New Directors New Films Festival.

In 1985, Lee began work on his first feature film, She's Gotta Have It. With a budget of $175,000, the film was shot in two weeks. When the film was released in 1986, it grossed over $7,000,000 at the U.S. box office.^[4] The reception of She's Gotta Have It led Lee down a second career avenue. Marketing executives from Nike^[5] offered Lee a job directing commercials for the company. They wanted to pair Lee's character from She's Gotta Have It, the Michael Jordan-loving Mars Blackmon, and Jordan himself in their marketing campaign for the Air Jordan line. Later, Lee would be a central figure in the controversy surrounding the inner-city rash of violence involving Air Jordans.^[6] Lee countered that instead of blaming manufacturers of apparel, "deal with the conditions that make a kid put so much importance on a pair of sneakers, a jacket and gold". Through the marketing wing of 40 Acres and a Mule, Lee has also directed commercials for Converse, Jaguar, Taco Bell and Ben & Jerry's.

Awards, honors and nominations[link]

Lee's film Do the Right Thing was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay in 1989. Many people, including Hollywood's Kim Basinger (who announced her feelings live during that year's Oscar telecast), believed that Do the Right Thing also deserved a Best Picture nomination. Driving Miss Daisy won Best Picture that year and according to Lee in an April 7, 2006 interview with New York magazine, this hurt him more than his film not receiving the nomination.^[7]

His documentary 4 Little Girls was nominated for the Best Feature Documentary Academy Award in 1997.

On May 2, 2007, the 50th San Francisco International Film Festival honored Spike Lee with the San Francisco Film Society's Directing Award. He was the recipient of the 2008 Wexner Prize.^[8]

Use of actors[link]

Recurring actors[link]

A number of actors have appeared in multiple Spike Lee productions. Spike's sister, Joie Lee, and John Turturro lead the list at nine films, followed by Roger Guenveur Smith and the late Ossie Davis, with seven films.

Actor	Joe's Bed-Stuy Barbershop: We Cut Heads (1983)	She's Gotta Have It (1986)	School Daze (1988)	Do the Right Thing (1989)	Mo' Better Blues (1990)	Jungle Fever (1991)	Malcolm X (1992)	Crooklyn (1994)	Clockers (1995)	Girl 6 (1995)	Get on the Bus (1996)	4 Little Girls (1997)	He Got Game (1998)	Freak (1998)	Summer of Sam (1999)	The Original Kings of Comedy (2000)	Bamboozled (2000)	A Huey P. Newton Story (2001)	25th Hour (2002)	She Hate Me (2004)	Inside Man (2006)	When the Levees Broke (2006)	Miracle at St. Anna (2008)	Red Hook Summer (2012)
Danny Aiello				N					N											N
Rick Aiello				N		N
Michael Badalucco						N			N						N
Thomas Jefferson Byrd									N	N	N		N				N
Ossie Davis			N	N		N	N				N	N								N
Rosario Dawson													N						N
Kim Director													N		N		N		N	N	N
Chiwetel Ejiofor																				N	N
Giancarlo Esposito			N	N	N		N
Robin Harris				N	N
Zelda Harris								N					N
Michael Imperioli						N	N		N	N					N
Samuel L. Jackson			N	N	N	N
David Patrick Kelly							N	N
Joie Lee		N	N	N	N			N		N			N		N					N
John Leguizamo														N	N								N
Delroy Lindo							N	N	N
Bernie Mac											N					N
Lonette McKee						N	N						N							N
Coati Mundi					N					N			N				N		N
Charlie Murphy					N	N	N		N
Bill Nunn			N	N	N								N
Christopher Perez				N		N							N		N
Wendell Pierce							N				N											N
Dania Ramirez																			N	N
Theresa Randle						N	N			N
Miguel Sandoval				N		N
Roger Guenveur Smith			N	N			N				N		N		N			N
Wesley Snipes					N	N
Leonard L. Thomas			N	N	N		N		N	N
John Turturro				N	N	N			N			N	N		N					N			N
Nicholas Turturro				N	N	N	N
Denzel Washington					N		N						N								N
Isaiah Washington								N	N	N	N
Kerry Washington																				N			N
Michole Briana White																			N	N
Steve White				N	N		N		N
Isiah Whitlock, Jr.																			N	N

Public figures as actors[link]

Several well-known public figures have appeared in Spike Lee films portraying characters other than themselves. They include

• Ray Allen (He Got Game)
• Travis Best (He Got Game)
• Mark Breland (Summer of Sam)
• Jim Brown (He Got Game, She Hate Me, Sucker Free City)
• Rick Fox (He Got Game)
• Evander Holyfield (Summer of Sam)
• William Kunstler (Malcolm X)
• Nelson Mandela (Malcolm X)
• Bobby Seale (Malcolm X)
• Al Sharpton (Malcolm X, Bamboozled)
• Wyatt Tee Walker (Malcolm X)

Controversy[link]

Lee in September 2011

After the 1990 release of Mo' Better Blues, Lee was accused of antisemitism by the Anti-Defamation League and several film critics, who pointed to the characters of club owners Josh and Moe Flatbush in the film, which have been described as "Shylocks". Lee denied the charge, explaining that he wrote those characters in order to depict how black artists struggled against exploitation. Lee further expressed skepticism that Lew Wasserman, Sidney Sheinberg or Tom Pollock, the Jewish heads of MCA and Universal Studios, would have allowed antisemitic content in a film they produced. He also said he could not make an antisemitic film because Jews run Hollywood, and "that's a fact."^[9]

In the Knicks' 93–86 loss to the Indiana Pacers in Game 5 of the 1994 Eastern Conference Finals, Reggie Miller scored 25 points in the 4th quarter. Lee was apparently taunting Miller throughout the 4th quarter, and Miller responded by making shot after shot. Miller also gave the choke sign to Lee. The headline of the New York Daily News the next day sarcastically said, "Thanks A Lot Spike".^[10] This was parodied in the Seinfeld episode "The Susie", in which Kramer, Lee and Miller ultimately reconcile and go to a strip club together.

In May 1999, the New York Post reported that Lee said of National Rifle Association President Charlton Heston, "Shoot him with a .44 Bulldog."^{[citation needed]} Lee contended, "I intended it as ironic, as a joke to show how violence begets more violence," Lee said. "I told everyone there it was a joke. I said I did not want to read in the papers, 'Shoot Charlton Heston.'" Insisting that he had no reason to apologize, Lee further explained that his remark was in response to a question about whether Hollywood was responsible for the then-recent rash of school shootings, saying, "The problem is guns," he said. Republican House Majority Leader Dick Armey issued a statement condemning Lee as having "nothing to offer the debate on school violence except more violence and more hate."^[11]

In 2002, after remarks made by Mississippi Senator Trent Lott regarding Senator Strom Thurmond's failed presidential bid, Lee charged that Lott was a "card-carrying member of the Ku Klux Klan" on ABC's Good Morning America.^[12]

Lee sparked controversy on a March 28, 2004, segment on ABC when he said that basketball player Larry Bird was overrated because of his race, saying, "The most overrated player of all time, I would say it'd be Larry Bird. Now, Larry Bird is one of the greatest players of all time, but listen to the white media, it's like this guy was like nobody ever played basketball before him—Larry Bird, Larry Bird, Larry Bird, Larry Bird, Larry Bird."^[13][14]

In October 2005, Lee commented on the federal government's response to the 2005 Hurricane Katrina catastrophe. Responding to a CNN anchor's question as to whether the government intentionally ignored the plight of black Americans during the disaster, Lee replied, "It's not too far-fetched. I don't put anything past the United States government. I don't find it too far-fetched that they tried to displace all the black people out of New Orleans." On Real Time with Bill Maher, Lee cited the government's past atrocities including the Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male.^[15]

At the 2008 Cannes Film Festival, Lee, who was then making Miracle at St. Anna, about an all-black U.S. division fighting in Italy during World War II, criticized director Clint Eastwood for not depicting black Marines in his own WWII film, Flags of Our Fathers. Citing historical accuracy, Eastwood responded that his film was specifically about the Marines who raised the flag on Mount Suribachi at Iwo Jima, pointing out that while black Marines did fight at Iwo Jima, the U.S. military was segregated during WWII, and none of the men who raised the flag were black. Eastwood also pointed out that his 1988 film Bird, about the Jazz musician Charlie Parker featured 90% black actors, and sarcastically said that Invictus, his then-upcoming film about post-apartheid South Africa, would not feature a white actor in the role of Nelson Mandela. He angrily said that Lee should "shut his face". Lee responded that Eastwood was acting like an "angry old man", and argued that despite making two Iwo Jima films back to back, Letters from Iwo Jima and Flags of Our Fathers, "there was not one black soldier in both of those films".^[16][17][18] He added that he and Eastwood were "not on a plantation."^[19] In fact, black Marines are seen in scenes during which the mission is outlined, as well as during the initial landings, when a wounded black Marine is carried away. During the end credits, historical photographs taken during the Battle of Iwo Jima show black Marines. Although black Marines fought in the battle, they were restricted to auxiliary roles such as ammunition supply, and were not involved in the battle's major assaults, but took part in defensive actions.^[20] Lee later claimed that the event was exaggerated by the media and that he and Eastwood had reconciled through mutual friend Steven Spielberg, culminating in his sending Eastwood a print of Miracle at St. Anna.^[21]

During a lecture at Concordia University in Montreal, Canada on February 11, 2009,^[22] Lee criticized how some in the black community wrongfully associate "intelligence with acting white, and ignorance with acting black", admonishing students and parents to maintain more positive attitudes in order to follow their dreams and achieving their goals.^[23]

In March 2012, after the shooting of Trayvon Martin, Spike Lee was one of many people who retweeted a message which claimed to give the home address of the shooter. The address turned out to be incorrect, causing the occupants to leave home and stay at a hotel. Lee issued an apology, and reached an agreement which included compensation.^[24][25]

Personal life[link]

Lee and his wife, attorney Tonya Lewis, had their first child, daughter Satchel, in December 1994.^[26] Spike Lee is a fan of the American baseball team the New York Yankees, basketball team the New York Knicks, and the English football team Arsenal.^[27] One of the documentaries in ESPN's 30 for 30 series, Winning Time: Reggie Miller vs. The New York Knicks, focuses partly on Lee's interaction with Miller at Knicks games in Madison Square Garden.

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Spike Lee

• Spike Lee at the Internet Movie Database
• Spike Lee on Charlie Rose in 2010
• Spike Lee on Charlie Rose
• Spike Lee collected news and commentary at The New York Times
• Spike Lee collected news and commentary at The Wall Street Journal
• Spike Lee collected news and commentary at The Guardian
• Ubben Lecture at DePauw University
• Criterion Collection Essay on Spike Lee's Do the Right Thing
• Lee's Lens Exposes Inequalities, but he's no Revolutionary by Brendan Kelly, Canwest, April 11, 2009