Gao Gang

Gao Gang (simplified Chinese: 高岗; traditional Chinese: 高崗; pinyin: Gāo Gǎng; Wade–Giles: Kao Kang; 1905–1954) was a Chinese Communist Party (CCP) leader during the Chinese Civil War and the early years of the People's Republic of China (PRC), before becoming the victim of the first major purge within the CCP since before 1949. The events surrounding Gao's purge, the so-called "Gao Gang Affair", are still the subject of debate: a limited amount of research has been done on the topic, partly due to the relatively small amount of information available.

Born in rural Shaanxi province in 1905, Gao Gang joined the CCP in 1926 and led a revolutionary guerilla base there during the Chinese Civil War.^[1] He was of peasant background with a low level of education: he is said to have not been very literate.^[2][3] Among his colleagues inside the CCP, he gained a reputation as having great confidence and ambition, and of being a notorious womanizer.^[4] Trusted by Mao Zedong, Gao was dramatically promoted in the final years of the civil war to become the Party, state and military head of the key Northeast area of China. In 1952 he was ordered to Beijing to become head of the State Planning Commission of China (SPC), where he later attempted a leadership challenge against Liu Shaoqi and Zhou Enlai.^[5] His attempt failed and he committed suicide in August 1954.^[6]

Guerilla Activities in Shaanxi[link]

When his friend since middle school Liu Zhidan led a failed insurrection in 1928, Gao joined him in remote Northwest Shaanxi where together they built up a guerilla base.^[7] The deaths of local guerilla leaders in the Northwest region distinguished Gao as the symbol of the revolutionary base. Gao met Mao Zedong in 1935 when the Long March ended in Shaanxi. The two developed a close relationship based on a personal friendship and their agreement on ideological matters.^[8] Gao spend many years during the Chinese Civil War co-ordinating CCP activities and became one of the top commanders in the region.^[7]

Manchuria[link]

In 1945 Gao joined the Politburo,^[4] and was transferred along with Lin Biao to Manchuria, becoming head of the local Party, state and military apparatus. By 1947 Gao was the most important cadre in the region.^[7][9][10] After the founding of the PRC in 1949, Gao was named one of the six chairmen of the State Council, under Mao Zedong.^[11]

Influence from the nearby Soviet Union meant that Soviet ideas of industrial organization and economic planning were prominent, and Gao strongly supported these methods as the area became China's centre of heavy industry.^[12] Due to its economic advancement, the Manchurian region was often used to test new Communist policies, something that increased both the prestige of the region and that of Gao himself.^[7] Gao also received significant propaganda coverage, as workers and peasants were encourage to respond to his 'call' for increased industrial production; personal letters supporting him and salutations to his health were also published.^[13]

In July 1950, shortly after the outbreak of the Korean War, Gao was placed in command of the 260,000-man "Northern Frontier Guards", stationed along the border with North Korea. Gao was then held responsible for preparing his forces for the possibility of China's participation in the war. When China finally entered the Korean War in November 1950, Chinese forces were commanded by Peng Dehuai.^[14]

Beijing[link]

Gao Gang was transferred to Beijing in 1952 to take up the post of Chairman of the State Planning Commission of China (SPC). This made him principally responsible for carrying out the First Five Year Plan, which was the national policy that introduced Soviet economic planning into the People's Republic of China.^[15] Gao was also confirmed as a Politburo member, a Vice-Chairman of the Central People's Government Council and a Vice-Chairman of the People's Revolutionary Military Council.^[16] These were key posts, especially his control of the SPC at a time where Sino-Soviet relations were very important, and Gao was seen by both Mao and other senior Party members as a very capable Politburo member.^[17] However, there is some evidence that Gao was reluctant to leave his power base in the Northeast and move to Beijing.^[10][18]

Although Gao's transfer to Beijing made him more controllable by the Party center, it motivated him to achieve greater advancement within the Party hierarchy. He saw himself as the second most important leader in the PRC, second only to Mao. After his appointment to Beijing, he openly disagreed with the appointment of Party leaders, rather than military leaders, to high government positions. In 1952 and 1953 there were several major changes in the central administrative structure. Peng Dehuai was recalled from Korea and placed in charge of the Central Military Commission, a post which had previously been held by Zhou Enlai. After transferring his military responsibilities to Peng, Zhou focused his efforts on devising China's first Five-Year Plan, with the participation of the Soviet Union. Mao indicated that he was not pleased with Zhou's performance; and, in late 1952 and late 1953, Mao initiated a major reshuffling of the central government hierarchy. Several regional commanders, including Gao Gang, Deng Xiaoping, and Rao Shushi, were also transferred to the Beijing to take over responsibilities from Zhou. Although he technically retained the position of the third most important man in the official hierarchy (after Mao Zedong and Liu Shaoqi), Zhou's position was considerably weakened.^[19]

The "Gao Gang Affair"[link]

The so-called “Gao Gang Affair” was Gao Gang's attempt to displace Liu Shaoqi and Zhou Enlai from their key posts in government and to try to increase his own personal standing within the Party. Gao thought he had Mao Zedong's approval for such a move and he began to approach senior cadres asking for support in the summer of 1953. His activities were revealed to Mao by Chen Yun and Deng Xiaoping and the Chairman informed Gao that his actions were out of order. Efforts were then made to deal with the risk to Party unity that Gao's attempts had provoked. Under considerable pressure, Gao took his own life in August 1954.

Preliminary discussions with Party leaders[link]

Mao had a series of private conversations with Gao in late 1952 or early 1953 where it is believed he expressed a degree of dissatisfaction with Liu and Zhou, apparently remarking that they were too cautious in their attitude towards the pace of socialist transformation in China.^[20][21] The details of what Mao actually told Gao are still unclear. Although we cannot know his intentions, whether he was approving any action towards Liu and Zhou or merely expressing his frustrations to a friend in private, the significant thing is that Gao took Mao's words as consent for a move against these two senior cadres.

Following this, Gao approached senior Party members and expressed his views regarding Liu and Zhou, making the important point to hint that he had Mao's approval. Rao Shushi, a military figure who had his power base in East China and was chief of the Organisational Department of the Central committee, gave his support to Gao.^[22] Immediately after his conference with Rao, Gao toured the southern and eastern provinces in order to discuss his views with other military leaders, primarily Lin Biao, Peng Dehuai, and Zhu De.^[23]

Gao approached the key figure of Lin Biao; while Lin gave no practical support, his agreement with Gao's views probably influenced Gao to continue to seek backing.^[24] Peng Dehuai, who was known to have some antipathy against Gao's main target Liu Shaoqi, also expressed some support, but like Lin he did nothing in particular to aid Gao.^[25] When Gao approached key military figure Luo Ronghuan, Luo demanded to know Mao's exact thoughts. He was doubtful whether Mao had actually endorsed such suggestions and told Gao that it would be inappropriate for them to discuss such a significant matter.^[26]

Negative Party reactions[link]

When Gao expressed his thoughts to Li Xiannian, Chen Yun and Deng Xiaoping, they were both concerned that his attempts were a clear threat to Party unity. Chen and Li informed Zhou Enlai first about Gao's activities and then spoke to Mao. Deng spoke to Mao directly about Gao's approach.^[27] At a Politburo meeting on 24 December 1953, Mao confronted Gao and gave him a serious warning that his activities were a severe threat to Party unity.^[28] At the conference, Mao's position was clear: he condemned Gao for forming "an anti-Party alliance".^[23]

This effectively marked the end of Gao's attempts to advance his position as he realised that he did not in fact have Mao's support. Mao then entrusted Liu Shaoqi, one of the targets of Gao's brief attempt to gain power, with the organisation of a plenum in February 1954 that would focus on Party unity.^[29] Mao's reaction could be seen as a signal of both Mao's lack of tolerance for those who sought to threaten the integrity of the CCP, and a public endorsement of Liu.

At the February discussion meetings, Zhou Enlai made various charges against Gao Gang. Zhou accused Gao first of setting up an 'independent kingdom', a reference to Gao's power base in Manchuria; and second of having 'mixed up right and wrong in Soviet relations', a hint at Gao's alleged close ties to the USSR; and finally of 'fabricating Comrade Mao Zedong's words', as Gao had told others that his plans had Mao's support.^[30] Zhou publicly contradicted Gao's belief that the military should play a preeminent role in the politics of the PRC, deplored Gao's attempts to spread "rumors" about Liu and other leaders, and concluded that Gao's intention was to sow discord and to usurp power within the Party and the state. Zhou also condemned Gao's dissolute lifestyle.^[31]

Apparently distraught, Gao made several attempts to talk to Mao but was refused an audience with the Chairman. It is possible that Mao avoided facing Gao because of the secret talks between the two men that had prompted Gao's attempts to advance his own position. Gao tried to shoot himself during the February meetings and succeeded in poisoning himself in August 1954.^[32] After his suicide, in 1955, Gao was formally expelled from the Party. Gao's ally, Rao, was also expelled from the Party, and was jailed until his death in 1975.^[31] Gao's death not only brought closure of the most immediate sort to the “Affair”, it made sure that he was duly remembered in a dishonourable fashion as a traitor to the Party.

Conclusions[link]

Gao's assumption that Mao would support the elimination of Zhou and Liu, despite Mao's dissatisfaction with them, was mistaken. At the time, Mao was still relatively tolerant of differing opinions, but was confident that both Liu and Zhou would align their views with Mao if pressed. Mao was satisfied with the "unity" that had been achieved by the Yan'an Rectification Movement, and had no intention of altering the basic Party structure that had been established at the 1945 Party Congress. Mao disagreed with Gao's own opinion of his role in the revolution (which Mao thought was inflated), and clearly believed that the Party should retain a clear command over the state and the military. If Gao's views of the importance of the army in the revolution had prevailed, they would have contradicted Mao's interpretation of CCP history, and would have threatened Mao's preeminent position of leadership.^[23]

The “Gao Gang Affair” showed the real risk of factional splits within the Chinese Communist Party during the first few years of the People's Republic, a period that is often seen to be an era of Party unity. By attempting to exploit grievances held by some cadres against others, Gao was able to attract the interests of several significant cadres, even if none of them truly backed him. The “Gao Gang Affair” can simply be viewed as a stillborn coup attempt within the Politburo, but its significance is not that it failed to succeed or even to gather basic support. Rather, it showed that there was the possibility of power struggles within the Party that could involve the targeting of very senior Party members. Following the “Gao Gang Affair” there were calls for greater Party unity and there was an increase in centralisation as the old regional administrations with their Party and military bodies were abolished, a change that had been planned for some time but that was no doubt spurred on by Gao's attempts to use his regional power to gain power at the centre.^[33]

Another factor that has often been explored, and probably had great importance at the time, is the Soviet connection. Gao's attempt to gain power was certainly not seen as a Soviet-backed move against the Chinese Communists, but it is certain that Gao's connections with the USSR made people suspicious of him. At a time when Sino-Soviet relations were close but tense, as the CCP endorsed Soviet methods of economic planning but wanted to make sure that the USSR did not gain increased influence over the PRC, the impression (however slight) that Gao's attempts to gain power might have had links to his friendship with the Soviets would have been viewed with alarm. This can been seen in Zhou Enlai's public comments against Gao at the February 1954 discussion meetings where he charged him with having 'mixed up right and wrong in Soviet relations'.

Perhaps even more significant is how the case shows the dominating power and manipulation of Mao Zedong, during a period when, as is often assumed, Mao's commitment to democratic intra-Party decision-making was at its highest. It was Mao's comments that influenced Gao and led him to believe that, even though he was going against the Party and senior cadres, his actions were justified because he had the Chairman's backing. Senior cadres like Lin Biao and Peng Dehuai expressed their (admittedly limited) support only because they thought Gao had Mao's approval. The entire plot (if indeed we can call it that) was ended in one stroke by Mao, who needed only to express his true thoughts at one Politburo meeting in order to stop Gao's activities and make other cadres admit their mistakes. Mao's role in the whole affair can be seen as very important indeed.

References[link]

v t e Vice President of the People's Republic of China Common Program (1949–1954) Vice Chairmen of the Central People's Government: Zhu, Liu, Song, Zhang, Li, Gao 1954 Constitution (1954–1975) Vice Chairman: Zhu · Song and Dong  · Dong 1975 Constitution (1975–1978) Post abolished see NPCSC 1st vice-chairperson (Dong · Song) 1978 Constitution (1978–1982) Post abolished see NPCSC 1st vice-chairperson (Song · Nie) 1982 Constitution (1982–present) Vice President: Ulanhu · Wang · Rong · Hu · Zeng · Xi List of Vice Presidents of the People's Republic of China

Gao
—  Urban commune and town  —
La Dune Rose and Gao city as seen from the top of the Tomb of Askia.
Gao Location within Mali
Coordinates: 16°16′N 0°03′W / 16.267°N 0.05°W / 16.267; -0.05
Country	Mali (de jure)  Azawad (de facto)
Region	Gao
Cercle	Gao Cercle
Elevation	226 m (744 ft)
Population (2009)[1]
• Total	86,633
Time zone	GMT (UTC+0)

Gao (pronounced /goʊ/) is a city in Mali and the capital of the Gao Region. The city is located on the River Niger, lying 320 km (200 mi) east-southeast of Timbuktu. Situated on the left bank of the river at the junction with the Tilemsi valley, it had a population of 86,633 in 2009.

For much of its history Gao was an important commercial centre involved in the trans-Saharan trade. External Arabic sources state that by the 9th century Gao was already an important regional power, and by the end of the 10th century, the local ruler was a Muslim. Towards the end of the 13th century, Gao lost its independence and became part of the Mali Empire, but in first half of the 15th century, the town regained its independence and with the conquests of Sonni Ali (ruled 1464–1492) Gao became the capital of the Songhai Empire. The Empire collapsed after the Moroccan invasion in 1591 and the invaders chose to make Timbuktu their stronghold. By the time of Heinrich Barth's visit in 1854, Gao had declined to become a impoverished village with 300 huts constructed from matting. By 2009, it had a population of 86633.

On 31 March 2012, Gao was captured from Malian government forces by National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad (MNLA) and Ancar Dine rebels. After the additional captures of Kidal and Timbuktu, on 6 April, the MNLA declared the region independent of Mali as the nation of Azawad^[2] and named Gao its capital.^[3]

Geography[link]

Location[link]

Gao is located on the eastern bank of the Niger River at the junction with the Tilemsi Valley. The sprawling town is the largest in eastern Mali. It is connected to the capital, Bamako at the western end of Mali, by 1200 km of good paved road. In 2006 the Wabaria bridge was inaugurated to replace the ferry service across the Niger.^[4] The bridge was constructed by the China State Construction Engineering Corporation and financed by the Islamic Development Bank and the Malian government.

The town is strategically placed with road links (unpaved) to the desert Kidal Region to the north and to Niamey, the capital of Niger, to the south. The road to the south runs along the left bank of the river. The town of Ansongo is 103 km from Gao. The border with Niger is just south of the village of Labbezanga, a distance of 204 km.

There are also seasonal ferry services on the Niger River. A service between Gao and Koulikoro, a distance of 1380 km, is managed by the Compagnie Malienne de Navigation (COMANAV). It usually operates from the end of July, after the annual rains when there is sufficient water in the river, until mid November.^[5] Smaller boats are able to operate for a longer season between Bourem and Ansongo.

The town is expanding rapidly. In the 1998 census the population of the urban commune was 52,201. By the census in 2009 this had increased to 86,633, a 4.7% annual growth rate.^[1] For administrative purposes, the commune is divided into nine quartiers: Gadeye, Farandjiré, Aljanabanbia, Djoulabougou, Saneye, Sosso Koïra, Boulgoundjé, Château and Djidara.^[6] The urban commune is bounded to the north by the commune of Soni Ali Ber, to the east by the commune of Anchawadi and to the south and west by the commune of Gounzoureye.

Climate[link]

The climate is hot and dry with the only rainfall occurring between June and September. August is normally the wettest month. The average annual rainfall is only 220 mm but there are large year to year variations. May is the hottest month with an average maximum temperature of 43 °C. December and January are the coolest months with minimum temperatures of 15 °C. From October to March during the dry period the north-easterly Harmattan wind blows from the Sahara. When it blows strongly the dust-laden wind reduces visibility and creates a persistent haze.

With the low rainfall the vegetation away from the river is sparse and consists mainly of various species of Acacia (Acacia raddiana, Acacia nilotica, Acacia ehrenbergiana) and Balanites aegyptiaca. The herbaceous plants are dominated by Cenchrus biflorus and Panicum laetum.^[8]

Annual flood of the Niger River[link]

Almost all the local agriculture depends on river water for irrigation. The annual flood of the Niger River is a result of the heavy rainfall in the headwaters of the Niger and Bani rivers in Guinea and the northern Ivory Coast. The rainfall in the headwater areas peaks in August but the flood water takes time to pass down the river system, through the Inner Niger Delta region and arrive at Gao. At Koulikoro the flood peaks in September,^[9] while in Gao the flood lasts longer and reaches a maximum in December.^[10] There is a large year to year variation in the extent of the flooding. The existing and proposed dams upstream of Gao reduce the overall flow of the river and could potentially have a large effect on the local agriculture.^[11] When in flood the river is 4 km wide at Gao but during the dry season a number of islands appear in the river. There is very little flow, only 5% of the maximum, in June and July.

History[link]

The history of the Gao Empire precedes that of the Songhay Empire in the region of the Middle Niger. Both empires had the town of Gao as their capital. Apart from some Arabic epitaphs on tombstones discovered in 1939 at the cemetery of Gao-Saney (6 km to the east of the city)^[12] there are no surviving indigenous written records that date from before the middle of the 17th century.^[13] Our knowledge of the early history of the town relies on the writings of external Arabic geographers living in Morocco, Egypt and Andalusia, most of whom never visited the region. These authors referred to the town as Kawkaw or Kuku. The two key 17th century chronicles, the Tarikh al-Sudan and the Tarikh al-fattash, provide information on the town at the time of the Songhay Empire but they contain relatively little on the social and economic history.^[14] The chronicles do not, in general, acknowledge their sources.^[15] Their accounts for the earlier periods are almost certainly based on oral tradition and for events before the second half of the 15th century they are likely to be less reliable. For these earlier periods the two chronicles sometimes provide conflicting information.

The earliest mention of Gao is by al-Khwārizmī who wrote in the first half of the 9th century.^[16] In the 9th century Gao was already an important regional power. Al-Yaqubi wrote in his Tarikh in around 872:

There is the kingdom of the Kawkaw, which is the greatest of the realms of the Sūdān, the most important and most powerful. All the kingdoms obey its king. Al-Kawkaw is the name of the town. Besides this there are a number of kingdoms of which the rulers pay allegiance to him and acknowledge his sovereignty, although they are kings in their own lands.^[17]

Ibn al-Faqih (writing c. 903) mentions a caravan route from Egypt to ancient Ghana via Kawkaw,^[18] but Ibn Hawqal (writing c. 988) states that the old route from Egypt to the Sudan was abandoned in the reign of the Egyptian ruler Ibn Tulun (ruled 868–884) as some of the caravans were attacked by bandits while others were overwhelmed by the wind-blown sand.^[19] The more direct route was replaced by one that went to Sijilmasa before heading south across the Sahara.

In the 10th century Gao is already Muslim and is described as consisting of two separate towns. Al-Muhallabi, who died in 990, wrote in a lost work quoted in the biographical dictionary compiled by Yaqut:

Their king pretends before his subject to be a Muslim and most of them pretend to be Muslims too. He has a town on the Nile [Niger], on the eastern bank, which is called Sarnāh, where there are markets and trading houses and to which there is continuous traffic from all parts. He has another town to the west of the Nile [Niger] where he and his men and those who have his confidence live. There is a mosque there where he prays but the communal prayer ground is between the two towns.^[20]

Tomb of Askia *
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Country	Mali
Type	Cultural
Criteria	ii, iii, iv
Reference	1139
Region **	Africa
Inscription history
Inscription	2004 (28th Session)
* Name as inscribed on World Heritage List ** Region as classified by UNESCO

The archaeological evidence suggests that there were two settlements on the eastern bank of the Niger:^[21] Gao Ancien situated within the modern town, to the east of the Tomb of Askia, and the archaeological site of Gao-Saney (Sané in French) situated around 4 km to the east. The bed of the Wadi Gangaber passes to the south of the Gao-Saney occupation mound (tell) but to the north of Gao Ancien. The imported pottery and glass recovered from Gao-Saney suggest that the site was occupied between the 10th and 13th centuries. It is possible that Gao-Saney corresponds to Sarnāh of al-Muhallabi.^[22] Al-Bakri writing in 1068 also records the existence of two towns,^[23] but al-Idrisi writing in around 1154 does not.^[24] Both al-Muhallabi (see quote above) and al-Bakri^[25] situate Gao on the west (or right bank) of the Niger. The 17th century Tarikh al-fattash also states that in the 10th century Gao was situated on the Gourma side (i.e. the west bank) of the river.^[26] A large sand dune, La Dune Rose, lies on the west bank opposite Gao, but at Koima, on the edge of the dune at a site 4 km north of Gao, surface deposits indicate a pre 9th century settlement. This could be the west bank Gao mentioned by 10th and 11th century authors. The site has not been excavated.^[27]

Al-Sadi in his Tarikh al-Sudan gives a slightly later date for the introduction of Islam. He lists 32 rulers of the Zuwa dynasty and states that in 1009–1010 A.D. the 15th ruler, Zuwa Kusoy, was the first to convert to Islam.^[28] He does not actually specify where they lived except for the legendary founder of the dynasty, Zuwa Alayman who he claims came from the Yemen to Kukiya.^[29][30]

Towards the end of the 13th century Gao lost its independence and became part of the expanding Mali Empire.^[31] What happened to the Zuwa rulers is not recorded.^[32] Ibn Battuta visited Gao in 1353 when the town formed part of the Mali Empire. He arrived by boat from Timbuktu on his return journey from visiting the capital of the Empire:

Then I travelled to the town of Kawkaw, which is a great town on the Nīl [Niger], one of the finest, biggest, and most fertile cities of the Sūdān. There is much rice there, and milk, and chickens, and fish, and the cucumber, which has no like. Its people conduct their buying and selling with cowries, like the people of Mālī.^[33]

After staying a month in the town, Ibn Battuta left with a caravan for Takedda and from there headed north back across the Sahara to an oasis in Tuat with a large caravan that included 600 slave girls.

Sometime in the 14th century, Ali Kulun, the first ruler of the Sunni dynasty, rebelled against the Malian hegemony but the Malians were able to regain control.^[34][35] It was not until the first half of the 15th century that Sunni Sulayman Dama was able to throw off the Malian yoke. His successor, Sunni Ali Ber (1464–1492), greatly expanded the territory under Songhay control and established the Songhay Empire. He made Gao his capital.

Leo Africanus visited Gao sometime between 1506 and 1510 when the town was ruled by Askiya Muhammad I, the first ruler of the Askiya dynasty. He observed that the large town lacked a surrounding wall and was full of rich merchants.

The town is very civilized compared to Timbuktu. Bread and meat are abundant, though you cannot find wine or fruits. Actually, melons, cucumbers, and excellent squash are plentiful, and there are enormous quantities of rice. There are many sweet water wells. There is a square where on market days huge numbers of slaves are sold, both male and female. A young girl of fifteen is worth about six ducats, and a young man almost as much; small children are worth about half as much as grown slaves.^[36]

Towards the end of the 16th century, Gao controlled an empire that extended for over 1,4000 km².^[37] The Tarikh al-fattash reports that a survey conducted during the reign of Askiya Al-Hajj (1582–1586) found that there were 7,626 houses without counting the huts made of straw.^[38] Assuming each house was occupied by an average of 6 people, this would imply a population of around 45,000.

The Moroccan invasion of 1591 led to the collapse of the Songhay Empire. The invaders chose to make Timbuktu their stronghold.

The German explorer Heinrich Barth visited Gao in 1854 on his return journey from Timbuktu. He found a village of about 300 huts constructed of matting and grouped in clusters.^[39] The inhabitants were very poor and had few boats as they lacked wood for their construction. The site of the ancient town was overgrown with Capparis decidua bushes.^[40]

The town remained small until French rule was imposed in the early twentieth century, expanding the port and establishing a colonial base.^{[citation needed]}

On 31 March 2012, one day after the capture of Kidal, Malian military forces retreated from Gao's military bases, allowing it to be occupied by Tuareg rebellion member groups MNLA and Ancar Dine.^[41] Timbuktu was captured the following day.^[42] On 6 April, the MNLA declared the region independent of Mali as the nation of Azawad.^[43]

Culture[link]

The population of Gao mostly speak Songhay but includes many ethnicities, including the Bozo (traditionally nomadic river dwellers), Fulfulde/Fulani cattle keepers, and Tuareg nomads, as well as Bambara peoples from western Mali.

The seventh Festival des arts et cultures songhay was celebrated in February 2007 at Gao, reflecting the city's importance as a Songhay cultural capital.^[44]

Sites[link]

Attractions in Gao include the original fourteenth century Gao Mosque, the Askia Tomb (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) built in 1495 and incorporating another mosque, a museum devoted to the Sahel, markets including a night market, and La Dune Rose, a sand dune named for its appearance at dawn and nightfall.

After the 2012 rebellion forced the Malian Army out of Gao and the state of Azawad was proclaimed, the National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad took control of the governor's building, flying the flag of Azawad over it and rechristening it the Palace of Azawad.^[45]

Twin Cities[link]

Gao is twinned with Thionville, France and Berkeley, California, USA.

Notes[link]

References[link]

• Barth, Heinrich (1859), Travels and discoveries in North and Central Africa: Being a journal of an expedition undertaken under the auspices of H.B.M.'s government, in the years 1849–1855 (Volume 3), New York: Harper & Brothers, http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l74ZAAAAYAAJ .
• Hunwick, John (1994), "Gao and the Almoravids revisited: ethnicity, political change and the limits of interpretation", Journal of African History 35: 251–273, JSTOR 183219 .
• Hunwick, John O. (2003), Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire: Al-Sadi's Tarikh al-Sudan down to 1613 and other contemporary documents, Leiden: Brill, ISBN 0585-6914 . First published in 1999 as ISBN 90-04-11207-3.
• Insoll, Timothy (1997), "Iron age Gao: an archaeological contribution", Journal of African History 38: 1–30, JSTOR 182944, http://www.insoll.org/Iron%20Age%20Gao.pdf .
• Kâti, Mahmoûd Kâti ben el-Hâdj el-Motaouakkel (1913) (in French), Tarikh el-fettach ou Chronique du chercheur, pour servir à l'histoire des villes, des armées et des principaux personnages du Tekrour, Houdas, O., Delafosse, M. ed. and trans., Paris: Ernest Leroux, http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5439466q . Also available from Aluka but requires subscription.
• Lange, Dierk (1991), "Les rois de Gao-Sané et les Almoravides" (in French), Journal of African History 32: 251–275, JSTOR 182617 .
• Lange, Dierk (1994), "From Mande to Songhay: Towards a political and ethnic history of medieval Gao", Journal of African History 35: 275–301, JSTOR 183220 .
• Levtzion, Nehemia (1973), Ancient Ghana and Mali, London: Methuen, ISBN 0-8419-0431-6 .
• Levtzion, Nehemia; Hopkins, John F.P., eds. (2000), Corpus of Early Arabic Sources for West Africa, New York, NY: Marcus Weiner Press, ISBN 1-55876-241-8 . First published in 1981 by Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-22422-5.
• Moraes Farias, Paulo F. de (1990), "The oldest extant writing of West Africa: medieval epigraphs from Essuk, Saney, and Egef-n-Tawaqqast (Mali)", Journal des Africanistes 60: 65–113, http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/jafr_0399-0346_1990_num_60_2_2452 . Link is to a scan on the Persée database that omits some photographs of the epigraphs.
• Sauvaget, J. (1950), "Les épitaphes royales de Gao", Bulletin de l'Ifan XII (2): 418–440 . A reprint of (1949), Al-Andalus XIV: I, 123–141.

See also[link]

• List of cities in Mali

Further reading[link]

• Cornevin, R. (1991), "Gao", Encyclopaedia of Islam Volume 2 (2nd ed.), Leiden: Brill, pp. 976–978, ISBN 90-04-07026-5, http://www.archive.org/stream/EncyclopediaofIslam2/Vol.2c-g#page/n1017/mode/1up . First published in 1965.
• Mauny, Raymond (1951), "Notes d'archéologie au sujet de Gao" (in French), Bulletin de l'Institut Français d'Afrique Noire (B) 13: 837–852 .
• Moraes Farias, P.F. de (2003), Arabic medieval inscriptions from the Republic of Mali : Epigraphy, chronicles and Songhay-Tuareg history, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-726222-8 .

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Gao

• Tomb of Askia, UNESCO World Heritage, http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1139 .

Coordinates: 16°16′N 0°03′W / 16.267°N 0.05°W / 16.267; -0.05

v t e Niger River Countries Guinea Mali Niger Benin Nigeria Sections Source of the Niger Middle Niger Inner Niger Delta Lower Niger Niger Delta Tributaries (list) and distributaries Tinkisso River Sankarani River Milo River Bani River Mekrou River Alibori River Sola River Sokoto River Sota River Kaduna River Benue River Anambra River Forcados River Nun River Cities Siguiri Bamako Segou Mopti Timbuktu Gao Niamey Lokoja Onitsha Lakes Kainji Lake Lac Debo Dams and bridges King Fahd Bridge Martyrs Bridge Markala Dam Gao Bridge Kennedy Bridge Kainji Dam River Niger Bridge (Onitsha) Protected Areas Niger Basin Authority National Park of Upper Niger W National Park Kainji National Park

v t e Communes and towns of the Gao Region Capital:Gao Ansongo Cercle Ansongo (Ansongo) Bara (Bara) Bourra (Tassiga) Ouattagouna (Ouattagouna) Talataye (Talataye) Tessit (Tessit) Tin-Hama (Tin-Hama) 180px Bourem Cercle Bourem (Bourem Foghas) Bamba (Bamba) Taboye (Taboye) Tarkint (Tarkint) Temera (Temera) Gao Cercle Gao (Gao) Anchawadi (Djebock) Gabero (Haoussa Foulane) Gounzoureye (Wabaria) N'Tillit (N'Tillit) Sony Aliber (Forgo Sourhai) Tilemsi (Tine Aouker) Ménaka Cercle Ménaka (Ménaka) Alata (Alata) Andéramboukane (Andéramboukane) Inekar (Inekar) Tidermene (Tidermene)

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Yan Yan
A Qing Dynasty illustration of Yan Yan.
General of Shu Han
Born	Unknown[1]
Died	Unknown[1]
Names
Simplified Chinese	严颜
Traditional Chinese	嚴顏
Pinyin	Yán Yán
Wade-Giles	Yen Yen
Style name	Xibo (希伯)

Yan Yan was a general of Shu Han during the late Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. Yan began his career as a general serving under the warlord Liu Zhang of Yi Province.

In fiction[link]

In Luo Guanzhong's historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Yan Yan was defeated captured by Zhang Fei in 212 in one of the battles during Liu Bei's takeover of Yi Province. Yan firmly refused to surrender and made strong accusations at Liu Bei, which angered Zhang Fei. Zhang wanted to have him executed but changed his mind later as he was impressed with Yan's strong sense of loyalty. Zhang released Yan and succeeded in persuading Yan to join Liu Bei's forces.

Yan appeared in a later chapter during the Battle of Mount Dingjun, where he volunteered to lead an army to attack the enemy forces under Cao Cao together with Huang Zhong.

See also[link]

• List of people of the Three Kingdoms

References[link]

This Chinese biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e

Zhang Zhao
Qing Dynasty illustration of Zhang Zhao
Official of Eastern Wu
Born	156
Died	236 (aged 79–80)
Names
Simplified Chinese	张昭
Traditional Chinese	張昭
Pinyin	Zhāng Zhāo
Wade-Giles	Chang Chao
Style name	Zibu (子布)

Zhang Zhao (156–236) was an official of Eastern Wu during the late Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms era of China.

Biography[link]

Zhang was born in present-day Jiangsu. A brilliant scholar, he devoted his life mainly to the study of Chinese classic texts. His fame as a scholar spread, and on the advice of Zhou Yu, Sun Ce personally invited Zhang Zhao to serve him as an advisor.

Zhang's proficiency in administrating civilian affairs was impressive, as before Sun Ce died, he told his successor Sun Quan, "consult Zhang Zhao and Zhou Yu on internal affairs." When Cao Cao led an army to attack Sun Quan, Zhang suggested to his lord to surrender to Cao, out of consideration for the populace and future of the Sun family. Sun Quan refused since Zhou Yu decided to trust Kong Ming and defeated Cao Cao with Liu Bei as his ally at the Battle of Red Cliffs.

Zhang lived until Sun Quan declared himself emperor and founded the state of Eastern Wu. He was famous for his bravery and devotion to Eastern Wu, as he viewed the state's interests as more important than his lord's. Whenever Sun Quan implemented a policy that did not benefit Eastern Wu, Zhang would criticize him.

Zhang Zhao and Zhang Hong, another advisor to Sun Quan, were collectively known as the "Two Zhangs" during that time.

See also[link]

• List of people of the Three Kingdoms

References[link]

• Chen Shou (2002). San Guo Zhi. Yue Lu Shu She. ISBN 7-80665-198-5. 
• Luo Guanzhong (1986). San Guo Yan Yi. Yue Lu Shu She. ISBN 7-80520-013-0. 
• Lo Kuan-chung; tr. C.H. Brewitt-Taylor (2002). Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 0-8048-3467-9. 

This article about a Chinese politician is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e

This article does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2007)

Zhao Gao (Chinese: 趙高; died 207 BC) was the chief eunuch during the Qin Dynasty of China. Considered as one of the most corrupt, villainous, violent and powerful eunuchs in Chinese history, Gao played an instrumental role in the downfall of the Qin Dynasty.

Early life[link]

Zhao Gao was distantly related to the ruling house of the state of Zhao. According to the Shiji, Zhao Gao's parents committed crimes and were punished. Both Zhao Gao and his brother were made eunuchs.^{[dubious – discuss]} However Qin Shi Huang valued Zhao Gao since he was an expert in law and punishment.^{[clarification needed]} This was very useful to Qin Shi Huang since he himself was always looking for ways to control the people by laws and punishments. Zhao Gao enjoyed a steady rise in position.^{[clarification needed]}

When Zhao was a minor official, he committed a crime punishable by death. Meng Yi was the official in charge of sentencing and he sentenced Zhao to death and removed him from the officials list as instructed by Qin Shi Huang.^{[citation needed]} Zhao was later pardoned by Qin Shi Huang and returned to his official status.

Coup following Qin Shi Huang's death[link]

At the end of the reign of the First Emperor, Qin Shi Huang, Zhao was involved in the death of Marshal Meng Tian and his younger brother Meng Yi. Meng Tian, a reputable general and a supporter of the Emperor's oldest son Fusu, was stationed at the northern border, commanding more than 100,000 troops for the inconclusive campaign against the Huns. Following the sudden death of Qin Shi Huang at the Shaqiu prefecture, Zhao and the Imperial Secretariat Li Si persuaded the emperor's second son Huhai to falsify the emperor's will. The fake decree forced Fusu to commit suicide and stripped Meng Tian of his command. Mindful of hatred for the previous sentencing by Meng Yi, Zhao destroyed the Meng brothers by issuing a false decree of Huhai, now the Second Emperor. He forced Meng Tian to commit suicide and also had Meng Yi killed.^{[citation needed]}

Qin Er Shi, who viewed Zhao Gao as his teacher, became the next Qin emperor.

Zhao Gao also killed Li Si, ironically executing him via the "The Five Pains" method, Li's own invention. The method consisted of having the victim's nose cut off, cutting off a hand and a foot, then the victim was castrated and finally cut in half in line with the waist. He also executed Li Si's family down to the third generation.

In 207 BC, rebellions rose one after another across China. Zhao was afraid that the Second Emperor might make him responsible for the uprisings. To preempt this, Zhao forced the emperor to commit suicide and installed his nephew, Fusu's son Ziying as the new emperor. (Note: Some scholars pointed out that Fusu's son might be too young to plot the demise of Zhao Gao and Ziying might be a brother of the First Emperor instead.)

Ziying soon killed Zhao and surrendered to Liu Bang. The Qin Dynasty collapsed, three years after the death of Qin Shi Huang, and less than twenty years after it was founded.

Calling a deer a horse[link]

One Chinese idiom that is derived from an incident involving Zhao is "calling a deer a horse" (Chinese: 指鹿為馬; pinyin: zhǐ lù wéi mǎ). In that incident, Zhao, in order to completely control the government, devised a test of loyalty of the officials. Once, at a formal imperial gathering, he brought a deer in front of the officials and called it a horse. Naturally, Qin Er Shi disagreed, but thought Zhao was joking. Some officials followed the emperor's lead, while some followed Zhao's lead. Zhao then took steps to eliminate the officials who refused to call the deer a horse. In later idiomatic usage, the term refers to a deliberate untruth for ulterior motives.

Alternative viewpoints[link]

There is a conspiracy theory that Zhao Gao was a descendant of the royal family of the Kingdom of Zhao, which was destroyed by Qin, and Zhao Gao was seeking revenge on Qin. With Zhao Gao in charge of the Qin government, it was natural that the Qin Empire collapsed in such a short time. In fact, Zhao Gao killed all the sons and daughters of Qin Shi Huang, including the Second Emperor, Huhai. In revenge, Ziying killed Zhao Gao and all of his family members. Thus Zhao Gao or his brothers have no known descendants.

Li Kaiyuan (李開元), a historian from China, believes Zhao Gao was not a eunuch at all. He bases this in part on the fact eunuchs were not allowed to serve as prime minister, which Zhao did.