Participation in the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty

Annex 2, signed and ratified   Annex 2, signed   Annex 2, non-signatory

Not Annex 2, signed and ratified   Not Annex 2, signed   Not Annex 2, non-signatory

The Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) bans all nuclear explosions in all environments, for military or civilian purposes. It was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 10 September 1996^[1] but it has not entered into force as of May 2012.

Status[link]

The Treaty was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 10 September 1996.^[2] It opened for signature in New York on 24 September 1996,^[2] when it was signed by 71 States, including five of the eight then nuclear-capable states. As of February 2012, 157 states have ratified the CTBT and another 25 states have signed but not ratified it.^[3][4]

The treaty will enter into force 180 days after the 44 states listed in Annex 2 of the treaty have ratified it. These "Annex 2 states" are states that participated in the CTBT’s negotiations between 1994 and 1996 and possessed nuclear power reactors or research reactors at that time.^[5] As of 7 December 2011, eight Annex 2 states have not ratified the treaty: China, Egypt, Iran, Israel and the United States have signed but not ratified the Treaty; India, North Korea and Pakistan have not signed it. In 1998 India said it would only sign the treaty if the United States presented a schedule for eliminating its nuclear stockpile, a condition the United States rejected.^[6]

Obligations[link]

(Article I):^[7]

1. Each State Party undertakes not to carry out any nuclear weapon test explosion or any other nuclear explosion, and to prohibit and prevent any such nuclear explosion at any place under its jurisdiction or control.
2. Each State Party undertakes, furthermore, to refrain from causing, encouraging, or in any way participating in the carrying out of any nuclear weapon test explosion or any other nuclear explosion.

History[link]

To date, over 2000 nuclear tests have been carried out at different locations all over the world.^[8] Arms control advocates had campaigned for the adoption of a treaty banning all nuclear explosions since the early 1950s, when public concern was aroused as a result of radioactive fall-out from atmospheric nuclear tests and the escalating arms race. Over 50 nuclear explosions were registered between 16 July 1945, when the first nuclear explosive test was conducted by the United States at White Sands Missile Range near Alamogordo, New Mexico, and 31 December 1953. Prime Minister Nehru of India voiced the heightened international concern in 1954, when he proposed the elimination of all nuclear test explosions worldwide. However, within the context of the Cold War, skepticism about the capability to verify compliance with a comprehensive nuclear test ban treaty posed a major obstacle to any agreement.

Partial Test Ban Treaty, 1963[link]

Limited success was achieved with the signing of the Partial Test Ban Treaty in 1963, which banned nuclear tests in the atmosphere, underwater and in space, but not underground. Neither France nor China signed the PTBT. However, the treaty was still ratified by the United States after a 80 to 19 vote in the United States Senate.^[9] While the PTBT reduced atmospheric fallout, underground nuclear testing can also vent radioactivity into the atmosphere, and radioactivity released underground may seep into the ground water. Moreover, the PTBT had no restraining effects on the further development of nuclear warheads.^[10]

Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty, 1968[link]

A major step towards non-proliferation of nuclear weapons came with the signing of the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty (NPT) in 1968. Under the NPT, non-nuclear weapon states were prohibited from, inter alia, possessing, manufacturing or acquiring nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices. All signatories, including nuclear weapon states, were committed to the goal of total nuclear disarmament. However, India, Pakistan and Israel have declined to ratify the NPT on grounds that such a treaty is fundamentally discriminatory as it places limitations on states that do not have nuclear weapons while making no efforts to curb weapons development by declared nuclear weapons states.

Negotiations for the CTBT[link]

Given the political situation prevailing in the subsequent decades, little progress was made in nuclear disarmament until the end of the Cold War in 1991. Parties to the PTBT held an amendment conference that year to discuss a proposal to convert the Treaty into an instrument banning all nuclear-weapon tests; with strong support from the UN General Assembly, negotiations for a comprehensive test-ban treaty began in 1993.

Adoption of the CTBT, 1996[link]

Intensive efforts were made over the next three years to draft the Treaty text and its two annexes. However, the Conference on Disarmament, in which negotiations were being held, did not succeed in reaching consensus on the adoption of the text. Under the direction of Prime Minister John Howard and Foreign Minister Alexander Downer, Australia then sent the text to the United Nations General Assembly in New York, where it was submitted as a draft resolution.^[11] On 10 September 1996, the Comprehensive Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) was adopted by a large majority, exceeding two-thirds of the General Assembly's Membership.^[1]

Nuclear testing after CTBT adoption[link]

Three countries have tested nuclear weapons since the CTBT opened for signature in 1996. India and Pakistan both carried out two sets of tests in 1998. North Korea carried out two announced tests in 2006 and 2009. Both North Korean tests were picked up by the International Monitoring System set up by the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization Preparatory Commission.^[12][13]

US ratification of the CTBT[link]

The US has signed the CTBT, but not ratified it. There is ongoing debate whether or not the US should ratify the CTBT.

The United States has stated that its ratification of the CTBT is conditional upon:

Proponents of ratification claim that it would:

1. Establish an international norm that would push other nuclear-capable countries like North Korea, Pakistan, and India to sign.
2. Constrain worldwide nuclear proliferation by vastly limiting a country's ability to make nuclear advancements that only testing can ensure.
3. Not compromise US national security because the Science Based Stockpile Stewardship Program serves as a means for maintaining current US nuclear capabilities without physical detonation.^[15]

Opponents of ratification claim that:

1. The treaty is unverifiable and that others nations could easily cheat.
2. The ability to enforce the treaty was dubious
3. The U.S. nuclear stockpile would not be as safe or reliable in the absence of testing.
4. The benefit to nuclear nonproliferation was minimal.^[16]

On 13 October 1999, the United States Senate rejected ratification of the CTBT. President Barack Obama stated during his 2008 election campaign that "As president, I will reach out to the Senate to secure the ratification of the CTBT at the earliest practical date."^[17] In his speech in Prague on 5 April 2009, he announced that “[To] achieve a global ban on nuclear testing, my administration will immediately and aggressively pursue U.S. ratification of the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty. After more than five decades of talks, it is time for the testing of nuclear weapons to finally be banned.”^[18]

An article in Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists describes how a North Korean underground nuclear test on May 25, 2009 was detected and the source located by GPS satellites. The authors suggest that the effectiveness of GPS satellites for detecting nuclear explosions enhances the ability to verify compliance to the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, giving the United States more reason to ratify it.^[19]

Monitoring of the CTBT[link]

Geophysical and other technologies are used to monitor for compliance with the Treaty: forensic seismology, hydroacoustics, infrasound, and radionuclide monitoring. The technologies are used to monitor the underground, the waters and the atmosphere for any sign of a nuclear explosion. Statistical theories and methods are integral to CTBT monitoring providing confidence in verification analysis. Once the Treaty enters into force, on site inspection will be provided for where concerns about compliance arise.

The Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO), an international organization headquartered in Vienna, Austria, was created to build the verification regime, including establishment and provisional operation of the network of monitoring stations, the creation of an international data centre, and development of the On Site Inspection capability.

The monitoring network consists of 337 facilities located all over the globe. As of May 2012, more than 260 facilities have been certified. The monitoring stations register data that is transmitted to the international data centre in Vienna for processing and analysis. The data are sent to states that have signed the Treaty.^[20]

See also[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty

• Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization
• Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization Preparatory Commission
• National Technical Means
• Nuclear proliferation
• Nuclear disarmament
• Nuclear weapon
• Nuclear warfare
• Nuclear-free zone
• Global Security Institute
• Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

References[link]

External links[link]

• Full text of the treaty
• For official news releases and information on the treaty see – http://www.ctbto.org
• Two articles from the March/April Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists cover the state of play regarding the CTBT: Keith Hansen, "Forecasting the future" and Trevor Findlay & Andreas Persbo, "Watching the world."
• The Test Ban Test: U.S. Rejection has Scuttled the CTBT
• US conducts subcritical nuclear test ABC News, February 24, 2006
• International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War, 1991
• Daryl Kimball and Christine Kucia, Arms Control Association, 2002
• "Low-Yield Earth Penetrating Nuclear Weapons"
• General John M. Shalikashvili, Special Advisor to the President and the Secretary of State for the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty
• Christopher Paine, Senior Researcher with NRDC's Nuclear Program, 1999
• Fact Sheet released by the Bureau of Arms Control
• Obama or McCain Can Finish Journey to Nuclear Test Ban Treaty
• For the number of nuclear explosions conducted in various parts of the globe from 1954-1998 see – http://blip.tv/file/1662914/

Look up international in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

International mostly means something (a company, language or organization) that involves more than one country. The term international as a word means involvement of, interaction between or encompassing more than one nation, or generally beyond national boundaries. For example, international law, which is applied by more than one country over the world, and international language which is a language spoken by residents of more than one country.

In American English, "International" is also commonly used as a euphemism for "foreign" or even "foreigner."^[1][2]

Origin of the word[link]

The term international was coined by the utilitarian philosopher Jeremy Bentham in his Introduction to Principles of Morals and Legislation, which was printed for publication in 1780 and published in 1789. Bentham wrote: "The word international, it must be acknowledged, is a new one; though, it is hoped, sufficiently analogous and intelligible. It is calculated to express, in a more significant way, the branch of law which goes commonly under the name of the law of nations.^[3] The word was adopted in French in 1801.^[4] Thomas Erskine Holland noted in his article on Bentham in the 11th edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica that "Many of Bentham's phrases, such as 'international,' 'utilitarian,' 'codification,' are valuable additions to our language; but the majority of them, especially those of Greek derivation, have taken no root in it."

Meaning in particular fields[link]

• In team sports, "international" is a match between two national teams, or two players capped by a national team.

• In politics, "The International" may refer to a political international.

• In linguistics, an international language is one spoken by the people of more than one nation, usually by many. Also called world language. English, Spanish, French and Arabic are considered to be world languages.^[5]

• In interlinguistics, international often has to do with languages rather than nations themselves. An "international word" is one that occurs in more than one language. These words are collected from widely spoken source or control languages, and often used to establish language systems that people can use to communicate internationally, and sometimes for other purposes such as to learn other languages more quickly. The vocabulary of Interlingua has a particularly wide range, because the control languages of Interlingua were selected to give its words and affixes their maximum geographic scope.^[6] In part, the language Ido is also a product of interlinguistic research.

• In arts, an international art movement is an art movement with artists from more than one country, usually by many. Some international art movements are Letterist International, Situationist International, Stuckism International.

"International" is not the same as "global"; the latter implies "one world" as a single unit, while "international" recognizes the differences between different places.

See also[link]

• Globalization
• Multinational Corporation
• Multinational State
• Supranational
• United Nations
• World community

References[link]

External links[link]

• Meaning of international on The Free Dictionary
• Meaning of international on Cambridge dictionary.

Sources[link]

• Ankerl, Guy. Global communication without universal civilization. INU societal research. Vol.1: Coexisting contemporary civilizations : Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western. Geneva: INU Press. ISBN 2-88155-004-5. 

Damian Woetzel, former danseur, is a producer and director of dance and music performances. Among his recent projects was directing the first performance of the White House Dance Series in September 2010, which took place in the East Room of the White House and was hosted by First Lady Michelle Obama.^[1]

Career as Director and Producer[link]

Vail International Dance Festival[link]

Since 2006, Woetzel has been the artistic director of the summer Vail International Dance Festival, where he presents dance performances and commissions.^[2] He has instituted a number of initiatives as director, including bringing to the Vail Valley the educational arts program Celebrate The Beat which targets local underserved children in the public schools.^[3][4]

Aspen Institute[link]

In June 2011, Woetzel was named the Director of Arts Programs at the Aspen Institute. In this capacity, he works to develop ideas and policies to assure vibrancy and dynamism in all artistic realms, and to enrich civic society in ways only the arts can.

World Science Festival[link]

In 2009 and 2010, Woetzel produced and directed the World Science Festival Gala Performances at Lincoln Center’s Alice Tully Hall. For the 2010 event he created an arts salute to science honoring the theoretical physicist Stephen Hawking, featuring performances by Yo-Yo Ma, John Lithgow, and Kelli O’Hara among others.^[5][6]

New Essential Works Program[link]

In the fall of 2009, Woetzel helped create and began directing the Jerome Robbins Foundation's New Essential Works (NEW) Program, which supports choreographers and dance companies during the current financial crisis by giving grants to enable the production of new works.^[7][8]

Studio 5 Performance Series[link]

In 2009, Woetzel launched as curator and director the new Studio 5 performance series at New York’s City Center, which features in-depth examinations of today’s most compelling dance artists and companies highlighted by in-studio performances and demonstrations.

Silk Road Connect[link]

Woetzel works with Yo-Yo Ma on his Silk Road Connect program in the New York City Public Schools, in June 2010 directing the culminating year end event which took place at New York’s Museum of Natural History, and featured the participation of the Silk Road Ensemble and 450 6th grade students.^[9] In April 2011, Woetzel organized an "arts strike" at Inner-City Arts in downtown Los Angeles with Yo-Yo Ma, The Silk Road Ensemble, and Memphis Jooker Charles "Lil Buck" Riley.^[10] The event included a demonstration and workshop for more than one hundred elementary school students from the Los Angeles Unified School District.

Harvard Law School[link]

In the fall of 2010, Woetzel was a visiting Lecturer at Harvard Law School, where he co-taught a course on Performing Arts and the Law with Jeannie Suk.^[11]

New York State Summer School for the Arts[link]

Woetzel was the artistic director of the New York State Summer School for the Arts School of Ballet from 1994-2007.

Dance career[link]

New York City Ballet[link]

Woetzel was a Principal Dancer at New York City Ballet from 1989 until his retirement from the stage in 2008, where he had works created for him by Jerome Robbins, Eliot Feld, Twyla Tharp, Susan Stroman, and Christopher Wheeldon among others.^[12]

Guest Appearances[link]

During his career, Woetzel frequently performed internationally as a guest star and was a visiting artist with numerous companies including the Kirov Ballet and American Ballet Theatre.

Choreography[link]

Woetzel has choreographed a number of ballets for New York City Ballet, among other companies.

Honors and Appointments[link]

Woetzel is the recipient of a Choo San Goh award for new choreography. He serves on the Artists Committee of the Kennedy Center Honors and as a judge for the Astaire Awards. He has also served as a juror for the Princess Grace Awards, and in 2011 Woetzel became of a member of the Knight Foundation's National Arts Advisory Committee; he was the 2008 Harman-Eisner Artist in Residence of the Aspen Institute, and he is a frequent speaker on the arts and arts policy.^[13] Woetzel served on the recent Harvard Task Force on the Arts. In November 2009, President Obama appointed Woetzel to the President’s Committee on the Arts and Humanities.^[14] Woetzel also serves on the boards of directors of New York City Center, The Clive Barnes Foundation and The Sphinx Organization.

Education[link]

Woetzel holds a Master in Public Administration Degree from Harvard’s Kennedy School of Government.^[15]

Personal life[link]

Woetzel has been married to Heather Watts since 1999.

References[link]

External links[link]

• New York Choreographic Institute webpage

v t e Ballet General information ballets companies glossary history music timeline Ballet terminology Ballet d'action Barre Ballet blanc Comic ballet Contemporary ballet Ballets de cour Demi-soloist Divertissement Narrative ballet Neoclassical ballet Opéra-ballet Pas de deux Pas de quatre Pas de trois Pièce d'occasion Pointe shoes Romantic ballet Turnout Tutu Variation Ballet by genre character classical contemporary neoclassical Ballet by region British French Italian Russian Dancers American British French Russian Technique Balanchine Bournonville Cecchetti Royal Academy Vaganova Ballet apparel dance belt leotard pointe shoes slippers tights tutu unitard Schools The National Ballet School of Canada Stuttgart Ballet Cuban National Ballet School Elmhurst School for Dance English National Ballet School Moscow State Academy of Choreography Royal Ballet School School of American Ballet La Scala Theatre Ballet School Vaganova Academy of Russian Ballet Royal Winnipeg Ballet Companies American Ballet Theatre Anaheim Ballet Atlanta Ballet Ballet Manila Ballet Philippines Barcelona Ballet Berlin State Ballet Birmingham Royal Ballet Bolshoi Ballet Boston Ballet Cairo Opera Ballet Company Cape Town City Ballet Carolina Ballet Cincinnati Ballet Cuban National Ballet Dayton Ballet Donetsk Ballet Dutch National Ballet English National Ballet Finnish National Ballet Georgian National Ballet Greek National Opera Guangzhou Ballet Hamburg Ballet Hong Kong Ballet Houston Ballet Iaşi Romanian National Opera Iranian National Ballet Company Joffrey Ballet K-ballet Kiev Ballet Korea National Ballet Company La Scala Theatre Ballet Les Ballets de Monte Carlo Les Grands Ballets Canadiens Los Angeles Ballet Mariinsky Ballet Moldova National Opera Ballet National Ballet of Canada National Ballet of China National Ballet Theater of Puerto Rico National Opera and Ballet National Theatre Munich New Jersey Ballet New York City Ballet Norwegian National Opera and Ballet Oklahoma City Ballet Oregon Ballet Theatre Pacific Northwest Ballet Paris Opera Ballet Philippine Ballet Theatre Polish National Ballet Queensland Ballet Royal Danish Ballet Royal New Zealand Ballet Royal Swedish Ballet Royal Winnipeg Ballet San Francisco Ballet Scottish Ballet Shanghai Ballet Company Spanish National Dance Company Stuttgart Ballet The Australian Ballet The Royal Ballet Tokyo Ballet Tulsa Ballet Universal Ballet West Australian Ballet Ballet portal Did you know? today's news today's article today's biography today's picture recent news 2009 2008